Part 8

31. Columbus tried to pacify them with gentle words and promises of large rewards; but finding that they only increased in clamor, he assumed a decided tone.—_Irving._

32. Wolfe and the troops with him leaped on shore; the light infantry, who found themselves borne by the current a little below the intrenched path, clambered up the steep hill, staying themselves by the roots and boughs of the maple and spruce and ash trees that covered the precipitous declivity.—_Bancroft._

33. The boys, who were twelve and ten years old, aided by the soldiers, whom her words had inspired with some little courage, began to fire from the loop-holes upon the Iroquois.—_Parkman._

34. She had told Tom, however, that she would like him to put the worms on the hook for her, although she accepted his word when he assured her that worms couldn’t feel.—_George Eliot._

35. The beadle, who performed it, had filled his left hand with yellow ochre, through which, after every stroke, he drew the lash of his whip, leaving the appearance of a wound upon the skin, but in reality not hurting him at all.—_Cowper._

36.

On a rock whose haughty brow Frowns o’er old Conway’s foaming flood, Robed in the sable garb of woe, With haggard eyes the Poet stood.—_Gray._

37.

Between the dark and the daylight, When the night is beginning to lower, Comes a pause in the day’s occupations That is known as the Children’s Hour.—_Longfellow._

38.

The gallant youth, who may have gained, Or seeks, a “Winsome Marrow,” Was but an infant in the lap When first I looked on Yarrow.—_Wordsworth._

39.

She told me all her friends had said; I raged against the public liar; She talked as if her love were dead, But in my words were seeds of fire.—_Tennyson._

40.

The dwarf, who feared his master’s eye Might his foul treachery espy, Now sought the castle buttery, Where many a yeoman, bold and free, Revelled as merrily and well As those that sat in lordly selle.—_Scott._

* * * * *

PART FIFTH.

_COMPOSITION._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXV.=

CAPITAL LETTERS.

1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter.

2. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should be written in capitals; as, _O father! I hear the church bells ring_.

3. A proper noun should begin with a capital letter; as, _Toronto is in Ontario_.

4. A proper adjective should begin with a capital letter; as, _We speak the English language_.

5. The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital letter; as,

_If thou wouldst view fair Melrose aright,_ _Go visit it by the pale moonlight._

6. The names of the days of the week and the names of the months of the year should begin with capital letters; as, _Saturday_, _August_.

7. Titles of individuals, and titles of books and newspapers should begin with capital letters; as, _Lord Aberdeen_, _Governor-General of Canada_. _Harper’s Round Table_.

8. All names of the Deity, and words standing for His name, should begin with capital letters; as, _Creator_, _Supreme Being_.

9. Names of peoples and languages should begin with capital letters; as, _Italians_, _Greek_.

10. The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter; as, _She answered_, “_This shall never be_.”

_In all your reading, note carefully how capital letters are used._

* * * * *

LESSON LXVI.

PUNCTUATION.

1. A declarative or assertive sentence, and an imperative sentence should be followed by a period; as, _Your friend gave me a book_. _Open the door._

2. An interrogative sentence should be followed by the interrogation mark; as, _When did you come?_

3. An exclamatory word or sentence should be followed by the exclamation mark; as, _But hush! hark! A deep sound strikes like a rising knell!_

4. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a period; as, _Mr._, _Rev._

5. The title of a composition, the address and the signature of a person, should be followed by a period.

6. Words that are in the same grammatical relation should be separated by commas; as, _He is honest, capable, and sympathetic._

Two words that are in the same grammatical relation and connected by _and_, _or_, or _nor_, should not be separated by a comma; as, _She is kind and good_.

7. Words or phrases in apposition should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, _Lady Aberdeen, the wife of the Governor of Canada, has gone on an ocean voyage_.

8. A transposed phrase or clause, not closely united with the sentence, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, _In their large cities, the Egyptians built massive temples_.

9. Words or phrases placed between closely related parts of a sentence should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, _Their whole army, in fact, did not exceed thirty thousand men_.

10. The name of a person addressed should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, _James, hand me the brush._

11. The clauses of a compound sentence, when short and closely connected, should be separated by a comma; as, _I finished my work, and then came home._

12. The clauses of a compound sentence, if they are contracted, or are long, or are not closely connected, should be separated by a semicolon; as, _Man counts his life by years; the oak, by centuries. His left hand only was free; his open knife was in this hand._

13. A direct quotation should be enclosed by quotation marks; as, _He said, “I shall go.” “He is a tall and stately king,” said Harold; “but his end is near.”_

14. If a quotation is short, it should be separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a comma; as, _He replied, “I am a Briton born.”_

15. If a quotation is long, or if it is formally introduced by _as follows_, _these words_, _etc._, it should be separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a colon; as, _He replied in these words: “I am a Briton born, and a Briton I shall die.”_

16. When an unexpected break, pause, or turn occurs in a sentence, it should be indicated by a dash; as,

_To-night will be a stormy night_— _You to the town must go._

17. Explanatory words which are not necessary to the sense of the passage, should be enclosed in marks of parenthesis; as,

_Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know),_ _Virtue alone is happiness below._

18. The parts of a compound word when they have not become united into one word, are connected by a hyphen; as, _to-day_, _wind-organ_.

