m. On the east coast the principal streams are the Petani, Telubin,

Kelantan, Besut, Trengganu, Dungun, Kmamun, Kuantan, Pahang, Rompin, Endau and Sedeli, all guarded by difficult bars at their mouths, and dangerous during the continuance of the north-east monsoon. The deepest rivers are the Kuantan and Rompin; the largest are the Kelantan and the Pahang, both of which are navigable for native boats for a distance of over 250 m. The Trengganu river is obstructed by impassable rapids at a distance of about 30 m. from its mouth. The rivers on the east coast are practically the only highways, the Malays always travelling by boat in preference to walking, but they serve their purpose very indifferently, and their great beauty is their chief claim to distinction. Magnificent caves are found on both slopes of the peninsula, those at Batu in Selangor being the finest on the west coast, while those of Chadu and Koto Glanggi in Pahang are the most extensive yet visited by Europeans on the east coast. They are all of limestone formation. So far as is known, the Malay Peninsula consists of an axial zone of crystalline rocks, flanked on each side by an incomplete band of sedimentary deposits. Granite is the most widely spread of the crystalline rocks; but dikes of various kinds occur, and gneiss, schist and marble are also met with. These rocks form the greater part of the central range, and they are often--especially the granite--decomposed and rotten to a considerable depth. The sedimentary deposits include slate, limestone and sandstone. Impure coal has also been recorded. The limestone has yielded _Proetus_, _Chonetes_ and other fossils, and is believed to be of Carboniferous age. In the sandstone Myophoria and other Triassic fossils have been found, and it appears to belong to the Rhaetic or Upper Trias.[1] The minerals produced are tin, gold, iron, galena and others, in insignificant quantities.

The tin occurs in the form of cassiterite, and is found chiefly in or near the crystalline rocks, especially the granite. As stream tin it occurs abundantly in some of the alluvial deposits derived from the crystalline area, especially on the west coast. Only two tin lodes are worked, however, and both are situated on the east coast, the one at Kuantan in Pahang, the other at Bandi in Trengganu territory. On the west coast no true lode has yet been discovered, though the vast alluvial deposits of tin found there seem to make such a discovery probable in the future. Since 1890 the tin produced from these alluvial beds has supplied between 50% and 75% of the tin of the world. Gold is worked with success in Pahang, and has been exploited from time immemorial by the natives of that state and of Kelantan. Small quantities have also been found on the western slope in Perak.

_Climate, &c._--It was formerly the custom to speak of the Malay Peninsula as an unhealthy climate, and even to compare it with the west coast of Africa. It is now generally admitted, however, that, though hot, it compares favourably with that of Burma. The chief complaint which Europeans make concerning it is the extreme humidity, which causes the heat to be more oppressive than is the case where the air is dry. On the other hand, the thermometer, even at Singapore on the southern coast, which is the hottest portion of the peninsula, seldom rises above 98° in the shade, whereas the mean for the year at that place is generally below 80°. On the mainland, and more especially on the eastern slope, the temperature is cooler, the thermometer seldom rising above 93° in the shade, and falling at night below 70°. On an average day in this part of the peninsula the temperature in a European house ranged from 88° to 68°. The number of rainy days throughout the peninsula varies from 160 to over 200 in each year, but violent gusts of wind, called "Sumatras," accompanied by a heavy downpour of short duration, are more common than persistent rain. The rainfall on the west coast varies from 75 to 120 in. per annum, and that of the east coast, where the north-east monsoon breaks with all its fury, is usually about 155 in. per annum. Malarial fevers make their appearance in places where the forest has been recently felled, or where the surface earth has been disturbed. It is noticed that labourers employed in deep mines worked by shafts suffer less from fever than do those who are engaged in stripping the alluvial deposits. This, of course, means that a new station, where clearing, digging, and building are in progress, is often unhealthy for a time, and to this must be attributed the evil reputation which the peninsula formerly enjoyed. To Europeans the climate is found to be relaxing and enervating, but if, in spite of some disinclination for exertion, regular exercise is taken from the beginning, and ordinary precautions against chills, more especially to the stomach, are adopted, a European has almost as good a chance of remaining in good health in the peninsula as in Europe. A change of climate, however, is imperatively necessary every five or six years, and the children of European parents should not be kept in the peninsula after they have attained the age of four or five years. The Chinese immigrants suffer chiefly from fever of a malarial type, from beri-beri, a species of tropical dropsy, and from dysentery. The Malays formerly suffered severely from smallpox epidemics, but in the portion of the peninsula under British rule vaccination has been introduced, and the ravages of the disease no longer assume serious dimensions. Occasional outbreaks of cholera occur from time to time, and in the independent states these cause terrible loss of life, as the natives fly from the disease and spread the infection in every direction. As a whole, the Malays are, however, a remarkably healthy people, and deformity and hereditary diseases are rare among them. There is little leprosy in the peninsula, but there is a leper hospital near Penang on Pula Deraja and another on an island on the west coast for the reception of lepers from the Federated Malay States.

_Flora and Fauna._--The soil of the peninsula is remarkably fertile both in the plains and on the mountain slopes. In the vast forests the decay of vegetable matter during countless ages has enriched the soil to the depth of many feet, and from it springs the most marvellous tangle of huge trees, shrubs, bushes, underwood, creepers, climbing plants and trailing vines, the whole hung with ferns, mosses, and parasitic growths, and bound together by rattans and huge rope-like trailers. In most places the jungle is so dense that it is impossible to force a way through it without the aid of a wood-knife, and even the wild beasts use well-worn game-tracks through the forest. In the interior brakes of bamboos are found, many of which spread for miles along the river banks. Good hard-wood timber is found in plenty, the best being the _merabau_, _penak_, _rasok_ and _chengal_. Orchids of countless varieties abound. The principal fruit trees are the _duri-an_, mangosteen, custard-apple, pomegranate, _rambut-an_, _pulas-an_, _langsat_, _rambai_, jack-fruit, coco-nut, areca-nut, sugar-palm, and banana. Coffee, tobacco, sugar-cane, rice, pepper, gambier, cotton and sago are cultivated with success. Great developments have been made of recent years in the cultivation of rubber in British Malaya. The principal jungle products are gutta and rubber of several varieties, and many kinds of rattan. The mangrove grows on the shores of the west coast in profusion. Agilawood, the camphor tree, and ebony are also found in smaller quantities.

The fauna of the peninsula is varied and no less profuse than is the vegetable life. The Asiatic elephant; the _seladang_, a bison of a larger type than the Indian gaur; two varieties of rhinoceros; the honey bear (_bruang_), the tapir, the sambhur (_rusa_); the speckled deer (_kijang_), three varieties of mouse-deer (_napoh_, _plandok_ and _kanchil_); the gibbon (_ungka_ or _wawa'_), the _siamang_, another species of anthropoid ape, the _brok_ or coco-nut monkey, so called because it is trained by the Malays to gather the nuts from the coco-nut trees, the _lotong_, _kra_, and at least twenty other kinds of monkey; the _binturong_ (_arctictis binturong_), the lemur; the Asiatic tiger, the black panther, the leopard, the large wild cat (_harimau akar_), several varieties of jungle cat; the wild boar, the wild dog; the flying squirrel, the flying fox; the python, the cobra, and many other varieties of snake, including the hamadryad; the alligator, the otter and the gavial, as well as countless kinds of squirrel, rat, &c., are found throughout the jungles of the peninsula in great numbers. On the east coast peafowl are found, and throughout the interior the argus pheasant, the firebacked pheasant, the blue partridge, the adjutant-bird, several kinds of heron and crane, duck, teal, cotton-teal, snipe, wood-pigeon, green-pigeon of several varieties, swifts, swallows, pied-robins, hornbills, parakeets, fly-catchers, nightjars, and many other kinds of bird are met with frequently. A few specimens of solitary goose have been procured, but the bird is rarely met with. The forests literally swarm with insects of all kinds, from _cicadae_ to beautiful butterflies, and from stick- and leaf-insects to endless varieties of ants. The scorpion and the centipede are both common. The study of the insect life of the peninsula opens a splendid field for scientific research, and the profusion and variety of insects found in these forests probably surpass those to be met with anywhere else in the world.

_Political Divisions and Population._--Politically the Malay Peninsula is divided into four sections: the colony of the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States; the independent Malay State of Johor, which is within the British sphere of influence; the non-federated states under British protection; and the groups of states to the north of Perak and Pahang which are now recognized as lying within the sphere of influence of Siam. The colony of the Straits Settlements consists of the islands of Singapore, Penang and the Dindings, the territory of Province Wellesley, on the mainland opposite to Penang, the insignificant territory of the Dindings, and the town and territory of Malacca. The Federated Malay States under British protection consist of the sultanates of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sambilan on the west coast, and the sultanate of Pahang on the east coast. Johor is the only Malay state in the southern portion of the peninsula, the whole of which is within the British sphere, which has been suffered to remain under native rule. The non-federated states under British protection (since 1909) are Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis (Palit). The population of the peninsula numbers about 2,000,000, of whom about 600,000 inhabit the colony of the Straits Settlements, about 900,000 the Federated Malay States, about 200,000 the Malay State of Johor, and about 250,000 to 300,000 the remainder of the peninsula. The population of the peninsula includes about 850,000 Chinese, mostly immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the southern provinces of China, of whom about 300,000 reside in the colony of the Straits Settlements, 365,000 in the Federated Malay States, 150,000 in Johor, and the remainder in smaller communities or as isolated traders scattered throughout the villages and small towns of the peninsula. The Malay population of the peninsula, including immigrants from the eastern archipelago, number some 750,000 to 800,000, while the Tamils and other natives of India number about 100,000, the aboriginal natives of the peninsula perhaps 20,000, Europeans and Americans about 6500, and Eurasians about 9000. The colony of the Straits Settlements, and to a lesser extent the towns of the Federated Malay States, carry a considerable heterogenous population, in which most of the races of Asia find their representatives.

_Races of the Peninsula._--Excluding the Tai, or Siamese, who are undoubtedly recent intruders from the north, there are three races which for an extended period of time have had their home in the Malay Peninsula. These are the Semang or Pangan, the Sakai or Jakun, and the Malays. The Semang, as they are most usually called by the Malays, are Negritos--a small, very dark people, with features of the negroid type, very prognathous, and with short, woolly hair clinging to the scalp in tiny crisp curls. These people belong to the race which would seem to be the true aboriginal stock of southern Asia. Representatives of it are found scattered about the islands from the Andaman group southwards. The state of civilization to which they have attained is very low. They neither plant nor have they any manufactures except their rude bamboo and rattan vessels, the fish and game traps which they set with much skill, and the bows, blow-pipes and bamboo spears with which they are armed. They are skilful hunters, however, catch fish by ingeniously constructed traps, and live almost entirely on jungle-roots and the produce of their hunting and fishing. The most civilized of these people is found in Upper Perak, and the members of this clan have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting, &c. They cannot, however, be taken as typical of their race, and other specimens of this people are seldom seen even by the Sakai. From time to time they have been raided by the latter, and many Negritos are to be found in captivity in some of the Malayan villages on the eastern side of the peninsula. The mistake of speaking of the Sakai tribes as practically identical with the Semang or Pangan has very frequently been made, but as a matter of fact the two races are absolutely distinct from one another. It has also been customary to include the Sakai in the category of Malayan races, but this too is undoubtedly incorrect. The Sakai still inhabit in greatest numbers the country which forms the interior of Pahang, the Plus and Kinta districts of Perak, and the valley of Nenggiri in Kelantan. Representatives of their race are also found scattered among the Malayan villages throughout the country, and also along the coast, but these have intermixed so much with the Malays, and have acquired so many customs, &c., from their more civilized neighbours, that they can no longer be regarded as typical of the race to which they belong. The pure Sakai in the interior have a good knowledge of planting rice, tapioca, &c., fashion pretty vessels from bamboos, which they decorate with patterns traced by the aid of fire, make loin-cloths (their only garment) from the bark of the _trap_ and _ipoh_ trees; are very musical, using a rude lute of bamboo, and a nose-flute of a very sweet tone, and singing in chorus very melodiously; and altogether have attained in their primitive state to a higher degree of civilization than have the Semang. They are about as tall as the average Malay, are slimly built, light of colour, and have wavy fine hair. In their own language they usually have only three numerals, viz. _na-nun_, one; _nar_, two; and _ne'_, three, or variants of these; all higher arithmetical ideas being expressed by the word _kerpn_, which means "many." A few cases have been recorded, however, of tribes who can count in their own tongue up to four and five. Among the more civilized, however, the Malay numerals up to ten are adopted by the Sakai. An examination of their language seems to indicate that it belongs to the Mon-Khmer group of languages, and the anthropological information forthcoming concerning the Sakai points to the conclusion that they show a greater affinity to the people of the Mon-Khmer races than to the Malayan stock. Though they now use metal tools imported by the Malays, it is noticeable that the names which they give to those weapons which most closely resemble in character the stone implements found in such numbers all over the peninsula are native names wholly unconnected with their Malay equivalents. On account of this, it has been suggested that in a forgotten past the Sakai were themselves the fashioners of the stone implements, and certain it is that all tools which have no representatives among the stone kelts are known to the Sakai by obvious corruptions of their Malayan names. The presence of the Sakai, a people of the Mon-Khmer stock, in the interior of the peninsula has also been considered as one of many proofs that the Malays intruded from the south and approached the peninsula by means of a sea-route, since had they swept down from the north, being driven thence by the people of a stronger breed, it might be expected that the fringe of country dividing the two contending races would be inhabited by men of the more feeble stock. Instead, we find the Sakai occupying this position, thus indicating that they have been driven northward by the Malays, and that the latter people has not been expelled by the Mon-Khmer races from the countries now represented by Burma, Siam and French Indo-China. The Sakai population is dying out, and must eventually disappear. (With regard to the Malay, see MALAYS.)

_Archaeology._--The only ancient remains found in the peninsula are the stone implements, of which mention has already been made, and some remarkable ancient mines, which are situated in the Jelai valley in Pahang. The stone implements are generally of one or two types: a long rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one end, and used in conjunction with a mallet or flat stone, and a roughly triangular axe-head, which has evidently been fixed in the cleft of a split stick. A few stones, which might perhaps be arrowheads, have been found, but they are very rare. The mines, which have been constructed for the purpose of working quartz lodes containing gold, are very extensive, and argue a high stage of civilization possessed by the ancient miners. They consist of a number of circular or rectangular pits sunk from the cap of a hill, and going down to a depth of in some cases as much as 120 ft., until in fact the miners have been stopped by being unable to cope with the quantity of water made when the level of the valley was reached. The shafts are placed so close together that in many instances they are divided by only a couple of feet of solid ground, but at their bases a considerable amount of gallery work has been excavated, though it is possible that this was done by miners who came after the people who originally sank the shafts. Native tradition attributes these mines to the Siamese, but no importance can be attached to this, as it is very general for the Malays to give this explanation for anything which is obviously not the work of their own ancestors. A theory, which seems to have some probability in its favour, is that these mines were worked by the Khmer people during the period of power, energy and prosperity which found its most lofty expression in the now ruined and deserted city of Angkor Thom; while another attributes these works to the natives of India whose Hindu remains are found in Java and elsewhere, whose influence was at one time widespread throughout Malayan lands, and of whose religious teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the Malays and are preserved in some purity in Lombok and Bali. In the absence, however, of any relics of a kind which might lead to the identification of the ancient miners, their nationality and origin are matters which must continue to be mere questions of speculation and conjecture.

_History._--The first hint to reach Europe concerning the existence of habitable lands to the eastward of the Ganges is to be found in the writings of Pomponius Mela (A.D. 43) which speak of Chryse, or the Golden Isle, as lying off Cape Tamus--supposed to be the most easterly point in Asia--and over against the estuary of the Ganges. Thereafter there occur vague references to Chryse in the _Periplus of the Erythrean Sea_, &c., but the earliest trace of anything resembling first-hand knowledge concerning the peninsula of Indo-China and Malaya is revealed in the writings of Ptolemy, whose views were mainly derived from those of his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, who in his turn drew his deductions from information supplied to him by the mariner Alexander who, there is every reason to think, had himself voyaged to the Malay Peninsula and beyond. In the light of present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of Asia, which had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever Europeans attempted to make use of them, it is safe to identify Ptolemy's Sinus Perimulicus with the Gulf of Siam, the Sinus Sabaricus with the Straits of Malacca from their southern portals to the Gulf of Martaban, the Aurea Chersonesus with the Malay Peninsula, and the island of Iabadius or Sabadius--the reading of the name is doubtful--with Sumatra, not as has often been mistakenly attempted with Java. Although the first definite endeavour to locate the Golden Chersonese thus dates from the middle of the 2nd century of our era, the name was apparently well known to the learned of Europe at a somewhat earlier period, and in his _Antiquities of the Jews_, written during the latter half of the 1st century, Josephus says that Solomon gave to the pilots furnished to him by Hiram of Tyre commands "that they should go along with his stewards to the land that of old was called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which belongs to India, to fetch gold." After the time of Ptolemy no advance in knowledge concerning the geography of south-eastern Asia was made until Cosmas Indicopleustes, a monk and an Alexandrian Greek, wrote from personal knowledge between A.D. 530 and 550. His primary object was to prove that the world was built after the same shape and fashion as the Ark made by the Children of Israel in the desert; but he was able to show that the Malay Peninsula had to be rounded and thereafter a course steered in a northerly direction if China was to be reached. Meanwhile inter-Asiatic intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on the increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons and to sail directly to and fro across the Indian Ocean (attributed to the Greek pilot Hippalus) had been made. After the decline of the power of Rome, the dominant force in Asiatic commerce and navigation was Persia, and from that time onward, until the arrival of the Portuguese upon the scene early in the 16th century the spice trade, whose chief emporia were in or near the Malay Peninsula, was in Persian or Arab hands. There is considerable reason to think, however, that the more frequent ports of call in the Straits of Malacca were situated in Sumatra, rather than on the shores of the Malay Peninsula, and two famous medieval travellers, Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, both called and wintered at the former, and make scant mention of the latter.

The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted, consisted in the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of being the distributing centre of the spices brought thither from the Moluccas _en route_ for India and Europe. As early as the 3rd century B.C. Megasthenes makes mention of spices brought to the shores of the Ganges from "the southern parts of India," and the trade in question was probably one of the most ancient in the world. So long, however, as India held the monopoly of the clove, the Malay Peninsula was ignored, the Hindus spreading their influence through the islands of the archipelago and leaving traces thereof even to this day. The Mahommedan traders from Persia and Arabia, following the routes which had been prepared for them by their forebears, broke down the Hindu monopoly and ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that by the beginning of the 16th century the spice trade was almost exclusively in their hands. These traders were also missionaries of their religion, as indeed is every Mahommedan, and to them is due the conversion of the Malays from rude pantheism, somewhat tinctured by Hindu mythology, to the Mahommedan creed. The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been a potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history. The Moluccas were, from the first, the objective of the Portuguese invaders, and no sooner had the white men found their way round the Cape of Good Hope and established themselves successively upon the coast of East Africa, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Aden and the Malabar coast, than Malacca, then the chief trading centre of the Malayan Archipelago, became the object of their desire. The first Portuguese expedition sent out to capture Malacca was under the command of Diogo Lopez de Siqueira and sailed from Portugal in 1508. At Cochin Siqueira took on board certain adherents of Alphonso d'Alboquerque who were in bad odour with his rival d'Almeida, among them being Magellan, the future circumnavigator of the world, and Francisco Serrão, the first European who ever lived in the Spice Islands. Siqueira's expedition ended in failure, owing partly to the aggressive attitude of the Portuguese, partly to the very justifiable suspicions of the Malays, and he was presently forced to destroy one of his vessels, to leave a number of his men in captivity, and to sail direct for Portugal. In 1510 a second expedition against Malacca was sent out from Portugal under the command of Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos, but d'Alboquerque retained it at Cochin to aid him in the retaking of Goa, and it was not until 1511 that the great viceroy could spare time to turn his attention to the scene of Siqueira's failure. After some futile negotiations, which had for their object the recovery of the Portuguese captives before hostilities should begin, an assault was delivered upon Malacca, and though the first attempt to take the city failed after some hard fighting, a second assault made some days later succeeded, and Malacca passed for ever into European hands. The Portuguese were satisfied with the possession of Malacca itself and did not seek further to extend their empire in Malaya. Instead they used every endeavour to establish friendly relations with the rulers of all the neighbouring kingdoms, and before d'Alboquerque returned to India he despatched embassies to China, Siam, and several kingdoms of Sumatra, and sent a small fleet, with orders to assume a highly conciliatory attitude toward all natives, in search of the Moluccas. Very soon the spice trade had become a Portuguese monopoly, and Malacca was the great headquarters of the trade. It should moreover be noted that Magellan's famous expedition had for its object not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the breaking down of this monopoly, without violating the terms of the papal bull which gave to Spain the conquest of the West, to Portugal the possession of the East. In 1528 a French expedition sailed from Dieppe, penetrated as far as Achin in Sumatra, but returned without reaching the Malay Peninsula. It was, however, the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull. In 1591, three years after the defeat of the Armada, Raymond and Lancaster rounded the Cape, and after cruising off Penang, decided to winter in Achin. They subsequently hid among the Pulau Sambilan near the mouth of the Perak river, and thence captured a large Portuguese vessel which was sailing from Malacca in company with two Burmese ships. In 1595 the first Dutch expedition sailed from the Texel, but it took a more southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations to Java and the neighbouring islands. During this period Achin developed a determined enmity to the Portuguese, and more than one attempt was made to drive the strangers from Malacca. Eventually, in 1641, a joint attack was made by the Achinese and the Dutch, but the latter, not the people of the sturdy little Sumatran kingdom, became the owners of the coveted port. Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the British in 1795; was restored to the latter in 1818; but in 1824 was exchanged for Benkulen and a few more unimportant places in Sumatra. The first British factory in the peninsula was established in the native state of Patani on the east coast in 1613, the place having been used by the Portuguese in the 16th century for a similar purpose; but the enterprise came to an untimely end in 1620 when Captain Jourdain, the first president, was killed in a naval engagement in Patani Roads by the Dutch. Penang was purchased from Kedah in 1786, and Singapore from the then sultan of Johor in 1819. The Straits Settlements--Singapore, Malacca and Penang--were ruled from India until 1867, when they were erected into a crown colony under the charge of the Colonial Office. In 1874 the Malay state of Perak was placed under British protection by a treaty entered into with its sultan; and this eventually led to the inclusion in a British protectorate of the neighbouring Malay States of Selangor, Sungei Ujong, the cluster of small states called the Negri Sembilan and Pahang, which now form the Federated Malay States. By a treaty made between Great Britain and Siam in 1902 the northern Malay states of the peninsula were admitted to lie within the Siamese sphere of influence, but by a treaty of 1909 Siam ceded her suzerain rights over the states of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Britain.

Singapore is the political, commercial and administrative headquarters of the colony of the Straits Settlements, and the governor for the time being is _ex officio_ high commissioner of the Federated Malay States, British North Borneo, Sarawak, the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands, and governor of Labuan.

See Sir F. Swettenham, _British Malaya_ (1906); H. Clifford, _Further India_ (1904); _Journal of the Malay Archipelago_, Logan (Singapore); _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ (Singapore); Weld, Maxwell, Swettenham and Clifford in the _Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute_ (London); Clifford in the _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_ (London). (H. Cl.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See R. B. Newton, "Notes on Literature bearing upon the Geology of the Malay Peninsula; with an Account of a Neolithic Implement from that Country" (Geol. Mag., 1901, pp. 128-134). See also the various reports by J. B. Scrivenor in _Suppl. Perak Gov. Gazette_, 1905.

MALAYS, the name given by Europeans to the people calling themselves _Orang Malayu_, i.e. Malayan folk, who are the dominant race of the Malay Peninsula and of the Malay Archipelago. Broadly speaking, all the brown races which inhabit the portion of Asia south of Siam and Indo-China, and the islands from the Philippines to Java, and from Sumatra to Timor, may be described as belonging to the Malayan family, if the aboriginal tribes, such as the Sakai and Semang in the Malay Peninsula, the Bataks in Sumatra, and the Muruts in Borneo, be excepted. For the purposes of this article, however, only those among these races which bear the name of Orang Malayu, speak the Malayan language, and represent the dominant people of the land, can be included under the title of Malays. These people inhabit the whole of the Malayan Peninsula to the borders of lower Siam, the islands in the vicinity of the mainland, the shores of Sumatra and some portions of the interior of that island, Sarawak and Brunei in Borneo, and some parts of Dutch Borneo, Batavia and certain districts in Java, and some of the smaller islands of the archipelago. Though in these lands they have for not less than a thousand years enjoyed the position of the dominant race, they all possess a tradition that they are not indigenous, and that their first rulers "came out of the sea," with a large band of Malayan warriors in their train. In the peninsula especially, where the presence of the Malays is more recent than elsewhere, many traditions exist which point to a comparatively recent occupation of the country. It has been remarked that there is evidence that the Malays had attained to a certain stage of civilization before ever they set foot in Malaya. For instance, the names which they give to certain fruits, such as the _duri-an_, the _rambut-an_ and the _pulas-an_, which are indigenous in the Malayan countries, and are not found elsewhere, are all compound words meaning respectively the thorny, the hairy and the twisted fruit. These words are formed by the addition of the substantial affix "-_an_," the use of which is one of the recognized methods by which the Malays turn primitive words into terms of more complex meaning. This may be taken to indicate that when first the Malays became acquainted with the fruits which are indigenous in Malayan lands they already possessed a language in which most primary words were represented, and also that their tongue had attained to a stage of development which provided for the formation of compound words by a system sanctioned by custom and the same linguistic instinct which causes a Malay to-day to form similar compounds from European and other foreign roots. For any aboriginal race inhabiting these countries, such important articles of diet as the _duri-an_, &c., could not fail to be among the first natural objects to receive a name, and thus we find primary terms in use among the Sakai and Semang, the aborigines of the Peninsula, to describe these fruits. The use by the Malays of artificially constructed terms to denote these things may certainly be taken to strengthen the opinion that the Malays arrived in the lands they now inhabit at a comparatively late period in their history, and at a time when they had developed considerably from the original state of primitive man.

