Part 2

1. His family live in England. 2. The army advanced during the night. 3. The verdict is given by a jury. 4. A committee of six was appointed by the members.

A noun of the singular form that stands for a collection or number of things is called a =collective noun=; as, He owns a _herd_ of cattle.

EXERCISE.

Write five sentences each containing a collective noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

IV. VERBAL NOUNS.

Select the nouns ending in _ing_ that are derived from verbs and have lost all verbal function in the following sentences:—

1. That is good ploughing. 2. His writing is very legible. 3. The singing was admired by all.

A noun ending in _ing_ that is derived from a verb and has lost all verbal function, is called a verbal noun; as, There is good _sleighing_ now.

EXERCISE.

Write five sentences each containing a verbal noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

* * * * *

=LESSON XIV.=

V. GENDER-NOUNS.

Which of the following words denote males, and which denote females?

boy, man, uncle, hero, emperor, girl, woman, aunt, heroine, empress.

Sex is one of the two divisions of animals, male and female.

The distinction of sex is called =gender=.

A noun that denotes a male is of the masculine gender; as, father.

A noun that denotes a female is of the feminine gender; as, mother.

Some nouns are either masculine or feminine gender; as, friend, neighbor.

Nouns that denote things neither male nor female, have no gender; as, book, tree.

Gender is distinguished by different words; as,—

=Masculine.= =Feminine.= gentleman, lady, husband, wife, king, queen, monk, nun, nephew, niece, sir, madam, son, daughter, uncle, aunt, bachelor, maid or spinster, drake, duck, hart, roe, ram, ewe, stag, hind, buck, doe, earl, countess, wizard, witch.

Gender is distinguished by different endings; as,—

=Masculine.= =Feminine.= heir, heiress, baron, baroness, count, countess, prince, princess, negro, negress, actor, actress, Jew, Jewess, lion, lioness, governor, governess, abbot, abbess, victor, victress, marquis, marchioness, peer, peeress, host, hostess, duke, duchess, master, mistress, deacon, deaconess, poet, poetess, executor, executrix, hero, heroine, czar, czarina, sultan, sultana, infante, infanta, widower, widow, bridegroom, bride, fox, vixen.

Gender is sometimes distinguished by prefixing words; as,—

=Masculine.= =Feminine.= man-servant, maid-servant, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow, he-goat, she-goat.

EXERCISE.

Select the gender-nouns in the following sentences, and give the gender of each:—

1. Mary and her friend went for a sail on the lake. 2. The hero of this story is a young boy. 3. Great authors are seldom seen by the people. 4. Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her old age. 5. He fled with his wife and child. 6. My sister went home with her aunt. 7. Both a prince and a poet were there. 8. Little Effie shall go with me to-morrow to the green, And you’ll be there, too, mother, to see me made the Queen: For the shepherd lads on every side ’ill come from far away, And I’m to be Queen of the May, mother, I’m to be Queen of the May.—_Tennyson._

* * * * *

=LESSON XV.=

NUMBER.

Which form of the following words denotes one thing, and which more than one thing?—

pen, slate, church, city, tooth, pens, slates, churches, cities, teeth.

The form of a word which names one thing is called =singular=, and the noun is said to be in the _singular number_. The form of a word which names more than one thing is called =plural=, and the noun is said to be in the _plural number_.

1. The plural is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular form; as _pin_, _pins_; _book_, _books_.

2. Some nouns form the plural by adding _es_ to the singular form; as, _match_, _matches_; _tax_, _taxes_.

Note the following words:—fox, bush, glass, loss, hero, negro, cargo, echo, potato, tomato.

3. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding _s_ to the singular form; as, _day_, _days_; _valley_, _valleys_.

Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, form the plural by changing the _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_; as, _lily_, _lilies_; _copy_, _copies_.

4. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and adding _es_; as, _knife_, _knives_.

Note the following:—wife, life, wolf, loaf, half, leaf, thief, shelf, calf, self.

5. A few nouns form the plural by adding _en_ to the singular form; as, _ox_, _oxen_; _child_, _children_; _brother_, _brethren_.

6. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel of the singular; as, _man_, _men_; _goose_, _geese_.

7. Most nouns taken from foreign languages retain their foreign plurals:

=Singular.= =Plural.= radius, radii. beau, beaux. analysis, analyses. index, indices. axis, axes. basis, bases. seraph, seraphim. memorandum, memoranda. phenomenon, phenomena. crisis, crises. erratum, errata. stratum, strata. oasis, oases. cherub, cherubim.