A hyphen is also used at the end of a line when a word is divided into syllables.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXVII.=

THE USE OF WORDS.

Every one who desires to become a good speaker or writer must acquire a knowledge of words; he must possess a large vocabulary, and be master of the significance and application of the words of which it is composed.

To this end he should read the best authors, converse with the educated, and use the words he thus acquires in his own conversation. The dictionary should be in daily use to learn the exact meaning and force of new words.

* * * * *

1. Select the words that are familiar to the educated, and that are used by good writers.

2. Employ words in the sense they are used by the best writers and speakers. This knowledge is obtained from the dictionary and from observation in reading the best authors.

3. Use the word that expresses the exact meaning intended to be conveyed. A knowledge of the distinction of synonyms is best acquired by keeping a list of words of nearly the same meaning, and carefully studying the sense in which each is used.

EXERCISE.

Distinguish the meaning of the following words, and write sentences in which they are accurately used:—

Sit, set; may, can; think, guess; expect, suspect; lie, lay; hanged, hung; teach, learn; stop, stay; fly, flee; among, between; each other, one another.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXVIII=.

THE SENTENCE.

A complete thought expressed in words is called a sentence. In a single sentence every part should be subordinate to one principal assertion.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

Sentences are classified into Periodic, Loose, Balanced, Short and Long.

A sentence that is so constructed that the complete meaning is delayed till the close, is called a =periodic sentence=; as, _From many lands, comes the cry for help. Even on the driest day this vapor is never absent from our atmosphere._

A sentence that is so constructed that it may be stopped before the end, sometimes in several places, and still be complete in sense, is called a =loose sentence=; as, _Those scenes, rude and humble as they are, have kindled beautiful emotions in his soul,_ | _noble thoughts, and definite resolves;_ | _and he speaks forth what is in him, not from any outward call of vanity or interest, but because his heart is too full to be silent._—_Carlyle._

A sentence that is so constructed that the different elements are made to answer to each other and set each other off by similarity of form, is called a =balanced sentence=; as, _In peace, children bury their parents; in war, parents bury their children. He defended him when living, amidst the clamors of his enemies; and praised him when dead, amidst the silence of his friends._

A short sentence is more easily understood and more animated than a long sentence.

A long sentence gives more scope than a short one, for the addition of particulars, and for the expansion of the main thought.

_Note._—The loose sentence is adapted to ordinary composition, being simple and clear. The periodic sentence is suitable to compositions of a forcible nature; the balanced sentence to compositions in which characters or subjects are compared. Variety is secured by the due alternation of long and short sentences.

=Emphatic places of the Sentence.= The natural emphatic places of a sentence are the beginning and the end. If we wish to give special distinction to some particular word or phrase, it must occupy one of these positions. Since the beginning and the end of a sentence are the natural places for the subject and predicate respectively, the subject is made emphatic by placing it at the end, and the predicate by placing it at the beginning of the sentence; as, _Flashed_ all their sabres bare.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXIX.=

THE PARAGRAPH.

A connected series of sentences dealing with a single topic is called =a paragraph=. It is a whole composition and is complete in itself.

_Note._—A paragraph begins on a new line and the opening word is withdrawn towards the middle of the line.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PARAGRAPH.

1. Every paragraph should possess _unity_, that is, it should have a definite subject or topic to which all parts of the structure are related, forming elements, in its development.

2. The sentences that compose a paragraph should follow one another in natural order, showing a logical progress of thought. This principle is called _continuity_.

3. The connection of each sentence in the paragraph, with the preceding one, should be made clear, and also the connection between the paragraphs themselves.

This connection or explicit reference is secured in the following ways:—

1. By conjunctions and adverbs. 2. By demonstrative words and phrases. 3. By a clear and unmistakable _connection in sense_.

EXERCISE.

He kept his course westward taking advantage of the trade wind which blows steadily from west to east between the tropics. (Topic sentence). _With this favorable breeze_ (Explicit reference) they were wafted gently but speedily over a tranquil sea, so that for many days they did not shift a sail.