In the Malay Peninsula itself there is abundant evidence, ethnological and philological, of at least two distinct immigrations of people of the Malayan stock, the earlier incursions, it is probable, taking place from the eastern archipelago to the south, the later invasion spreading across the Straits of Malacca from Sumatra at a comparatively recent date. The fact that the semi-wild tribes, which are ethnologically Malayan and distinct from the aboriginal Semang and Sakai, are met with almost invariably in the neighbourhood of the coast would seem to indicate that they reached the peninsula by a sea, not by a land route, a supposition which is strengthened by their almost amphibious habits. Many of these tribes have retained their pristine paganism, but many others it is certain have adopted the Mahommedan religion and have been assimilated by the subsequent and stronger wave of Sumatran immigrants. A study of the local dialects to be met with in some of the districts of the far interior, e.g. the Tembeling valley in Pahang, whose people are now Mahommedans and in many respects indistinguishable from the ordinary Malays of the peninsula, reveals the fact that words, current in the archipelago to the south but incomprehensible to the average peninsula Malays, by whom these more ancient populations are now completely surrounded, have been preserved as local words, whereas they really belong to an older dialect once spoken widely in the peninsula, as to-day it is spoken in the Malayan islands. This would seem to show that in some instances the earlier Malay immigrants fell or were driven by the later invaders back from the coast and sought refuge in the far interior.

Theories of Origin.

Until recently many eminent scientists held the theory that the Malayan peoples were merely an offspring of the Mongol stock, and that their advance into the lands they now inhabit had taken place from the cradle of the Mongolian race--that is to say, from the north. In the fifth edition of his _Malay Archipelago_, A. R. Wallace notes the resemblance which he traced between the Malays and the Mongolians, and others have recorded similar observations as to the physical appearance of the two races. To-day, however, fuller data are available than when Wallace wrote, and the more generally accepted theory is that the Malayan race is distinct, and came from the south, until it was stayed by the Mongolian races living on the mainland of southern Asia. The cranial measurements of the Malays and an examination of their hair sections seem to bear out the theory that they are distinct from the Mongolian races. Their language, which is neither monosyllabic nor tonic, has nothing in common with that of the Mon-Annam group. It has, moreover, been pointed out that had the Malays been driven southwards by the stronger races of the mainland of Asia, it might be expected that the people inhabiting the country nearest to the border between Siam and Malaya would belong to the Malayan and not to the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer stock. As a matter of fact the Sâkai of the interior of the peninsula belong to the latter race. It might also be anticipated, were the theory of a southward immigration to be sustained, that the Malays would be new-comers in the islands of the archipelago, and have their oldest settlements on the Malayan Peninsula. The facts, however, are in exact contradiction to this; and accordingly the theory now most generally held by those who have studied the question is that the Malays form a distinct race, and had their original home in the south. Where this home lay it is not easy to say, but the facts recorded by many writers as to the resemblance between the Polynesian and the Malayan races, and the strong Malayan element found in the languages of the former (see Tregear's _Maori and Comparative Polynesian Dictionary_, London, 1891), have led some students to think that the two races may have had a common origin. John Crawfurd, in the Dissertation to his _Dictionary of the Malay Language_, published in 1840, noted the prevalence of Malayan terms in the Polynesian languages, and attributed the fact to the casting away of ships manned by Malays upon the islands of the Polynesian Archipelago. The appearance of the same Malayan words in localities so widely separated from each other, however, cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by any such explanation, and the theory is now more generally held that the two races are probably allied and may at some remote period of history have shared a common home. It has been suggested that their separation did not take place until after the continent which once existed in the north Pacific had become submerged, and that the Malays wandered northward, while the Polynesian race spread itself over the islands of the southern archipelago. All this, however, must necessarily be of the nature of the purest speculation, and the only facts which we are able to deduce in the present state of our knowledge of the subject may be summed up as follows: (a) That the Malays ethnologically belong to a race which is allied to the Polynesians; (b) that the theory formerly current to the effect that the Sakai and other similar races of the peninsula and archipelago belonged to the Malayan stock cannot be maintained, since recent investigations tend to identify them with the Mon-Annam or Mon-Khmer family of races; (c) that the Malays are, comparatively speaking, new-comers in the lands which they now inhabit; (d) that it is almost certain that their emigration took place from the south; (e) and that, at some remote period of their history, they came into close contact with the Polynesian race, probably before its dispersion over the extensive area which it now occupies.

Religion and Superstitions.

The Malays to-day are Sunni Mahommedans of the school of Shafi'i, and they habitually use the terms _Orang Malayu_, i.e. a Malay, and _Orang Islam_, i.e. a Mahommedan, as synonymous expressions. Their conversion from paganism took place during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries of our era. The raja of Achin, in northern Sumatra, is said to have been converted as early as 1206, while the Bugis people in Celebes are supposed not to have become Mahommedans until 1495. Mahommedanism undoubtedly spread to the Malays of the peninsula from Sumatra, but their conversion was slow and gradual, and may even now in some respects be regarded as imperfect. Upon the bulk of the Malayan peoples their religion sits but lightly. Few are found to observe the law concerning the Five Hours of Prayer, and many fail to put in an appearance at the Friday congregational services in the mosques. The Fast of Ramadhan, however, is generally observed with some faithfulness. Compared with other Mahommedan peoples, the Malays are not fanatical, though occasionally an outbreak against those of a different creed is glorified by them into a holy war. The reason of such outbreaks, however, is usually to be found in political and social rather than in religious grievances. Prior to their conversion to Mahommedanism the Malays were subjected to a considerable Hindu influence, which reached them by means of the traders who visited the archipelago from India. In the islands of Bali and Lombok the people still profess a form of Hinduism, and Hindu remains are to be found in many other parts of the archipelago, though their traces do not extend to the peninsula. Throughout, however, the superstitions of the Malays show indications of this Hindu influence, and many of the demons whom their medicine-men invoke in their magic practices are clearly borrowed from the pantheon of India. For the rest, a substratum of superstitious beliefs, which survives from the days when the Malays professed only their natural religion, is to be found firmly rooted in the minds of the people, and the influence of Mahommedanism, which regards such things with horror, has been powerless to eradicate this. Mr W. W. Skeat's _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900) is a compilation of all the writings on the subject of Malay superstitions by the best authorities and contains considerable original matter.

Mode of Life, &c.

The Malays of the coast are a maritime people, and were long famous for the daring character of their acts of piracy. They are now peaceable fisher-folk, who show considerable ingenuity in their calling. Inland the Malays live by preference on the banks of rivers, building houses on piles some feet from the ground, and planting groves of coco-nut, betel-nut, sugar-palm and fruit-trees around their dwellings. Behind their villages the rice-fields usually spread, and rice, which is the staple food of the people, is the principal article of agriculture among them. Sugar-cane, maize, tapioca and other similar products are grown, however, in smaller quantities. In planting rice three methods are in use: the cultivation of swamp-rice in irrigated fields; the planting of ploughed areas; and the planting of hill-rice by sowing each grain separately in holes bored for the purpose. In the irrigated fields the rice plants are first grown in nurseries, and are subsequently transplanted when they have reached a certain stage of development. The Malays also work jungle produce, of which the most important are gutta, rattans, agila wood, camphor wood, and the beautiful _kamuning_ wood which is used by the natives for the hilts of their weapons. The principal manufactures of the Malays are cotton and silk cloths, earthenware and silver vessels, mats and native weapons. The best cotton cloths are those manufactured by the Bugis people in Celebes, and the _batek_ cloths which come from Java and are stamped with patterns. The best silks are produced by the natives of Pahang, Kelantan and Johor in the Malay Peninsula. Lord Leighton pronounced the silver ware from Malaya to be the most artistic of any exhibited at the Colonial Exhibition held in London in 1886. The pottery of the Malays is rude but curious. When the first Europeans visited the Malay Archipelago the Malays had already acquired the art of manufacturing gunpowder and forging cannon. The art of writing also appears to have been independently invented by the Malayan races, since numerous alphabets are in use among the peoples of the archipelago, although for the writing of Malay itself the Arabic character has been adopted for some hundreds of years. The Malays are excellent boat-builders.

Character, &c.

While the Malays were famous almost exclusively for their piratical expeditions they naturally bore an evil reputation among Europeans, but now that we have come into closer contact with them, and have learned to understand them better, the old opinions concerning them have been greatly modified. They used to be described as the most cruel and treacherous people in the world, and they certainly are callous of the pain suffered by others, and regard any strategy of which their enemies are the victims with open admiration. In ordinary circumstances, however, the Malay is not treacherous, and there are many instances recorded in which men of this race have risked their own lives on behalf of Europeans who chanced to be their friends. As a race they are exceedingly courteous and self-respecting. Their own code of manners is minute and strict, and they observe its provisions faithfully. Unlike many Orientals, the Malays can be treated with a friendly familiarity without such treatment breeding lack of respect or leading to liberties being taken with the superior. The Malays are indolent, pleasure-loving, improvident beyond belief, fond of bright clothing, of comfort, of ease, and they dislike toil exceedingly. They have no idea of the value of money, and little notion of honesty where money is concerned. They would always borrow rather than earn money, and they feel no shame in adopting the former course. They will frequently refuse to work for a wage when they most stand in need of cash, and yet at the invitation of one who is their friend they will toil unremittingly without any thought of reward. They are much addicted to gambling, and formerly were much given to fighting, though they never display that passion for war in the abstract which is characteristic of some of the white races, and their courage on the whole is not high if judged by European standards. It is notorious, however, on the coasts that a Malay gang on board a ship invariably gets the better of any fight which may arise between it and the Chinese crew. The sexual morality of the Malays is very lax, but prostitution is not common in consequence. Polygamy, though allowed by their religion, is practised for the most part among the wealthy classes only. The Malays are an intensely aristocratic people, and show a marvellous loyalty to their rajas and chiefs. Their respect for rank is not marred by any vulgarity or snobbery. The ruling classes among them display all the vices of the lower classes, and few of the virtues except that of courtesy. They are for the most part, when left to their own resources, cruel, unjust, selfish and improvident.

Much has been written concerning the acts of homicidal mania called amuck (_amok_), which word in the vernacular means to attack. It was formerly believed that these outbursts were to be attributed to madness _pur et simple_, and some cases of _amok_ can certainly be traced to this source. These are not, however, in any sense typical, and might equally have been perpetrated by men of another race. The typical _amok_ is usually the result of circumstances which render a Malay desperate. The motive is often inadequate from the point of view of a European, but to the Malay it is sufficient to make him weary of life and anxious to court death. Briefly, where a man of another race might not improbably commit suicide, a Malay runs _amok_, killing all whom he may meet until he himself is slain.

The nervous affliction called _latah_, to which many Malays are subject, is also a curious trait of the people. The victims of this affliction lose for the time all self-control and all sense of their own identity, imitating the actions of any person who chances to rivet their attention. Accounts of these manifestations will be found in Swettenham's _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895) and Clifford's _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1897).

Costume, Weapons, &c.

The Malays wear a loose coat and trousers, and a cap or head-kerchief, but the characteristic item of their costume is the _sarong_, a silk or cotton cloth about two yards long by a yard and a quarter wide, the ends of which are sewn together, forming a kind of skirt. This is worn round the waist folded in a knot, the women allowing it to fall to the ankle, the men, when properly dressed in accordance with ancient custom, folding it over the hilt of their waist-weapon, and draping it around them so that it reaches nearly to the knee. In the hall of a raja on state occasions a head-kerchief twisted into a peak is worn, and the coat is furnished with a high collar extending round the back of the neck only. This coat is open in front, leaving the chest bare. The trousers are short and of a peculiar cut and material, being coloured many hues in parallel horizontal lines. The _sarong_ is of Celebes manufacture and made of cotton, to the surface of which a high polish is imparted by friction with a shell. The typical fighting costume of the Malay is a sleeveless jacket with texts from the Koran written upon it, short tight drawers reaching to the middle of the thigh, and the _sarong_ is then bound tightly around the waist, leaving the hilt of the dagger worn in the girdle exposed to view. The principal weapon of the Malays is the _kris_, a short dagger with a small wooden or ivory handle, of which there are many varieties. The blade of a _kris_ may either be wavy or straight, but if wavy the number of waves must always be uneven in number. The _kris_ most prized by the Malays are those of Bugis (Celebes) manufacture, and of these the kind called _tuasek_ are of the greatest value. Besides the short _kris_, the Malays use long straight _kris_ with very narrow blades, shorter straight _kris_ of the same form, short broad swords called _sundang_, long swords of ordinary pattern called _pedang_, somewhat shorter swords curved like scimitars with curiously carved handles called _chenangkas_, and short stabbing daggers called _tumbok lada_. The principal tools of the Malays are the _parang_ or _gôlok_, a heavy knife used in the jungle, without which no peasant ever stirs abroad from his house, the _beliong_ or native axe, and the _pisau raut_, which is used for scraping rattan. Their implements are very primitive, consisting of a plough fashioned from a fork of a tree, and a rude harrow. Reaping is usually performed by the aid of a curious little knife which severs each ear of grain separately. The fisher-folk use many kinds of nets, which they manufacture themselves. Sails, paddles, oars and punting-poles are all in use.

MALAY LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

The Malay language is a member of the Malayan section of the Malayo-Polynesian class of languages, but it is by no means a representative type of the section which has taken its name from it. The area over which it is spoken comprises the peninsula of Malacca with the adjacent islands (the Rhio-Lingga Archipelago), the greater part of the coast districts of Sumatra and Borneo, the seaports of Java, the Sunda and Banda Islands. It is the general medium of communication throughout the archipelago from Sumatra to the Philippine Islands, and it was so upwards of three hundred and fifty years ago when the Portuguese first appeared in those parts.

There are no Malay manuscripts extant, no monumental records with inscriptions in Malay, dating from before the spreading of Islam in the archipelago, about the end of the 13th century. By some it has been argued from this fact that the Malays possessed no kind of writing prior to the introduction of the Arabic alphabet (W. Robinson, J. J. de Hollander); whereas others have maintained, with greater show of probability, that the Malays were in possession of an ancient alphabet, and that it was the same as the Rechang (Marsden, Friederich), as the Kawi (Van der Tuuk), or most like the Lampong (Kern)--all of which alphabets, with the Battak, Bugi and Macassar, are ultimately traceable to the ancient Cambojan characters. With the Mahommedan conquest the Perso-Arabic alphabet was introduced among the Malays; it has continued ever since to be in use for literary, religious and business purposes. Where Javanese is the principal language, Malay is sometimes found written with Javanese characters; and in Palembang, in the Menangkabo country of Middle Sumatra, the Rechang or Renchong characters are in general use, so called from the sharp and pointed knife with which they are cut on the smooth side of bamboo staves. It is only since the Dutch have established their supremacy in the archipelago that the Roman character has come to be largely used in writing and printing Malay. This is also the case in the Straits Settlements.

By the simplicity of its phonetic elements, the regularity of its grammatical structure, and the copiousness of its nautical vocabulary, the Malay language is singularly well fitted to be the _lingua franca_ throughout the Indian archipelago. It possesses the five vowels _a_, _i_, _u_, _e_, _o_, both short and long, and one pure diphthong, _au_. Its consonants are _k_, _g_, _ng_, _ch_, _j_, _ñ_, _t_, _d_, _n_, _p_, _b_, _m_, _y_, _r_, _l_, _w_, _s_, _h_. Long vowels can only occur in open syllables. The only possible consonantal nexus in purely Malay words is that of a nasal and mute, a liquid and mute and vice versa, and a liquid and nasal. Final _k_ and _h_ are all but suppressed in the utterance. Purely Arabic letters are only used in Arabic words, a great number of which have been received into the Malay vocabulary. But the Arabic character is even less suited to Malay than to the other Eastern languages on which it has been foisted. As the short vowels are not marked, one would, in seeing, e.g. the word _bntng_, think first of _bintang_, a star; but the word might also mean a large scar, to throw down, to spread, rigid, mutilated, enceinte, a kind of cucumber, a redoubt, according as it is pronounced, _bantang_, _banting_, _bentang_, _buntang_, _buntung_, _bunting_, _bonteng_, _benteng_.

Malay is essentially, with few exceptions, a dissyllabic language, and the syllabic accent rests on the penultimate unless that syllable is open and short; e.g. datang, namaña, besár, diumpatkanñalah. Nothing in the form of a root word indicates the grammatical category to which it belongs; thus, _kasih_, kindness, affectionate, to love; _ganti_, a proxy, to exchange, instead of. It is only in derivative words that this vagueness is avoided. Derivation is effected by infixes, prefixes, affixes and reduplication. Infixes occur more rarely in Malay than in the cognate tongues. Examples are--_guruh_, a rumbling noise, _gumuruh_, to make such a noise; _tunjuk_, to point, _telunjuk_, the forefinger; _chuchuk_, to pierce, _cheruchuk_, a stockade. The import of the prefixes--me (meng, meñ, men, mem), pe (peng, peñ, pen, pem ber (bel), per, pel, ka, di, ter,--and affixes--an, kan, i, lah--will best appear from the following examples--root word _ajar_, to teach, to learn; _mengajar_, to instruct (expresses an action); _bleajar_, to study (state or condition); _mengajari_, to instruct (some one, trans.); _mengajarkan_, to instruct (in something, causative); _pengajar_, the instructor; _pelajar_, the learner; _pengajaran_, the lesson taught, also the school; _pelajaran_, the lesson learnt; _diajar_, to be learnt; _terajar_, learnt; _terajarkan_, taught; _terajari_, instructed; _[peraja_ (from _raja_, prince), to recognize as prince; _perajakan_, to crown as prince; karajaan, royalty]; _ajarkanlah_, teach! Examples of reduplication are--_ajar-ajar_, a sainted person; _ajar-berajar_ (or _belajar_), to be learning and teaching by turns; similarly there are forms like _ajar-mengajar_, _berajar-ajaran_, _ajar-ajari_, _memperajar_, _memperajarkan_, _memperajari_, _terbelajarkan_, _perbelajarkan_, &c. Altogether there are upwards of a hundred possible derivative forms, in the idiomatic use of which the Malays exhibit much skill. See especially H. von Dewall, _De vormveranderingen der Maleische taal_ (Batavia, 1864) and I. Pijnappel, _Maleisch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1875), "Inleiding." In every other respect the language is characterized by great simplicity and indefiniteness. There is no inflexion to distinguish number, gender or case. Number is never indicated when the sense is obvious or can be gathered from the context; otherwise plurality is expressed by adjectives such as _sagala_, all, and _bañak_, many; more rarely by the repetition of the noun, and the indefinite singular by _sa_ or _satu_, one, with a class-word. Gender may, if necessary, be distinguished by the words _laki-laki_, male, and _perampuan_, female, in the case of persons, and of _jantan_ and _betina_ in the case of animals. The genitive case is generally indicated by the position of the word after its governing noun. Also adjectives and demonstrative pronouns have their places after the noun. Comparison is effected by the use of particles. Instead of the personal pronouns, both in their full and abbreviated forms, conventional nouns are in frequent use to indicate the social position or relation of the respective interlocutors, as, e.g. _hamba tuan_, the master's slave, i.e. I. These nouns vary according to the different localities. Another peculiarity of Malay (and likewise of Chinese, Shan, Talaing, Burmese and Siamese) is the use of certain class-words or coefficients with numerals, such as _orang_ (man), when speaking of persons, _ekor_ (tail) of animals, _keping_ (piece) of flat things, _biji_ (seed) of roundish things; e.g. _lima biji, telor_, five eggs. The number of these class-words is considerable. Malay verbs have neither person or number nor mood or tense. The last two are sometimes indicated by particles or auxiliary verbs; but these are generally dispensed with if the meaning is sufficiently plain without them. The Malays avoid the building up of long sentences. The two main rules by which the order of the words in a sentence is regulated are--subject, verb, object; and qualifying words follow those which they qualify. This is quite the reverse of what is the rule in Burmese.

The history of the Malays amply accounts for the number and variety of foreign ingredients in their language. Hindus appear to have settled in Sumatra and Java as early as the 4th century of our era, and to have continued to exercise sway over the native populations for many centuries. These received from them into their language a very large number of Sanskrit terms, from which we can infer the nature of the civilizing influence imparted by the Hindu rulers. Not only in words concerning commerce and agriculture, but also in terms connected with social, religious and administrative matters that influence is traceable in Malay. See W. E. Maxwell, _Manual of the Malay Language_ (1882), pp. 5-34, where this subject is treated more fully than by previous writers. This Sanskrit element forms such an integral part of the Malay vocabulary that in spite of the subsequent infusion of Arabic and Persian words adopted in the usual course of Mahommedan conquest it has retained its ancient citizenship in the language. The number of Portuguese, English, Dutch and Chinese words in Malay is not considerable; their presence is easily accounted for by political or commercial contact.

The Malay language abounds in idiomatic expressions, which constitute the chief difficulty in its acquisition. It is sparing in the use of personal pronouns, and prefers impersonal and elliptical diction. As it is rich in specific expressions for the various aspects of certain ideas, it is requisite to employ always the most appropriate term suited to the particular aspect. In Maxwell's _Manual_, pp. 120 seq., no less than sixteen terms are given to express the different kinds of striking, as many for the different kinds of speaking, eighteen for the various modes of carrying, &c. An unnecessary distinction has been made between _High Malay_ and _Low Malay_. The latter is no separate dialect at all, but a mere brogue or jargon, the medium of intercourse between illiterate natives and Europeans too indolent to apply themselves to the acquisition of the language of the people; its vocabulary is made up of Malay words, with a conventional admixture of words from other languages; and it varies, not only in different localities, but also in proportion to the individual speaker's acquaintance with Malay proper. A few words are used, however, only in speaking with persons of royal rank--e.g. _santap_, to eat (of a raja) instead of _makan_; _beradu_, to sleep, instead of ti_dor_; _gring_, unwell, instead of _sakit_; _mangkat_, to die, instead of _mati_, &c. The use is different as regards the term _Jawi_ as applied to the Malay language. This has its origin in the names Great Java and Lesser Java, by which the medieval Java and Sumatra were called, and it accordingly means the language spoken along the coasts of the two great islands.

Literature.

The Malays cannot, strictly speaking, be said to possess a literature, for none of their writings can boast any literary beauty or value. Their most characteristic literature is to be found, not in their writings, but in the folk-tales which are transmitted orally from generation to generation, and repeated by the wandering minstrels called by the people _Peng-lipor Lara_, i.e. "Soothers of Care." Some specimens of these are to be found in the _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Asiatic Society_ (Singapore). The collections of _Malay Proberbs_ made by Klinkert, Maxwell and Clifford also give a good idea of the literary methods of the Malays. Their verse is of a very primitive description, and is chiefly used for purposes of love-making. There are numerous rhymed fairy tales, which are much liked by the people, but they are of no literary merit. The best Malay books are the _Hikayat Hang Tuak_, _Bestamam_ and the _Hikayat Abdullah_. The latter is a diary of events kept during Sir Stamford Raffle's administration by his Malay scribe.

AUTHORITIES.--Hugh Clifford, _In Court and Kampong_ (London, 1897); _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1898); _In a Corner of Asia_ (London, 1899); _Bush-whacking_ (London 1901); Clifford and Swettenham, _Dictionary of the Malay Language_, parts i. to v. A-G. Taiping (Perak, 1894-1898); John Crawfurd, _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); _Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language_ (2 vols., London, 1852); _A Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries_ (London, 1856); _Journal of the Indian Archipelago_ (12 vols., Singapore, 1847-1862); _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, 33 Nos. (Singapore, 1878-1900); H. C. Klinkert, _Nieuw Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woordenboek_ (Leiden, 1893); John Leyden, _Malay Annals_ (London, 1821); William Marsden, _The History of Sumatra_ (London, 1811); _Malay Dictionary_ (London, 1824); Sir William Maxwell, _A Manual of the Malay Language_ (London, 1888); T. J. Newbold, _Political and Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca_; W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900); Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906); Sir Frank Swettenham, _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895); _The Real Malay_ (London, 1899); _British Malaya_ (London, 1906); H. von-de Wall, edited by H. N. van der Tuuk, _Maleisch-Nederlandisch Woordenboek_ (Batavia, 1877-1880); _Malay Dictionary_ (Singapore, 1903), Wilkinson. (H. Cl.)

MALAY STATES (BRITISH). The native states of the Malay Peninsula under British protection are divided into two groups: (1) federated, and (2) non-federated.

I.--FEDERATED STATES

The federated states, under the protection of Great Britain, but not British possessions, are Perak, Selangor and the confederation of small states known as the Negri Sembilan (i.e. Nine States) on the west coast, and the state of Pahang on the east coast. Each state is under the rule of a sultan, who is assisted in his legislative duties by a state council, upon which the resident, and in some cases the secretary to the resident, has a seat, and which is composed of native chiefs and one or more Chinese members nominated by the sultan with the advice and consent of the resident. The council, in addition to legislative and other duties, revises all sentences of capital punishment. The administrative work of each state is carried on by the resident and his staff of European officials, whose ranks are recruited by successful candidates in the competitive examinations held annually by the Civil Service commissioners. The sultan of each state is bound by treaty with the British government to accept the advice of the resident, who is thus practically paramount; but great deference is paid to the opinions and wishes of the sultans and their chiefs, and the British officials are pledged not to interfere with the religious affairs of the Mahommedan community. In the actual administration of the Malay population great use is made of the native aristocratic system, the peasants being governed largely by their own chiefs, headmen and village elders, under the close supervision of British district officers. The result is a benevolent autocracy admirably adapted to local conditions and to the character and traditions of the people. A recognition of the fact that the welfare of the Malays, who are the people of the land and whose sultans have never ceded their territories to the British, must be regarded as the first consideration has been the guiding principle of the administration of the Malay States, and this has resulted in an extraordinary amelioration of the condition of the natives, which has proceeded concurrently with a notable development of the country and its resources, mineral and agricultural. To the work of development, however, the Malays have themselves contributed little, sound administration having been secured by the British officials, enterprise and capital having been supplied mainly by the Chinese, and the labour employed being almost entirely Chinese or Tamil. Meanwhile the Malays have improved their ancestral holdings, have enjoyed a peace and a security to which their past history furnishes no parallel, have obtained easy access to new and important markets for their agricultural produce, and for the rest have been suffered to lead the lives best suited to their characters and their desires. Each principal department of the administration has its federal head, and all the residents correspond with and are controlled by the resident-general, who, in his turn, is responsible to the high commissioner, the governor of the Straits Settlements for the time being.

