Part 2

Plate VII., Fig. 4, is a common type of window; an extension of the simple two-light window (Plate V., Fig. 9), frequently enriched with cusps and ball-flower (Plate VI., Fig. 3) in the hollows of the mullions.

In Plate VII., Fig. 10, the buttresses are decorated with niches for statuary. A _flying-buttress_ is shown (F.B.), carrying the thrust of the stone-vaulted roof of the nave over the external roof of the aisle into the main buttress, whose weight and consequent stability are increased by the heavy _pinnacle_. The smaller buttress (C.) resists the thrust of the window arches. Norwich Cathedral displays an interesting array of flying-buttresses.

Plate VI., Fig. 6, shows a tower and spire at the crossing of nave and transepts. The base of the spire and its _broaches_ (Plate V., Fig. 7) are concealed by a _parapet wall_, with battlements protecting a footway round the spire, which could be used as a place of observation. Mouldings in the Geometrical period attained the greatest refinement. Many can be favourably compared with those of the best Greek periods.

Arches continued to be built in square orders (Plate III., Figs. 6 and 8), and consisted of round mouldings, generally separated by deep hollows and fillets (Plate VII., Fig. 7).

In mouldings of the Curvilinear period (Plate VII., Fig. 8) the _ogee_ superseded the round, and the hollows were shallower. Towards the end of the period the square _orders_ ceased, and the planes of the _orders_ were at about 45° with the vertical (Plate VII., Fig. 9; compare with Plate VIII., Fig. 12).

The _wave-moulding_ (Plate VII., Fig. 9) and the _scroll-moulding_ (Plate VII., Figs. 9, 12, and 13), supposed to resemble a parchment scroll, are conspicuous in the Curvilinear. The general character of the ornament is indicated on Plate VII., in most of which the _ogee_ line is apparent.

The _ball-flower_ (Plate VI., Fig. 3) is a distinctive feature of the Decorated period superseding the tooth ornament of the Lancet (Plate V., Fig. 12). It was applied to hollow mouldings of arches and tracery of windows, vaulting, and spires.

Capitals were moulded as in the section (Plate VII., Fig. 13), or carved, as Plate VI., Fig. 4, generally in imitation of natural foliage, varying from a bold conventionalism (Plate VI., Fig. 5) to a close imitation of nature, as Plate VI., Fig. 1 (a.a.). Animal forms and small human figures were occasionally introduced. Figure sculpture reached its highest degree of excellence in this period.

Construction was further advanced, but in design the climax had been attained in the Geometrical period, and a very gradual decline set in, as shown in excessive ornamentation and literal imitation of natural forms in stonework, which is unsuitable for such delicate treatment on account of its fragility.

The increasing wealth of the nation during this period is indicated by the grandeur of the buildings and the redundancy of ornament.

PLATE VIII

PERPENDICULAR, 1377-1547

RECTILINEAR, 1360-1550

PLATE IX

PERPENDICULAR

PLATES VIII AND IX

PERPENDICULAR, 1377-1547

RECTILINEAR, 1360-1550

The term “perpendicular” was applied to the work of this period, the last of English Gothic, on account of the predominance of vertical lines in the whole architectural design, and especially in window tracery.

A comparison of Plate VII., Fig. 5, net tracery, with Plate IX., Fig. 5, rectilinear, will explain how the latter was developed from the former by extending the sides of the _meshes_ of the _net_ by straight lines into the summit of the window. But as the term _perpendicular_ is only a _relative_ one, not necessarily meaning vertical, the term _rectilinear_ was substituted, being descriptive of the general character of the whole design in mass and detail. In this work, however, the term “perpendicular” is preferred as the one most generally known. Windows became so large, chiefly for the display of stained glass, as to reduce the wall spaces between them to little more than piers, and _transoms_ (horizontal mullions) had to be introduced to strengthen the vertical _mullions_. [See Plate IX., Figs, 1 and 2 (a.b.), belfry windows in these examples.]

Loftiness is a special trait of the Perpendicular period. Walls were carried to a greater height than previously. The external roof was frequently covered with lead, and inclined at an angle easy to walk upon. The roof-timbers were supported by ornamental principals exposed to view from the interior, or there was a stone-vaulted internal roof of rich design, the increased thrusts upon the walls being counteracted by larger buttresses.

Tall towers were built, such as those of York Minster, Gloucester, Worcester, and the churches of Boston (Lincolnshire), Wrexham, Taunton, and many others of magnificence. Plate IX., Figs. 1 and 3, give varieties of smaller parish church towers. In these the Tudor arch and square-headed window are shown. Spires are not so common as in the preceding periods. _Buttresses_ were placed _diagonally_ at all corners, scientifically the best position (Plate IX., Figs, 1 and 2).

In large churches external wall surfaces were enriched with panelling, covering in some cases the whole from ground to summit, and combined with open tracery in the battlements. In the interior the same kind of decoration prevailed, and in some cases the window tracery was carried below the glass down to the floor as panelling.

Plate IX., Figs. 4A and 4B, gives the comparative shape of _battlements_.

Arch-mouldings (Plate VIII., Fig. 12) generally included the large hollow also common in the window jambs. The plane of the arch-mouldings was inclined to the vertical 45° (Plate VIII., Fig. 12). The usual dripstone (d.s.) and some of their _corbels_ are shown in Plate VIII., Figs. 1 and 3. Piers (Plate VIII., Fig. 11) were of the simple form shown with columns at the angles, single, or in groups, as Plate VIII., Fig. 13, the general contour of the pier being a rhombus or lozenge in plan.

The _ogee_ arch with crockets and finial was continued from the Decorated period.

The _Tudor_ or _four-centred_ arch (Plate IX., Figs. 1 and 6) belongs to the late Perpendicular period.

Plate VIII., Fig. 4, shows a common form of Tudor door-head with the _label_ or _square dripstone_ and carved _spandril_ (a triangular space). Columns were circular, with octagonal bases and capitals, the latter moulded or carved with oak-leaf foliage or conventional ornament, resembling that in Plate VIII., Fig. 9. Corbels with shields (Plate VIII., Fig. 9), armorial bearings, and the Tudor rose (Plate VIII., Fig. 2), frequently occur.

Many Perpendicular churches are rich in ornamental woodwork: choir stalls with lifting seats (misereres), under which are grotesque carvings; poppy-heads (Fr. _poupée_, a doll), the bench-end ornaments which sometimes carried a small carved figure among foliage; panelled screens crowned with brattishing (Plate VIII., Fig. 5), and other ornaments. The term _brattishing_ is also applied to the open tracery of some battlements of the Perpendicular period.

The Perpendicular is the longest of the English Gothic periods. In it Gothic construction attained its climax; ornamentation declined from a refined realism to coarse conventionalism, coinciding with the decline of spiritual life in the Church. Cathedrals and churches increased in all dimensions, and everything showed the tendency towards the renaissance of classic art which was flourishing on the Continent. Classic mouldings were imitated, and carved ornament of pure Italian design was applied to decorate Gothic forms--notable instances being the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and the Salisbury Chantry in Christchurch Priory near Bournemouth. Both were the work of Torregiano, a contemporary of Michael Angelo.

The English people clung to their Gothic style for a century after the same had almost disappeared from the Continent, and in the Elizabethan period, 1558-1603, classic details, including the _five orders_, were completely incorporated into Gothic design. The pointed arch disappeared; the Roman semicircle took its place. Brickwork superseded masonry, roof construction was concealed, and all kinds of shams were introduced. Then came a period of close imitation of Greek and Roman temples, until the Gothic revival under its pioneer, A. W. Pugin (_b._ 1812, _d._ 1852), whose literary works are very instructive and interesting reading. The present-day (1922) tendency is towards a revival of Byzantine architecture.

PLATE X

ENGLISH GOTHIC ROOFS

PLATE X

ENGLISH GOTHIC ROOFS

Next in importance to the construction of substantial walls comes the necessity of weather-proof and storm-proof roofs, such as should preserve the stability of the walls, or their disintegration would be hastened by that which should be their protection.

The nature of the covering and the action of weather are the principal factors affecting their design and construction. The rigours of the English climate require a covering to be such as to prevent the penetration of rain, and their support to be strong enough to resist the pressure of snow and the hurricane. The high-pitched roof (of steep inclination) is common to all periods of English Gothic. The average Norman roof was _pitched_ about 45°, its apex being about a right angle composed agreeably with the semicircular arches in the gables. The higher-pitched roofs came simultaneously with the introduction of the pointed arch, sometimes at a pitch of 60°, ultimately declining to about 20° or less in the late Perpendicular period. The outer covering is generally of boards overlaid with tiles or sheet-lead, the latter being imperative in the low-pitched roofs. The whole of the covering is carried by _common rafters_ or _spars_ rising from the walls to the apex of the roof.

