VOLUME XVII, SLICE V

Malta to Map, Walter

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

MALTA MANG LÖN MALTA FEVER MANGNALL, RICHMAL MALTE-BRUN, CONRAD MANGO MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT MANGOSTEEN MALTON MANGROVE MALTZAN, HEINRICH VON MANICHAEISM MALUS, ÉTIENNE LOUIS MANIFEST MALVACEAE MANIHIKI MALVASIA MANIKIALA MALVERN MANILA MALWA MANILA HEMP MAMARONECK MANILIUS MAMELI, GOFFREDO MANILIUS, GAIUS MAMELUKE MANIN, DANIELE MAMERTINI MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD MAMERTINUS, CLAUDIUS MANIPLE MAMIANI DELLA ROVERE, TERENZIO MANIPUR MAMMALIA MANISA MAMMARY GLAND MANISTEE MAMMEE APPLE MANITOBA (lake of Canada) MAMMON MANITOBA (province of Canada) MAMMOTH MANITOU MAMMOTH CAVE MANITOWOC MAMORÉ MANIZALES MAMUN MANKATO MAMUND MANLEY, MARY DE LA RIVIERE MAN MANLIUS MAN, ISLE OF MANN, HORACE MANAAR, GULF OF MANNA MANACOR MANNERS, CHARLES MANAGE MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES MANAGUA MANNHEIM MANAKIN MANNING, HENRY EDWARD MANAOAG MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY MANÁOS MANNYNG, ROBERT MANASSAS MANOEUVRES, MILITARY MANASSEH (son of Hezekiah) MANOMETER MANASSEH (tribe of Israel) MANOR MANASSES, CONSTANTINE MANOR-HOUSE MANASSES, PRAYER OF MANRESA MANATI MANRIQUE, GÓMEZ MANBHUM MANRIQUE, JORGE MANCHA, LA MANSE MANCHE MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF MANSFELD MANCHESTER (Connecticut, U.S.A.) MANSFELD, ERNST MANCHESTER (England) MANSFIELD, RICHARD MANCHESTER (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD, WILLIAM MURRAY MANCHESTER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (England) MANCHESTER (Virginia, U.S.A.) MANSFIELD (Ohio, U.S.A.) MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL MANSION MANCHURIA MANSLAUGHTER MANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO MANSON, GEORGE MANCIPLE MANSUR MANCUNIUM MANSURA MANDAEANS MANT, RICHARD MANDALAY MANTEGAZZA, PAOLO MANDAMUS, WRIT OF MANTEGNA, ANDREA MANDAN MANTELL, GIDEON ALGERNON MANDARIN MANTES-SUR-SEINE MANDASOR MANTEUFFEL, EDWIN MANDATE MANTINEIA MANDAUE MANTIS MANDELIC ACID MANTIS-FLY MANDER, CAREL VAN MANTLE MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE MANTON, THOMAS MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE MAN-TRAPS MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE MANTUA MANDHATA MANU MANDI MANUAL MANDINGO MANUCODE MANDLA MANUEL I., COMNENUS MANDOLINE MANUEL II. PALAEOLOGUS MANDRAKE MANUEL I. MANDRILL MANUEL, EUGENE MANDU MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE MANDURIA MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE MANDVI MANUEL DE MELLO, DOM FRANCISCO MANES MANUL MANET, ÉDOUARD MANURES and MANURING MANETENERIS MANUSCRIPT MANETHO MANUTIUS MANFRED MANWARING, ROBERT MANFREDONIA MANYCH MANGABEY MANYEMA MANGALIA MANZANARES MANGALORE MANZANILLO (Mexico) MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE MANZANILLO (Cuba) MANGANESE MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO MANGANITE MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO ANTONIO MANGBETTU MAORI MANGEL-WURZEL MAP, WALTER MANGLE

MALTA, the largest of the Maltese Islands, situated between Europe and Africa, in the central channel which connects the eastern and western basins of the Mediterranean Sea. The group belongs to the British Empire. It extends over 29 m., and consists of Malta, 91 sq. m., GOZO (q.v.) 20 sq. m., Comino (set apart as a quarantine station) 1 sq. m., and the uninhabited rocks called Cominotto and Filfla. Malta (lat. of Valletta Observatory 35° 53´ 55´´ N., long. 14° 30´ 45´´ W.) is about 60 m. from the nearest point of Sicily, 140 m. from the mainland of Europe and 180 from Africa; it has a magnificent natural harbour. From the dawn of maritime trade its possession has been important to the strongest nations on the sea for the time being.

Malta is about 17½ m. long by 8¼ broad; Gozo is 8¾ by 4½ m. This chain of islands stretches from N.E. to S.E. On the S.W. the declivities towards the sea are steep, and in places rise abruptly some 400 ft. from deep water. The general slope of these ridges is towards the N.W., facing Sicily and snow-capped Etna, the source of cool evening breezes. The Bingemma range, rising 726 ft., is nearly at right angles to the axis of the main island. The geological "Great Fault" stretches from sea to sea at the foot of these hills. There are good anchorages in the channels between Gozo and Comino, and between Comino and Malta. In addition to the harbours of Valletta, there are in Malta, facing N.W., the bays called Mellieha and St Paul's, the inlets of the Salina, of Madalena, of St Julian and St Thomas; on the S.E. there is the large bay of Marsa Scirocco. There are landing places on the S.W. at Fomh-il-rih and Miggiarro. Mount Sceberras (on which Valletta is built) is a precipitous promontory about 1 m. long, pointing N.E. It rises out of deep water; well-sheltered creeks indent the opposite shores on both sides. The waters on the S.E. form the "Grand Harbour," having a narrow entrance between Ricasoli Point and Fort St Elmo. The series of bays to the N.W., approached between the points of Tigne and St Elmo, is known as the Marsamuscetto (or Quarantine) Harbour.

Mighty fortifications and harbour works have assisted to make this ideal situation an emporium of Mediterranean trade. During the Napoleonic wars and the Crimean campaign the Grand Harbour was frequently overcrowded with shipping. The gradual supplanting of sail by steamships has made Malta a coaling station of primary importance. But the tendency to great length and size in modern vessels caused those responsible for the civil administration towards the end of the 19th century to realize that the harbour accommodation was becoming inadequate for modern fleets and first-class liners. A breakwater was therefore planned on the Monarch shoal, to double the available anchorage area and increase the frontage of deep-water wharves available in all weathers.

Geology and Water Supply.

The Maltese Islands consist largely of Tertiary Limestone, with somewhat variable beds of Crystalline Sandstone, Greensand and Marl or Blue Clay. The series appears to be in line with similar formations at Tripoli in Africa, Cagliari in Sardinia, and to the east of Marseilles. To the south-east of the Great Fault (already mentioned) the beds are more regular, comprising, in descending order, (a) Upper Coralline Limestone; (b) Yellow, Black or Greensand; (c) Marl or Blue Clay; (d) White, Grey and Pale Yellow Sandstone; (e) Chocolate-coloured nodules with shells, &c.; (f) Yellow Sandstone; (g) Lower Crystalline Limestone. The Lower Limestone probably belongs to the Tongarian stage of the Oligocene series, and the Upper Coralline Limestone to the Tortonian stage of the Miocene. The beds are not folded. The general dip of the strata is from W.S.W. to E.N.E. North of the Great Fault and at Comino the level of the beds is about 400 ft. lower, bringing (c), the Marl, in juxtaposition with (g), the semi-crystalline Limestone. There is a system of lesser faults, parallel to the Great Fault, dividing the area into a number of blocks, some of which have fallen more than others. There are also indications of another series of faults roughly parallel to the south-east coast, which point to the islands being fragments of a former extensive plateau. The mammalian remains found in Pleistocene deposits are of exceptional interest. Among the more remarkable forms are a species of hippopotamus, the elephant (including a pigmy variety), and a gigantic dormouse. In the Coralline Limestone the following fossils have been noted:--_Spondylus_, _Ostrea_, _Pecten_, _Cytherea_, _Arca_, _Terebratula_, _Orthis_, _Clavagella_, _Echinus_, _Cidaris_, _Nucleolites_, _Brissus_, _Spatangus_; in the Marl the _Nautilus zigzag_; in the Yellow, Black and Greensand shells of _Lenticulites complanatus_, teeth and vertebrae of _Squalidae_ and _Cetacea_; in the Sandstone _Vaginula depressa_, _Crystallaria_, _Nodosaria_, _Brissus_, _Nucleolites_, _Pecten burdigallensis_, _Scalaria_, _Scutella subrotunda_, _Spatangus_, _Nautilus_, _Ostrea navicularis_ and _Pecten cristatus_ (see Captain Spratt's work and papers by Lord Ducie and Dr Adams).

The Blue Clay forms, at the higher levels, a stratum impervious to water, and holds up the rainfall, which soaks through the spongy mass of the superimposed coralline formations. Hence arise the springs which run perennially, several of which have been collected into the gravitation water supplies of the Vignacourt and Fawara aqueducts. The larger part of the water supply, however, is now derived by pumping from strata at about sea-level. These strata are generally impregnated with salt water, and are practically impenetrable to the rain-water of less weight. The honeycomb of rock, and capillary action, retard the lighter fresh-water from sinking to the sea; the soakage from rain has therefore to move horizontally, over the strata about sea-level, seeking outlets. At this stage the rain-water is intercepted by wells, and by galleries hewn for miles in the water-bearing rock. Large reservoirs assist to store this water after it is raised, and to equalize its distribution.

Climate and Hygiene.

The climate is, for the greater part of the year, temperate and healthy; the thermometer records an annual mean of 67° F. Between June and September the temperature ranges from 75° to 90°; the mean for December, January and February is 56°; March, May and November are