The estimated aggregate area of the Federated Malay States is 28,000 sq. m., and the estimated population in 1905 was 860,000, as against 678,595 in 1901. Of these only about 230,000 are Malays. The revenue of the federation in 1905 was $23,964,593 (about £2,795,000), and the expenditure was $20,750,395 (about £2,460,000). The imports for the same year were valued at $50,575,455 (about £5,900,000), and the exports at $80,057,654 (about £9,340,000), making a total trade of nearly 15¼ millions sterling. The principal sources of revenue are an export duty on tin, the rents paid for the revenue farms of the right to collect import duties on opium, wine and spirits, and to keep licensed gambling-houses for the exclusive use of the Chinese population, railway receipts, land and forest revenue and postal revenue. The tin is won from large alluvial deposits found in the states of the western seaboard, and the mines are worked almost exclusively by Chinese capital and labour. Since 1889 the Federated Malay States have produced considerably more than half the tin of the world. Recently there has been a great development in agricultural enterprise, especially with regard to rubber, which is now grown in large quantities, the estates being mainly in the hands of Europeans, and the labour mostly Tamil. The states are opened up by over 2500 m. of some of the best metalled cart-roads in the world, and by a railway system, 350 m. of which, extending from the mainland opposite Penang to the ancient town of Malacca, are open to traffic. Another 150 m. of railway is under construction. The government offices at Kuala Lumpor, the federal capital of the states, are among the finest buildings of the kind in Asia. The whole of this extraordinary development, it should be noted, has been effected by careful, sound and wise administration coupled with a courageous and energetic policy of expenditure upon public works. Throughout, not one penny of debt has been incurred, the roads, railways, &c., being constructed entirely from current balances. This of course has only been rendered possible by the extraordinary mineral wealth which the states on the western seaboard have developed in the hands of Chinese miners amid the peace and security which British rule has brought to these once lawless lands. The value of the tin output for the year 1905 amounted to $69,460,993 (£8,104,199). Although agricultural enterprise in the Malay States is assuming considerable proportions and a growing importance, the total value of the principal agricultural products, including timber, for the year 1905 only aggregated $2,435,513 (£289,143).

The whole of the Malay Peninsula is one vast forest, through which flow countless streams that form one of the most lavish water-systems in the world. The rivers, though many of them are of imposing appearance and of considerable length, are uniformly shallow, only a few on the west coast being navigable by ships for a distance of some 40 m. from their mouths. In spite of the notable development above referred to, only a very small fraction of the entire area of the states has as yet been touched either by mining or agricultural enterprise. It is not too much to assert that the larger half of the forest-lands has never been trodden by the foot of man. (For information concerning the botany, geology, &c., of the Malay States see MALAY PENINSULA. For the ethnology see MALAYS.)

PERAK is situated between the parallels 3° 37´ and 6° 5´ N. and 100° 3´ to 101° 51´ E. on the western side of the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the British possession of Province Wellesley and the Malay state of Kedah; on the S. by the protected native state of Selangor; on the E. by the protected native state of Pahang and the independent states of Kelantan and Petani; and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about 90 m. in length. The extreme distance from the most northerly to the most southerly portions of the state is about 172 m., and the greatest breadth from east to west is about 100 m. The total area of the country is estimated at about 10,000 sq. m.

The Perak river, which runs in a southerly direction almost parallel with the coast for nearly 150 m. of its course, is navigable for small steamers for about 40 m. from its mouth, and by native trading boats for nearly 200 m. The Plus, Batang, Padang and Kinta rivers are its principal tributaries, all of them falling into the Perak on its left bank. The other principal rivers of the state are the Krian, Kurau, Larut and Bruas to the north of the mouth of the Perak, and the Bernam to the south. None of these rivers is of any great importance as a waterway, although the Bernam River is navigable for small steamers for nearly 100 m. of its course. The mountain ranges, which cover a considerable area, run from the north-east to the south-west. The highest altitudes attained by them do not exceed 7500 ft., but they average about 2500 ft. They are all thickly covered with jungle. The ranges are two, running parallel to one another, with the valley of the Perak between them. The larger is a portion of the main chain, which runs down the peninsula from north to south. The lesser is situated in the district of Larut. There are several hill sanatoria in the state at heights which vary from 2500 to 4700 ft. above sea-level, but the extreme humidity of the atmosphere renders the coolness thus obtainable the reverse of enjoyable.

Geology.

Mr Leonard Wray, curator of the Perak museum, writes as follows on the subject of the geological formation of the state: "There are really only four formations represented--firstly, the granitic rocks; secondly, a large series of beds of gneiss, quartzite, schist and sandstone, overlaid in many places by thick beds of crystalline limestone; thirdly, small sheets of trap rock; and fourthly, river-gravels and other Quaternary deposits. The granites are of many varieties, and also, in all probability, of several different geological periods. The series of quartzites, schists, and limestone are of great age, but as no fossils have ever been found in any of them, nothing definite can be stated as to their exact chronological position. Their lithological characteristics and the total absence of all organic remains point to the Archaean period. The failure to discover signs of life in them is, of course, merely negative evidence, and the finding of a single fossil would at once upset it. However, until this happens they may be conveniently classed as Laurentian. It is at present impossible to form anything approaching an accurate estimate of the thickness of this extensive series, but it is probable that it is somewhere between 4000 and 5000 ft. Unconformability has been noticed between the limestones and the beds beneath, but whether this is sufficient to separate them or not is a matter for future investigation.... The taller hills are exclusively composed of granite, as also are some of the lower ones.... The ores of the following metals have been found in the formations named: Granite--tin, lead, iron, arsenic, tungsten and titanium; Laurentian--tin, gold, lead, silver, iron, arsenic, copper, zinc, tungsten, manganese and bismuth; Quaternary--tin, gold, copper, tungsten, iron and titanium. This is not to be considered a complete list, as small quantities of other metals have also been found."

History.

The early history of Perak is obscure, the only information on the subject being obtained from native traditions, which are altogether untrustworthy. According to these authorities, however, a settlement was first made by Malays in Perak at Bruas, and the capital was later moved to the banks of the Perak River, the site chosen being a little village called Temong, which lies some miles up stream from Kuala Kangsar, the present residence of the sultan. When the Malacca sultanate fell, owing to the invasion of the Portuguese in 1511, a member of that royal house is said to have migrated to Perak, and the present dynasty claims to have been descended from him. As this boast is also made by almost every ruling family in the peninsula, the tradition is not worthy of any special attention. What is more certain is the tradition that Perak was twice invaded by the Achinese, and its rulers carried off into captivity, one of them, Sultan Mansur Shah, subsequently becoming the ruler of Achin. The first European settlement in Perak was made by the Dutch in 1650, under a treaty entered into with the Achinese, but the natives of the country rose against the Dutch again and again, and it was abandoned in 1783, though it was afterwards reoccupied, the Dutch being finally ejected by the British in 1795. In 1818 the Siamese conquered Perak, but its independence was secured by a treaty between the British and Siamese governments in 1824. From that date until 1874 Perak was ruled by its own sultans, but in that year, owing to internal strife, Sultan Abdullah applied to the then governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Andrew Clarke, for the assistance of a British Resident. The treaty of Pangkor was concluded on the 20th of January 1874, and the first resident, Mr J. W. W. Birch, was murdered on the 2nd of November 1875. A punitive expedition became necessary; sultan Abdullah and the other chiefs concerned in the murder were banished, the actual murderers were hanged, and Raja Muda Jusuf was declared regent. He died in 1888, and was succeeded by the sultan Raja Idris, K.C.M.G., a most enlightened ruler, who was from the first a strong and intelligent advocate of British methods of administration. Sir Hugh Low was appointed resident, a position which he held until 1889, when he was succeeded by Sir Frank Swettenham. Since then the history of Perak has been one of continuous peace and growing prosperity and wealth. Although the federal capital is Kuala Lumpor in Selangor, Perak still enjoys the honour of being the senior and leading state of the federation.

Population.

By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of Perak was shown to be as follows: Europeans, 366; Eurasians, Jews and Armenians, 293; Malays, 96,719; Chinese, 94,345; Tamils, 13,086; aborigines, 5779; other nationalities, 3666; thus making a grand total of 214,254, of whom 156,408 were males and 57,846 were females. The estimated population in 1905 was 400,000, of whom 200,000 were Chinese and 160,000 were Malays, but owing to the disparity of the proportions between the sexes the deaths in each year largely outnumber the births, and the increase in the population is accounted for solely by the number of immigrants, chiefly from the mainland of China, and to a lesser extent from India also.

The revenue of Perak in 1874 amounted to $226,333. That for 1905 amounted to $12,242,897. Of this latter sum $4,876,400 was derived from duty on exported tin, $2,489,300 from railway receipts, $505,300 from land revenue and $142,800 from postal and telegraphic revenue. The remainder is mainly derived from the revenue farms, which are leased to Chinese capitalists for a short term of years, conveying to the lessee the right to collect import duties upon opium, wine and spirits, to keep pawnbroking shops, and to keep public licensed gambling-houses for the use of Chinese only. The expenditure for 1905 amounted to $10,141,980. Of this sum $4,236,000 was expended upon railway upkeep and construction and $2,176,100 upon public works. The value of the imports into Perak during 1905 was over $20,000,000, and that of the exports exceeded $40,000,000, making a total of over $60,000,000, equivalent to about seven million sterling. The output of tin from Perak ranged between 18,960 tons, valued at $23,099,506 in 1899, and 26,600 tons, valued at $35,500,000, in 1905. The fluctuating character of the output is due, not to any exhaustion of the mineral deposits of the state--that is not to be anticipated for many years yet to come--but to the uncertainty of the labour supply. The mining population is recruited exclusively from the districts of southern China, and during certain years an increased demand for labourers in China itself, in French Indo-China, in the Dutch colonies, and in South Africa temporarily and adversely affected immigration to the Straits of Malacca. The output has, moreover, been affected from time to time by the price of tin, which was $32.20 per pikul in 1896, rose to $42.96 in 1898, to $74.15 in 1900, and averaged $80.60 in 1905. Exclusive of tin, the principal exports were $108,000 worth of Para rubber, $181,000 of copra, $54,000 of hides, $48,000 of patchouli, and considerable quantities of timber, rattans and other jungle produce. The agricultural development of the state is still in its infancy, but rubber is cultivated in rapidly increasing areas, and the known fertility of the soil, the steady and regular rainfall, the excellent means of communication, and the natural and artificial conditions of the country, justify the expectation that the future of Perak as an agricultural country will be prosperous.

General.

Although so much has been done to develop the resources of Perak, by far the greater portion of the state is still covered by dense and virgin forest. In 1898 it was calculated that only 330,249 acres of land were occupied or cultivated out of a total acreage of 6,400,000. The area of agricultural holdings has notably increased, but a considerable period must yet elapse before it will amount to even one-tenth of the whole. A line of railway connects the port of Teluk Anson with the great mining district of Kinta, whence the line runs, crossing the Perak River at Enggor, to Kuala Kangsar, the residence of the sultan, thence to Taiping, the administrative capital of the state, and via Krian to a point opposite to the island of Penang. A second line runs south from Perak and connects with the railway system of Selangor, which in its turn connects with the Negri Sembilan and Malacca line, thus giving through railway communication between the last-named town and Penang. Perak also possesses some 600 miles of excellent metalled cart-road, and the length of completed road is annually increasing.

For administrative purposes the state is divided into six districts: Upper Perak, Kuala Kangsar and Lower Perak, on the Perak River; Kinta; Batany Padang and Larut and Krian. Of these, Larut and Kinta are the principal mining centres, while Krian is the most prosperous agricultural district. The districts on the Perak River are mostly peopled by Malays. The administrative capital is Taiping, the chief town of Larut. Kuala Kangsar is chiefly memorable as having been the scene of the first federal meeting of native chiefs, who, with the British Residents from each state, met together in 1897 for friendly discussion of their common interests for the first time in history, under the auspices of the high commissioner, Sir Charles H. B. Mitchell. This, in the eyes of those who are acquainted with the character of the Malays and of the relations which formerly subsisted between the rulers of the various states, is perhaps the most signal token of the changes which British influence has wrought in the peninsula.

SELANGOR is situated between the parallels 2° 32´ and 3° 37´ N. and 100° 38´ and 102° E., on the western side of the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected native state of Perak, on the S. by the protected states of the Negri Sembilan, on the E. by Pahang and the Negri Sembilan, and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about 100 m. in length, greatest length about 104 m., and greatest breadth about 48 m., total area estimated at about 3000 sq. m.

The state consists of a narrow strip of land between the mountain range which forms the backbone of the peninsula and the Straits of Malacca. Compared with other states in the peninsula, Selangor is poorly watered. The principal rivers are the Selangor, the Klang and the Langat. The principal port of the state is Port Swettenham, situated at the mouth of the Klang River, and is connected with the capital, Kuala Lumpor, by a railway. The geology of the state closely resembles that of Perak. The state is possessed of most valuable deposits of alluvial tin, and mining for this metal is the chief industry of the population. Kuala Lumpor is also the federal capital of the Malay States.

History.

According to native tradition, the ruling house of Selangor is descended from a Bugis raja, who, with two of his brothers, settled in the state in 1718, the son of the youngest brother eventually becoming ruler of the country. In 1783 the then sultan of Selangor joined with the Iang-di-per-Tuan Muda of Riau in an unsuccessful attack upon the Dutch who then held Malacca. In retaliation the Dutch, under Admiral Van Braam, invaded Selangor and drove the sultan out of his country. In 1785, aided by the Bendahara of Pahang, Sultan Ibrahim of Selangor reconquered his state; but the Dutch blockaded his ports, and eventually forced him to enter into a treaty whereby he consented to acknowledge their sovereignty. The earliest British political communication with Selangor began in 1818, when a commercial treaty was concluded with the governor of Penang. In 1867 Sultan Abdul Samad of Selangor appointed his son-in-law, Tungku Dia Udin, to be viceroy; and this gave rise to a civil war which lasted almost without intermission till 1873, when the enemies of Tungku Dia Udin were finally vanquished, largely by the agency of the Bendahara of Pahang, who, at the invitation of the governor of the Straits Settlements, sent a warlike expedition to the assistance of the viceroy. In 1874 the occurrence of an atrocious act of piracy off the mouth of the Langat River led to the governor, Sir Andrew Clarke, appointing, at the request of the sultan, a British Resident to aid him in the administration of his kingdom. Since that date there has been no further breach of the peace, and the prosperity of Selangor has increased annually.

By the census taken on the 5th of April 1891 the population of Selangor was given at 81,592 souls, of whom 67,051 were males and only 14,541 were females. The census taken on the 5th of April 1901 gave a total population of 168,789 souls, of whom 136,823 were males and 31,966 females. Of these 108,768 were Chinese, 33,997 were Malays, 16,748 were Tamils, and only 487 were Europeans. The returns deal with nearly a score of different nationalities. Since 1901 the population has been much increased and now certainly exceeds 200,000 souls. Now, however, that instead of a single port of entry there exist easy means of access to the state by rail both from the north and the south, it is no longer possible to estimate the annual increase by immigration with any approach to accuracy. It will be noted that the inhabitants of this erstwhile Malayan state were, even at the time of the census of 1901, over 64% Chinese, while the Malays were little more than 20% of the population. In Selangor, as elsewhere in the Malay Peninsula, the deaths annually far outnumber the births recorded (e.g. in 1905 births 8293, deaths 12,500). The disproportion of the female to the male sections of the population is greater in Selangor than in any other part of the colony or Malay States. The development of planting enterprise in Selangor, and more especially the cultivation of rubber, has led during recent years to the immigration of a considerable number of Tamil coolies, but the Tamil population is still insignificant as compared with the Chinese.

Finance, Trade, &c.

The revenue of Selangor in 1875 amounted to only $115,656; in 1905 it had increased to $8,857,793. Of this latter sum $3,195,318 was derived from duty on tin exported, $1,972,628 from federal receipts, and $340,360 from land revenue. The balance is chiefly derived from the revenue farms, which include the right to collect import duty on opium and spirits. The expenditure for 1905 amounted to $7,186,146, of which sum $3,717,238 was on account of federal charges and $1,850,711 for public works. The value of the imports in 1905 was $24,643,619 and that of the exports was $26,683,316, making a total of $51,326,935, equivalent to £5,988,000. Tin is the principal export. The amount exported in 1905 was 17,254 tons. The total area of alienated mining land at the end of 1905 amounted to 65,573 acres, and it was estimated that over 60,000 Chinese were employed in the mines.

The main trunk line of the Federated Malay States railways passes through Selangor. It enters the state at Tanjong Malim on the Perak boundary, runs southward through Kuala Lumpor and so into the Negri Sembilan. It runs for 81 m. in Selangor territory. A branch line 27 m. long connects Kuala Lumpor with Port Swettenham on the Klang Straits where extensive wharves, capable of accommodating ocean-going vessels, have been constructed. A second branch line, measuring rather more than 4 m. in length, has been opened to traffic. It connects the caves at Batu with Kuala Lumpor. Frequent communication is maintained by steamer between Port Swettenham and Singapore, and by coasting vessels between the former port and those on the shores of the Straits of Malacca. All the principal places in the state are connected with one another by telegraph.

For administrative purposes Selangor is divided into six districts: Kuala Lumpor, in which the capital and the principal tin-fields are situated; Ulu Selangor, which is also a prosperous mining district; Kuala Selangor, which is agricultural, and poorly populated by Malays; Ulu Langat, mining and agricultural; Kuala Langat, the residence of the late sultan Abdul Samad, agricultural; and Klang, the only prosperous port of the state. Much money has been expended upon the capital, Kuala Lumpor, which possesses some fine public buildings, waterworks, &c., and where the principal residence of the Resident-General is situated. In some sort Kuala Lumpor is the capital not only of Selangor, but also of the whole federation. Its scenery is very attractive.

NEGRI SEMBILAN (the Nine States) is a federation of small native states which is now treated as a single entity, being under the control of a British Resident, and is situated between parallels 2° 28´ and 3° 18´ N. and 101° 45´ and 102° 45´ E., on the western side of the Malay Peninsula. It is bounded on the N. by the protected state of Pahang, on the S. by the territory of Malacca, on the E. by Pahang and the independent state of Johor, and on the W. by the Straits of Malacca. The coast-line is about 28 m. in length, and the extreme distance from north to south is 55 m., and that from east to west about 65 m. The estimated area is about 3000 sq. m. Port Dickson, or Arang-Arang, is the only port on the coast. It is connected with the capital, Seremban, by a railway 24 m. in length. Most of the states comprising the federation depend largely for their prosperity upon agriculture, but in some of the districts tin is being worked in considerable quantities, with good results.

History.

As is the case with the history of most Malayan states, much rests upon no surer ground than tradition, in so far as the records of the Negri Sembilan are concerned. At the same time the native story that the states which now form the federation of the Negri Sembilan were originally peopled by tribes of Sakai, or aborigines of the peninsula, who descended from the mountains of the interior and peopled the valleys, is supported by much corroborative evidence. Not only does the Malay's contempt for the Sakai make it exceedingly unlikely that the tradition, which is hardly a matter for pride, should have been preserved if it were not true, but also many of the laws and customs in force in these states are wholly foreign to those of the Malays, and can plainly be traced to the aborigines. As an instance, the custom of inheriting rank and property through the mother instead of through the father may be mentioned. Tradition further relates that towards the end of the 18th century a raja of the royal house of Menangkabu came from Sumatra to rule over the federation of small states, each of which continued to be governed in all its local affairs by its own chief and by the village and other councils sanctioned by ancient custom. The Sumatran raja took the title of Iang-di-per-Tuan of Sri Menanti. Although they bore the name of the "Nine States," only six seem to have belonged to the federation during the time of which history speaks. These are Sri Menanti, Johol, Tampin, Rembau, Jelebu, and Sungei Ujong. Later the two latter separated themselves from the confederation. Ancient tradition says that the names of the nine states were originally Klang, Jelebu, Sungei Ujong, Johol, Segamat, Pasir Besar, Naning, Rembau and Jelai. Of these Klang was annexed by Selangor, Segamat and Pasir Besar by Johor, and Naning by Malacca. During the last years of the 18th century the Iang-di-per-Tuan appointed an Iang-di-per-Tuan Muda to rule Rembau, and the state of Tampin was created to provide for the family of the new chief. In 1887 the governor of the Straits Settlements sent Mr Martin Lister to the Negri Sembilan, which had become disintegrated, and by his influence the ancient federal system was revived under the control of a Resident appointed by the governor. The states which formed this new confederation were Johol, Ulu Muar, Jempol, Terachi, Inas, Gunong Pasir, Rembau, Tampin and Gemencheh. Prior to this, in 1873, owing to a civil war in Sungei Ujong, Sir Andrew Clarke sent a military force to that state, put an end to the disturbances, and placed the country under the control of a British Resident. Jelebu was taken under British protection in 1886, and was thenceforth managed by a magistrate under the orders of the Resident of Sungei Ujong. In 1896, when the federation of all the Malayan states under British control was effected, Sungei Ujong and Jelebu were reunited to the confederation of small states from which they had so long been separated and the whole, under the old name of the Negri Sembilan, or Nine States, was placed under one Resident.

The population of the Negri Sembilan, which according to the census taken in April 1891 was only 70,730, had increased to 96,028 by 1901, and was estimated at 119,454 in 1905. Of these 46,500 are Chinese, 65,000 Malays, 6700 Tamils, and 900 Europeans and Eurasians. The births registered slightly exceed the deaths in number, there being a large Malay population in the Negri Sembilan among whom the proportion of women to men is fair, a condition of things not found in localities where the inhabitants are mostly Chinese immigrants.

Finance and Trade.

The revenue of the Negri Sembilan amounted to only $223,435 in 1888. In 1898 it had increased to $701,334, in 1900 to $1,251,366, and in 1905 to $2,335,534. The revenue for 1905 was derived mainly as follows:--customs $1,268,602, land revenue $145,475, land sales $21,407, while the revenue farms contributed $584,459. The expenditure in 1905 amounted to $2,214,093, of which $1,125,355 was expended upon public works. The trade returns for 1905, which are not, however, complete, show an aggregate value of about $13,000,000. The value of the tin exported during 1905 exceeded $6,900,000, and the value of the agricultural produce, of which gambier represented $211,000 and damar $80,000, amounted to $407,990.

General.

Seremban, the administrative capital of the Negri Sembilan, is connected with Port Dickson by a railway line, owned by the Sungei Ujong Railway Company, which is 24½ m. in length. It is also situated on the trunk line of the Federated Malay States, and is thus joined by rail to Selangor on the north and to Malacca on the south. Frequent steam communication is maintained between Port Dickson and the ports on the Straits of Malacca and with Singapore.

For administrative purposes the Negri Sembilan is divided into five districts, viz. the Seremban District, the Coast District, Jelebu, Kuala Pilah and Tampin. Each of these is under the charge of a European district officer, who is responsible to the Resident. The Iang-di-per-Tuan lives at Kuala Pilah, but the capital of the federation is at Seremban in Sungei Ujong, where the Resident is stationed. The hereditary chiefs of the various states aid in the government of their districts, and have seats upon the state council, over which the Iang-di-per-Tuan presides. The watering-place of Magnolia Bay, where excellent sea-bathing is obtainable, is one of the pleasure resorts of this part of the peninsula.

PAHANG, on the east coast of the peninsula, is situated between parallels 2° 28´ and 3° 45´ N. and 101° 30´ and 103° 30´ E. It is bounded on the N. by the independent native states of Kelantan and Trengganu; on the S. by the Negri Sembilan and Johor; on the E. by the China Sea; and on the W. by the protected states of Perak and Selangor. The coast-line is about 112 m. in length; the greatest length is about 210 m., and greatest breadth about 130 m. The state is the largest in the peninsula, its area being estimated at 15,000 sq. m. The ports on the coast are the mouths of the Endau, Rompin, Pahang and Kuantan rivers, but during the north-east monsoon the coast is not easy of approach, and the rivers, all of which are guarded by difficult bars, are impossible of access except at high tides.

The principal river of the state is the Pahang, from which it takes its name. At a distance of 180 m. from the coast this river is formed by two others named respectively the Jelai and the Tembeling. The former is joined 20 m. farther up stream by the Lipis, which has its rise in the mountains which form the boundary with Perak. The Jelai itself has its rise also in a more northerly portion of this range, while its two principal tributaries above the mouth of the Lipis, the Telom and the Serau, rise, the one in the plateau which divides Perak from Pahang, the other in the hills which separate Pahang from Kelantan. The Tembeling has its rise in the hills which divide Pahang from Kelantan, but some of its tributaries rise on the Trengganu frontier, while the largest of its confluents comes from the hills in which the Kuantan River takes its rise. The Pahang is navigable for large boats as far as Kuala Lipis, 200 m. from the mouth, and light-draught launches can also get up to that point. Smaller boats can be taken some 80 m. higher up the Jelai and Telom. The river, however, as a waterway is of little use, since it is uniformly shallow. The Rompin and Kuantan rivers are somewhat more easily navigated for the first 30 m. of their course, but taken as a whole the waterways of Pahang are of little value. The interior of Pahang is chiefly noted for its auriferous deposits. Gunong Tahan is situated on the boundary between Pahang and Kelantan. Its height is estimated at 8000 ft. above sea-level, but it has never yet been ascended. Pahang, like the states on the west coast, is covered almost entirely by one vast forest, but in the Lipis valley, which formerly was thickly populated, there is a considerable expanse of open grass plain unlike anything to be seen on the western seaboard. The coast is for the most part a sandy beach fringed with _casuarina_ trees and there are only a few patches of mangrove-swamp throughout its entire length.

History.

The ancient name of Pahang was Indrapura. It is mentioned in the history of _Hang Tuah_, the great Malacca brave, who flourished in the 16th century, and succeeded in abducting a daughter of the then ruling house of Pahang for his master, the sultan of Malacca. Prior to this, Pahang had been ruled by the Siamese. When Malacca fell into the hands of the Portuguese in 1511 the sultan, Muhammad Shah, fled to Pahang, and the present ruling house claims to have been descended from him. The title of the ruler of Pahang was Bendahara until 1882, when the present (1902) ruler, Wan Ahmad, assumed the title of sultan, taking the name of Sultan Ahmad Maatham Shah. Up to that time the Bendahara had been installed on his accession by the sultan of Riau, and held his office by virtue of that chief's letter of authority. About 1855 the father of the present sultan died at Pekan, and his son Bendahara Korish, who succeeded him, drove Wan Ahmad from the country. After making three unsuccessful attempts to conquer the land and to dethrone his elder brother, Wan Ahmad at last succeeded in 1865 in invading the state and wresting the throne from his nephew, who had succeeded his father some years earlier. From that time, in spite of two attempts to shake his power by invasions from Selangor which were undertaken by his nephews Wan Aman and Wan Da, Bendahara Ahmad ruled his country with a rod of iron. In 1887 he consented to enter into a treaty with the governor of the Straits by which he accepted a consular agent at his court. This treaty was finally signed on the 8th of October 1887. In February of the following year a Chinese British subject was murdered at Pekan in circumstances which pointed to the responsibility of the sultan for the crime, and in October 1888 a Resident was appointed to assist the sultan in the administration of his country, that being, in the opinion of the British government, the only guarantee for the safety of the life and property of British subjects which it could accept. In December 1891 disturbances broke out in Pahang, the nominal leaders of which were certain of the sultan's most trusted chiefs. The sultan himself took no part in the outbreak, but it undoubtedly had his sympathy, even if it was not caused by his direct commands. The rebels were driven to seek safety in flight in November 1892, but in June 1894 they gathered strength for a second disturbance, and raided Pahang from Kelantan, in which state they had been given shelter by the Mahommedan rulers. This event, added to the occurrence of other raids from across the border, led to an irregular expedition being led into Trengganu and Kelantan by the Resident of Pahang (Mr Hugh Clifford) in 1895, and this had the desired result. The rebel chiefs were banished to Siam, and no further breach of the peace has troubled the tranquillity of Pahang since that time. Pahang joined the Federated Malay States by a treaty signed in 1895, and the sultan and his principal chiefs were present at the federal durbar held at Kuala Kangsar in Perak in 1897.

Population.

The census taken in April 1901 gave the total population of Pahang at 84,113, of whom 73,462 were Malays, 8695 Chinese, 1227 Tamils and other natives of India, 180 Europeans and Eurasians, and 549 people of other nationalities. The population in 1905 was estimated at 100,000, the increase being due to immigration mainly from the states on the western seaboard. In former days Pahang was far more thickly populated than in modern times, but the long succession of civil wars which racked the land after the death of Bendahara Ali caused thousands of Pahang Malays to fly the country. To-day the valley of the Lebir River in Kelantan and the upper portions of several rivers near the Perak and Selangor boundaries are inhabited by Pahang Malays, the descendants of these fugitives. The Pahang natives are almost all engaged in agriculture. The work of the mines, &c., is performed by Chinese and foreign Malays. In the Lipis valley the descendants of the Rawa Malays, who at one time possessed the whole of the interior in defiance of the Pahang rajas, still outnumber the people of the land.

Finance and Trade.

The revenue of Pahang in 1899 amounted to only $62,077; in 1900 to $419,150. In 1905 it was $528,368. The expenditure in 1905 amounted to $1,208,176. Of this sum $736,886 was expended on public works. Pahang is still a source of expense to the federation, its progress having been retarded by the disturbances which lasted from December 1891 until 1895, with short intervals of peace, but the revenue is now steadily increasing, and the ultimate financial success of the state is considered to be secure. Pahang owes something over $3,966,500 to Selangor and $1,175,000 to Perak, which have financed it now for some years out of surplus revenue. The value of the imports in 1905 was $1,344,346, that of the exports was $3,838,928, thus making a total trade value of $5,183,274. The most valuable export is tin, the value of which in 1905 amounted to $2,820,745. The value of the gutta exported exceeded $140,000, that of dried and salted fish amounted to nearly $70,000, and that of timber to $325,000.

General.

The geological formation of the states lying to the eastward of the main range of mountains which splits the peninsula in twain differs materially from that of the western states. At a distance of about a dozen miles from the summits of the mountains the granite formation is replaced by slates, which in many places are intersected by fissures of quartz, and in others are overlaid by vast thicknesses of limestone. Those of the quartz fissures which have been exploited are found to be auriferous, and several mining companies have attempted to work the deposits. Their efforts, however, have not hitherto been successful. A magnificent road over the mountains, with a ruling grade of 1 in 30, joins Kuala Lipis, the administrative capital of Pahang, to Kuala Kubu, the nearest railway station in Selangor. The road measures 82 m. in length. Pekan, where the sultan has his residence, was the capital of Pahang until the middle of 1898, when the administrative headquarters were transferred to the interior as being more central. None of these towns is of any size or importance. In the Kuantan valley, which lies parallel to the Pahang River, a European company is working tin lodes with considerable success. These lodes are the only mines of the kind being worked in the Federated Malay States. Pahang is fertile and well suited for agriculture of many kinds. The rainfall is heavy and regular. The climate is cooler than that of the west coast, and the full force of the monsoon is felt from October to February in each year. For administrative purposes Pahang is divided into four districts--Ulu Pahang, in which the present capital is situated; Temerloh, which includes 80 odd miles of the Pahang valley and the Semantan River; Pekan, which includes the coast rivers down to Endau; and Kuantan. Each of these is under the charge of a district officer, who is responsible to the resident. The boundary with Johor and the Negri Sembilan was rectified by a commission which sat in London in 1897-1898.

AUTHORITIES.--_Journal of the Eastern Archipelago_ (Singapore); _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ (Singapore); Maxwell, _Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute_, vol. xxiii.; Swettenham, ibid. vol. xxvii; Clifford, ibid. vol. xxx. (London, 1892, 1895, 1899); Swettenham, _About Perak_ (Singapore, 1893); _Malay Sketches_ (London, 1895); _The Real Malay_ (London, 1899); _British Malaya_ (London, 1906); Clifford, _In Court and Kampong_ (London, 1897); _Studies in Brown Humanity_ (London, 1898); _In a Corner of Asia_ (London, 1899); _Bush-whacking_ (London, 1901); _Further India_ (London, 1904); De la Croix, _Les Mines d'etins de Perak_ (Paris, 1882); Bluebook, C. 9524 (London, 1899); _The Straits Directory_ (Singapore, 1906); Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900); Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906). (H. Cl.)

II.--NON-FEDERATED STATES

In 1909 a treaty was made between Great Britain and Siam, one provision of which was the cession to the former of the suzerain rights enjoyed by the latter over certain territories in the Malay Peninsula. These territories consisted of the four Siamese Malay States: Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, very ancient dependencies of Siam, all of which except Trengganu, were in a flourishing condition and had been administered by British officers in the service of Siam for some years prior to their transference. Though the four states were loyal to Siam and wished to retain their former allegiance, the change was effected without disturbance of any kind, the British government on assuming the rights of suzerainty placing an adviser at the court of each raja and guaranteeing the continuance of the administration on the lines already laid down by Siam so far as might be compatible with justice and fair treatment for all. The four states lie to the north of the Federated Malay States, two on the east and two on the west side of the peninsula.

KELANTAN.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the China Sea, E. by Trengganu, S. by Pahang and W. by Perak and Ra-ngé, lies between 4° 48´ and 6° 20´ N. and 101° 33´ and 102° 45´ E. The greatest length from north to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth from east to west 60 m. The area is about 5000 sq. m. The northern part of the state is flat and fertile, but the southern district which comprises more than half the total area, is mountainous and uncultivated.

Next to the Pahang, the Kelantan River is the largest on the east coast. It is 120 miles long and is navigable for shallow-draft launches and big country boats for about 80 miles, and for vessels of 8 ft. draft for about six miles. Its principal tributaries are the Galas, Pergau and Lebir. The Golok and Semarak rivers water the west and east parts of the state, falling into the sea a few miles on either side of the mouth of the Kelantan River. The climate of Kelantan is mild and singularly healthy in the open cultivated regions. The population is about 300,000 of which 10,000 are aboriginal tribes (Sakeis and Jakuns), 10,000 Siamese and Chinese and the rest Malays. The Chinese are increasing and natives of different parts of India are resorting to the state for purposes of trade. Kota Bharu (pop. 10,000) is the only town in the state. It lies on the right bank of the river, about six miles from the sea. Since 1904 it has been laid out with metalled roads and many public and private buildings have been erected. The town is the commercial as well as the administrative centre of the state. Tumpat and Tabar on the coast, with population 4000 and 3000 respectively, are the places next in importance after Kota Bharu. A network of creeks render communication easy in the northern districts, the river and its tributaries afford means of access to all parts of the south; 20 miles of road have been made in the neighbourhood of Kota Bharu. Kelantan is connected by telegraph with Bangkok and Singapore, and maintains regular postal communication with those places. Rice cultivation is the principal industry and is increasing rapidly. Coco-nut and betel-nut growing are also largely practised. Much livestock is raised. About 400,000 acres of land are under cultivation. Though reputed rich in minerals, past misrule prevented mining enterprise in Kelantan until, in 1900, a large concession was given to an Englishman and the country was opened to foreigners. In 1909 three mining syndicates were at work, and several others were in process of formation. Gold, tin and galena have been found in several localities and during the years 1906-1909 28,000 ounces of gold were dredged from the Kelantan River. The Kelantanese are expert fishermen, some 30,000 finding employment in fishing and fish-drying. Silk-weaving is a growing industry. Foreign trade, which in 1909 reached the value of two and a half million dollars, is chiefly with Singapore. Principal exports are copra, rice, fish, cattle and gold; chief imports are cotton goods, hardware and specie. The currency is the Straits Settlements dollar and small silver coin, supplemented by a locally made tin coin of low value.

By virtue of a mutual agreement made in 1902 Siam appointed a resident commissioner to Kelantan and consented, so long as the advice of that officer should be followed, to leave internal affairs to be conducted locally. Under this arrangement a council of state was appointed, departments of government were organized, penal, civil and revenue laws were passed and enforced, courts were established and a police force was raised. Though formerly of an evil reputation, the people were found to be naturally peaceful and law-abiding, and serious crime is rare. The state revenue, which was practically nothing in 1902, amounted to $320,000 in 1907. Islamism was adopted about 300 years ago but the old animistic superstitions are still strong. The state is divided into _mukim_ or parishes, but the _imam_ no longer exercise temporal authority. There are three schools at Kota Bharu, education in the interior being in the hands of the imam assisted with government grants.

No historical records of Kelantan exist, and the state was not noticed by the European merchants of the 16th and 17th centuries. Consequently little is known of its early history beyond what is to be gathered from brief references in the Malay annals and the old chronicles of Siam. The sites of ancient towns and the remains of former gold diggings are visible here and there, but all knowledge of the men who made these marks has been lost. The present ruling family dates from about 1790. Siam was frequently called upon to maintain internal peace and in 1892 a royal prince was sent to reside in Kelantan as commissioner. Complications brought about by the incapacity of the ruler led to the making of the agreement of 1902 above mentioned, to the fixing of a regular tribute in money to Siam, and ultimately to the merging of the state from chaotic lawlessness into the path of reform. On the 15th of July 1909 the state came under British suzerainty and the commissioner of Siam was replaced by a British adviser, from which date the liability to payment of tribute ceased, though in all other respects the administrative arrangements of Siam remained unaltered.

TRENGGANU.--This state on the east coast, bounded N. and N.E. by the China Sea, S. by Pahang and W. by Pahang and Kelantan, lies between parallels 4° 4´ and 4° 46´ N. and 102° 30´ and 103° 26´ E. The greatest length from north to south is 120 m., and the greatest breadth from east to west 50 m. It has a coast-line of 130 m. and an estimated area of about 5000 sq. m. There are several islands off the coast, some of which are inhabited. The surface is generally mountainous.

Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and Kmamun, none of which is navigable for any distance. The climate is mild and fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000, almost all Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower reaches of the rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth of the Trengganu River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than 30,000 people. Difficulty of access by river and by land render the interior districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is maintained by boat along the coast. There are no roads and no postal or telegraphic communications.

The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is grown, but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much pepper and gambier were at one time grown and exported, but about the year 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few head of cattle exported from Besut being mostly stolen from across the neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under European control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything possible was done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the probable mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched. Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of Malay clothing (_sarongs_) of patterns and quality which are widely celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu is not increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half million dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great extent carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some carrying trade for other states on the east coast.

The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca in the 13th century and during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries its possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam. The present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family, the members of which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance was in 1837 when the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great Britain a triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this with occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost the only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government there was practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of his powers and prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious seclusion and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were devoured by the relatives, a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing for the sultan's needs. There were no written laws, no courts and no police. All manner of crime was rampant, the peasantry was mercilessly downtrodden, but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer. In fine, Trengganu presented in the beginning of the year 1909 the type of untrammelled Malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every other state in the peninsula. In July of that year, however, the first British adviser or agent arrived in the state, which was shortly afterwards visited by the governor of the Straits Settlements, who discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the Anglo-Siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform.

KEDAH.--This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies between parallels 5° 20´ and 6° 42´ N., and is bounded, N. by Palit and Songkla, E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province Wellesley and Perak, and W. by the sea. The coast-line is 65 m. long, the greatest distance from north to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth 46 m. Off the coast lies a group of islands, the largest of which is Langkawi, well peopled and forming a district of the state.

The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-lying and swampy near the coast except towards the south where the height known as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang, flat and fertile farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern border. The rivers are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few miles for vessels of 50 tons, and the S. Muda, which forms the boundary with Province Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice. The plains are formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains limestone and granite preponderate. The population is estimated at 220,000, of whom about 100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and Madrassis (Klings). There are three towns of importance. Alor Star, the capital, on the Kedah river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat, unhealthy, but fertile locality, is a well laid out town with good streets, many handsome public and private buildings, and good wharfage for small vessels. The population is about 20,000, of whom more than half are Chinese and the remainder government servants and retainers of the local aristocracy. Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim (pop. 8000) situated in the south, are unimposing collections of small birch houses and thatched bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the Kedah tin mining industry. The bulk of the population is scattered over the plains in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor Star to the border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other roads are being constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line and 75 miles of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star for Penang and there is a good internal postal service. The chief industry is rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit plantations are many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been taken up with prospects of success. The estimated area under cultivation is about 300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star and at Kuala Muda. The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The chief imports are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk. Accurate trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank of sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by the British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese to British protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly appointed by Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized by Siam as having hereditary right to the rulership. The penal and civil laws are administered in accordance with the precepts of Islamism, the official religion of the state. Though much has been done to improve the courts, justice is not easily obtainable. A land registration system is in force but is in a state of confusion, though a land law passed in 1905 gives security of tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining laws are similar to those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government advanced two and a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of the state, which sum was refunded by the British Government on assuming the position of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000 and the expenditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium and land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is. There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department. The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under Malay officials. Each district comprises several _mukim_ or parishes, the _imam_ of which exercise both spiritual and temporal control. There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been seriously undertaken.

Kedah was founded by colonists from India in A.D. 1200, about which time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and claimed the whole Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca shook Siamese authority in the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between them, and on the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to Siam, though the capital was raided and burnt by the Europeans. The ruler and his people were converted to Islam in the 15th century. In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being disorganized, the sultan of Kedah entered into direct political relations with the Hon. East India Company, leasing the island of Penang to the latter. Further treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but in 1821 Siam reasserted her control, expelling the rebellious sultan after a sanguinary war. The sultan made several fruitless efforts to recover the state, and at length made full submission, when he was reinstated. In 1868 an agreement between Great Britain and Siam was substituted for the treaties of the East India Company with the sultan. The present sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years governed well, but in 1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the government to his minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the Siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of bankruptcy, adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general administration to such effect that when, four years later, the state became a British dependency, a government was found established on a sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist its further advance.

PERLIS (_Palit_).--This small state, consisting of the left bank drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah, which bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively. It touches the sea only round the mouth of the river.

The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief town, Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of tin is worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the early part of the 19th century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but during a period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself as a separate chiefdom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority of Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the Siamese government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perlis, and appointed an English adviser to assist in the general administration. This money was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a British officer when the state became British in July 1909. The condition of the state has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is not sufficient for the immediate needs of government.

Authorities.--Norman, _The Far East_ (London, 1895); H. Clifford, in the _Geographical Journal_ (London, 1896); Carter, _The Kingdom of Siam_ (London, 1904); Graham, _Reports on Kelantan_ (Bangkok, 1905-1909); Skeat and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_ (London, 1906); Hart, _Reports on Kedah_ (Calcutta, 1907-1909); Graham, _Kelantan, a Handbook_ (Glasgow, 1907). (W. A. G.)

MALAY STATES (SIAMESE). The authority of Siam, which at one time covered the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends southward to an irregular line drawn across the Peninsula at about 6° 30´ N. Between that line and the Isthmus of Kra, usually accepted as the northernmost point of the Malay Peninsula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited by a mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there a few remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the wilder districts, and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in commerce. Formerly this tract was divided into a number of states, each of which was ruled by a chief (Siamese, _Chao Muang_; Malay, _raja_), who held his title from the king of Siam, but, subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of his state in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief, moreover, was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the suzerain. The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan, Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa, Pang Nga, Tongka and Trang, in which the Siamese element predominated and of which the chiefs were usually Siamese or Chinese; and a southern, including Palean, Satun (Setul), Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge (Legeh), Yala (Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was principally Malay and the ruler also Malay. Four other states of the southern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British protection in 1909.

With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all the states of the northern group have been incorporated as ordinary provinces of Siam (q.v.), the hereditary _Chao Muang_ having died or been pensioned and replaced by officials of the Siamese Civil Service, while the states themselves now constitute provinces of the administrative divisions of Chumpon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom presides over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese assistant commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district officials, subject to the general control of high commissioners under whom the states are grouped. This southern group, with a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and a population of 375,000, constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British consul with headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at Songkla, watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other foreign powers are unrepresented.

_Palean._--This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative purposes to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged in the cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually exported. A few tin mines are also worked.

_Satun_ (_Setul_).--This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m. area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast of the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of Kedah, then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not a success, and in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to prevailing corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief and, cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent under the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms of the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis was added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the latter was considerably increased.

_Patani._--The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering, Yala (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ngé (Legeh) were constituted from the old state of Patani at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1906 they were reunited to form the Patani administrative division of Siam, but each state retains its Malay ruler, who governs jointly with a Siamese officer under the direction of the Siamese high commissioner, and many of the ancient privileges and customs of Malay government are preserved. The group of States is situated between 5° 34´ and 6° 52´ N. and 100° 54´ and 101° 58´ E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E. by the China Sea and Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total area is about 5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani and the Teloban, long, winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The population is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays. Each state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high commissioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are poor and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction. Patani and Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and regular weekly mails are despatched to those places. The area under cultivation is small except round about Patani and in Nawng Chik, where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing industry; many Chinese own mines and several European syndicates are at work in Raman, Ra-ngé and Patani, prospecting for, or mining, this metal. Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion of the population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and dried fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers up to 300 tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons.

Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of Siam obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each state, and there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about 600,000 ticals, or £45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers as private income for themselves and their relatives, one-third expended on the administration, and one-third reserved for special purposes, but it is usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the expenses of administration. Patani has been subject to Siam from the remotest times. It is said that the old state adopted Islamism in the 16th century, the chief, a relative of the kings of Siam, embracing that religion and at the same time revolting to Malacca. It has several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall the state to its allegiance. The present rulers are mostly descended from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of Kelantan, but the chief of Patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there in the days of its greatness. Throughout the 17th century Patani was resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and English merchants, who had factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with Siam. In 1621 an engagement took place in the Patani roads between three Dutch and two British ships, the latter being taken after the president of the British merchants, John Jourdain, had been killed. In 1899 the border between the state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an agreement between England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being thereby settled, but the question was reopened in the negotiations which preceded the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border line was fixed between British and Siamese possessions in the Peninsula. (W. A. G.)

MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. (1900), 7449. It is, alternately with Sternberg, the place of assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are the châteaux of Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the 14th century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the "Mecklenburg Switzerland," and is increasing in favour as a summer resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene. The industries of the town include the manufacture of sugar and bricks, and brewing and malting. Malchin became a town in 1236.

MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom, MALCOLM I., king from 943 to 954, and MALCOLM II., king from 1005 to 1034, are shadowy and unimportant personages.

MALCOLM III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the "large-headed," was a son of King Duncan I., and became king after the defeat of the usurper Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned at Scone in April 1057. Having married as his second wife, (St) Margaret (q.v.), a sister of Edgar Ætheling, who was a fugitive at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to support the claim of Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland with many captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, whereupon Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abernethy and "was his man." However, in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of England again and again, until in 1091 William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his submission. Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, and William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. The Scot obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey was present at the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he reached Gloucester Rufus refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom; he declined and returned home in high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded Northumbria, and was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm's Cross, near Alnwick, on the 13th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm's sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became kings of Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I. of England, a marriage which united the Saxon and the Norman royal houses.

MALCOLM IV. (c. 1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152), son of King David I., and succeeded his grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called the "Maiden," and died unmarried on the 9th of December 1165.

See E. A. Freeman, _The Norman Conquest_, vols. iv. and v. (1867-1879), and _The Reign of William Rufus_ (1882); W. F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880); E. W. Robertson, _Scotland under her Early Kings_ (1862); and A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. i. (1900).

MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1769-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier, diplomatist, administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on the Esk, near Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd of May 1769. His father was a humble farmer, but three of his sons attained the honour of knighthood. At the age of twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian army, and in April 1783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining his regiment at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to India in 1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke, commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor General Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley assistant to the resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned capacity he highly distinguished himself by the manner in which he gave effect to the difficult measure of disbanding the French corps in the pay of the nizam. In 1799, under the walls of Seringapatam, began his intimacy with Colonel Arthur Wellesley, which in a short time ripened into a lifelong friendship. In the course of the same year he acted as first secretary to the commission appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before its close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy to the court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy of the French by inducing that country to form a British alliance. Arriving at Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in negotiating favourable treaties, both political and commercial, and returned to Bombay by way of Bagdad in May 1801. He now for some time held the interim post of private secretary to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the Mysore residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and Holkar, and in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out of these alliances carried out, he directed the difficult work of reducing the immense body of irregular native troops. In 1808 he was again sent on a mission to Persia, but circumstances prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on his reappointment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a favourable reception at court, but otherwise his embassy, if the information which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be left out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any substantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortly after his arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals of leisure he devoted to literary work, and especially to the composition of a _History of Persia_, which was published in two quarto volumes in 1815. On his return to India in 1817 he was appointed by Lord Moira his political agent in the Deccan, with eligibility for military command; as brigadier-general under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in the victory of Mehidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions of peace and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once more to England, where he remained until 1827, when he was appointed governor of Bombay. His influence in this office was directed to the promotion of various economical reforms and useful administrative measures. Leaving India for the last time in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered parliament as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 30th of May 1833.

Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm published _Sketch of the Political History of India since ... 1784_ (in 1811 and 1826); _Sketch of the Sikhs_ (1812); _Observations on the Disturbances in the Madras Army in 1809_ (1812); _Persia, a Poem_, anonymous (1814); _A Memoir of Central India_ (2 vols., 1823); and _Sketches of Persia_, anonymous (1827). A posthumous work, _Life of Robert, Lord Clive_, appeared in 1836. See _Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm_, by J. W. Kaye (2 vols., 1856).

MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 884,030, showing an increase of 8.5 in the decade. The administrative headquarters are at English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the town of Old Malda. The district is divided into two almost equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from north to south. The western tract between the Mahananda and the main stream of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great fertility. The eastern half is an elevated region broken by the deep valleys of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is overgrown with thorny tree jungle known as the _katal_. Agricultural prosperity centres on the Mahananda, where mango orchards and high raised plots of mulberry land extend continuously along both banks of the river. The Ganges nowhere intersects the district, but skirts it from its north-western corner to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep well-defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right, and the Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two principal industries are the production of indigo and silk. The first has declined, and so has the second as far as concerns the weaving of piece goods, but the rearing of silkworms and the export of raw silk and silk thread are carried on upon a large scale. No railway touches the district, but the communications by water are good.

Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings of Bengal; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most interesting remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (See GAUR.) The connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates from a very early period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory there. In 1770 English Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency, the buildings of which at the present day form both the public offices and private residence of the collector.

MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Malden river, about 5 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom 9513 were foreign-born, 3673 being English Canadians, 870 English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census) 44,404. Malden had in 1906 a land area of 4.78 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways. Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston--its post office is a Boston sub-station--it has important manufacturing industries. The most valuable manufactured product is rubber boots and shoes. The capital invested in manufacturing in 1905 was $5,553,432; and the value of the factory product, $11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of the factory product in 1900. Among Malden's institutions are the public library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Malden hospital, the Malden day nursery, a Young Men's Christian Association, and a home for the aged. A fine system of parks is maintained; the best known is possibly Pine Banks. To the north and west is the Middlesex Fells, a state reservation; about 60 acres of this and about 20 acres of the Middlesex Fells Parkway lie within Malden. Malden, when first settled about 1640, was part of Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side. It was incorporated as a town under the name of "Mauldon" in 1640, and was chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of Malden was set off in 1850 to form Melrose, and the south part in 1870 to form the town of Everett. Malden was the birthplace of Adoniram Judson, the "apostle to Burma." Michael Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705.

See D. P. Corey, _History of Malden_ (Malden, 1899); and _Malden, Past and Present_ (Malden, 1899).

MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the Indian Ocean, forming a chain between 7° 6´ N. and 0° 42´ S. It consists of seventeen atolls with an immense number of islands, of which some three hundred are inhabited. In the extreme south are the isolated atolls of Addu and Fua-Mulaku, separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, which is itself separated from the main chain of atolls by One-and-a-half-degree Channel.[1] Following the chain northward from this channel, we have Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which the chain becomes double: to the east the chief atolls are Mulaku, Felidu, South Malé, North Malé, Kardiva (where the channel of the same name, 35 m. broad, partly breaks the chain), and Fadiffolu. To the west are South Nilandu, North Nilandu, Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and Miladumadulu. To the north again are Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. Finally, to the north of Eight-degree Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the nearest point of the Maldives, and 110 m. from that of the Laccadives to the north. The main part of the archipelago, north of One-and-a-half-degree Channel, consists of a series of banks either surrounded or studded all over with reefs (see J. S. Gardiner, "Formation of the Maldives," in _Geographical Journ._ xix. 277 seq.). Mr Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to different elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau rising steeply from the great depths of the Indian Ocean.

After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had attempted many times to establish themselves on the islands by force, and after the Maldivians had endured frequent raids by the Mopla pirates of the Malabar coast, they began to send tokens of homage and claims of protection (the first recorded being in 1645) to the rulers of Ceylon, and their association with this island has continued practically ever since. The hereditary sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the British government of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is estimated at 30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and Cooper they are classed in four ethnological divisions. (1) Those of the atolls north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the reefs are generally less perfect than elsewhere, seldom forming complete central lagoons, and as they were formerly exposed to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from India, the people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of India or Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring distinct racial characters of an approximately Dravidian type. (2) Those of the central division, comprising the atolls between North Malé and Haddumati, who are under the direct rule of the sultan, and have been more exposed to Arab influences. They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain of Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of Suvadiva, Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who have had little communication with the Central Malé people, and probably preserve more of the primitive type, approximating in appearance to the Sinhalese villagers of Ceylon. They are an intelligent and industrious people, growing their own crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and building their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently, although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language is a dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient date and more or less mahommedanized.

The sultan's residence and the capital of the archipelago is the island of Malé. From the earliest notices the production of coir, the collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent textures on these islands have been noted. The chief exports of the islands besides coir and cowries (a decreasing trade) are coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell and dried bonito-fish.

Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its lighthouse, and its position on the track of all eastward-bound vessels, is a familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The atoll, which is pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from S.W. to N.E. is 5 m. long, with an extreme breadth of nearly 3 m., with a large but shallow lagoon approached from the north by a passage two fathoms deep. The atoll is growing outwards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft. above sea-level. The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply divided into five castes, of which the three highest are pure Maldivians, the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or lagoon side; but most of the men are generally absent, many being employed with the Lascar crews on board the large liners plying in the eastern seas.

In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper carried out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the important results of which see _The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes_, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge, 1901-1905), also _Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society_, vol. xi. pt. 1 (1900), and the _Geographical Journ._, _loc. cit._, &c. A French adventurer, François Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the Maldives in 1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interesting account of the archipelago, _Voyage de F. P. de la Val_ (Paris, 1679; previous editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, "An Expedition to the Maldives" in _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xiii. (1902).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] These and other channels in the locality are named from their position under parallels of latitude.

MALDON, a market town, municipal borough and port, in the Maldon parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an acclivity rising from the south side of the Blackwater, 43 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east and west railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056, but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel, nave and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique form) at the west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The tower of St Mary's Church shows Norman work with Roman materials. The other public buildings are the grammar school, founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D'Arcy's tower, built in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are manufactures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a farm colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are remains of Beeleigh Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of the 12th century. They consist of the chapter-house and another chamber, and are of fine Early English work. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3028 acres.

At Maldon (_Maelduna_, _Melduna_, _Mealdon_ or _Meaudon_) palaeolithic, neolithic and Roman remains that have been found seem to indicate an early settlement. It is not, however, an important Roman site. An earthwork, of which traces exist, may be Saxon or Danish. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that Edward the Elder established a "burh" there about 921, and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the Danes in 991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commercial importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by the Chronicle. Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign of Henry I., and thus is entered as on _terra regis_ in Domesday. Henry II. granted the burgesses their first charter, probably in 1155, giving them the land of the borough and suburb with sac and soc and other judicial rights, also freedom from county and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage and all tolls, by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This charter was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 1344, and by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London granted further judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. confirmed the charters in 1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII. in 1525. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554, and received confirmatory charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and 1592, from Charles I. in 1631, Charles II. and James II. In 1768 the incorporation charter was regranted, with modifications in 1810.

MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715), French philosopher of the Cartesian school, the youngest child of Nicolas Malebranche, secretary to Louis XIII., and Catherine de Lauzon, sister of a viceroy of Canada, was born at Paris on the 6th of August 1638. Deformed and constitutionally feeble, he received his elementary education from a tutor, and left home only when sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at the Collège de la Marche, and subsequently to study theology at the Sorbonne. He had resolved to take holy orders, but his studious disposition led him to decline a stall in Notre Dame, and in 1660 he joined the congregation of the Oratory. He was first advised by Père Lecointe to devote himself to ecclesiastical history, and laboriously studied Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, but "the facts refused to arrange themselves in his mind, and mutually effaced one another." Richard Simon undertook to teach him Hebrew and Biblical criticism with no better success. At last in 1664 he chanced to read Descartes's _Traité de l'homme_ (_de homine_), which moved him so deeply that (it is said) he was repeatedly compelled by palpitations of the heart to lay aside his reading. Malebranche was from that hour consecrated to philosophy, and after ten years' study of the works of Descartes he produced the famous _De la recherche de la vérité_, followed at intervals by other works, both speculative and controversial. Like most of the great metaphysicians of the 17th century, Malebranche interested himself also in questions of mathematics and natural philosophy, and in 1699 was admitted an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences. During his later years his society was much courted, and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction. He died on the 13th of October 1715; his end was said to have been hastened by a metaphysical argument into which he had been drawn in the course of an interview with Bishop Berkeley. For a critical account of Malebranche's place in the history of philosophy, see CARTESIANISM.

WORKS.--_De La recherche de la vérité_ (1674; 6th ed., 1712; ed. Bouillier, 1880; Latin trans, by J. Lenfant at Geneva in 1685; English trans. by R. Sault, 1694; and T. Taylor, 1694, 1712); _Conversations chrétiennes_ (1677, and frequently; Eng. trans., London, 1695); _Traité de la nature et de la grâce_ (1680; Eng. trans., London, 1695); _Méditations chrétiennes et métaphysiques_ (1683); _Traité de morale_ (1684; separate ed. by H. Joly, 1882; Eng. trans, by Sir J. Shipton, 1699); several polemical works against Arnauld from 1684 to 1688; _Entretiens sur la métaphysique et sur la religion_ (1688); _Traité de l'amour de Dieu_ (1697); _Entretiens d'un philosophe chrétien et d'un philosophe chinois sur l'existence et la nature de Dieu_ (1708); _Réflexions sur la prémotion physique_ (1715).

A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an introduction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestionably anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent work of Berkeley, will be found in the _British Journal of Psychology_ (Jan. 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the series _Les Grands philosophes_ (Paris, 1901); L. Ollé-Laprune, _La Philosophie de Malebranche_ (1870); M. Novaro, _Die Philosophie des Nicolaus Malebranche_ (1893).

MALER KOTLA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The territory lies south of Ludhiana. Area, 167 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 77,506, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £30,100. The military force numbers 280 men; and there is no tribute. The town Maler Kotla is 30 m. S. of Ludhiana; pop. (1901), 21,122. The nawab or chief is of Afghan descent; his family originally came from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in Sirhind under the Mogul emperors. They gradually became independent as the Mogul Empire sank into decay in the course of the 18th century. In General Lake's campaign against Holkar in 1805 the nawab of Maler Kotla sided with the British. After the subjugation and flight of Holkar, the English government succeeded to the power of the Mahrattas in the districts between the Sutlej and the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was formally extended to Maler Kotla, as to the other Cis-Sutlej states, against the formidable encroachments of Ranjit Singh. In the campaigns of 1806, 1807 and 1808 Ranjit Singh had made considerable conquests across the Sutlej; in 1808 he marched on Maler Kotla and demanded a ransom of £10,000 from the nawab. This led to the interference of the British, who addressed an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, declaring the Cis-Sutlej states to be under British protection. Finally the raja of Lahore submitted, and the nawab was reinstated in February 1809. Owing to the mental incapacity of nawab Ibrahim Ali Khan, the state was administered in recent years for some time by the chief of Loharu; but his son, Ahmed Ali Khan, was made regent in February 1905.

See _Maler Kotla State Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1908).

MALESHERBES, CHRÉTIEN GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON DE (1721-1794), commonly known as Lamoignon-Malesherbes, French statesman, minister, and afterwards counsel for the defence of Louis XVI., came of a famous legal family. He was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1721, and was educated for the legal profession. The young lawyer soon proved his intellectual capacity, when he was appointed president of the _cour des aides_ in the parlement of Paris in 1750 on the promotion of his father, Guillaume de Lamoignon, to be chancellor. One of the chancellor's duties was to control the press, and this duty was entrusted to Malesherbes by his father during his eighteen years of office, and brought him into connexion with the public far more than his judicial functions. To carry it out efficiently he kept in communication with the literary leaders of Paris, and especially with Diderot, and Grimm even goes so far as to say that "without the assistance of Malesherbes the _Encyclopédie_ would probably never have been published." In 1771 he was called upon to mix in politics; the parlements of France had been dissolved, and a new method of administering justice devised by Maupeou, which was in itself commendable as tending to the better and quicker administration of justice, but pernicious as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization, and as abolishing the hereditary "nobility of the robe," which, with all its faults, had from its nature preserved some independence, and been a check on the royal power. Malesherbes presented a strong remonstrance against the new system, and was at once banished to his country seat at St Lucie, to be recalled, however, with the old parlement on the accession of Louis XVI., and to be made minister of the _maison du roi_ in 1775. He only held office nine months, during which, however, he directed his attention to the police of the kingdom, which came under his department, and did much to check the odious practice of issuing _lettres de cachet_. The protest of the _cour des aides_ in 1775 is one of the most important documents of the old régime in France. It gives a complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration, and presented the king with most outspoken criticism. On retiring from the ministry with Turgot in 1776, he betook himself entirely to a happy country and domestic life and travelled through Switzerland, Germany and Holland. An essay on Protestant marriages (1787) did much to procure for them the civil recognition in France. He had always been an enthusiastic botanist; his avenue at St Lucie was world famous; he had written against Buffon on behalf of the botanists whom Buffon had attacked, and had been elected a member of the _Académie des sciences_ as far back as 1750. He was now elected a member of the _Académie française_, and everything seemed to promise a quiet and peaceful old age spent in the bosom of his family and occupied with scientific and literary pursuits, when the king in his difficulties wished for the support of his name, and summoned him back to the ministry in 1787. Lamoignon-Malesherbes held office but a short time, but returned to his country life this time with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet, and, as the troubles increased, retired to Switzerland. Nevertheless, in December 1792, in spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement would have given him, he voluntarily left his asylum and undertook with Tronchet and Desèze the defence of the king before the Convention, and it was his painful task to break the news of his condemnation to the king. After this effort he returned once more to the country, but in December 1793 he was arrested with his daughter, his son-in-law M. de Rosambo, and his grandchildren, and on the 23rd of April 1794 he was guillotined, after having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his eyes for their relationship to him. Malesherbes is one of the sweetest characters of the 18th century; though no man of action, hardly a man of the world, by his charity and unfeigned goodness he became one of the most popular men in France, and it was an act of truest self-devotion in him to sacrifice himself for a king who had done little or nothing for him.

There are in print several scientific works of Malesherbes of varying value, of which the most interesting is his _Observations sur Buffon et Daubenton_, written when he was very young, and published with a notice by Abeille in 1798. There exist also his _Mémoire pour Louis XVI._, his _Mémoire sur la liberté de la presse_ (published 1809) and extracts from his remonstrances, published as _Oeuvres choisies de Malesherbes_ in 1809. For his life should be read the _Notice historique_ (3rd ed., 1806) of Dubois, the _Éloge historique_ (1805) of Gaillard, and the interesting _Essai sur la vie, les écrits et les opinions de M. de Malesherbes_ (in 2 vols., 1818), of F. A. de Boissy d'Anglas. There are also many éloges on him in print, of which the best-known is that of M. Dupin, which was delivered at the Academy in 1841, and was reviewed with much light on Malesherbes's control of the press by Sainte-Beuve in the 2nd volume of the _Causeries du lundi_. The protest of the _cour des aides_ has been published with translation by G. Robinson in the _Translations and Reprints of the University of Pennsylvania_ (1900). For his defence of Louis XVI. see Marquis de Beaucourt, _Captivité et derniers moments de Louis XVI._ (2 vols., 1892, Soc. d'hist. contemp.), and A. Tuetey, _Répertoire général des sources manuscrites de l'hist. de Paris pendant la Rev. fr._, vol. viii. (1908).

MALET, LUCAS, the pen-name of Mary St Leger Harrison (1852- ), English novelist. She was the eldest daughter of Charles Kingsley, and was born at Eversley on the 4th of June 1852. She studied at the Slade school and at University College, London, and married in 1876 William Harrison, rector of Clovelly. After her husband's death in 1897 she eventually settled in London. She had already written several books--_Mrs Lorimer_ (1882), _Colonel Enderby's Wife_ (1885), _Little Peter_ (1887), _A Counsel of Perfection_ (1888)--when she published her powerful story, _The Wages of Sin_ (1891), which attracted great attention. Her _History of Sir Richard Calmady_ (1901) had an even greater success. Her other novels include _The Carissima_ (1896), _The Gateless Barrier_ (1900), _On the Far Horizon_ (1906).

MALHERBE, FRANÇOIS DE (1555-1628), French poet, critic and translator, was born at Caen in 1555. His family was of some position, though it seems not to have been able to establish to the satisfaction of heralds the claims which it made to nobility older than the 16th century. The poet was the eldest son of another François de Malherbe, _conseiller du roi_ in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated at Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of twenty-one, preferring arms to the gown, he entered the household of Henri d'Angoulême, grand prior of France, the natural son of Henry II. He served this prince as secretary in Provence, and married there in 1581. It seems that he wrote verses at this period, but, to judge from a quotation of Tallemant des Réaux, they must have been very bad ones. His patron died when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for a time he had no particular employment, though by some servile verses he obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III., whom he afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and partly in Normandy for many years after this event; but very little is known of his life during this period. His _Larmes de Saint Pierre_, imitated from Luigi Tansillo, appeared in 1587.

It was in the year parting the two centuries (1600) that he presented to Marie de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of his remarkable poems. But four or five years more passed before his fortune, which had hitherto been indifferent, turned. He was presented by his countryman, the Cardinal Du Perron, to Henry IV.; and, though that economical prince did not at first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was at last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or another. It is said that the pension promised him was not paid till the next reign. His father died in 1606, and he came into his inheritance. From this time forward he lived at court, corresponding affectionately with his wife, but seeing her only twice in some twenty years. His old age was saddened by a great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of promise, fell in a duel in 1626. His father used his utmost influence to have the guilty parties (for more than one were concerned, and there are grounds for thinking that it was not a fair duel) brought to justice. But he died before the suit was decided (it is said in consequence of disease caught at the camp of La Rochelle, whither he had gone to petition the king), in Paris, on the 16th of October, 1628, at the age of seventy-three.

The personal character of Malherbe was far from amiable, but he exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring effect upon French literature, though by no means a wholly beneficial one. The lines of Boileau beginning _Enfin Malherbe vint_ are rendered only partially applicable by the extraordinary ignorance of older French poetry which distinguished that peremptory critic. But the good as well as bad side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described by his contemporary and superior Regnier, who was animated against him, not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard but because of Malherbe's discourtesy towards Regnier's uncle P. Desportes, whom the Norman poet had at first distinctly copied. These are the lines:--

"Cependant leur savoir ne s'étend nullement Qu'à régratter un mot douteuse au jugement, Prendre garde qu'un _qui_ ne heurte une diphthongue, Epier si des vers la rime est brève ou longue, Ou bien si la voyelle à l'autre s'unissant Ne rend point à l'oreille un vers trop languissant. . . . . . . . . C'est proser de la rime et rimer de la prose."

This is perfectly true, and from the time of Malherbe dates that great and deplorable falling off of French poetry in its more poetic qualities, which was not made good till 1830. Nevertheless the critical and restraining tendency of Malherbe was not ill in place after the luxuriant importation and innovation of the _Pléiade_; and if he had confined himself to preaching greater technical perfection, and especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and versification, instead of superciliously striking his pen through the great works of his predecessors, he would have deserved wholly well. As it was, his reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for the classical tragedy, and that is the most that can be said for him. His own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most part frigid and devoid of inspiration. The beautiful _Consolation à Duperier_, in which occurs the famous line--

Et, rose, elle a vécu ce que vivent les roses--

the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII., and a few other pieces comprise all that is really worth remembering of him. His prose work is much more abundant, not less remarkable for care as to style and expression, and of greater positive value. It consists of some translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a very large number of interesting and admirably written letters, many of which are addressed to Peiresc, the man of science of whom Gassendi has left a delightful Latin life. It contains also a most curious commentary on Desportes, in which Malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is displayed on the great scale.

The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the _Vie de Malherbe_ by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long _Historiette_ which Tallemant des Réaux has devoted to him. The standard edition is the admirable one of Ludovic Lalanne (5 vols., Paris, 1862-1869). Of the poems only, there is an excellent and handsome little issue in the _Nouvelle collection Jannet_ (Paris, 1874). Of modern works devoted to him, _La Doctrine de Malherbe_, by G. Brunot (1891), is not only the most important but a work altogether capital in regard to the study of French language and literature. Others are A. Gasté, _La Jeunesse de Malherbe_ (1890); V. Bourrienne, _Points obscurs dans la vie normande de Malherbe_ (1895); and the duc de Broglie's "Malherbe" in _Les Grands écrivains français_. On his position in French and general critical history, G. Saintsbury's _History of Criticism_, vol. ii., may be consulted. (G. Sa.)

MALIBRAN, MARIE FÉLICITÉ (1808-1836), operatic singer, daughter of Manoel Garcia, was born in Paris on the 24th of March 1808. Her father was then a member of the company of the Théâtre des Italiens, and she accompanied him to Italy and London. She possessed a soprano voice of unusual beauty and phenomenal compass, which was carefully cultivated by her father. She was only seventeen when, in consequence of an indisposition of Madame Pasta, she was suddenly asked to take her place in _The Barber of Seville_ at Covent Garden. She was forthwith engaged for the remaining six weeks of the season, and then followed her father to New York, where she appeared in _Othello_, _The Barber of Seville_, _Don Juan_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _Tancred_. Her gifts as an actress were on a par with her magnificent voice, and her gaiety made her irresistible in light opera, although her great triumphs were obtained chiefly in tragic parts. She married a French banker of New York, named Malibran, who was much older than herself. The marriage was an unhappy one, and Mme Malibran returned alone to Europe in 1828, when she began the series of representations at the Théâtre des Italiens, which excited an enthusiasm in Paris only exceeded by the reception she received in the principal towns of Italy. She was formally divorced from Malibran in 1835, and married the Belgian violinist, Charles de Beriot; but she died of fever on the 23rd of September 1836.

See _Memoirs of Mme Malibran by the comtesse de Merlin and other intimate friends, with a selection from her correspondence_ (2 vols., 1840); and M. Teneo, _La Malibran, d'après des documents inédits_, in _Sammelbände der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft_ (Leipzig, 1906).

MALIC ACID (HYDROXYETHYLENE SUCCINIC ACID), C4H6O5, an organic acid found abundantly in the juices of many plants, particularly in mountain-ash berries, in unripe apples and in grapes. The acid potassium salt is also found in the leaves and stalks of rhubarb. Since the acid contains an asymmetric carbon atom, it can exist in three forms, a dextro-rotatory, a laevo-rotatory and an inactive form; the acid obtained in the various synthetical processes is the inactive form. It may be prepared by heating racemic acid (see TARTARIC ACID) with fuming hydriodic acid; by heating fumaric acid (q.v.) with water at 150-200° C.; by the action of nitrous acid on inactive aspartic acid; and by the action of moist silver oxide on monobromsuccinic acid. It forms deliquescent crystals, which are readily soluble in alcohol and melt at 100° C. When heated for some time at 130° C. it yields fumaric acid (q.v.), and on rapid heating at 180° C. gives maleic anhydride and fumaric acid. It yields coumarins when warmed with sulphuric acid and phenols (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1884, 17, 929, 1649 et seq.). Potassium bichromate oxidizes it to malonic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid; and hydriodic acid reduces it to succinic acid. The inactive variety may be split into the component active forms by means of its cinchonine salt (G. J. W. Bremer, _Ber._, 1880, 13, 352).

MALIGNANT (Lat. _malignus_, evil-disposed, from _maligenus_), wicked, of a malicious or wilfully evil disposition. The word was early applied by the Protestants to the Romanists, with an allusion to the "congregation of evil doers" (Vulgate _Ecclesiam malignantium_) of Psalm xxvi. 5. In English history, during the Great Rebellion, the name was given to the Royalists by the Parliamentary party. In the Great Remonstrance of 1641 occur the words "the malignant partie, wherof the Archbishop (Laud) and the earl of Strafford being heads." The name throughout the period had special reference to the religious differences between the parties. In medical science, the term "malignant" is applied to a particularly virulent or dangerous form which a disease may take, or to a tumour or growth of rapid growth, extension to the lymphatic glands, and recurrence after operation.

MALIK IBN ANAS (c. 718-795), the founder of the Malikite school of canon law, was born at Medina about A.D. 718: the precise date is not certain. He studied and passed his life there, and came to be regarded as the greatest local authority in theology and law. (For his legal system and its history see MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) His life was one of extreme honour and dignity, but uneventful, being given to study, lecturing on law and acting as mufti and judge. Only two episodes stand out in his biography. When Mahommed ibn 'Abdallah, the 'Alid, rose in A.D. 762 at Medina against the 'Abbasids, Malik gave a _fatwa_, or legal opinion, that the oath of allegiance to the 'Abbasids was invalid, as extorted by force. For this independence he was severely scourged by the 'Abbasid governor, who, apparently, did not dare to go beyond scourging with a man of his standing with the people. The second episode gave equal proof of independence. In 795 Harun al-Rashid made the pilgrimage, came with two of his sons to Medina, and sat at the feet of Malik as he lectured in the mosque. The story, legendary or historical, adds that Malik had refused to go to the caliph, saying that it was for the student to come to his teacher. Late in life he seems to have turned to asceticism and contemplation. It is said that he retired from all active, public life and even neglected plain, public duties, replying to reproaches, "Not every one can speak in his own excuse" (Ibn Qutaiba, _Ma 'arif_, 250). He is also entered among the early ascetic Sufis (cf. _Fihrist_, 183). He died in Medina, A.D. 795.

For a description of his principal book, the _Muwatta'_, see Goldziher's _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 213 sqq. He wrote also a Koran commentary, now apparently lost, and a hortatory epistle to Harun al-Rashid. See further, de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, ii. 545 sqq.; von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte_, i. 477 sqq.; Brockelmann, _Gesch. der arab. Litt._, i. 175 sqq.; Macdonald, _Muslim Theology, &c._, 99 sqq. and index; _Fihrist_, 198 seq.; Nawawi, 530 sqq. (D. B. Ma.)

MALINES (Flemish, _Mechelen_, called in the middle ages by the Latin name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin), an ancient and important city of Belgium, and the seat since 1559 of the only archbishopric in that country. Pop. (1904), 58,101. The name is supposed to be derived from _maris linea_, and to indicate that originally the sea came up to it. It is now situated on the Dyle, and is in the province of Antwerp, lying about half-way between Antwerp and Brussels. The chief importance of Malines is derived from the fact that it is in a sense the religious capital of Belgium--the archbishop being the primate of the Catholic Church in that country. The archbishop's palace is in a picturesque situation, and dates from the creation of the dignity. The principal building in the city is the exceedingly fine cathedral dedicated to St Rombaut. This cathedral was begun in the 12th and finished early in the 14th century, and although modified in the 15th after a fire, it remains one of the most remarkable specimens of Gothic architecture in Europe. The massive tower of over 300 ft., which is described as unfinished because the original intention was to carry it to 500 ft., is its most striking external feature. The people of Malines gained in the old distich--"gaudet Mechlinia stultis"--the reputation of being "fools," because one of the citizens on seeing the moon through the dormer windows of St Rombaut called out that the place was on fire, and his fellow-citizens, following his example, endeavoured to put out the conflagration until they realized the truth. The cathedral contains a fine altar-piece by Van Dyck, and the pulpit is in carved oak of the 17th century. Another old palace is that of Margaret of Austria, regent for Charles V., which has been carefully preserved and is now used as a court of justice. In the church of Notre Dame (16th century) is Rubens' masterpiece "the miraculous draught of fishes," and in that of St John is a fine triptych by the same master. Malines, although no longer famous for its lace, carries on a large trade in linen, needles, furniture and oil, while as a junction for the line from Ghent to Louvain and Liège, as well as for that from Antwerp to Brussels and the south, its station is one of the busiest in Belgium, and this fact has contributed to the general prosperity of the city.

The lordship of Malines was conferred as a separate fief by Pippin the Short on his kinsman Count Adon in 754. In the 9th century Charles the Bald bestowed the fief on the bishop of Liége, and after being shared between Brabant and Flanders it passed into the hands of Philip the Bold, founder of the house of Burgundy, in 1384. During the religious troubles of the 16th century Malines suffered greatly, and in 1572 it was sacked by Alva's troops during three days. In the wars of the 17th and 18th centuries it was besieged many times and captured by the French, Dutch and English on several occasions. The French finally removed the fortifications in 1804, since which year it has been an open town.

MALLANWAN, a town in Hardoi district, the United Provinces, India. Pop. (1901), 11,158. Under native rule the town possessed considerable political importance, and upon the British annexation of Oudh it was selected as the headquarters of the district, but was abandoned in favour of Hardoi after the Mutiny. Saltpetre and brass utensils are manufactured.

MALLARMÉ, FRANÇOIS RENÉ AUGUSTE (1755-1835), French Revolutionist, the son of a lawyer, was born at Nancy on the 25th of February 1755. He was brought up in his father's profession, and was appointed _procureur-syndic_ of the district of Pont-à-Mousson. During the Revolution he was elected by the department of Meurthe deputy to the Legislative Assembly and the Convention, where he attached himself to the Mountain and voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was elected president of the Convention on the 30th of May 1793, and by his weakness during the crisis of the following day contributed much to the success of the insurrection against the Girondists. He took an active part in the _levée-en-masse_, and in November 1793 was given the task of establishing the revolutionary government in the departments of Meuse and Moselle, where he gained an unenviable notoriety by ordering the execution of the sentence of death decreed by the revolutionary tribunal on some young girls at Verdun who had offered flowers to the Prussians when they entered the town. After the fall of Robespierre he joined the group of "Thermidorians" and was sent on mission to the south of France, where he closed the Jacobin club at Toulouse and set free a number of imprisoned "suspects." On the 1st of June 1795 he was denounced and arrested, but was soon set at liberty. In 1796 he was appointed by the Directory commissioner for the organization of the departments of Dyle and Mont-Tonnerre. Under the empire he was receiver of the _droits réunis_ at Nancy, and lost his money in 1814 in raising a levy of volunteers. Appointed sub-prefect of Avesnes during the Hundred Days, he was imprisoned by the Prussians in revenge for the death of the maidens of Verdun, and lived in exile during the Restoration. He returned to France after the revolution of 1830, and died at Richemont (Seine-Inférieure) on the 25th of July 1835.

MALLARMÉ, STÉPHANE (1842-1898), French poet and theorist, was born at Paris, on the 18th of March 1842. His life was simple and without event. His small income as professor of English in a French college was sufficient for his needs, and, with his wife and daughter, he divided the year between a fourth-floor flat in Paris and a cottage on the banks of the Seine. His Tuesday evening receptions, which did so much to form the thought of the more interesting of the younger French men of letters, were almost as important a part of his career as the few carefully elaborated books which he produced at long intervals. _L'Après-midi d'un faune_ (1876) and other fragments of his verse and prose had been known to a few people long before the publication of the _Poésies complètes_ of 1887, in a facsimile of his clear and elegant handwriting, and of the Pages of 1891 and the _Vers et prose_ of 1893. His remarkable translation of poems of Poe appeared in 1888, "The Raven" having been published as early as 1875, with illustrations by Manet. _Divagations_, his own final edition of his prose, was published in 1897, and a more or less complete edition of the _Poésies_, posthumously, in 1899. He died at Valvins, Fontainebleau, on the 9th of September 1898. All his life Mallarmé was in search of a new aesthetics, and his discoveries by the way were often admirable. But he was too critical ever to create freely, and too limited ever to create abundantly. His great achievement remains unfinished, and all that he left towards it is not of equal value. There are a few poems and a few pieces of imaginative prose which have the haunting quality of Gustave Moreau's pictures, with the same jewelled magnificence, mysterious and yet definite. His later work became more and more obscure, as he seemed to himself to have abolished limit after limit which holds back speech from the expression of the absolute. Finally, he abandoned punctuation in verse, and invented a new punctuation, along with a new construction, for prose. Patience in the study of so difficult an author has its reward. No one in our time has vindicated with more pride the self-sufficiency of the artist in his struggle with the material world. To those who knew him only by his writings his conversation was startling in its clearness; it was always, like all his work, at the service of a few dignified and misunderstood ideas.

See also Paul Verlaine, _Les Poètes maudits_ (1884); J. Lemaître, _Les Contemporains_ (5th series, 1891); Albert Moekel, _Stéphane Mallarmé, un héros_ (1899); E. W. Gosse, _French Profiles_ (1905) and A. Symons, _The Symbolist Movement in Literature_ (1900). A complete bibliography is given in the _Poètes d'aujourd'hui_ (1880-1900, 11th ed., 1905) of MM. A. van Bever and P. Léautaud. (A. Sy.)

MALLECO, a province of southern Chile, once a part of the Indian territory of Araucania (q.v.), lying between the provinces of Bio-Bio on the N. and E., Cautin on the S. and Arauco on the W. Area, 2973 sq. m. Pop. (1895), 98,032. It belongs to the rainy, forested region of southern Chile, and is thinly populated, a considerable part of its population being Araucanian Indians, who occupy districts in the Andean foothills. Gold placer mining has attracted some attention, but the output is small. The principal industries are cattle and wheat raising and timber-cutting. The capital is Angol (pop., 7056 in 1895; estimated at 7638 in 1902), a small town in the northern part of the province, on the Malleco river, and a station on the Traiguen branch of the state railway. Traiguen (pop., 5732 in 1895; estimated at 7099 in 1902) in the southern part of the province is the second town in importance, and Victoria (pop., 6989 in 1895; estimated at 10,002 in 1902), about 20 m. E. of the last-named town, was for a time the terminal station of the main line of the railway.

MALLEMUCK, from the German rendering of the Dutch _Mallemugge_ (which originally meant small flies or midges that madly whirl round a light), a name given by the early Dutch Arctic voyagers to the Fulmar (q.v.), of which the English form is nowadays most commonly applied by our sailors to the smaller albatrosses, of about the size of a goose, met with in the Southern Ocean--corrupted into "molly mawk," or "mollymauk." A number of species have been identified. _Diomedea irrorata_ of West Peru is sooty-brown with white mottlings and a white head; _D. migripes_ of the North Pacific is similar in colour but with white only near the eye and at the base of the tail and bill; _D. immutabilis_ of Japan is darker but has a white head. _D. melanophrys_ of the southern oceans has been found in summer both in California, in England, and as far north as the Faeroes. According to J. Gould the latter is the commonest species of albatross inhabiting the Southern Ocean, and its gregarious habits and familiar disposition make it well known to every voyager to or from Australia, for it is equally common in the Atlantic as well as the Pacific. The back, wings and tail are of a blackish-grey, but all the rest of the plumage is white, except a dusky superciliary streak, whence its name of black-browed albatross, as also its scientific epithet, are taken. The bill of the adult is of an ochreous-yellow, while that of the young is dark. This species breeds on the Falkland Islands. _D. bulleri_ of the New Zealand seas is greyish-brown, with white underparts and rump and ashy head. _Diomedea_ (or _Thalassogeron_) _culminata_ and _chlororhyncha_ of the southern seas, _D._ (or _T._) _cauta_ of Tasmania, _salvini_ of New Zealand and _layardi_ of the Cape resemble _D. bulleri_, but have a strip of naked skin between the plates of the maxilla towards its base. H. N. Moseley (_Notes of a Naturalist_, 130) describes _D. culminata_ as making a cylindrical nest of grass, sedge and clay, with a shallow basin atop and an overhanging rim--the whole being about 14 in. in diameter and 10 in height. The bird lays a single white egg, which is held in a sort of pouch, formed by the skin of the abdomen, while she is incubating. The feet of _D. bulleri_ are red, of _D. chlororhyncha_ flesh-coloured, of the others yellow. (A. N.)

MALLESON, GEORGE BRUCE (1825-1898), Indian officer and author, was born at Wimbledon, on the 8th of May 1825. Educated at Winchester, he obtained a cadetship in the Bengal infantry in 1842, and served through the second Burmese War. His subsequent appointments were in the civil line, the last being that of guardian to the young maharaja of Mysore. He retired with the rank of colonel in 1877, having been created C.S.I. in 1872. He died at Kensington, on the 1st of March 1898. He was a voluminous writer, his first work to attract attention being the famous "Red Pamphlet," published at Calcutta in 1857, when the Mutiny was at its height. He continued, and considerably rewrote the _History of the Indian Mutiny_ (6 vols., 1878-1880), which was begun but left unfinished by Sir John Kaye. Among his other books the most valuable are _History of the French in India_ (2nd ed., 1893) and _The Decisive Battles of India_ (3rd ed., 1888).

MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?1705-1765), Scottish poet and dramatist, the son of a Perthshire farmer, was born in that county, probably in 1705. In 1717 he went to the high school at Edinburgh, and some three years later to the university, where he made the friendship of James Thomson, author of _The Seasons_. As early as 1720 he began to publish short poems in the manner of the period, a number of which appeared during the next few years in collections such as the _Edinburgh Miscellany_ and Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_, in which his ballad "William and Margaret" was published in 1724. For some years from 1723 he was private tutor to the duke of Montrose's sons, with whom he travelled on the Continent in 1727. His real name was Malloch; but this he changed to Mallet in 1724. In 1735 he took the M.A. degree at Oxford. He had already made the friendship of Pope, whose vanity he flattered in a poem on _Verbal Criticism_, in 1733; and through Pope he became acquainted with Bolingbroke and other Tory politicians, especially those attached to the party of the prince of Wales, who in 1742 appointed Mallet to be his paid secretary. After Pope's death, in 1744, Mallet, at the instigation of Bolingbroke and forgetful of past favours and friendship, vilified the poet's memory, thereby incurring the resentment of Pope's friends. For his services as a party pamphleteer, in which character he published an attack on Admiral Byng, Mallet received from Lord Bute a lucrative sinecure in 1760. He died on the 21st of April 1765. Mallet was a small man, in his younger days something of a dandy and inordinately vain. He was twice married; by his first wife he had a daughter, Dorothy, who married Pietro Paolo Celesia, a Genoese gentleman, and was the author of several poems and plays, notably _Almida_, produced by Garrick at Drury Lane in 1771.

Mallet's own works included several plays, some of which were produced by Garrick, who was Mallet's personal friend. _Eurydice_, a tragedy, with prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill, was produced at Drury Lane in 1731; _Mustapha_, also a tragedy, had considerable success at the same theatre in 1739; in 1740, in collaboration with Thomson, he produced the masque _Alfred_, of which he published a new version in 1751, after Thomson's death, claiming it to be almost entirely his own work. This masque is notable as containing the well-known patriotic song, "Rule Britannia," the authorship of which has been attributed to Mallet, although he allowed it to appear without protest in his lifetime with Thomson's name attached. His other writings include _Poems on Several Occasions_ (1743); _Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit_ (1747); another volume of _Poems_ (1762).

In 1759 a collected edition of Mallet's _Works_ was published in three volumes; and in 1857 his _Ballads and Songs_ were edited by F. Dinsdale with notes, and a biographical memoir of the author.

MALLET, PAUL HENRI (1730-1807), Swiss writer, was born on the 20th of August 1730, in Geneva. After having been educated there, he became tutor in the family of the count of Calenberg in Saxony. In 1752 he was appointed professor of _belles lettres_ to the academy at Copenhagen. He was naturally attracted to the study of the ancient literature and history of his adopted country, and in 1755 he published the first fruits of his researches, under the title _Introduction à l'histoire du Danemarck où l'on traite de la religion, des moeurs, des lois, et des usages des anciens Danois_. A second part, more particularly relating to the ancient literature of the country, _Monuments de la mythologie et de la poesie des Celtes, et particulièrement des anciens Scandinaves_, was issued in 1756, and was also translated into Danish. A translation into English, with notes and preface, by Bishop Percy, was issued in 1770 under the title of _Northern Antiquities_ (republished with additions in 1847). The book had a wide circulation, and attracted much attention on account of its being the first (though a very defective) translation into French of the _Edda_. The king of Denmark showed his appreciation by choosing Mallet to be preceptor of the crown prince. In 1760 he returned to Geneva, and became professor of history in his native city. While there he was requested by the czarina to undertake the education of the heir-apparent of Russia (afterwards the czar Paul I.), but declined the honour. An invitation more congenial to his tastes led to his accompanying Lord Mountstuart in his travels through Italy and thence to England, where he was presented at court and commissioned to write the history of the house of Brunswick. He had previously received a similar commission from the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel for the preparation of a history of the house of Hesse, and both works were completed in 1785. The quietude of a literary life was rudely broken by the shock of the Revolution, to which he was openly hostile. His leanings to the unpopular side were so obnoxious to his fellow-citizens that he was obliged to quit his native country in 1792, and remained in exile till 1801. He died at Geneva, on the 8th of February 1807.

A memoir of his life and writings, by Sismondi, was published at Geneva in 1807. Besides the _Introduction to the History of Denmark_, his principal works are: _Histoire du Danemarck_ (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1758-1777); _Histoire de la maison de Hesse_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); _Histoire de la maison de Brunswick_ (4 vols., 1767-1785); _Histoire de la maison et des états du Mecklenbourg_ (1796); _Histoire des Suisses ou Helvétiens_ (4 vols., Geneva, 1803) (mainly an abridgment of J. von Müller's great history); _Histoire de la ligue hanséatique_ (1805).

MALLET, ROBERT (1810-1881), Irish engineer, physicist and geologist, was born in Dublin, on the 3rd of June 1810. He was educated at Trinity College in that city, and graduated B.A. in 1830. Trained as an engineer, he was elected M.Inst.C.E. in 1842; he built in 1848-1849 the Fastnet Rock lighthouse, south-west of Cape Clear, and was engaged in other important works. Devoting much attention to pure science, he became especially distinguished for his researches on earthquakes, and from 1852-1858 he was engaged (with his son John William Mallet) in the preparation of his great work, _The Earthquake Catalogue of the British Association_ (1858). In 1862 he published two volumes, dealing with the _Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857_ and _The First Principles of Observational Seismology_. He then brought forward evidence to show that the depth below the earth's surface, whence came the impulse of the Neapolitan earthquake, was about 8 or 9 geographical miles. One of his most important essays was that communicated to the Royal Society (_Phil. Trans._ clxiii. 147; 1874), entitled _Volcanic Energy: an Attempt to develop its True Origin and Cosmical Relations_. He sought to show that volcanic heat may be attributed to the effects of crushing, contortion and other disturbances in the crust of the earth; the disturbances leading to the formation of lines of fracture, more or less vertical, down which water would find its way, and if the temperature generated be sufficient volcanic eruptions of steam or lava would follow. He was elected F.R.S. in 1854, and he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1877. He died at Clapham, London, on the 5th of November 1881.

MALLET DU PAN, JACQUES (1749-1800), French journalist, of an old Huguenot family, was born near Geneva in 1749, the son of a Protestant minister. He was educated at Geneva, and through the influence of Voltaire obtained a professorship at Cassel. He soon, however, resigned this post, and going to London joined H.S.N. Linguet in the production of his _Annales politiques_ (1778-1780). During Linguet's imprisonment in the Bastille Mallet du Pan continued the _Annales_ by himself (1781-1783); but Linguet resented this on his release, and Mallet du Pan changed the title of his own publication to _Mémoires historiques_ (1783). From 1783 he incorporated this work with the _Mercure de France_ in Paris, the political direction of which had been placed in his hands. On the outbreak of the French Revolution he sided with the Royalists, and was sent on a mission (1791-1792) by Louis XVI. to Frankfort to try and secure the sympathy and intervention of the German princes. From Germany he travelled to Switzerland and from Switzerland to Brussels in the Royalist interest. He published a number of anti-revolutionary pamphlets, and a violent attack on Bonaparte and the Directory resulted in his being exiled in 1797 to Berne. In 1798 he came to London, where he founded the _Mercure britannique_. He died at Richmond, Surrey, on the 10th of May 1800, his widow being pensioned by the English government. Mallet du Pan has a place in history as a pioneer of modern political journalism. His son JOHN LEWIS MALLET (1775-1861) spent a useful life in the English civil service, becoming secretary of the Board of Audit; and J. L. Mallet's second son, SIR LOUIS MALLET (1823-1890) also entered the civil service in the Board of Trade and rose to be a distinguished economist and a member of the Council of India.

Mallet du Pan's _Mémoires et correspondance_ was edited by A. Sayous (Paris, 1851). See _Mallet du Pan and the French Revolution_ (1902), by Bernard Mallet, son of Sir Louis Mallet, author also of a biography of his father (1900).

MALLING, EAST and WEST, two populous villages in the Medway parliamentary division of Kent, England, respectively 5 and 6 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, with a station on the South-Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), East Malling, 2391; West Malling, 2312. They are situated in a rich agricultural district on the western slope of the valley of the Medway, and East Malling has large paper mills. At West Malling are remains of Malling Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery founded in 1090 by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester. The remains, which are partly incorporated in a modern building, include the Norman west front of the church, the Early English cloisters, the chapter-house, gate-house (the chapel of which is restored to use), and other portions. About Addington near West Malling are considerable prehistoric remains, including mounds, single stones, stone circles and pits in the chalk hills; while at Leybourne are the gateway and other fragments of the castle held by the Leybourne family from the 12th to the 14th century.

MALLOCK, WILLIAM HURRELL (1849- ), English author, was born at Cockington Court, Devonshire. He was educated privately, and at Balliol College, Oxford. He won the Newdigate prize in 1872, and took a second class in the final classical schools in 1874. He attracted considerable attention by his satirical story _The New Republic_ (2 vols., 1877), in which he introduced characters easily recognized as prominent living men, Mark Pattison, Matthew Arnold, W. K. Clifford and others. His keen logic and gift for acute exposition and criticism were displayed in later years both in fiction and in controversial works. In a series of books dealing with religious questions he insisted on dogma as the basis of religion and on the impossibility of founding religion on purely scientific data. In _Is Life Worth Living?_ (1879) and _The New Paul and Virginia_ (1878) he attacked Positivist theories, and in a volume on the intellectual position of the Church of England, _Doctrine and Doctrinal Disruption_ (1900), he advocated the necessity of a strictly defined creed. Later volumes on similar topics were _Religion as a Credible Doctrine_ (1903) and _The Reconstruction of Belief_ (1905). He published several brilliant works on economics, directed against Radical and Socialist theories: _Social Equality_ (1882), _Property and Progress_ (1884), _Labour and the Popular Welfare_ (1893), _Classes and Masses_ (1896) and _Aristocracy and Evolution_ (1898); and among his anti-socialist works should be classed his novel, _The Old Order Changes_ (1886). His other novels include _A Romance of the Nineteenth Century_ (1881), _A Human Document_ (1892), _The Heart of Life_ (1895) and _The Veil of the Temple_ (1904). He published a volume of _Poems_ in 1880, and in 1900 _Lucretius on Life and Death_ in verse.

MALLOW, a market town and watering place of Co. Cork, Ireland, on the Blackwater, 144½ m. S.W. from Dublin, and 21 N. from Cork by the Great Southern and Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4542. It is a junction for lines westward to Killarney and Co. Kerry, and eastward to Lismore and Co. Waterford. The town owes its prosperity to its beautiful situation in a fine valley surrounded by mountains, and possesses a tepid mineral spring, considered efficacious in cases of general debility and for scorbutic and consumptive complaints. A spa-house with pump-room and baths was erected in 1828. The parish church dates from 1818, but there are remains of an earlier building adjoining it. There are manufactures of mineral water and condensed milk, corn-mills and tanneries. Mallow received a charter of incorporation from James I. Its name was originally Magh Allo, that is, Plain of the Allo (the old name used by Spenser for this part of the river), and the ford was defended by a castle, built by the Desmonds, the ruins of which remain. A bridge connects the town with the suburb of Ballydaheen. Mallow is a centre for the fine salmon fishing on the Blackwater. The climate is very mild. The town was a parliamentary borough till 1885. It is governed by an urban district council.

MALLOW, botanically _Malva_, the typical genus of the natural order Malvaceae, embracing about sixteen species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants, widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. The mallows possess the reniform one-celled anthers which specially characterize the _Malvaceae_ (q.v.). The petals also are united by their base to the tube formed by the coalesced filaments of the stamens. The special characters which separate the genus _Malva_ from others most nearly allied to it are the involucre, consisting of a row of three separate bracts attached to the lower part of the true calyx, and the numerous single-seeded carpels disposed in a circle around a central axis, from which they become detached when ripe. The flowers are mostly white or pinkish, never yellow, the leaves radiate-veined, and more or less lobed or cut. Three species are natives of Britain. The musk mallow (_Malva moschata_) is a perennial herb with five-partite, deeply-cut leaves, and large rose-coloured flowers clustered together at the ends of the branched stems, and is found growing along hedges and borders of fields, blossoming in July and August. It owes its name to a slight musky odour diffused by the plant in warm dry weather when it is kept in a confined situation. The round-leaved dwarf mallow (_Malva rotundifolia_) is a creeping perennial, growing in waste sandy places, with roundish serrate leaves and small pinkish-white flowers produced in the axils of the leaves from June to September. It is common throughout Europe and the north of Africa, extending to western and northern Asia. The common mallow (_Malva sylvestris_), the _mauve_ of the French, is an erect biennial or perennial plant with long-stalked roundish-angular serrate leaves, and conspicuous axillary reddish-purple flowers, blossoming from May to September. Like most plants of the order it abounds in mucilage, and hence forms a favourite domestic remedy for colds and sore throats. The aniline dye called mauve derives its name from its resemblance to the colour of this plant.

The marsh mallow (_Althaea officinalis_), the _guimauve_ of the French, belongs to another genus having an involucre of numerous bracts. It is a native of marshy ground near the sea or in the neighbourhood of saline springs. It is an erect perennial herb, with somewhat woody stems, velvety, ovate, acute, unequally serrate leaves, and delicate pink showy flowers blooming from July to September. The flowers are said to yield a good deal of honey to bees. The marsh mallow is remarkable for containing asparagin, C4H8N2O3, H2O, which, if the root be long kept in a damp place, disappears, butyric acid being developed. The root also contains about 25% of starch and the same quantity of mucilage, which differs from that of gum arabic in containing one molecule less of water and in being precipitated by neutral acetate of lead. It is used in _pâte de guimauve_ lozenges. _Althaea rosea_ is the hollyhock (q.v.).

The mallow of Scripture, Job xxx. 4, has been sometimes identified with Jew's mallow (_Corchorus olitorius_), a member of the closely allied order Tiliaceae, but more plausibly (the word [Hebrew: maluah] implying a saline plant) with _Atriplex Halimus_, or sea orache. In Syria the _Halimus_ was still known by the name _Malluh_ in the time of Ibn Beitar. See Bochart, _Hieroz._ iii. 16.

MALMEDY, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, lying in a wild and deep basin, on the Warche, 20 m. S. of Aix-la-Chapelle by rail via Eupen. It contains two Roman Catholic churches, a modern town-hall and a classical school. Its industries include tanning, dyeing and paper-making. Pop. (1900), 4680. Malmedy was famous for its Benedictine abbey, founded about 675, which was united with that of Stablo, the abbot of the joint house being a prince of the empire. In 1802 the lands of the abbey passed to France, and in 1815 they were divided between Prussia and Netherlands.

See Kellen, _Malmedy und die preussische Wallonie_ (Essen, 1897).

MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, 1ST EARL OF (1746-1820), English diplomatist, was born at Salisbury on the 21st of April 1746, being the son of James Harris (q.v.), the author of _Hermes_. Educated at Winchester, Oxford and Leiden, young Harris became secretary in 1768 to the British embassy at Madrid, and was left as _chargé d'affaires_ at that court on the departure of Sir James Grey until the arrival of George Pitt, afterwards Lord Rivers. This interval gave him his opportunity; he discovered the intention of Spain to attack the Falkland Islands, and was instrumental in thwarting it by putting on a bold countenance. As a reward he was appointed minister _ad interim_ at Madrid, and in January 1772 minister plenipotentiary to the court of Prussia. His success was marked, and in 1777 he was transferred to the court of Russia. At St Petersburg he made his reputation, for he managed to get on with Catherine in spite of her predilections for France, and steered adroitly through the accumulated difficulties of the first Armed Neutrality. He was made a knight of the Bath at the end of 1778, but in 1782 he returned home owing to ill-health, and was appointed by his friend Fox to be minister at the Hague, an appointment confirmed after some delay by Pitt (1784). He did very great service in furthering Pitt's policy of maintaining England's influence on the Continent by the arms of her allies, and held the threads of the diplomacy which ended in the king of Prussia's overthrowing the republican party in Holland, which was inclined to France, and re-establishing the prince of Orange. In recognition of his services he was created Baron Malmesbury of Malmesbury (Sept. 1788), and permitted by the king of Prussia to bear the Prussian eagle on his arms, and by the prince of Orange to use his motto "Je maintiendrai." He returned to England, and took an anxious interest in politics, which ended in his seceding from the Whig party with the duke of Portland in 1793; and in that year he was sent by Pitt, but in vain, to try to keep Prussia true to the first coalition against France. In 1794 he was sent to Brunswick to solicit the hand of the unfortunate Princess Caroline for the prince of Wales, to marry her as proxy, and conduct her to her husband in England. In 1796 and 1797 he was at Paris and Lille vainly negotiating with the French Directory. After 1797 he became partially deaf, and quitted diplomacy altogether; but for his long and eminent services he was in 1800 created earl of Malmesbury, and Viscount Fitzharris, of Heron Court in the county of Hants. He now became a sort of political Nestor, consulted on foreign policy by successive foreign ministers, trusted by men of the most different ideas in political crises, and above all the confidant, and for a short time after Pitt's death almost the political director, of Canning. Younger men were also wont to go to him for advice, and Lord Palmerston particularly, who was his ward, was tenderly attached to him, and owed many of his ideas on foreign policy directly to his teaching. His later years were free from politics, and till his death on the 21st of November 1820 he lived very quietly and almost forgotten. As a statesman, Malmesbury had an influence among his contemporaries which is scarcely to be understood from his writings, but which must have owed much to personal charm of manner and persuasiveness of tongue; as a diplomatist, he seems to have deserved his reputation, and shares with Macartney, Auckland and Whitworth the credit of raising diplomacy from a profession in which only great nobles won the prizes to a career opening the path of honour to ability. He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his son James Edward (1778-1841), under-secretary for foreign affairs under Canning; from whom the title passed to James Howard, 3rd earl of Malmesbury (q.v.).

Malmesbury did not publish anything himself, except an account of the Dutch revolution, and an edition of his father's works, but his important _Diaries_ (1844) and _Letters_ (1870) were edited by his grandson.

MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889), English statesman, son of the 2nd earl, was born on the 25th of March 1807, and educated at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford. He led a life of travel for several years, making acquaintance with famous people; and in 1841 he had only just been elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative, when his father died and he succeeded to the peerage. His political career, though not one which made any permanent impression on history, attracted a good deal of contemporary attention, partly from his being foreign secretary in 1852 and again in 1858-1859 (he was also lord privy seal in 1866-1868 and in 1874-1876), and partly from his influential position as an active Tory of the old school in the House of Lords at a time when Lord Derby and Mr Disraeli were, in their different ways, moulding the Conservatism of the period. Moreover his long life--he survived till the 17th of May 1889--and the publication of his _Memoirs of an Ex-Minister_ in 1884, contributed to the reputation he enjoyed. These _Memoirs_, charmingly written, full of anecdote, and containing much interesting material for the history of the time, remain his chief title to remembrance. Lord Malmesbury also edited his grandfather's _Diaries and Correspondence_ (1844), and in 1870 published _The First Lord Malmesbury and His Friends: Letters from 1745 to 1820_. He was succeeded as 4th earl by his nephew, Edward James (1842-1899), whose son, James Edward (b. 1872) became the 5th earl in 1899.

MALMESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94½ m. W. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 2854. It lies on a ridge surrounded on all sides except the north-west by the river Avon and a small tributary. The church of St Mary and St Aldhelm, standing high, is a majestic fragment consisting of the greater part of the nave (with aisles) of a Benedictine abbey church. The ruined skeleton of the great tower arches now terminates the building eastward. The nave is transitional Norman, with a Decorated superstructure including the clerestory. The south porch is one of the finest Norman examples extant, both the outer and the inner doorways (especially the first) exhibiting the typical ornament of the period in remarkable exuberance. With the exception of a crypt, the monastic buildings have disappeared. In the market square stands a fine market cross of the 16th century, borne upon an octagonal battlemented basement. Early English fragments of a hospital of St John of Jerusalem appear in the corporation almshouse. Malmesbury has an agricultural trade, with breweries, tanneries and manufactures of silk and pillow lace. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 178 acres.