8. Some compound nouns make the principal word plural, and some make both words plural; as, _son-in-law_, _sons-in-law_; _man-servant_, _men-servants_.

EXERCISE.

Write the plural of the following nouns:—

1. desk, woman, calf, foot, mouse, class. 2. cargo, piano, sky, toy, crisis, potato. 3. story, church, enemy, spoonful, chimney. 4. lily, valley, mother-in-law, wolf, pencil. 5. memorandum, sheaf, child, man-of-war.

* * * * *

=LESSON XVI.=

Note the following peculiarities:

1. Nouns used only in the plural:—

aborigines, antipodes, annals, banns, bellows, breeches, matins, measles, news, nuptials, oats, pincers, scissors, shears, tidings, trousers, vespers, victuals.

2. Nouns that have the same form in both numbers:—

deer, trout, sheep, heathen, perch, grouse, salmon, swine, cannon, pike.

3. Nouns with _two_ plurals, differing in meaning:—

=Singular.= = Plural.= =Plural.= penny, pennies (a number.) pence (a sum.) pea, peas (a number.) pease (a quantity.) brother, brothers (same family.) brethren (same society.) die, dies (for stamping.) dice (for gaming.) cloth, cloths (kinds of cloth.) clothes (garments.) index, indexes (to a book.) indices (in algebra.) genius, geniuses (men of talent.) genii (spirits.)

4. Nouns with a different meaning in the plural:—

compass, compasses, iron, irons, good, goods, salt, salts, corn, corns.

5. Nouns with _two meanings_ in the plural:—

=Singular.= =Plural.= =Plural.= custom, customs (habits.) customs (revenue duties.) letter, letters (alphabet.) letters (literature.) number, numbers (in counting.) numbers (poetry.) part, parts (divisions.) parts (abilities.)

* * * * *

=LESSON XVII.=

CASE.

Which of the italicized words in the following sentences is used as the subject of the sentence, which to denote ownership, and on which does the action expressed by the verb end?

1. The _boy_ is here. 2. The _boy’s_ book is on the table. 3. He sent the _boy_ with it.

The word upon which the action expressed by the verb ends is called the =object= of the verb.

Point out in the following sentence a noun used as the subject of the verb, a noun used to denote ownership, a noun used as the object of a verb, and a noun used as the object of a preposition:—

That girl’s father shot a bear in the forest.

The relation which a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence is called =case=.

A noun used as the subject of a verb is in the =nominative case=; as, The _slate_ is broken. A noun used to denote ownership or possession is in the =possessive case=; as, _Mary’s_ book is torn. A noun used as the object of a verb or a preposition is in the =objective case=; as, He left his _pencil_ on the _desk_.

EXERCISE I.

Name the case of all the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences, and state the reason for the case of each:—

1. I sailed a boat on the lake. 2. This man’s hat was carried off by the wind. 3. Eight horses drew the Queen’s carriage. 4. On the deck stood the captain of the ship. 5. Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray; And, when I crossed the wild, I chanced to see at break of day The solitary child.—_Wordsworth._

EXERCISE II.

1. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the nominative case, and underline examples.

2. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the possessive case, and underline examples.

3. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the objective case, and underline examples.

* * * * *

=LESSON XVIII.=

Point out the nouns in the possessive case in the following sentences, and state how the possessive is formed:—

1. This is a girl’s hat. 2. The girls’ yard is very clean. 3. He found a woman’s shawl. 4. The women’s waiting room is a large one.

The possessive case of a singular noun is always formed by adding ’s to the word.

The possessive case of a plural noun that ends in s is formed by adding the ’ (apostrophe) only; as _boys_, _boys’_.

The possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in s is formed by adding the ’s; as _men_, _men’s_.

EXERCISE.

Form the possessive case, singular and plural, of the following nouns:—

hat, horse, mother, lady, knife, child, servant, grocer, friend, fox, father-in-law, country, deer, artist, prince, mouse.

_Note._—Possession is sometimes expressed by the objective case with the preposition _of_; as, The eyes of children are bright, for children’s eyes are bright.

* * * * *

=LESSON XIX.=

State the case of the italicized nouns in the following sentences:—

1. My _hands_ are cold. 2. He is a _lawyer_. 3. Smith, the _grocer_, has moved away. 4. _John_, shut the door. 5. The _storm_ having ceased, I went on.

A noun that is used as the subject of a sentence is said to be in the =subject nominative case=, or briefly in the =nominative case=; as, The _sun_ shines brightly.

