Part 12

NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:--She writes elegant; He is walking slow.

The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are here improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest, _excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor." _Elegant_ and _slow_ are also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is _the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes _elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_."

You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain the principles that are violated.

FALSE SYNTAX.

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.

She reads proper, and writes very neat.

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.

The lowering clouds are moving slow.

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence.

NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but _suitably_ to his offence."

The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes the _quality_ of the noun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective, _suitable_.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed.

He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition.

The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation.

He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_.

_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of gesture.

I saw him _previously_ to his arrival.

LECTURE VII

OF PREPOSITIONS.

A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them.

The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, which signifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they govern in the objective case.

The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in composition.

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

of, over, at, after, betwixt, to, under, near, about, beside, for, through, up, against, athwart, by, above, down, unto, towards, with, below, before, across, notwithstanding, in, between, behind, around, out of, into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of, within, from, on upon, throughout, over against, without, beyond, among, underneath, according to.

This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions, and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with the _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes any word belongs.

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it performs a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words, and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is ripe--October, it is gathered--the field--men--who go--hill--hill--baskets,--which they put the ears. You perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. "When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_ men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they put the ears."

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.; in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ between words.

The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation does the preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign of a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_ existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the word _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular _ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_ and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas.

The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition _in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ shows the relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, The boy threw his hat _up stairs_--_under_ the bed--_behind_ the table--_through_ the window--_over_ the house--_across_ the street--_into_ the water--and so on, you perceive that the several prepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_ and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and _water_.

A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on the ground, _under_ the tree."

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express an action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the objective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed by the preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_.

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_, than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of a relation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitive verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. A noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object of an action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or participle, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_ his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a _relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_.

Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have learned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only _three_ more will remain to be learned.

If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the following _order_, and then proceed in parsing.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is--a preposition, and why?--what does it connect?--what relation does it show?

"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness."_

_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them--it connects the words "antelope" and "wilderness"--and shows the relation between them.

_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place--com. the name of a sort or species--neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex--third pers. spoken of--sing. num. it implies but one--and in the objective case, it is the object of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in," and governed by it, according to

RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_.

The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_; Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun following them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this requisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;" "Hand the paper to _them_." Every preposition expresses a relation, and every relation must have an _object_: consequently, every preposition must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt.

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.

Love still pursues an ever devious race, True to the winding lineaments of grace.

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NOTE.--The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors," following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed by _unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home" is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32.

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give that book _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering," &c. that is, _on_ one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives a grace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of _by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He was taken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_ moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to _up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to _for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _a part of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ an account, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of the verb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey very different meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_ and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_ verbs.

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term _preposition_ derived?--Why is it thus named?--Repeat the list of prepositions.--Name the three parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.--When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?--When is it the object of a relation?--Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.--What rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition?--Does every preposition require an objective case after it?--Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition understood?--Give examples.--What is said of verbs compounded of a verb and preposition?--Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes.

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PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

_From_, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun _frum_, beginning, source, author. "He came _from (beginning_) Rochester." _Of_, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and Saxon noun _afora_, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the son _of (offspring_) David." _Of_ or _off_, in its modern acceptation, signifies _disjoined, sundered_: A piece _of (off_) the loaf, is, a piece _disjoined_, or _separated_ from the loaf. The fragrance _of_ or _off_ the rose.

_For_ signifies _cause_. "I write _for_ your satisfaction;" i.e. your satisfaction being the _cause. By_ or _be_ is the imperative _byth_, of the Saxon _beon_, to be. _With_, the imperative of _withan_, to join; or, when equivalent to _by_, of _wyr-than_, to be. "I will go _with_ him." "I, _join_ him, will go." _In_ comes from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; a cave or cell. _About_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Among_ is the past part. of _gamaengan_, to mingle. _Through_ or _thorough_ is the Gothic substantive _dauro_, or the Teutonic _thuruh_. It means passage, gate, door.