Maildulphus, a Scottish or Irish monk, who came into England about 635, built a hermitage near the site of the modern Malmesbury (_Maildulphi-urbs_, _Maldelmesburh_, _Malmesbiri_) and gathered disciples round him, thus forming the nucleus of the later abbey of which Aldhelm his pupil became the first abbot. Æthelstan, who was buried here (though his tomb in the church only dates from the 16th century), rebuilt and endowed the monastery. Round the abbey the town of Malmesbury grew up, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it had become one of the only two Wiltshire boroughs. The first charter, said to be a forgery, purports to have been given by Æthelstan. It granted to the burgesses all privileges and free customs such as they held in the time of Edward the Elder, with many additional exemptions, in return for help rendered against the Danes. The castle built at Malmesbury during the reign of Henry I. gave a further impetus to the growth of the town during the 12th and 13th centuries. It was not incorporated, however, until 1645, when it was made a free borough under the title of "aldermen and burgesses of the borough of Malmesbury, County Wilts." By this charter it was governed until 1885. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832 when the number was reduced to one. Finally in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the county. A grant of a yearly fair on the 31st of March, the feast of St Aldhelm, was obtained from William II., and another for three days from the 25th of July from John. In 1792 fairs were held on the 28th of March, the 28th of April and the 29th of June, but in 1891 they had ceased entirely. John also granted a weekly market on Thursday. In the 16th and 18th centuries it was held on Saturday, and in 1891 on the third Wednesday in each month. In the middle ages Malmesbury possessed a considerable cloth manufacture, and at the Dissolution the abbey was bought by a rich clothier and fitted with looms for weaving. The trade in wool still flourished in 1751.

See _Victoria County History: Wiltshire_; and _Registrum malmesburiense_ (1879-1880).

MALMÖ, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district (_län_) of Malmöhus, on a small bay of the Sound, 384 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1800), 38,054; (1900), 60,857. It is connected with Copenhagen, 17¼ m. W. by N., by steam-ferry, the Sound being kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. It is also the first important station in Sweden on the Berlin-Stockholm route, which crosses the sea between Sassnitz in Rügen and Trelleborg, 20 m. S.E. of Malmö. The town, which stands upon a level plain, formerly had strong fortifications, of which only the citadel (Malmöhus) remains; in it the earl of Bothwell was imprisoned by Frederick II. of Denmark for some time after his departure from Scotland in 1567. The town-hall (1546, largely restored in 1864) contains a handsome chamber, the Knutssal, formerly used by the council of the gild of Canute. The hall fronts the central square (_Stortorg_) which is planted with trees and contains a colossal statue of Charles X. by Johan Helenus Börjeson (b. 1835) erected in 1896. The most notable church is that of St. Peter (_Peterkyrka_), dating in part from 1319. Malmö is second to Stockholm as an industrial centre. There are breweries and large works for the manufacture of machinery, among which may be mentioned the Kockum mechanical works, with yards for the construction of vessels of war, and others; of cotton and woollen goods, gloves, chocolate, sweetmeats and tobacco. A large export trade is carried on in butter and other agricultural produce, and matches. Coal is the chief import. The harborage includes an outer harbour of 22 ft. depth, and two inner basins admitting vessels of 21 ft. draught, with dry dock and patent slip. Malmö returns four members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament).

Malmö (Malmhauge, Malmey, Malmöye, Malmoughe), sometimes called _Ancona Scanorum_ or _Ellenbogen_, first appears in history about the middle of the 13th century. During the Hanseatic period it was the most important commercial town on the Sound, but in the 16th and 17th centuries greatly lost ground owing to the decay of its herring fisheries and the rise of its rival, Copenhagen. Its modern prosperity is largely due to the enterprise of Frans Snell, one of its merchants in the second half of the 18th century, who first constructed the harbour.

MALMSEY, a strong sweet wine, originally made at Monemvasia (Gr. [Greek: Monembasia]), Napoli di Malvasia, in the Morea, Greece. The name of the place was corrupted in Med. Lat. into _malmasia_, whence the English form of the word. The corruption malvasia gives the O. Fr. _malvesie_, from which comes the alternative English form "malvoisie." The wine is now made not only in Greece but also in Spain, Madeira and the Azores.

MALOCELLO, LANCILOTO ("LANZAROTE, the 'Lancelot Maloisiel' of the French"), leader of the first of modern European oceanic enterprises. This was a Genoese expedition, which about 1270 seems to have sailed into the Atlantic, re-discovered the "Fortunate Islands" or Canaries, and made something of a conquest and settlement in one of the most northerly isles of this archipelago, still known (after the Italian captain) as Lanzarote. According to a Spanish authority of about 1345, the anonymous Franciscan's _Conosçimiento de todos los reinos_, "Lancarote" was killed by the Canarian natives; but the castle built by him was standing in 1402-1404, when it was utilized for the storage of grain by the French conquerors under Gadifer de la Salle. To Malocello's enterprise, moreover, it is probable that Petrarch (born 1304) alludes when he tells how, within the memory of his parents, an armed fleet of Genoese penetrated to the "Fortunatae"; this passage some would refer, without sufficient authority, to the expedition of 1291. Malocello's name and nationality are certainly preserved by those early _Portolani_ or scientific charts (such as the "Dulcert" of 1339 and the "Laurentian Portolano" of 1351), in which the African islands appear, for the first time in history, in clear and recognizable form. Thus Dulcert reads _Insula de Lanzarotus_ and _Marocelus_, the Laurentian map _I. de Lanzarote_, against Lanzarote Island, which is well depicted on both designs, and marked with the cross of Genoa. The _Conosçimiento_ (as noticed above) explicitly derives the island-name from the Genoese commander who perished here. Malocello's enterprise not only marks the beginning of the oversea expansion of western Europe in exploration, conquest and colonization (after the age of Scandinavian world-roving had passed); it is also probably not unconnected with the great Genoese venture of 1291 (in search of a waterway to India, which soon follows), with which this attempt at Canarian discovery and dominion has been by some unjustifiably identified.

See the _Conosçimiento_, p. 100, as edited by Marcos Jimenez de la Espada in the _Boletin de la sociedad geográfica de Madrid_, (February 1877); _Le Canarien_ in P. Margry, _Conquête des ... Canaries_, p. 177; M. A. P. d'Avezac in vol. vi., part ii., of _L'Univers_, pp. 1-41 (_Îles africaines de l'océan atlantique_); C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 411-413, 449, 451.

MALOLOS, a town and the capital of the province of Bulacán, island of Luzon, Philippine Islands, on a branch of the Pampanga Grande river. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Barasoain and Santa Isabel, 27,025. There are thirty-eight villages, or barrios, of which eight had, in 1903, 1000 inhabitants or more. The principal language is Tagalog, but Spanish is spoken to some extent. Malolos is served by the Manila & Dagupan railway, and is a trade centre of considerable importance. The cultivation of rice is an important industry. In 1898-99, during the Filipino revolt, Malolos was the seat of the rebel government, but it was captured and reduced to desolation in March 1899. In 1904 a new municipal school building, a municipal market and a provincial building were erected.

MALONE, EDMOND (1741-1812), Irish Shakespearian scholar and editor, was born in Dublin, on the 4th of October 1741, the son of a barrister and a member of the Irish House of Commons. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1767. The death of his father in 1774 assured him a competency, and he went to London, where he frequented literary and artistic circles. He frequently visited Dr Johnson and was of great assistance to Boswell in revising and proofreading his _Life_, four of the later editions of which he annotated. He was intimate with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he sat for a portrait now in the National Portrait Gallery. He was one of Reynolds' executors, and published a posthumous collection of his works (1798) with a memoir. Horace Walpole, Burke, Canning, Lord Charlemont, and, at first, George Steevens, were among Malone's friends. Encouraged by the two last he devoted himself to the study of Shakespearian chronology, and the results of his "Attempt to ascertain the Order in which the Plays of Shakespeare were written" (1778) are still largely accepted. This was followed in 1780 by two supplementary volumes to Steevens's version of Dr Johnson's _Shakespeare_, partly consisting of observations on the history of the Elizabethan stage, and of the text of doubtful plays; and this again, in 1783, by an appendix volume. His refusal to alter some of his notes to Isaac Reed's edition of 1785, which disagreed with Steevens's, resulted in a quarrel with the latter. The next seven years were devoted to Malone's own edition of Shakespeare in eleven volumes, of which his essays on the history of the stage, his biography of Shakespeare, and his attack on the genuineness of the three parts of Henry VI., were especially valuable. His editorial work was lauded by Burke, criticized by Walpole and damned by Joseph Ritson. It certainly showed indefatigable research and proper respect for the text of the earlier editions. Malone published a denial of the claim to antiquity of the Rowley poems (see CHATTERTON), and in this (1782) as in his branding (1796) of the Ireland MSS. (see IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY) as forgeries, he was among the first to guess and state the truth. His elaborate edition of Dryden's works (1800), with a memoir, was another monument to his industry, accuracy and scholarly care. In 1801 the university of Dublin made him an LL.D. At the time of his death, on the 25th of April 1812, Malone was at work on a new octavo edition of Shakespeare, and he left his material to James Boswell the younger; the result was the edition of 1821--generally known as the Third Variorum edition--in twenty-one volumes. Lord Sunderlin (1738-1816), his elder brother and executor, presented the larger part of Malone's splendid collection of books, including dramatic varieties, to the Bodleian Library, which afterwards bought many of his MS. notes and his literary correspondence. The British Museum also owns some of his letters and his annotated copy of Johnson's _Dictionary_.

A memoir of Malone by James Boswell is included in the _Prolegomena_ to the edition of 1821. See also Sir J. Prior's _Life of Edmond Malone_ (1860).

MALONE, a village and the county-seat of Franklin county, in the township of Malone, in the N.E. part of New York, U.S.A., about 60 m. E.N.E. of Ogdensburg. Pop. (1890), 4986; (1900), 5935 (910 foreign-born); (1905, state census), 6478; (1910), 6467. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Rutland (N.Y. Central Lines) railways. The village has a Memorial Park, Arsenal Green, on the site of an arsenal and parade-ground sold by the state in 1850, a state armoury, the Northern New York Institute for Deaf Mutes, Franklin Academy, St Joseph's Ursuline Academy, and a detention-house for Chinamen entering the state from Canada. From Malone tourists visit the Great North Woods, in the Adirondack foothills, about 15 m. distant. Iron ore and Potsdam sandstone are found near Malone. In the surrounding region hops, potatoes, &c., are grown, and there are dairying and livestock interests. The village is a centre for the collection of hides and pelts. It manufactures woollen goods, paper and pulp, &c., and has foundry and machine shops and car repair shops. Malone, being on the line of communication between lakes Champlain and Ontario, was of strategic importance in the war of 1812, and later was twice the rendezvous of Fenians for attacks on Canada. The township of Malone was settled and erected from Chateaugay in 1805. The village was first known as Harison, was named Ezraville, in honour of Ezra L'Hommedieu, in 1808, received its present name in 1812, and was incorporated in 1853.

MALONIC ACID, C3H4O4 or CH2(COOH)2, occurs in the form of its calcium salt in the sugar beet. It was first prepared in 1858 by V. Dessaignes, who obtained it by oxidizing malic acid (_Ann._, 1858, 107, p. 251). It may also be obtained by oxidizing allylene and propylene with cold potassium permanganate solution, by the hydrolysis of barbituric acid (malonyl urea) with alkalis (A. Baeyer, _Ann._, 1864, 130, p. 143); by the hydrolysis of cyanacetic acid (H. Kolbe, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 349; H. Muller, _Ann._, 1864, 131, p. 352), and by the action of silver oxide on [beta]-di-chloracrylic ester at 125° C. (O. Wallach, _Ann._, 1878, 193, P. 25)

CCl2:CH·COOC2H5 + Ag2O + H2O = 2AgCl + HOOC·CH2·COOC2H5.

It crystallizes in monoclinic tables, and is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. The acid melts at 132° C., and at a higher temperature it rapidly decomposes into acetic acid and carbon dioxide. When heated with bromine and water to 100° C. it forms tribromacetic acid, some bromoform being produced at the same time. Malonic acid, as well as its esters, is characterized by the large number of condensation products it can form. In the presence of a dehydrating agent (such as acetic anhydride), it combines with aldehydes to form compounds of the type R·CH:C(COOH)2, or their decomposition products (formed by loss of CO2) R·CH:CH·COOH.

Many salts of the acid are known and, with the exception of those of the alkali metals, they are difficultly soluble in water. Many esters of malonic acid have been prepared, the most important being the _diethyl ester_ (_malonic ester_), CH2(COOC2H5)2, which is obtained by dissolving monochloracetic acid in water, neutralizing the solution with potassium carbonate, and then adding potassium cyanide and warming the mixture until the reaction begins. When the reaction has finished, the whole is evaporated and heated to about 130°-140° C. and then allowed to cool. The mass is then covered with two-thirds of its weight of alcohol, and saturated with hydrochloric acid gas. The whole is then poured into ice-cold water, extracted by ether and the ethereal solution distilled (L. Claisen, _Ann._, 1883, 218, p. 131). It is a colourless liquid boiling at 197°.7-198°.2 C. (W. H. Perkin). It is a most important synthetic reagent; with sodium or sodium ethylate it forms sodio-malonic ester, which reacts readily with alkyl halides, forming alkyl malonic esters, which are again capable of forming sodium derivatives, that by further treatment with alkyl halides yield the di-alkyl malonic esters. These esters are readily hydrolysed and yield the mono- and di-alkyl malonic acids which, on heating, are readily decomposed, with evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of mono- and di-alkyl acetic acids. The scheme of reactions is shown thus:

R´I CH2(COOR)2 --> CHN_a (COOR)2 --> CHR´(COOR)2 | NaOH \/ CO2 + CH2R´·COOH <-- CHR´(COOH)2 R´´I [CHR´(COOH)2NaOH --> CNaR´(COOR)2 --> CR´R´´(COOR)2 | \/ NaOH CO2 + CHR´R´·COOH <-- CR´R´´(COOH)2

When sodio-malonic ester is heated to 145° C., it undergoes condensation, with elimination of alcohol and formation of the benzene derivative, _phloroglucin tricarboxylic ester_. The addition of urea to an alcoholic solution of sodio-malonic ester results in the formation of barbituric acid (A. Michael, _Jour. pr. Chem._, 1887 [2], 35, p. 456) The half nitrile of malonic acid is _cyanacetic acid_, CN·CH·2 COOH, which, in the form of its ester, may be obtained by the action of a solution of potassium cyanide on monochloracetic acid. The solution obtained is neutralized, concentrated on the water-bath, acidified by sulphuric acid and extracted with ether. It is then converted into the lead salt, which is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen and the solution is carefully concentrated (Th. Meves, _Ann._, 1867, 143, p. 201). It melts at 70° C. and at higher temperatures decomposes, with evolution of carbon dioxide and formation of aceto-nitrile, CH3·CN. The true nitrile of malonic acid is _methylene cyanide_, CH2(CN)2, which is obtained by distilling a mixture of cyanacetamide and phosphorus pentoxide. It is a crystalline solid, which melts at 29°-30° C. and boils at 218°-219° C., and is readily soluble in alcohol and ether.

MALORY, SIR THOMAS, translator and compiler of the famous English classic, the _Morte d'Arthur_. Previous to the publication of Professor Kittredge's monograph, _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ the identity of this writer remained an unsolved problem. Mr. Sidney Lee, in the _Dictionary of National Biography_, was compelled to admit that he could find no one of that name fulfilling the necessary conditions. Of direct evidence we have very little; in the concluding passage of the book the author asks the prayers of the reader for "Syr Thomas Maleore knyght," and states that the book was ended "the ix. yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth." Caxton, in his preface, says that he printed the book "after a copye unto me delivered whyche copye Syr Thomas Malorye dyd take oute of certeyn bookes of frensshe and reduced it in to Englysshe"; in his colophon he repeats this statement, adding that he himself is responsible for the division of the work into books and chapters, and that it was printed in 1485. It will be noted that Caxton does not say that he received the book from Malory, only that he had received a copy made by Malory; from this Professor Kittredge draws the conclusion that the compiler was no longer living. The problem then is to find a Thomas Malory who was (a) a knight, (b) alive in the ninth year of King Edward IV. (Mar. 4, 1469-Mar. 3, 1470), and (c) who was no longer living in July (or June) 1485.

All these conditions Professor Kittredge finds fulfilled in the life of Sir Thomas Malory, knight, of Newbold Revell (or Fenny Newbold), M.P. for Warwickshire in 1445. The date of Sir Thomas's birth is uncertain, but he succeeded his father, Sir John, in 1433 or 1434. Previously to this he had served in France, in the retinue of the earl of Warwick, most probably during the time that that nobleman held the office of captain of Calais. It seems probable that he is also to be identified with a "Thomas Malorie, miles," who in 1468 was, on account of the part played by him in the Wars of the Roses, excluded with several others from the operation of a pardon issued by Edward IV. As, however, on the death of Sir Thomas on the 14th of March 1470, there was no difficulty as to inheritance, his estates passing to his grandson, he must, if this identification be correct, have come under the general amnesty of 1469. It will be seen, therefore, that so far as it is in our power to state the question this Sir Thomas Malory fulfils all the necessary conditions.

It is interesting to note that the career of the earl of Warwick in France was marked by certain picturesque and chivalric features which might well impress the imagination of a young retainer. John Rous, in his _Life of Richard Earl of Warwick_, tells us that at a certain tourney held near Calais at Christmastide, Earl Richard appeared three days running in different armour, overthrowing his adversary on each occasion--an exploit obviously imitated from the chivalric romances of the period.

The work with which Malory's name is connected is an abridged compilation of the great body of Arthurian romance in its latest form. The _Merlin_ (Vulgate and Suite), _Tristan_, _Lancelot_, _Queste_ and _Mort Artus_ are all represented, the only branch omitted is that dealing with the "early history" of the Grail, the _Joseph of Arimathea_ and _Grand S. Graal_. Thanks mainly to the labours of Dr Oskar Sommer, we can now assign the majority of the books to their separate sources, although certain stories, such as the adventures of Sir Gareth under the pseudonym of Beaumains, the handling of Sir Urre of Hungary, and the details of the abduction of Guenevere by Meleagaunt, still remain unidentified. But we do not yet know whether Malory himself was responsible for this selection, or whether he found it ready to hand in a MS., the "Frensshe Booke" to which he often refers. To make such a compilation at first hand, considering the extent of the ground covered, would involve an enormous amount of study and selection, and the access to a very large library--conditions which scarcely seem to fit in with the social position and activities of Sir Thomas. On the other hand it is undeniable that the medieval copyists, at the instance of their patrons, did make compilations from the various romances within their reach, such as e.g. the enormous codex 112 (_fonds Franç._) of the Bibliothèque Nationale, which includes large sections of the _Tristan_, the _Lancelot_, and the _Merlin_ Suite. Taking into consideration alike what Malory retains and what he omits, it seems most probable that he was in possession, not of complete copies of the romances, but of one or more volumes of compilations from these sources.

From the point of view of matter it must be admitted that the _Morte d' Arthur_ does not represent the Arthurian cycle at its best, but rather in the period of its decadence; nor does Malory in any way endeavour to overcome the difficulties caused by the juxtaposition of a number of independent (and often contradictory) versions. This is especially noticeable in his treatment of Gawain; in the section derived from the _Lancelot_ and _Mort Artus_ he is a good and valiant knight, "a ful noble knyghte as ever was borne," in those derived from the _Tristan_ and the _Queste_, he is treacherous, dissolute, and a murderer of good knights.

The great charm of Malory's work lies in his style; stately, earnest and dignified, it has lent to the relations between Lancelot and Guenevere a character of truth and vitality in which the French original is wholly lacking. Malory achieved a remarkable feat--he took the Arthurian story in its worst and weakest form and he imparted to it a moral force and elevation which the cycle, even in its earlier and finer stage, had, save in the unique case of Von Eschenbach's _Parzival_, never possessed. While genuine lovers of the Arthurian cycle must regret that the romances should only be known to the great majority of English readers through the versions of Malory and Tennyson, it is impossible to withhold from the _Morte d' Arthur_ the admiration due to an imperishable monument of English language and literature.

See _Who was Sir Thomas Malory?_ G. L. Kittredge (_Harvard Studies and Notes_, vol. v., 1896); _Morte d' Arthur_, ed. by Dr Oskar Sommer (an exact reproduction of the original text in 2 vols.)--vol. iii. a study on "_The Sources of Malory._" The sections on _Lancelot_ and _Queste_ are unfortunately very inadequate; for these cf. _The Legend of Sir Lancelot_, Grimm Library, vol. xii. (J. L. W.)

MALOT, HECTOR HENRI (1830-1907), French novelist and man of letters, the son of a notary, was born at La Bouille (Seine Inférieure) on the 20th of May 1830. He studied law at Rouen and Paris, but literature early absorbed his attention. He collaborated in the _Biographie générale_ of Didot, became literary critic of _L'Opinion Nationale_, and dramatic critic of the _Lloyd français_. He is the author of a long series of popular novels dealing with contemporary life, including: a trilogy of domestic novels entitled _Victimes d'amour_ (1859, 1865, 1866); _Un Beau frère_ (1869); _Madame Obernin_ (1870); _Le Docteur Claude_ (1879); _Justice_ (1889). _Les Aventures de Romain Kalbris_ (1869) and _Sans famille_ (1888) are excellent stories for children. A complete edition of Hector Malot's works appeared in 1894-1897. He died at Vincennes in July 1907.

MALOU, JULES ÉDOUARD XAVIER (1810-1886), Belgian statesman, one of the leaders of the clerical party, was born at Ypres on the 19th of October 1810. He was a civil servant in the department of justice when he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by his native constituency in 1841, and was for some time governor of the province of Antwerp. He was minister of finance in the coalition ministry of J. B. Nothomb in 1844, and formed with B. T. de Theux a Catholic cabinet in 1846, which was overthrown in the Liberal victory of 1847. Malou then became a member of the senate, and his party only regained ascendancy in 1870. The extreme clerical ministry of Baron d'Anethan retired in December 1871 after serious rioting in Brussels, and Malou was the real, though not the nominal, head of the more moderate clerical administrations of de Theux and Aspremont-Lynden (1870-1878). He was wise enough to disavow the noisy sympathy of Belgian Ultramontane politicians with the German victims of the _Kulturkampf_, and, retaining in his own hands the portfolio of finance, he subordinated his clerical policy to a useful administration in commercial matters, including a development of the railway system. It was only after the fall of the ministry in 1878 that he adopted a frankly clerical policy, and when he became chief of a new government in June 1884 he proceeded to undo the educational compromise of his predecessors in the Frère-Orban ministry. His legislation in favour of the Catholic schools caused rioting in Brussels, and in October the king demanded the retirement of MM. Jacobs and Woeste, the members of the cabinet against whom popular indignation was chiefly directed. Malou followed them into retirement, and died at Woluwe Saint Lambert, in Brabant, on the 11th of July 1886. He was a financier of great knowledge and experience, and his works (of which a long list is given in Koninck's _Bibliographie nationale de Belgique_) include three series (1874-1880) of memoirs on financial questions, edited by him for the Chamber of Deputies, besides pamphlets on railroad proposals, mining and other practical questions. His brother Jean Baptiste Malou (1809-1864) was a well-known divine.

MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814), French publicist and politician, was born at Riom (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 11th of February 1740, the son of a lawyer. He entered the civil service and was employed successively at the French embassy in Lisbon, in the administrative department of the duc de Broglie's army, as commissary in San Domingo from 1767-1774, and, after his return to France, as commissary-general of the marine. In 1776 he was entrusted to carry out plans of colonization in French Guiana, but was superseded in 1779. On his return to France he was well received at court, and the execution of his plans in Guiana was assured. He became intendant of the port of Toulon, and in 1789 was returned to the states-general, where he soon became well known as a defender of the monarchical principle. He emigrated to England in September, 1792, but shortly afterwards sought in vain permission to return to assist in the defence of Louis XVI. His name was erased from the list of emigrants in 1801 by Napoleon, who restored him to his position in the service and sent him to Antwerp as commissioner-general and maritime prefect to superintend the erection of defence works, and the creation of a fleet. He entered the council of state in 1810, but, having offended the emperor by his plainness of speech, he was disgraced in 1812. At the Restoration, Louis XVIII. made him minister of marine; and he died on the 7th of September 1814.

The most important documents for his domestic and colonial policy are a _Collection de ses opinions à l'Assemblée Nationale_ (3 vols., 1791-1792); and _Collection de mémoires et correspondances officielles sur l'administration des colonies et notamment sur la Guiane française et hollandaise_ (5 vols., 1802).

MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694), Italian physiologist, was born at Crevalcuore near Bologna, on the 10th of March 1628. At the age of seventeen he began the study of philosophy; it appears that he was also in the habit of amusing himself with the microscope. In 1649 he started to study medicine; after four years at Bologna he graduated there as doctor. He at once applied to be admitted to lecture in the university, but it was not till after three years (1656) that his request was granted. A few months later he was appointed to the chair of theoretical medicine at Pisa, where he enjoyed the friendship and countenance of G. A. Borelli. At the end of four years he left Pisa, on the ground of ill-health, and returned to Bologna. A call to be professor primarius at Messina (procured for him through Borelli, who had in the meantime become professor there) induced him to leave Bologna in 1662. His engagement at Messina was for a term of four years, at an annual stipend of 1000 scudi. An attempt was made to retain him at Messina beyond that period, but his services were secured for his native university, and he spent the next twenty-five years there. In 1691, being then in his sixty-fourth year, and in failing health, he removed to Rome to become private physician to Pope Innocent XII., and he died there of apoplexy three years later, on the 30th of November 1694. Shortly before his death, he drew up a long account of his academical and scientific labours, correspondence and controversies, and committed it to the charge of the Royal Society of London, a body with which he had been in intimate relations for more than twenty years. The autobiography, along with some other posthumous writings, was published in London in 1696, at the cost of the Society. The personal details left by Malpighi are few and dry. His narrative is mainly occupied with a summary of his scientific contributions and an account of his relations to contemporary anatomists, and is entirely without graces of style or elements of ordinary human interest.