Nevertheless the situation of Columbus was daily becoming critical; his crews began to grow extremely uneasy at the length of the voyage; they were already beyond the reach of succor, and beheld themselves still borne onward over the boundless wastes of what appeared to them a mere watery desert. They were full of vague terrors, and harassed their commander by incessant murmurs, or fed each other’s discontents, gathering together in little knots, and stirring up a spirit of mutiny. There was great danger of their breaking forth into open rebellion, and compelling Columbus to turn back. In their secret conferences they exclaimed against him as a mad desperado, and even talked of throwing him into the sea.—_Irving._

1. What is the topic sentence of the second paragraph?

2. How does the author make connection or attain explicit reference between the two paragraphs?

3. Show that the sentences of the second paragraph follow one another in a natural and logical order.

4. In the second paragraph, point out the means by which the author relates each sentence to the preceding one.

5. Is there any statement in this paragraph that does not bear on the topic?

* * * * *

=LESSON LXX.=

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

The two great divisions of composition are prose and poetry. The grand distinction in form is metre or measure. The chief object of prose is to instruct, to convince, or to persuade; while the chief object of poetry is to give pleasure or inspiration. Both kinds of composition employ figurative or representative language to please, to adorn, to illustrate, or to explain.

1. An expressed comparison is called a =simile=; as, _He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax._

2. An implied comparison is called a =metaphor=; as, _She is an angel. This news was a dagger to his heart._

3. When the name of one object is put for some other, so related that one naturally suggests the other, the figure is called =metonymy=; as, _The pen shall supersede the sword. No man reveres the crown more than I do._

4. When life and mind are attributed to inanimate objects, the figure is called =personification=; as, _The mountains looked on Marathon, and Marathon looked on the sea. The smiling spring comes round once more._

5. When two unlike things are contrasted, that each may appear more striking, the figure is called =antithesis=; as, _Go or stay, whichever you will. Success wins attention; failure wins neglect._

6. When the mind is aroused by a contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really intended, the figure is called an =epigram=; as, _The favorite has no friend. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble._

7. When something absent is addressed as if present, the figure is called =apostrophe=; as, _O, death, where is thy sting?_

8. When the language expresses the contrary of what is meant, the figure is called =irony=; as, _No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you._—_Job._

EXERCISE.

Name the figures in the following passages, and state what is gained by the use of each:—

1. Some people are too foolish to commit follies. 2. Youth and beauty must be laid in the grave. 3. A true friend, like a mirror, will tell us of our faults. 4. War flings his blood-stained banner to the breeze. 5. The light of the Constitution shines in the palace and the cottage. 6. Though gentle, yet not dull; Strong, without rage; without o’erflowing, full.—_Denham._ 7. There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune.—_Shakespeare._ 8. Sweet friends! What the women lave For its last bed of the grave, Is a hut which I am quitting, Is a garment no more fitting.—_Arnold._ 9. Ayr, gurgling, kissed his pebbled shore, O’erhung with wild woods, thickening green; The fragrant birch and hawthorn hoar Twined amorous round the raptured scene.—_Burns._ 10. And, as a bird each fond endearment tries To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies, He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way.—_Goldsmith._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXXI.=

STYLE.

The skilful adaptation of expression to thought is called =style=. The essential qualities of style in composition are =clearness=, =force=, and =beauty=.

Some of the means by which =clearness= is secured are:—(1) by discrimination in the choice of words; (2) by explicit reference; (3) by contrast; (4) by the orderly arrangement of phrases and sentences.

The quality of =force= is gained by means of—(1) brevity; (2) suggestive words; (3) illustrations and comparisons; (4) the use of interrogation and exclamation; (5) the employment of contrast; (6) the repetition of words; (7) the order of words; (8) the use of the particular instead of the general term.

The quality of =beauty= is secured by means of—(1) good taste in the use of words; (2) alliteration; (3) happy phrases; (4) balanced structure; (5) rhythm. The composition must possess elevation of thought withal.

Other qualities of style sometimes present in good writing are:—=simplicity=, =pathos=, =picturesqueness=, =humour=, =satire=, and =harmony=.

MODEL.

TRAILING ARBUTUS.

. . . The ground was white in spots with half-melted snow. A few whirls of snow had come down in the night, and the air was too cold to change to rain. Some green leaves, in sheltered nooks, had accepted the advances of the sun and were preparing for the summer. But that which I came to search after was trailing arbutus, one of the most exquisite of all Nature’s fondlings.

I did not seek in vain. The hills were covered with it. Its gay whorls of buds peeped forth from ruffles of snow in the most charming beauty. Many blossoms, too, quite expanded, did I find; some pure white, and a few more deliciously suffused with pink. For nearly an hour I wandered up and down, in pleasant fancies, searching, plucking, and arranging these most beautiful of all early blossoms.