Plate X., Figs. 1 and 2, show two ordinary _principals_ or _trusses_. These are in no sense Gothic, but are here given to more clearly explain the principles of roof construction. The common rafters (c.r.) bearing the covering are of light timber, tending to bend under the weight; to prevent this _purlins_ (P.), stout beams, are placed at suitable intervals, and these are carried at their ends by the _roof trusses_. The _tie-beam_ (t.b) is the chief beam of the truss. The _principal rafters_ (p.r.) are framed into it and into the heads of the _King_ and _Queen posts_. In the _Queen-post-truss_ the _collar_ unites the Queen posts; _struts_ and _cross-braces_ complete the structure. In a properly constructed roof-truss all the stresses are neutralised in the truss itself, and the whole framework rests as a dead weight upon the walls without any lateral thrust to force them out of the vertical. The King-post-truss is suitable to roofs up to 30 feet span, the Queen-post-truss to 40 feet.

_Open timber roofs_ have their construction visible from the interior. Plate X., Fig. 8, shows a crude _Queen-post-truss_ in an old Worcestershire church, in which the tie-beam has been chosen from a bent log so as to prevent its bending under the roof load. In the trusses (Plate X., Figs. 1, 2) the King and Queen posts act like the keystones of an arch, so that by bolting or strapping up with ironwork at points s.s. these _posts_ are put into a state of tension, the tie-beam (t.b.) is pulled up to a _camber_, or curve, and is also in tension. In the crude Queen-post-truss (Plate X., Fig. 8) these conditions are reversed, for the tie-beam _supports_ the Queen posts. In Plate X., Figs. 1 and 2, all the spaces in these trusses are triangular, a fact which ensures stability where the parts are of proper strength and properly united. Plate X., Fig. 4, is a trussed rafter roof requiring no purlins nor principal--each common rafter is a truss. This kind of roof is suitable only to small spans; its weakest part is from a. to b.

In the roof-truss, or principal, the Gothic architects objected to the tie-beam as an obstruction to the sense of loftiness, so desirable in the church interior, and therefore invented the _hammer-beam_ principal (Plate X., Fig. 7), which resembles a Queen-post-truss, having a collar and King post. The hammer-beams (h.b.) are substitutes for the tie-beam.

In this principal the space between the collar and the apex of the roof is satisfactorily trussed, but from the collar downwards the _Queen posts_ (Q.p.) and _wall posts_ (w.p.) with their _braces_ (b.) become mere brackets supporting the small King-post-truss above, bringing its load as low as possible on to the walls, so that their weight of masonry and buttresses may effectually resist the lateral thrust of the roof upon them.

Plate X., Fig. 5, shows a _collar_ principal with curved braces. The tendency of all roof principals is to _spread_ at the walls; this has been met by modern church-builders by introducing an iron tie-rod in place of a tie-beam, thus forming a triangle, the only form of absolute stability, for the whole of the principal, as indicated by the dotted line connecting the hammer-beams in Plate X., Fig. 7.

Plate X., Fig. 6, shows a low-pitched Perpendicular roof with principals and half-principal. The common rafters are concealed by a panelled ceiling, the panels being formed by principal rafters and purlins. The arched trusses bring part of the thrust low down on to the walls, which are strengthened by heavy buttresses on the outside. The _half-principal_ is placed over a window arch.

Plate X., Fig. 3, shows a low-pitched roof and ceiling supported by a tie-beam only, strengthened at its bearings by _wall posts_ and _braces_.

PLATE XI

GOTHIC VAULTS

PLATE XII

GOTHIC VAULTS

PLATES XI AND XII

GOTHIC VAULTS

Stone-vaulted roofs became necessary in church building early in the Norman period for security against fire. They were made after the Roman manner, semicircular, with similar vaults intersecting at right angles. The lines of their intersections are the _groins_. When two intersecting vaults are of equal semicircles, each groin is a semi-ellipse. This groin is the weakest part of the vault; in order to strengthen it the Normans built an arch called the _groin rib_, underneath the groin, to support it. Difficulties were met in forming intersecting vaults of unequal span, clumsy contrivances were resorted to, until, in the Transition period, 1145-1190, the introduction of the pointed arch solved the problem, and led the way to the development of Gothic vaulting. The Roman and Norman vaults were built upon temporary _centering_. A _centre_ is a timber frame made like a roof-truss shaped to the form of the arch; a series of _centres_ were placed at convenient distances apart and covered with strong boarding upon which the vault was built. After the masonry was completely _set_, the temporary centering was removed, leaving the vault to carry itself.

As the system of vaulting developed, _cross ribs_ and _wall ribs_ (Plate XI., Fig. 3) were added, and much of the temporary centering was dispensed with; ornamental arrangements were designed by introducing more ribs, and _the web_--the covering surface of masonry--was reduced to small panels in the Decorated and Perpendicular periods. In the Tudor period, 1485-1558, the _web_ became the principal part, the ribs being mere mouldings worked upon its surface in the form of _fan-vaulting_, a simple example of which can be studied in the south porch of Chester Cathedral, and the most elaborate in the roof of the Chapel of Henry VII., Westminster Abbey.

A _bay_ of a cathedral is one of the spaces into which its length is divided by the supports of the roof as piers, arches, or principals. The bays of the aisles are usually square--those of the nave, choir, or transepts rectangular on account of their greater width.

Vertically each of the bays of the nave, etc., is divided into three stories (Plate XI., Fig. 2), the _groundstory_ rising from the floor; the _triforium_, or _blindstory_, having no windows, is over the aisles, and the _clerestory_ over the triforium. The prefix _clere_--bright--indicates the brilliancy of its light.

In the Norman period these three divisions were nearly equal in height. In the succeeding periods the groundstory attained about half of the total height of the bay, the clerestory was extended downwards, and the triforium reduced, until, in the Perpendicular period, it entirely disappeared.

Plate XI., Figs. 3 and 4, show a few square bays of Gothic vaulting in skeleton diagrams with the forms of plan indicated by dotted lines upon their base-planes. All the lines represent ribs.

Plate XI., Figs. 2 and 3, show _quadripartite_ vaulting--_i.e._, having four compartments in one bay. This is the simplest form of Gothic vault, and belongs chiefly to the Early English period. The ribs ah, bh, ci, di are wall ribs; bg, cg, ag, dg, are cross ribs; ae, ce, be, de, are the diagonal ribs. The ridge-ribs eg and h, e, i, are horizontal, and intersect the summits of the cross ribs and diagonals. At every intersection there is generally a carved keystone or _boss_.

In the vaulting of a nave the breadth across is about twice the breadth of the aisles, so that the nave bays are not square, but rectangular.

Plate XI., Fig. 4, and Plate XII., Fig. 2, show _lierne_-vaulting, having _lierne-ribs_, the short ribs joining and supporting all the ascending ribs as h, k, l, m, g.

Plate XII., Figs. 2 and 3, are lierne vaults. That shown in Fig. 3 is under the belfry of a church tower at Coventry, with circular opening for hoisting the bells.

The detail at B shows the method of collecting the three ribs into one at the _springers_ in the corners A, B, C, D, by small arches in the tracery of ribs.

Plate XII., Fig. 1, shows fan-vaulting having no ribs. The lines shown indicate mouldings on the masonry imitating ribs. The structure is built up of slabs of stone, accurately joined together forming concave half-cones, their vertices being the springers of the vault. The dotted lines show some of the jointing; the other lines represent the imitation ribs. The crown of the vault is the flat surface gh, gi, generally richly ornamented.

INDEX

Abacus, Pl. III., Fig. 1

Arcade (Norman), Pl. III., Fig. 7

Ball-Flower, Pl. VI., Fig. 3

Band, Pl. V., Figs. 10, 11

Base, Pl. III., Figs. 1, 5

Battlements, Pl. IX., Figs. 4A, 4B

Bay, Pl. XI., Fig. 2

Belfry Windows, Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2

Boss, Pl. XII., Figs. 2, 3

Braces, Pl. X., Figs. 2, 7

Brattishing, Pl. VIII., Fig. 5

Broach-Spire, Pl. V., Fig. 7

Buttress, Pl. V., Fig. 9; Pl. VII., Fig. 10

Buttress (Diagonal), Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2

Byzantine, Pl. I., Figs. 3 to 16

Byzantium, p. 17

Camber, Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2, p. 67

Catacombs, Pl. I., Fig. 1

Cathedral, p. 29

Centering, p. 75

Chamfer-Cusp, Pl. V., Fig. 5

Chevron, Pl. I., Fig. 4; Pl. III., Fig. 6

Chrism, Pl. I., Figs. 15, 16

Clerestory, Pl. XI., Fig. 2

Collar, Pl. X., Figs. 2, 5, 7, 8

Conventional, p. 44

Corbel Blocks, Pl. II., Fig. 3

Corbel-Table, Pl. III., Fig. 4

Crocket, Pl. V., Figs, 1, 2; Pl. VII., Figs. 10, 11, 14

Crypt, Pl. I., Fig. 2

Cushion Capital, Pl. III., Figs. 2, 8, 9

Cusp, Pl. V., Fig. 5

Cylindrical Shafts, Pl. III., Fig. 2

Detached Shafts, Pl. III., Fig. 8

Dripstone, Pl. III., Figs. 6, 8

Engaged Shafts, Pl. III., Fig. 8

Fan-Vaulting, Pl. XII., Fig. 1

Finial, Pl. V., Fig. 2; Pl. VII., Figs. 6, 10, 11; Pl. VIII., Fig. 6

Fish Symbol, Pl. I., Fig. 11

Flowing Tracery, Pl. VII., Figs. 2, 3

Flying-Buttress, Pl. VII., Fig. 10

Font (Norman), Pl. III., Fig. 7

Geometrical Tracery, Pl. V., Fig. 5; Pl. VII., Fig. 1

Gothic Arch, Pl. IV., Fig. 2; Pl. V., Figs. 4, 5

Groin, Pl. XI., Figs. 3, 4, p. 75

Groundstory, Pl. XI., Fig. 2

Hammer-Beam, Pl. X., Fig. 7

Hood-Moulding, Pl. III., Figs. 6, 8

I.H.S., Pl. I., Fig. 3A

Jamb-Shaft, Pl. III., Fig. 8

Labarum, Pl. I., Figs. 15, 16

Label, Pl. VIII., Fig. 4

Lancet Windows, Pl. V., Fig. 4

Lierne-Vaulting, Pl. XI., Fig. 4; Pl. XII., Figs. 2, 3

Long-and-Short Work, Pl. II.

Mullion, Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 3, 5, 6

Nave, Pl. XI., Fig. 1

Ogee or Ogival, Pl. VI., Fig. 2

Open Timber Roof, Pl. X., Figs. 3 to 8, p. 67

Orders of Arches, Pl. III., Figs. 6, 8

Parapet, Pl. VI., Fig. 6; Pl. IX., Figs. 1 to 4

Pier, Plate III., Fig. 1

Pinnacle, Pl. VI., Fig. 6; Pl. VII., Fig. 10; Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2, 3

Pitch of Roof, Pl. X.

Pointed Arch, pp. 37, 38

Principal and Principal Rafter, Pl. X., all Figs.

Purlin, Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2

Quadripartite Vaulting, Pl. XI., Fig. 3

Quatrefoil, Pl. I., Figs. 9, 10

Queen Post, Pl. X., Figs. 2, 7, 8

Quoin, Pl. II., Figs. 6 to 9

Rafters, Common, Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8

Respond, Pl. III., Fig. 3; Pl. XI., Fig. 2, p. 31

Reticulated Tracery, Pl. VII., Fig. 5

Sacred Monogram, Pl. I., Fig. 3A

Scallop Capital, Pl. III., Fig. 6

Scroll-Moulding, Pl. VII., Figs. 12, 13

Shaft, Pl. III., Fig. 2, p. 31

Sill, Pl. II., Fig. 3

Soffit-Cusp, Pl. V., Fig. 5

Spandril, Pl. VIII., Fig. 4, p. 60

Springer, Pl. XII., Fig. 3, detail

Spur, Pl. III., Fig. 5

Square and Circle, Pl. III., p. 30

Squinch Arches, p. 43

Stiff-Leaf, Pl. V., Fig. 8

String Courses and Dripstones, Pl. IV., Fig. 4; Pl. V., Fig. 6; Pl. VII., Fig. 12; Pl. VIII., Fig. 8

Strut, Pl. X., Figs. 1, 2, 7

Studs, Pl. II., Fig. 3

Symbols, Pl. I.

Tie-Beam, Pl. X., Figs, 1, 2, 3, 8

Tooth Ornament, Pl. V., Fig. 12

Tracery Development, Pl. V., Figs. 4, 5; Pl. VII., Figs. 1 to 5

Transitional, Pl. IV.

Transom, Pl. IX., Figs. 1, 2, p. 58

Trefoil, Pl. I., Fig. 7

Triforium, Pl. XI., Fig. 2

Triquetra, Pl. I., Fig. 8; Pl. III., Fig. 9

Truss, Pl. X.

Tudor Arch, Pl. VIII., Fig. 4; Pl. IX., Fig. 6

Tudor Flower, Pl. VIII., Fig. 2

Vaulting Ribs, Pl. XII., Figs. 2, 3; Pl. XI., Figs. 3, 4

Vesica Piscis, Pl. I., Fig. 5

Wall Post, Pl. X., Figs. 3, 7, p. 68

Wave--Moulding, Pl. VII., Fig. 9

Web (Vaulting), Pl. XI., Figs. 3, 4, p. 76

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