A noun that is used in the predicate with the verb _to be_ to make a statement, is said to be in the =predicate nominative case= to the verb; as, This man is a _poet_.

_Note._—The verb _to be_ (am, is, are, was, were, shall be, will be, have been, had been, etc.,) expresses _being_, never action, and hence cannot take a grammatical _object_.

A noun that is added to another noun to explain it, is said to be in the =appositive= (apposition) =nominative case=; as Brown, the _merchant_, is here.

A noun that is used as the name of a person or thing addressed is said to be in the =nominative of address=; as I wish you long life, my _friend_.

A noun that has no relation to any word in the sentence is said to be in the =nominative absolute=; as, The _game_ being over, I withdrew.

EXERCISE.

Select all the nominatives in the following sentences, and state the class to which each belongs:—

1. Napoleon was a man of determination. 2. My friend, the captain, is a citizen of Montreal. 3. Good morning, Mr. Henry, will you come in? 4. William the Norman, the enemy of Harold, crossed the Channel. 5. The boat having disappeared, I turned my face homewards.

* * * * *

=LESSON XX.=

How many grammatical objects has each verb in the following sentences?—

1. He taught me music. 2. The tailor made him a coat. 3. I asked them the way. 4. He sent his sister a letter.

The object which represents that which is directly affected by the action of the verb, is called the =direct object=; as, This man taught me _drawing_.

The object which represents that which is less directly affected by the action of the verb, and a relation which may be expressed by the prepositions _to_ or _for_, is called the =indirect object=; as, This man taught _me_ drawing.

EXERCISE.

Select all the objects in the following sentences, and classify them into _direct_ and _indirect_:—

1. This girl brought me some flowers. 2. The Queen gave him a present. 3. I told him that story. 4. My father bought me a horse. 5. She sent my uncle a guinea.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXI.=

PARSING.

To parse a noun is to state the class to which it belongs, its gender, number, case, and its grammatical relation to other words in the sentence.

The changes in meaning and use which nouns undergo with or without a change in form, are called their =inflections=.

The inflections of the noun are number and case.

EXERCISE.

Parse all the nouns in the following sentences:—

1. John lost his brother’s book on the street. 2. The boys have bought a new boat. 3. This little girl’s doll fell into the water. 4. His son is an excellent writer. 5. Mr. Wilson, the tailor, has a fine shop. 6. James, take this book to your sister. 7. My father gave that boy a beautiful pony. 8. Our friends are fond of driving. 9. Sympathy is the greatest power in the moral world. 10. But the half of our heavy task was done, When the clock struck the hour for retiring; And we heard the distant and random gun, That the foe was sullenly firing.—_Wolfe._

=Model.=—_John_, a proper, concrete noun; masculine gender; singular number; nominative case, subject of _lost_.

_Teacher’s_, a common, concrete noun; masculine or feminine gender; singular number; possessive case, possessing _book_.

_Book_, a common, concrete noun; singular number; objective case, object of the verb _lost_.

_Street_, a common, concrete noun; singular number; objective case, object of the preposition _on_.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXII.=

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Name the pronouns in the following sentences, and state which denote the speaker, which the person spoken to, and which the person or thing spoken of:—

1. He asked me to go with him. 2. You will be sorry when you see it. 3. I asked her to come with us.

A pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of, is called a =personal pronoun=.

A pronoun that denotes the speaker or any company of whom the speaker is one, is in the =first person=; as, _I_ am here. _We_ are going soon.

A pronoun that denotes a person spoken to, is in the =second person=; as, _You_ look well.

A pronoun that denotes the person or thing spoken of, is in the =third person=; as, I found _it_.

THE DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

=First Person.= =Singular.= =Plural.= Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. I, mine, or my, me. we, ours, or our, us.

Second Person. Singular. Plural. Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. thou, thine, or thy, thee. you, or ye, yours, or your, you.

The second person singular is used now chiefly in prayer and poetry.

The second person plural is used now in common speech in addressing one person.

Third Person. Singular. Plural. Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj. Masc. he, his, him. they, theirs, or their, them. Fem. she, hers, or her, her. they, theirs, or their, them. Neut. it, its, it. they, theirs, or their, them.

EXERCISE.

Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, state the person of each, and the noun to which each pronoun of the third person refers:—

1. I visited my friend and helped him with his work. 2. We bought some nuts and gave them to the children. 3. This woman has lost her purse. 4. I met two boys and they told me where to find you. 5. I had a little daughter, And she was given to me To lead me gently backward To the Heavenly Father’s knee. That I by the force of nature, Might in some dim wise divine The depths of His infinite patience To this wayward soul of mine.—_Lowell._

_Note._—The possessive forms _my_, _thy_, _her_, _our_, _your_ and _their_ are used with nouns, and the forms _mine_, _thine_, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_ and _theirs_ are used alone; as, That is _my_ hat. That hat is _mine_.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXIII.=

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Name the pronouns in the following sentences that point out or call attention to anything:—

1. This is a book, and that is a roll of paper. 2. These are sheep, and those are goats.

Pronouns which point out or call attention to the objects for which they stand, are called =demonstrative pronouns=.

The demonstrative pronouns are _this_, and _that_ with their plurals _these_, and _those_.

_This_ and _these_ are used to refer to something nearer; _that_ and _those_ to something farther off. _You_ is sometimes a demonstrative pronoun; as, _You_ are the winner. The personal pronoun of the third person is sometimes classed as a demonstrative pronoun, because it is said to point out or call attention to the object for which it stands.

It is sometimes demonstrative, and sometimes personal in its use.

_Compare_: I am sure _he_ did it. I saw your brother and _he_ is going to come to-morrow.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXIV.=

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, that are used to express _emphasis_, and those that are used as reflexives, that is, as _objects_ denoting the same person or thing as the _subject_:—

1. I myself wrote that letter. 2. He himself gave the cane to me. 3. We often injure ourselves. 4. They praised themselves.

Pronouns that are used to express emphasis, and those that are used as reflexives, are called =compound personal pronouns=.

Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding _self_ to the simple pronouns.

=Singular.= =Plural.= First Person. myself, ourselves,

Second Person. {thyself, {yourself, yourselves,

{himself Third Person. {herself, themselves. {itself,

* * * * *

=LESSON XXV.=

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Select the pronouns that relate, or carry the mind back, to a noun going before, and join to that noun a modifying statement, in the following sentences:—

1. My brother found the ball which he lost. 2. I saw the man who made that wheel. 3. Mary has the book that I bought.

A sentence that is part of a larger sentence is called a =clause=.

The clause that expresses the principal thought of a sentence is called the =principal= or =independent clause=; as, _My brother found the ball_ which he lost.

The clause that depends on some other part of the sentence for its meaning is called a =dependent= or =subordinate clause=; as, My brother found the ball _which he lost_.

A word that relates to a preceding noun or pronoun, and connects a dependent clause with that noun or pronoun, is called a =relative pronoun=.

The word to which a pronoun relates is called its =antecedent=.

The relative pronouns are, _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_, _as_, and _but_.

1. _Who_ is applied to persons; as, He knew the man _who_ did it.

2. _Which_ is applied to animals and to things without life; as This is the deer _which_ he shot. I want the pen _which_ you have.

3. _That_ is applied to persons, to animals, and to things; as, This is the lady _that_ was hurt. Here is the knife _that_ I found.

4. _What_ does not have its antecedent expressed; as, I know _what_ [that which] you require.

5. When _as_ is used as a relative it is generally preceded by _such_; as, We are such stuff _as_ dreams are made on.

6. When _but_ is used as a relative it has a negative force, equivalent to _that not_; as,

There is no fireside, howsoe’er defended, _But_ has one vacant chair.

_Note._—Some relative clauses add another fact to the antecedent; as, He owns a farm, _which he was given by his uncle_.

Other relative clauses restrict the meaning of the antecedent; as, The boy _that works_ succeeds.

_Who_ and _which_ are declined as follows:—

SINGULAR OR PLURAL.

Nom. Case who, which, Poss. Case whose, whose, Obj. Case whom, which.

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Pronouns that are formed by adding _so_, _ever_, and _soever_, to the simple pronouns, are called =compound relative pronouns=; as _whoso_, _whichever_, _whatsoever_.

EXERCISE I.

Name the relative pronouns, their antecedents, the clauses they connect, and the case of each:—

1. I require the pencil that I lent you. 2. Those who are down need fear no fall. 3. He gave me what I desired. 4. The men shot a bear which was roaming about. 5. The long ranks on which I looked tramped steadily on. 6. Let the mighty mounds That overlook the rivers, or that rise In the dim forest crowded with old oaks, answer.—_Bryant._

EXERCISE II.

Classify the relatives in the following sentences into those that add new facts to their antecedents, and into those that restrict or limit their meaning: