Part 6

1. They are fond of building castles in the air. 2. On he comes, running lightly, with his hands in his pockets. 3. Searching the pile of corpses, the victors found four Frenchmen still breathing.—_Parkman._ 4. The former target was now removed, and a fresh one of the same size placed in its room.—_Scott._ 5. When summoned to surrender, he fired at one of the leading assailants, but was instantly overpowered.—_Warburton._ 6. If terror were the object of its creation, nothing could be imagined more perfect than the devil-fish.—_Hugo._ 7. Madeleine ordered a cannon to be fired, partly to deter the enemy from an assault, and partly to warn some of the soldiers, who were hunting at a distance.—_Parkman._ 8. I am told that it is the custom to collect the sap and bring it to the house, where are built brick arches, over which the sap is evaporated in shallow pans.—_Warner._ 9. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time.—_Longfellow._ 10. It was the schooner Hesperus, That sailed the wintry sea; And the skipper had taken his little daughter, To bear him company.—_Longfellow._

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=LESSON LI.=

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

What does each adverb in the following sentences denote?—

1. Soon the cavalry arrived. 2. Our friends live here. 3. He walked slowly into the house. 4. We had a very pleasant outing. 5. Certainly, I believe it.

_Classes of Adverbs according to their_ =meaning=:—

1. Adverbs of =time= and =succession=; as, She _seldom_ fails to call. We come next.

2. Adverbs of =place= and =motion=; as, John stood _there_ for an hour. They are going _back_.

_Note._—The word _there_ is sometimes used merely to introduce a sentence, that the subject may follow the verb; as, _There_ are two boys in the room. When it is used in this manner it is called an =expletive=.

3. Adverbs of =manner= and =quality=; as, You did it _well_. That man acts _foolishly_.

4. Adverbs of =degree= and =measure=; as, He is _quite_ ill. She is a _very_ industrious woman.

5. _Model_ adverbs—those that express certainty or uncertainty; as, I shall _surely_ come. You are _probably_ right.

EXERCISE.

How is each adverb used in the following sentences?—

1. This river flows rapidly. 2. I know how he acted. 3. Where is your father?

_Classes of Adverbs according to their_ =use=:—

1. An adverb that simply modifies another word is called a =simple adverb=; as, _Slowly_ and _sadly_ we laid him _down_.

2. An adverb that not only modifies a word, but also connects the clause of which it forms a part with another clause, is called a =conjunctive adverb=; as, I shall go _when_ he comes.

3. An adverb that is used to ask a question is called an =interrogative adverb=; as, _Why_ did they take it away?

_Note._—Some adverbs are compared like adjectives; as, Soon, sooner, soonest; swiftly, more swiftly, most swiftly.

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=LESSON LII.=

PARSING OF ADVERBS.

To parse an adverb is to state the kind of adverb, its =degree= of comparison, if it has any, and what it =modifies=.

=Model.=—_Now_ you may read it.

_Now_, an adverb of time, modifying the verb-phrase _may read_.

=Model.=—I know _where_ you put it.

_Where_, a conjunctive adverb, showing place. It modifies _put_ and connects the clause, [_where_] _you put it_ with the clause, _I know_.

EXERCISE.

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences:—

1. He could not ever rue his marrying me.—_Tennyson._ 2. So those four abode within one house together.—_Tennyson._ 3. The boys waited eagerly for further experiments on the doctor’s patience.—_Anstey._ 4. Silently down from the mountain’s crown The great procession swept.—_Mrs. Alexander._ 5. How closely he twineth, how tight he clings To his friend, the huge oak-tree!—_Dickens._ 6. There was manhood’s brow serenely high, And the fiery heart of youth.—_Hemans._ 7. Aim straightly, fire steadily! spare me A ball in the body which may Deliver my heart here, and tear me This badge of the Austrian away!—_Mrs. Browning._ 8. Believe not each accusing tongue, As most weak people do; But still believe that story wrong Which ought not to be true.—_Sheridan._ 9. Again I looked at the snow-fall, And thought of the leaden sky That arched o’er our first great sorrow, When that mound was heaped so high.—_Lowell._

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=LESSON LIII.=

PREPOSITIONS.

What do the prepositions in the following sentences connect, and what relations do they express?—

1. I came during the night. 2. He lives at home. 3. Our friends came by train. 4. The oar of the boat was broken.

Prepositions express a great variety of relations. The most common relations are as follows:—

1. =Time=; as, The scholars go home _after_ school.

2. =Place= or =direction=; as, He sat _upon_ a stone.

3. =Agency= or =means=; as, John cut his finger _with_ a knife.

4. =Possession=; as, The call _of_ the shepherd was heard by his flock.

5. =Separation=; as, James took the book _from_ his brother.

6. =Association=; as, A man _with_ an axe in his hand came in.

7. =Opposition=; as, He is _against_ me.

8. =Object=; as, The love _of_ pleasure destroys many a life.

9. =Cause=; as, They did it _through_ ignorance.

_Note._—There are many phrases which have the use of prepositions and are treated as such; as, We stood _in front of_ the building. A woman came _out of_ the house. He lived _according to_ his light.

PARSING OF PREPOSITIONS.

=Model.=—I stood _on_ the bridge _at_ midnight.

_On_, a preposition, connecting the noun _bridge_ with the verb _stood_, and showing the relation of _place_.

_At_, a preposition, connecting the noun _midnight_ with the verb _stood_, and showing the relation of _time_.

EXERCISE.

Parse the prepositions in the following sentences:—

1. The old man was killed by a falling tree. 2. The perfume of the rose is sweet. 3. A child fell into the river. 4. My brother went instead of me. 5. Without a moment’s hesitation, he and his men dashed at the height. 6. Now see him mount once again Upon his nimble steed, Full slowly pacing o’er the stones, With caution and good heed.—_Cowper._ 7. Richard surveyed the Nubian in silence as he stood before him, his looks bent upon the ground, his arms folded on his bosom, with the appearance of a black marble statue of the most exquisite workmanship, waiting life from the touch of a Prometheus.—_Scott._ 8. Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, With blossomed furze unprofitably gay, There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, The village master taught his little school.—_Goldsmith._

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=LESSON LIV.=

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS.

Point out in the following examples conjunctions that connect sentences or parts of a sentence of equal rank, and those that connect sentences that are not of equal rank:—

1. Men may come and men may go. 2. I have a pen and a book. 3. Henry remained but we went home. 4. My father knew that I did it.

A conjunction that connects sentences or parts of a sentence of equal rank, is called a =co-ordinating conjunction=; as, The night is cold _and_ clear. It was sold, _but_ I did not want it. I know he came home, _and_ took it away.

A conjunction that connects a dependent or subordinate clause to a principal clause, is called a =subordinating conjunction=; as, James said _that_ he was sick. I cannot go _unless_ he come.

_Note._—Conjunctions used in pairs are called =correlatives=; as, _both_—_and_, _either_—_or_, _neither_—_nor_.

PARSING OF CONJUNCTIONS.

=Model.=—The teacher gave me a book, _and_ I read it.

_And_, a co-ordinating conjunction, connecting the two principal clauses, _The teacher gave me a book_, and _I read it_.

=Model.=—The boy is strong _but_ lazy.

_But_, a co-ordinating conjunction, connecting the adjectives _strong_ and _lazy_.

=Model.=—His mother said _that_ he might go.

_That_, a subordinating conjunction, connecting the subordinate clause, _he might go_, to the principal clause, _his mother said_.

EXERCISE I.

Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences:—

1. He often looked at them, And often thought, “I’ll make them man and wife.”—_Tennyson._ 2. The natives of the island supposed that the ships had sailed out of the crystal firmament, or had descended from above on their ample wings.—_Irving._ 3. Here lies his head upon the lap of earth, A youth to fortune and to fame unknown.—_Gray._ 4. By chance it happened that in Atri dwelt A knight, with spur on heel and sword in belt.—_Longfellow._ 5. With a sword or a hatchet in one hand and a knife in the other, they threw themselves against the throng of enemies, striking and stabbing with the fury of madmen, till the Iroquois fired volley after volley, and shot them down.—_Parkman._ 6. Cheerily, then, my little man, Live and laugh, as boyhood can! Though the flinty slopes be hard, Stubble-speared the new-mown sward, Every morn shall lead thee through Fresh baptisms of the dew.—_Whittier._

EXERCISE II.

1. Write three sentences each containing a co-ordinating conjunction. Underline example.

2. Write three sentences each containing a subordinating conjunction. Underline example.

3. Write an example of correlative conjunctions. Underline them.

* * * * *

=LESSON LV.=

INTERJECTIONS.

As an interjection bears no grammatical relation to the other words of a sentence, its parsing consists in naming the parts of speech, and the feeling expressed.

=Model.=—Hurrah! we have won.

_Hurrah_, an interjection—expresses the feeling of joy.

EXERCISE.

Parse the interjections in the following sentences:—

1. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro, And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress.—_Byron._ 2. News of battle! News of battle! Hark! ’tis ringing down the street.—_Aytoun._ 3. Oh! I’m thankful you are gone, Mary, Where grief can’t reach you more!—_Lady Dufferin._ 4. But, hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell.—_Byron._ 5. And, lo! from far, as on they pressed, there came a glittering band.—_Hemans._ 6. “Alas,” said I, “man was made in vain!”—_Addison._ 7. “Indeed!” said Uncle Tim, “pray, what do you make of the abstraction of a red cow?”—_Haliburton._ 8. “Yet give one kiss to your mother dear! Alas! my child, I sinned for thee.” “O mother, mother, mother,” she said, “So strange it seems to me.”—_Tennyson._ 9. Ho! breakers on the weather bow, And hissing white the sea; Go, loose the topsail, mariner, And set the helm a-lee.—_Swain._

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PART THIRD.

_SYNTAX._

Syntax treats of the _relations_ which words bear to one another in sentences, and of the _order_ in which the words are arranged. The relation of a word in a sentence is called its _construction_.

_Note._—Many of the leading principles of syntax have been illustrated already. We shall now study them and others in a systematic way.

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=LESSON LVI.=

RELATIONS OF THE NOUN.

Examine the construction of the italicized nouns in the following sentences:—

1. _Trees_ grow. 2. This man is a _carpenter_. 3. Mr. Brown, the _merchant_, has retired. 4. _Boys_, close the doors. 5. The _wheel_ being broken, I walked home. 6. John lost his _knife_. 7. She lives in the _city_. 8. I bought the _boy_ a hat. 9. We visited our _mother’s_ grave. 10. He lived here ten _years_. 11. I was taught _music_ by my mother. 12. This boy ran a _race_ yesterday. 13. I told him to be a good _boy_. 14. The people chose him _ruler_.

1. =Subject nominative.= The noun may be used as the subject of a verb; as, _Boys_ play. The subject of a verb is in the _nominative case_.

2. =Predicate nominative.= A noun that is used to form a complete predicate, and refers to the same person or thing as the subject, is in the =nominative case= after the verb; as, John became _king_. A noun so used is called a =predicate noun= or =predicate nominative=. The verbs _be_, _seem_, _become_, _appear_, _look_ are followed by a =predicate nominative=.

3. =Apposition.= A noun added to another noun to explain its meaning is said to be in apposition to the first noun; as,

Mr. Henry, our _principal_, is sick. (Nominative in apposition.)

We like your sister _Mary_. (Objective in apposition.)

4. =Nominative of address.= A noun that is used in addressing a person or thing, is in the =nominative case of address=; as, _Man_, thy years are few.

5. =Nominative absolute.= A noun that is not related to any other word in the sentence is in the =nominative absolute case=; as, The _day_ being bright, I went for a drive.

6. =Object of a verb.= A noun or pronoun on which the action expressed by a verb ends, is called the grammatical =object= of the verb; as, I broke my _pen_.

7. =Object of a preposition.= A noun or pronoun which a preposition connects in sense to some other word in the sentence, is called the =object= of the preposition; as, He came from the _country_.

8. =Indirect object.= A noun or pronoun that is used to show _to_ or _for_ whom or what something is done, is called the _indirect_ object; as, He gave _me_ a watch. The word _watch_ is the _direct_ object of _gave_.

9. =Possession.= A noun that is used to denote ownership is in the =possessive= case; as, My _friend’s_ hat is missing.

10. =Adverbial object.= A noun that is used like an adverb to express _time_, _distance_, _weight_, or _value_, is called an =adverbial objective=; as, He walked five _miles_. It is worth eight _dollars_.

11. =Retained object.= When an active verb, taking two objects, is changed into the passive voice, one object becomes the subject of the passive verb, but the other is _retained as object_; as, He was forgiven his _offence_.

12. =Cognate object.= When the objective has a similar or cognate meaning to that of the verb, it is called a =cognate object=; as, She sung us a _song_.

13. =Predicate objective.= When a noun is in the predicate relation to an objective subject, it is called a =predicate objective=; as, I know him to be an honest _man_.

14. =An objective predicate.= A noun that completes the meaning of a transitive verb and describes its object, is called an =objective predicate=; as, They elected him _president_. The verbs _call_, _make_, _appoint_, _choose_, _elect_, and those of like nature, take the =objective predicate=.

* * * * *

=LESSON LVII.=

RELATIONS OF THE PRONOUN.

What is the gender, person, and number of the italicized pronouns in the following sentences?—

1. A little girl gave me _her_ book. 2. The sword has dropped from _its_ sheath. 3. I saw the man of _whom_ you speak. 4. This is the woman _that_ found your purse.

_A pronoun must agree in gender, number, and person with its antecedent._

_Note._—1. The relative pronoun is not always expressed; as, I know the man (_that_) you admire so much.

2. The word _it_ has sometimes an indefinite use without an antecedent; as, _It_ rains. _It_ will soon be dark. _This is called the impersonal use._

3. The word _it_ is sometimes used as a _representative_ subject while the _real_ subject follows the verb; as, _It_ is certain _that he did it_. _It_ is right _to defend the truth_.

_The pronoun has the same case-relations as the noun._

EXERCISE.

Name the case and state the construction of each noun and pronoun in the following sentences:—

1. I travelled with Smith, the grocer. 2. We helped the lady who lost her purse. 3. It is wrong to deceive. 4. The wind having fallen, I mounted my wheel again. 5. Mary broke out in praise to God, that helped her in her widowhood.—_Tennyson._ 6. Set the table, maiden Mabel, And make the cabin warm: Your little fisher lover Is out there in the storm.—_Aldrich._ 7. My dear one!—when thou wast alive with the rest, I held thee the sweetest and loved thee the best.—_E. B. Browning._ 8. But the Christian princes felt that the scene which they had beheld weighed heavily on their spirits, and although they assumed their seats at the banquet, yet it was with the silence of doubt and amazement.—_Scott._ 9. By chance it happened that in Atri dwelt A knight, with spur on heel and sword on belt, Who loved to hunt the wild boar in the woods, Who loved his falcons with their crimson hoods. —_Longfellow._ 10. There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats; For I am armed so strong in honesty, That they pass by me as the idle wind, Which I respect not.—_Shakespeare._

* * * * *

=LESSON LVIII.=

RELATIONS OF ADJECTIVES.

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, that are used to modify nouns directly, and those that are used to modify nouns as part of the predication or assertion made about them:—

1. She is a good girl. 2. I have a soft pencil. 3. He was ignorant of this fact. 4. The water is cold.

1. An adjective that modifies a noun directly is said to be in the =attributive= relation; as, A _grand_ tree is the _stately_ oak.

2. An adjective that modifies a noun as part of the predication or assertion made about it, is called a =predicate adjective=; as, This apple is _sweet_. I am _glad_ you succeeded.

3. An adjective that is joined to a noun in a loose and indirect way is said to be used in the =appositive= relation; as, All history, _ancient_ or _modern_ contributes towards my theory.

EXERCISE.