Who would suspect by the leaf what rare delicacy was to be in the blossom? Like some people of plain and hard exterior, but of sweet disposition, it was all the more pleasant from the surprise of contrast. All winter long the little thing must have slumbered with dreams, at least, of spring. It has waited for no pioneer or guide, but started of its own self and led the way for all the flowers on the hillside.

Its little viny stem creeps close to the ground, humble, faithful, and showing how the purest white may lay its cheek in the very dirt without soil or taint.

The odor of the arbutus is exquisite, and as delicate as the plant is modest. Some flowers seem determined to make an impression on you. They stare at you. They dazzle your eyes. If you smell them, they overfill your sense with their fragrance. They leave nothing for your gentleness and generosity, but do everything themselves.

But this sweet nestler of the spring hills is so secluded, half-covered with russet leaves, that you would not suspect its graces, did you not stoop to uncover the vine, to lift it up, and then you espy its secluded beauty.

If you smell it, at first it seems hardly to have an odor. But there steals out of it at length the finest, rarest scent, that rather cites desire than satisfies your sense. It is coy, without designing to be so, and its reserve plays upon the imagination far more than could a more positive way.

Without doubt there are intrinsic beauties in plants and flowers, and yet very much of pleasure depends upon their relations to the seasons, to the places where they grow, and to our own moods. No midsummer flower can produce the thrill that the earliest blossoms bring, which tell us that winter is gone, that growing days have come!—_Henry Ward Beecher._

EXERCISE.

1. Are all the essential or cardinal qualities of style illustrated in the foregoing extract? By what means does the author secure each of the qualities found in this composition?

2. What other qualities of style do you find in this selection? Give examples of each.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXXII.=

PROSE.

The chief varieties of prose composition are Letters, Narrations, Descriptions, and Expositions.

LETTERS.

Letters are of two kinds, =familiar letters= or =letters of friendship=, and =business letters=.

_Note._—_In letter-writing of all kinds, the style should be simple, and the manner of expression natural. Neatness and correctness are essential._

THE PARTS OF A LETTER.

The parts of a letter are the _heading_, the _address_, the _salutation_, the _body_, the _conclusion_, and the _signature_.

The _heading_ should show where and when the letter was written. It should include the _address of the writer in full_, and the _date_.

Every important part of the _heading_ should begin with a capital letter. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a period, and the parts of the heading should be separated by commas. A period should be placed at the close of the heading.

The _heading_ should be placed about an inch and a half from the top of the page, and should begin about the middle of the sheet. It may occupy a part of a line, or of two lines.

The _address_ shows to whom the letter is written and his place of residence. It may be placed at the beginning or at the close of a letter. In business letters the best place is at the beginning, and in familiar letters at the close. The address, when placed at the beginning of a letter, should begin near the left margin of the sheet and one inch below the last line of the heading. It should not occupy more than two lines.

The _salutation_ is the greeting with which we begin the letter. There is a variety of forms in keeping with our different relations. The most formal salutation is “Sir.” If our relations are somewhat familiar, we use “Dear Sir,” “My dear Sir,” “Dear Mr. Williams,” etc. In addressing a business firm the salutation is “Gentlemen.”

The _body_ of a letter begins one space below the salutation, and just where the salutation closes. A margin of one-half inch, at least, should be left on the left-hand side of the sheet. Each succeeding paragraph should begin in line with the first word of the first paragraph.

The _conclusion_ consists of the complimentary close and follows the body of the letter. It depends upon the relation of the persons. The closing words in business letters are:—_Yours truly_, _Yours respectfully_, _Very truly yours_, etc. The closing words in letters of friendship are:—_Yours sincerely_, _Your loving friend_, _Your affectionate niece_, etc.

The _signature_ follows the complimentary close, in the next space and to the right. It should end at the right-hand side of the sheet.

* * * * *

A FAMILIAR OR SOCIAL LETTER.

Text of illustration FAMILIAR Letter:

14 Grosvenor S^t., Toronto, July 26, 1900.

Dear Uncle:—

I received your kind letter on the 20^{th} inst. I thank you very much for the gold pen you sent me by the same mail. I am writing this letter with it, and like it well. I shall always think of you when I use it.

I listened to a lecture in Massey Music Hall last night on New Ontario. This name is now given to Northern Ontario which comprises the districts of Nipissing, Algoma, Thunder Bay and Rainy River. The lecturer told us about the fertile soil, valuable forests and great mineral wealth of that part of our province. He described the large pulp mill at Sault Ste. Marie, the extensive nickel deposits near Sudbury and the rich gold mines in the vicinity of Rat Portage. There are millions of acres of good lands which can be had free.