_Before_--_be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath_ are formed by combining the imperative, _be_, with the nouns _fore, hind, low, side, neath. Neath_--Saxon _neothan, neothe_, has the same signification as _nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt_--_be_ and _twain_. A dual preposition. _Be-yond_--_be-passed. Beyond_ a place, means, _be passed_ that place. _Notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding_. "Any order to the contrary not-withstanding," (this order;) i.e. _not_ effectually _withstanding_ or _opposing_ it.

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LECTURE VIII.

OF PRONOUNS.

A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence.

The word _pronoun_ comes from the two Latin words, _pro_, which means _for_, or _instead of_, and _nomen_, a _name_, or _noun._ Hence you perceive, that _pronoun_ means _for a noun_, or _instead of a noun_.

In the sentence, "The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful;" you perceive, that the word _he_ is used instead of the noun _man;_ consequently _he_ must be a _pronoun_. You observe, too, that, by making use of the pronoun _he_ in this sentence, we avoid the _repetition_ of the _noun_ man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be rendered thus, "The man is happy; _the man_ is benevolent; _the man_ is useful."

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronouns always _stand for_ nouns, but they do not always _avoid the repetition_ of nouns. _Repetition_ means _repeating_ or mentioning the same thing again. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country," the pronouns, _I_ and _my, stand_ for the name of the person who speaks; but they do not _avoid the repetition_ of that name, because the name or noun for which the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the _third_ person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand; but pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ person, sometimes avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not.

A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. If we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to express ourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gang of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thanked the woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's."

This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, we can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "A woman went to a man, and told _him_, that _he_ was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers, _who_ had made preparations for attacking _him. He_ thanked _her_ for _her_ kindness, and, as _he_ was unable to defend _himself_, _he_ left _his_ house and went to a neighbor's."

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss to tell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they all stand for nouns.

Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the _Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. They are all known by the _lists_.

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the relative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which they stand. There are five of them; _I_, _thou, he, she, it_; with their plurals, _We, ye_ or _you, they_.

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case.

GENDER. When we speak of a _man_, we say, _he, his, him_; when we speak of a _woman_, we say, _she, hers, her_; and when we speak of a _thing_, we say _it_. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered _her his_ hand; but _she_, not knowing _him_, declined accepting _it_." The pronouns _his_ and _him_, in this sentence, personate or represent the noun _general_; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: _her_ and _she_ personate the _lady_; therefore, they are feminine: and _it_ represents _hand_; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This illustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gender as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the variation of the pronouns to express the sex,

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, _he, she, it. He_ is masculine; _she_ is feminine; _it_ is neuter.

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the person speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked by a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinction of gender.

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and second person, and also to the plural number of the third person; but these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they have no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent.

PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number.

_I_, is the first person } _Thou_, is the second person } Singular. _He, she_, or _it_, is the third person }

_We_, is the first person } _Ye_ or _you_, is the second person } Plural. _They_, is the third person }

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse: first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a plural number.

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person with the nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun; but nouns are _never_ of the first person, therefore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their nouns.

NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and the plural; as, _I, thou, he_; _we, ye_ or _you, they_.

CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

In the next place I will present to you the _declension_ of the personal pronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed any farther.

The advantages resulting from the committing of the following declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference in termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the pronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers.

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

FIRST PERSON. _Sing. _Plur_. _Nom_. I, we, _Poss_. my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, _Obj_. me. us.

SECOND PERSON. _Sing_. _Plur_. _Nom_. thou, ye _or_ you, _Poss_. thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, _Obj_. thee. you.

THIRD PERSON. _Mas. Sing._ _Plur_. _Nom_, he, they, _Poss_. his, their _or_ theirs, _Obj_. him. them.

THIRD PERSON. _Fem. Sing._ _Plur_. _Nom_. she, they, _Poss_. her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs. _Obj_. her. them.

THIRD PERSON. _Neut. Sing._ _Plur_. _Nom_. it, they, _Poss_. its, their _or_ theirs, _Obj._ it. them.

* * * * *

NOTES.

1. When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called _compound personal pronouns_, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not in the possessive.