State the relation of each adjective in the following sentences:—

1. A tremendous storm came on. 2. My dear friend is ill. 3. Young, and gay, she heeded not my warning. 4. Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear.—_Gray._ 5. Along the crowded path they bore her now, pure as the newly-fallen snow that covered it.—_Dickens._ 6. Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening’s close, Up yonder hill the village murmur rose.—_Goldsmith._ 7. I met a little cottage girl; She was eight years old, she said; Her hair was thick with many a curl That clustered round her head.—_Wordsworth._

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=LESSON LIX.=

RELATIONS OF THE VERB.

What person and number forms are the verbs in the following sentences, and why?—

1. The sun shines brightly. 2. The boys are in the garden. 3. I know thou lovest me.

_The verb agrees with its subject in person and number_; as, The teacher _has_ my pen.

_Note._—In determining the number of the verb we must consider, not the _form_, but the _meaning_ of the subject.

1. A collective noun requires a verb in the singular when it means the collection as a whole, and a verb in the plural when it means the separate individuals of which it is composed; as, The committee (as a whole) _has decided_ it. The committee (as individuals) _have decided_ it.

2. Two or more singular nouns connected by _and_ take a verb in the plural; as, James and Mary _are_ here. Music and drawing _were taught_ during the term.

If two or more singular nouns connected by _and_ are preceded by _each_, _every_, or _no_, the verb is in the singular, because they refer to things considered separately; as, Every man and woman _was lost_.

3. When two or more singular subjects are thought of as one thing, the verb is singular; as, Bread and butter _is_ sufficient.

4. Two singular subjects connected by _either_—_or_, _neither_—_nor_ take a verb in the singular, but if the subjects are plural, the verb is plural; as, Either a horse or a cow _is_ in the field. Neither the boys nor the girls _are_ here.

EXERCISE.

What is the person and number of the verbs in the following sentences, and give the reason in each case?—

1. Wellington and Nelson were heroes. 2. The audience was dismissed. 3. Her health and strength has failed. 4. Either a pen or a pencil is required. 5. The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea. 6. Each boy and girl is to have a medal. 7. Neither cries nor tears avail anything. 8. No man and no animal was seen. 9. The secretary and treasurer is present. 10. The secretary and the treasurer are present. 11. The enormous expense of governments has provoked men to rebellion. 12. From the ground Comes up the laugh of children, the soft voice Of maidens, and the sweet and solemn hymn Of Sabbath worshippers.—_Bryant._

* * * * *

=LESSON LX.=

RELATIONS OF ADVERBS.

Point out the use of the italicized adverbs in the following sentences:—

1. She walks _rapidly_. 2. My brother is _quite_ sick. 3. He acted _very_ honestly.

_An adverb is used to qualify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb._

An adverb is sometimes used with the value of a predicate adjective; as, The sun is _up_. We were _there_.

An adverb may even qualify a preposition; as, He went _far_ beyond his instructions. The thorn ran _deep_ into his foot.

EXERCISE.

Give the construction of each adverb in the following sentences:—

1. My sister is too sick to see you. 2. We were treated very kindly. 3. They acted more wisely than we. 4. The moon went down behind the clouds. 5. He jumped clear over the fence. 6. I wind about, and in and out, With here a blossom sailing, And here and there a lusty trout, And here and there a grayling.—_Tennyson._ 7. I’ve lived since then, in calm and strife, Full fifty summers a sailor’s life, With wealth to spend, and power to range, But never have sought, nor sighed for change.—_Procter._ 8. Down came the storm, and smote amain The vessel in its strength; She shuddered and paused, like a frighted steed, Then leaped her cable’s length.—_Longfellow._

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=LESSON LXI.=

THE ORDER OF WORDS.

Observe the order of the words in the following sentence:—

The woods tossed their giant branches against a stormy sky.

The logical order of the parts of a sentence is: 1. The subject (with its attributes); 2. The verb; 3. The object (with its attributes) or the complement; 4. The adverbial modifiers.

This order may be changed to secure greater _emphasis_, _clearness_ or _elegance_.

A member of a sentence may be given prominence by taking it out of its logical position and placing it first. This causes the arrangement of the other members to be changed and the sentence thus acquires emphasis by the members being placed out of their ordinary positions.