Malpighi was one of the first to apply the microscope to the study of animal and vegetable structure; and his discoveries were so important that he may be considered to be the founder of microscopic anatomy. It was his practice to open animals alive, and some of his most striking discoveries were made in those circumstances. Although Harvey had correctly inferred the existence of the capillary circulation, he had never seen it; it was reserved for Malpighi in 1661 (four years after Harvey's death) to see for the first time the marvellous spectacle of the blood coursing through a network of small tubes on the surface of the lung and of the distended urinary bladder of the frog. We are enabled to measure the difficulties of microscopic observation at the time by the fact that it took Malpighi four years longer to reach a clear understanding of the corpuscles in the frog's blood, although they are the parts of the blood by which its movement in the capillaries is made visible. His discovery of the capillary circulation was given to the world in the form of two letters _De Pulmonibus_, addressed to Borelli, published at Bologna in 1661 and reprinted at Leiden and other places in the years following; these letters contained also the first account of the vesicular structure of the human lung, and they made a theory of respiration for the first time possible. The achievement that comes next both in importance and in order of time was a demonstration of the plan of structure of secreting glands; against the current opinion (revived by F. Ruysch forty years later) that the glandular structure was essentially that of a closed vascular coil from which the secretion exuded, he maintained that the secretion was formed in terminal acini standing in open communication with the ducts. The name of Malpighi is still associated with his discovery of the soft or mucous character of the lower stratum of the epidermis, of the vascular coils in the cortex of the kidney, and of the follicular bodies in the spleen. He was the first to attempt the finer anatomy of the brain, and his descriptions of the distribution of grey matter and of the fibre-tracts in the cord, with their extensions to the cerebrum and cerebellum, are distinguished by accuracy; but his microscopic study of the grey matter conducted him to the opinion that it was of glandular structure and that it secreted the "vital spirits." At an early period he applied himself to vegetable histology as an introduction to the more difficult study of the animal tissues, and he was acquainted with the spiral vessels of plants in 1662. It was not till 1671 that he wrote his _Anatome plantarum_ and sent it to the Royal Society, who published it in the following year. An English work under a similar title (_Anatomy of Vegetables_) had been published in London a few months earlier, by Nehemiah Grew; so that Malpighi's priority as a vegetable histologist is not so incontestable as it is in animal histology. The _Anatome plantarum_ contained an appendix, _Observations de ovo incubato_, which gave an account (with good plates) of the development of the chick (especially of the later stages) in many points more complete than that of Harvey, although the observations were needlessly lessened in value by being joined to the metaphysical notion of "praedelineation" in the undeveloped ovum.

He also wrote _Epistolae anatomicae Marc. Malpighii et Car. Fracassati_ (Amsterdam, 1662) (on the tongue, brain, skin, omentum, &c.); _De viscerum structura: exercitatio anatomica_ (London, 1669); _De structura glandularum conglobatarum_ (London, 1689); _Opera posthuma, et vita a seipso scripta_ (London, 1697; another edition, with preface and additions, was published at Amsterdam in 1700.). An edition containing all his works except the last two was published in London in 1687, in 2 vols. folio, with portrait and plates.

MALPLAQUET, a village of France in the department of the Nord, close to the Belgian frontier and about 10 miles S. by E. of Mons, famous as the scene of the battle, September 1709, between the Allies under the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène and the French commanded by Marshal Villars, in which the former were victorious. The country to the west and south of Mons is enclosed by a semicircular wall of woods and broken ground, through which there are only two important gaps--that of Jemappes (famous in 1792) to the west, and that of Aulnois, in which stands the village of Malplaquet, to the south. In the latter gap and the woods on either side Villars took up his position facing north-eastwards, on August 29/September 9. The forces in presence, over 90,000 on each side, were exceptionally large, and the French army in particular represented the spirit of its nation to a degree unusual in the armies of that time. Villars was the best general in the service of Louis XIV. and the veteran Marshal Boufflers, though senior to him, had volunteered to serve as his second in command. Marlborough and Eugène lay with their army between Mons and the French camps, which were almost within cannon shot. Marlborough's own wish was for an immediate battle, but he was opposed by the Dutch deputies at his headquarters, and even by Eugène, so that it was only on August 31/September 11 that the attack actually took place. Villars had made full use of his respite. The French right stood at the fringe of the wood of Lanière, the left was strongly posted in the midst of the wood of Taisnière, and across the two and a half miles of open ground between the woods the position was entrenched with several successive lines of works. The troops were almost equally distributed along the whole line as usual, and the cavalry was massed in rear of the infantry. In the Allied army the mounted troops were also kept back, but for the most part distributed to the various infantry commands.

The intention of Marlborough and Eugène, when on the morning of the battle they examined this formidable position, was to deliver the main attack upon the French left wing, combining the assaults of several columns on its front and flanks. In this quarter the French not only held the interior of the wood but also were thrown forward so as to occupy the edges of its north-eastern salient, and upon the two faces of this salient Count Lottum (1650-1719) with the Prussians, and Count von der Schulenburg (1661-1747) with the Austrian infantry were to deliver a double attack, while farther to the Allied right a column under the English General Withers was detached to make a wide turning movement through the woods. Marlborough took command on the right, Eugène on the left. The centre, which was intended only to observe the enemy until the decision had been forced at the wood of Taisnière, consisted of Lord Orkney's British corps and the prince of Orange's Dutch contingent. These extended across the Trouée d'Aulnois as soon as the combined attack of Lottum and Schulenburg opened. The general advance was covered by a heavy cannonade, and the salient of the Taisnière wood was duly attacked on its two faces by the Prussians and Austrians about 9 a.m. They encountered a sterner resistance than in any of the battles and combats of the past seven campaigns, for on this field the defenders were fighting, not as hitherto for the interests of their king, but to defend their country, and the regiments of Picardie and Champagne which held the salient were the oldest and most famous of the French line. Lottum attacked the works on the eastern edge, again and again without success, until three British battalions had to be sent to reinforce him, and Marlborough placed himself with a corps of cavalry in close support. At last the entrenchments were stormed. Schulenburg, with the Austrians, had by this time fought his way through the woods and undergrowth, and the united force pressed back the French farther and farther into the wood. Still, so stubborn was the defence and so dense the wood that the impetus of the assault died away and the troops on both sides broke up into small disconnected bodies, fighting too fiercely to be amenable to superior control.

But the French were not reinforced from their right wing as Villars expected. The prince of Orange, far from merely observing the hostile right as he had been ordered to do, committed his corps, very early in the battle, to a serious assault upon it, which Boufflers repulsed with enormous loss. The Dutch infantry never recovered from its casualties on this day, and the memory of Malplaquet was strong even at Fontenoy nearly forty years afterwards. Some Hanoverian troops which took part in this futile attack suffered equally heavily. The only advantage to the Allies--an advantage which, as it happened, counted for much--was that Boufflers did not dare to send reinforcements to the hard-pressed left wing. Thanks to this the Austrians and Prussians, with the English detached to their aid, made steady progress in the wood of Taisnière. Villars launched the "Irish brigade" to check the advance of the Allies, and this famous corps charged into the forest. Villars, Eugène and Marlborough personally led their troops in the encounter which followed. Eugène was wounded, but refused to quit the field. Villars was more seriously hurt, and after trying in vain to direct the fighting from a chair was carried insensible from the field. At this crisis General Withers, who commanded the force that had been ordered to turn the French extreme left, and had fought his way through the forest, appeared on the scene. The British 18th regiment (Royal Irish), encountering the French _Royal Irlandais_, put it to the rout, and Villars's counterstroke was at an end. The French maintained themselves on this side only by the aid of troops drawn from the centre and right, and this gave the Allied centre the opportunity which the prince of Orange had so rashly anticipated. The great attack over the open was carried out, in spite of the previous repulse, with the greatest determination. Preceded by forty guns, the corps of the prince of Orange and Lord Orkney swiftly carried the first line of works. The Allied cavalry then pushed out to the front, and horse, foot and artillery were combined in the last advance. Boufflers's cavalry masses, coming into play for the first time, fought hard, and the struggle fluctuated with the arrival of successive reserves on either side, but in the end, shortly before 3 p.m., Boufflers (who had been in command since Villars's fall) decided to retreat. The Allies had no troops left intact for the pursuit, and those engaged had expended their last efforts. Moreover Boufflers, experienced soldier as he was, drew off his men before they had lost their order and discipline.

Thus this "very murdering battle" as Marlborough called it--the last and greatest pitched battle of the war--was almost barren of results. The Allies lost not less than twenty thousand men, or nearly a quarter of the whole force, the thirty battalions of the Dutch infantry losing half their numbers. On the French side there were some twelve thousand casualties. If further evidence were necessary to prove that the French fought their hardest, it could be found in the fact that whereas in almost every other battle, from 1660 to 1792, there were deserters and prisoners by the thousand, at Malplaquet only 500 of the French fell into the hands of the victors unwounded.

MALSTATT-BURBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province on the right bank of the Saar (Sarre), which separates it from Saarbrücken. Pop. (1900), 31,195. It lies in the midst of an important coal-mining and industrial district, and is itself little more than a long and narrow row of manufactories and workmen's houses. The largest factories are engaged in the production of iron, steel and cement. There is a large wharf on the river for the export of coal.

Malstatt received municipal rights in 1321. These, however, were afterwards resigned to the newer town of Saarbrücken, and in 1818 Malstatt and Burbach were two small villages with a joint population of only about 800. About the middle of the century the population began to increase rapidly, in consequence of the development of the mining industry of the district and the extension of the railway system, and in 1874 the two villages were united to form a town.

MALT (O. Eng., _mealt_; O. Sax., _malt_; O. Teut., _maltos_; Mod. Ger., _Malz_; Scand., _malt_; probably derived from the Sanskrit _mrdu_, soft, thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft or tender), the name given to grain in which germination has been caused to proceed to a certain stage and has then been arrested by the removal of water and the application of heat. During this limited germination enzymes are developed (see FERMENTATION), and the constituents of the grain modified so that the finished malt, when ground and submitted to the mashing process (see BREWING), differs from the original raw grain in that the greater portion dissolves. This solubility is, however, a direct one to a slight extent only; it is due for the most part to the action of the malt enzymes, diastase, &c. on the constituents of the grain, the main portion of which are of themselves insoluble. Thus starch, the main constituent of all graminaceous seeds, probably exists in the same condition in raw grain and in malt. When however the malt is mashed, the starch is attacked by the enzyme diastase, and converted by the process of hydrolysis into a mixture of soluble compounds, e.g. the crystalline sugar, maltose, and a number of gummy substances known as maltodextrins. But to a certain extent starch and other carbohydrate substances are rendered directly soluble and diffusible during the malting process, some of the products serving the respiratory needs of the growing germ, others being assimilated by the plantlet and reconverted into reserve carbohydrates in the tissues of the germ and rootlets, whilst the remaining portions are retained as such in the finished malt. Similarly certain of the nitrogenous constituents of the grain, the proteïns, are broken down and rendered soluble by proteolytic enzymes, the products being assimilated to a certain extent by the germ and rootlets, by the cells of which they are again built up into complex proteïns, whilst others remain in their simplified form. It is now known that proteolytic enzymes exist in finished malt, and that, when the mashing process is conducted under certain conditions, these are able to degrade and render soluble some of the higher proteïns present in the malt. When germination is allowed to proceed as it does when the grain is planted in the soil, the whole of the contents are rendered soluble by degrees and in turn assimilated by the growing plantlet. By the limited germination which constitutes the malting process, however, the balance of soluble compounds left in the finished malt is from 15 to 25% of the total weight of the corn.

Although other seeds of the natural order Gramineae are occasionally malted, the greater portion of malt is made from the various species of _Hordeum_, known by the name of barley (q.v.), bigg, or bere. Indeed ordinary beer derives its characteristic flavour to the greatest extent from barley malt. A small proportion of malted oats or malted wheat is sometimes used in conjunction with barley malt for certain kinds of beer, whilst rye, maize, and even rice are occasionally malted. Barley is, however, the grain best adapted for making malt intended for brewing beer, and accordingly some space will be devoted to a description of those varieties of this grain which are used by the brewer.

Barley belongs to the genus Hordeum, of which there are numerous species and varieties. Linnaeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species of cultivated barleys, but modern botanists usually consider all cultivated barleys as belonging to one species to which the name _H. sativum_ has been given. Körnicke regards _H. spontaneum_, a very long thin-grained two-rowed barley (see below) which grows in the East, as being the parent form; but E. S. Beaven inclines to the view that wild species of more than one form were originally used as food and subsequently cultivated. The last-named author has drawn up a scheme of classification for the varieties and races of cultivated barleys.

In an ear of barley the primary axis or rachis is divided into internodes of which there may be any number up to forty. Each internode bears three single-flowered spikelets arranged alternately on either side of the rachis. In the six-rowed varieties the whole of these spikelets attain maturity, whilst in the two-rowed varieties only one on each side of the rachis, viz. the median, develops. British beer is brewed principally from the malt made from home-grown two-rowed barleys. Of late years, however, it has been found advantageous to employ a proportion of malt made from the thinner and more husky foreign barleys, mostly six-rowed varieties. The corns of two-rowed barleys are as a rule plumper than those of six-rowed barleys.

The most favourite barley for malting purposes grown in the United Kingdom is the narrow-eared two-rowed _H. distichum_, commonly known as Chevallier, from the name of the original cultivator, the Rev. John Chevallier. Of late years the quantity of barley of the so-called Goldthorpe type (_H. zeocriton_), used for malting, has increased. The paleae or outer coverings of the corns of this variety are somewhat "greasy" in appearance, and do not adhere so closely to the corn as in the Chevallier. The corns of Goldthorpe barley possess a small dimple or transverse furrow near the basal end. Further the basal bristle or rachilla (the prolongation of the axis or point from which the corn was originally developed) is invariably covered with long hairs, whilst in the case of Chevallier it has generally very short hairs. In the variety of Chevallier known as Archer, however, the rachilla has somewhat long hairs. Further the corns of Chevallier barley lie nearly vertical, that is almost parallel to the rachis, whereas in Goldthorpe they are spread out at a greater angle, hence the name fan or peacock barley given to that variety commonly known as sprat. It is believed by some brewers that Goldthorpe barleys never yield malt of so high a quality as do Chevallier barleys. On the other hand, when well matured, Goldthorpes work evenly and freely on the malting floors; and from an agricultural point of view they have the advantage of standing up better against unfavourable weather conditions on account of their stouter straws. Numerous fresh varieties of barley are continually being introduced as a result of artificial cross-fertilization, but cross-fertilization rarely if ever occurs naturally.

Hungarian two-rowed barleys are excellent as regards quality, and command a high price. The so-called Californian Chevallier and Chilean Chevallier contain a certain admixture of the six-rowed _H. vulgare_.

Of the imported thin barleys may be mentioned Brewing Californian, Brewing Chilean, Danubian and Smyrna (Yerli), all for the most part six-rowed varieties; also Ouchak, consisting principally of a two-rowed variety. For the manufacture of grain spirit a malt of high diastatic activity is required, and this is largely made from a very thin barley shipped from Odessa.

In the common six-rowed English barley or Scottish bere (_H. vulgare_), the two lateral rows of spikelets springing from one side of the rachis, either partially or entirely intersect and overlap the alternate lateral spikelets which spring from the opposite side of the rachis. This has given rise to the term "four-rowed barley." Figs. 1-4 show some typical barleys in the ear.

The production of new varieties by cross-fertilization has of late years attained a degree of almost mathematical precision by the application of the law of inheritance first discovered by Gregor Mendel in 1865, and brought to light in 1901 independently by de Vries, Correns and Tschermak.

_Constitution of Barley._--A grain of barley is shuttle-shaped; the end containing the germ which was originally attached to the rachis is known as the proximal end, whilst the opposite end of the corn is called the distal end. A deep furrow runs down the more convex side, which is accordingly denoted the ventral side, the opposite side being distinguished as the dorsal side. Within the ventral furrow at the proximal end is the rachilla already referred to. The skin or husk of a barleycorn consists of two paleae, one adhering to the dorsal side (the palea inferior) and the other to the ventral side (the palea superior); the former overlaps the edges of the latter. The awn or beard is merely an elongation of the palea inferior. If the two paleae are removed from a barleycorn after soaking it in water, it will be seen that there are other skins completely enveloping the embryo and endosperm. These are the true skins, and are known as the pericarp and the testa respectively. It may here be mentioned that A. J. Brown has shown recently that the embryo and endosperm of a barleycorn are enclosed in a semi-permeable membrane, i.e. one which allows the passage of water to the interior of the corn, but not of certain salts and acids. This property appears to be associated with one of the layers of the testa. Next to these skins will be seen the triple layer of thick-walled square-shaped aleurone cells.

The histology of the barleycorn is best studied by the examination of sections under the microscope. The grain consists of two main portions, the embryo or germ, and the endosperm, the storehouse of reserve materials for the growing plant.

The accompanying illustrations show portions of longitudinal sections of a barleycorn magnified to different degrees.

On examining fig. 5, which represents a section of the germ end of a grain of barley cut through the ventral furrow, it will be noticed that the rudimentary leaves, stem and roots are distinguishable. The embryo lies embedded in a mass of cells, the part dividing it from the endosperm being known as the scutellum. Special note should be taken of the elongated cells known as the absorptive epithelial layer, which has certain very important functions to fulfil during the process of germination, notably in feeding the embryo when it begins to develop into a young plant. Next to this, actually between the scutellum and the endosperm, will be seen a layer of empty cells. These at one time in the history and the development of the corn contained starch granules, but this starch was absorbed during its later development by the embryo. It will be observed further that the endosperm is filled with a network of thin-walled cells closely packed with starch granules, and smaller granules of proteïn matter (fig. 6). Nearest the skin will be seen the triple layer of aleurone cells already referred to (fig. 7).

_Germination._--The barleycorn in its resting stage is in a state which may be described as one of dormant vitality; it respires very slowly and thus loses weight during storage. The best and driest barleys are said to lose 1.3% of their weight in the first year, 0.9% in the second, and 0.5% in the third. The loss is considerably more with coarse and damp samples. When the grain is steeped this dormant vitality gives place to that complicated series of processes comprised under the general term germination. When germination begins, enzymes are secreted, and these act on the reserve materials, starch and proteïns of the endosperm, converting them into simpler compounds, capable of diffusing to various parts of the growing germ. Following this, starch and proteïns are re-formed, the former being deposited in the tissues of the germ and in the cells of the scutellum, which previously were almost free from starch; the proteïn matter deposited in the latter disappears to a considerable extent, and the protoplasmic content of the cells assumes a very granular appearance. The pointed mass of cells constituting the root-sheath is pushed forward by the root which protrudes through the base of the grain. It is at this stage that the barley is said by the maltster to "chit." After the first rootlet has broken through the ends of the sheath, it is followed by others. The cotyledonary sheath begins to elongate on the third or fourth day of germination and ruptures the true covering of the seed; it then grows upwards between this and the husk and forms the acrospire or "spire" of the maltster.

According to Brown and Morris, when the first rootlet is breaking through the sheath, starch begins to appear in the tissues of the grain, also in the protoplasm of those cells which are nearest the epithelial layer, and it gradually invades the deeper-seated cells. Further the cellulose walls of the endosperm, situated immediately above the secretory layer, are partially dissolved, the dissolved matter passing into the scutellum, there to be transformed into starch. Brown and Morris state that this process gradually extends to the cellulose walls of the endosperm, and until these are affected there is no evidence of any solvent action on the starch granules themselves. Thus according to these authors the first enzyme to be formed is one which dissolves cell walls, and it was consequently termed by them a "cytohydrolyst." They assert further that the so-called mealy or modified condition, which the maltster desires to bring about to the fullest degree, depends on the extent to which the cell walls have been affected, and they enter into a minute description of the entire disappearance of these during the malting process. On the other hand, J. Grüss has pointed out that the action which takes place on the cell walls of the endosperm during germination does not consist in their complete solution. Schulze has shown that these cell walls consist of two carbohydrates, an araban and a xylan. Grüss states that the araban is completely dissolved, whilst the xylan is more or less unattacked. The cell walls become, however, transparent so that they can only be seen in sections which have been stained; Brown and Morris examined unstained sections. The writer (A. R. Ling) has proved that the cell wall is present in the most friable and well modified finished malt.

_Condition._--Barley is bought in the open market solely on the evidence of certain external signs, and judgment can only be acquired by long experience. The corns should be plump, even in size, and the colour should be uniform from end to end. The sample should have a sweet odour, and it should be dry to the touch. The presence of light or weevilled corns may be detected by the fact that they float in water. Careless threshing or dressing is responsible for much damage done to barley. In this way many of the corns may be broken, have the palcae partly stripped off or portions removed along with the awn. All broken and dead corns are prone to become mouldy on the malting floors, the contagion thus presented becoming general. E. R. Moritz drew attention in 1895 to the ill effects of close dressing, and more recently (1905) the matter has been brought before the Highland and Agricultural Society, chiefly through Montagu Baird, who with C. H. Babington was instrumental in inducing the Board of Agriculture to publish a leaflet recommending more careful methods of threshing barley. Close dressing was at one time practised as a means of raising the bushel weight, and thus giving a fictitious value to the barley. Immature barley feels cold to the hand, has a greenish-yellow colour, and, when dry, a starved wrinkled appearance. Over-ripeness in barley is distinguished by a white dead appearance of the corn. Mature or dry grains slip through the fingers more readily than unripe or damp ones. The contents of the endosperm should present a white friable or mealy appearance when the corns are bitten or cut in two with a penknife. The condition of the grain may be determined by means of a mechanical cutter, which cuts a certain number of corns (fifty or more) at one time. Some cutters are constructed to cut the corns transversely, others to cut them longitudinally. The so-called transparency test may be used for the same purpose. It is carried out in an apparatus known as the diaphanoscope, which consists of a box fitted with a sliding tray, furnished with a certain number of shuttle-shaped holes (usually 500), each of such a size as just to hold a barleycorn longitudinally. Into the portion of the box below this tray an electric lamp is placed, and the corns are looked at from above. Thoroughly mealy corns are opaque, whilst steely corns are transparent. When certain portions of a corn are steely, these present the appearance of lakes. By this means the percentage of mealy, steely, or half steely corns in a sample may readily be estimated.

E. Prior points out that steeliness of barley is of two kinds, one of which disappears after the grain has been steeped and dried, and therefore does not necessarily influence the malting value of the sample, and the other which is permanent, and therefore retards the modification of the corn. He proposed to determine what he called the coefficient of mellowness of a sample of barley by means of the formula:--

(M1 - M)100 A = ----------- + M, 100 - M

in which A is the degree of mellowness, M is the percentage of mealy corns in the original barley, and M1 is the percentage of mealy corns after steeping and drying the barley. Prior points out that, generally speaking, the degree of mellowness varies inversely as the proteïn content.

The physical differences between steely and mealy grains were first investigated by Johansen, who arrived at the conclusion that mealiness is always accompanied by the presence of air spaces in the endosperm. Munro and Beaven confirmed and extended this. Their conclusions are as follow: "Mealy grains have a lower specific gravity than steely grains, and contain a larger amount of interstitial air. The total nitrogen content of mealy grains is less than that of steely grains. Steely grains contain a relatively high proportion of nitrogenous substances soluble (a) in 5% salt solution, and (b) in alcohol of specific gravity 0.9. Mealy barley modifies better than steely during germination. The process of drying damp and under-matured barley intact at 100° F. produced an apparent mellowing or maturation. Other things being equal, maturation, which is physiologically a post-ripening process, is correlated with the mealy appearance of the endosperm." H. T. Brown and his collaborators point out that thin sections of steely corns when examined under the microscope no longer exhibit a translucent appearance, but show the mealy properties as completely as if they had been cut from a mealy grain, and they suggest that in a steely corn the whole of the endosperm is under a state of tensile stress which cannot be maintained in the thin sections. If, however, a thin section of a steely barley be cemented to a slide with Canada balsam and then pared away with a razor, steeliness and translucency may be preserved even in the thinnest sections. The mealy appearance in the endosperm of barley is assumed to be a direct consequence of the formation of interspaces around the cell-contents and within the cell walls. Under ordinary conditions it is conjectured that these interspaces are filled with air, but it is pointed out that they can also be produced under circumstances which suggest that they are at times vacuous or partly so. According to the last-mentioned authors they appear to originate from a system of stresses and strains induced within the endosperm by its gradual loss of water, a break of continuity taking place which gives rise to these interspaces when the cohesive power of the heterogeneous cell-contents falls below a certain point. It is further suggested by them that the most important factor in producing the stresses and strains is probably the shrinkage of the starch granules as their water content is reduced from, say, 40 to about 15%. It is pointed out, however, that actual discontinuity in the cell-contents can only take place when the tensile strength of the protoplasmic matrix in which the starch granules are embedded has been surpassed, and this being so it might be anticipated that those cells which contain the larger amount of proteïn material would probably best resist the internal stresses and strains, a deduction in close agreement with observed facts, steely grains being as a rule richer in proteïn than mealy grains. Brown and his co-workers determine the coefficient of mealiness of a barley as follows: Five hundred corns are cut transversely in a corn cutter and the percentage of mealy, half mealy and steely corns is noted. The number 100 is taken to represent complete mealiness, 1 complete steeliness, and 50 the intermediate class. If the percentage of each class be multiplied by its special value, and the sum of the products divided by 100, the result is the coefficient of mealiness. By steeping and drying a very steely Scottish barley, the coefficient of mealiness was raised from 29.7 to 87.1, whilst concurrently the specific gravity fell from 1.417 to 1.289.

Barley even of the same kind varies widely in its chemical composition, but on an average the proximate constituents of British malting barleys be within the following limits:--

Moisture 18 --12 per cent. Nitrogenous matters expressed as proteïns 8 --15 " Fat 2 -- 2.5 " Starch 60 --65 " Sugars 1.5-- 2.0 " Gums 1.7-- 2.0 " Fibre (cellulose) 5 -- 7 " Ash 2 -- 2.5 "

Any sample of barley which contains more than 20% of moisture would be considered damp. The late Professor Lintner expressed the view several years ago that a good malting barley should not contain more than 10% of proteïn, but R. Wahl asserts that in America six-rowed barleys containing a far higher percentage of proteïn are used successfully, indeed preferably, for malting purposes. The only precise knowledge we possess of the proteïn compounds of barley is due to the researches of T. B. Osborne. According to this observer, barley contains the under-mentioned compounds of this class in the following proportions:--

Soluble in water / Leucosin (albumin) \ 0.30 per cent. \ Proteose / Soluble in salt solution: Edestin (globulin) 1.95 " Soluble in 75% alcohol / Hordeïn 4.00 " \ Insoluble proteïn 4.50 " ----- Total 10.75 "

It should be pointed out here that the above are only average values for the particular samples of barley investigated. Undoubtedly the nitrogenous constituents of different barleys vary widely in nature as well as in amount.

Raw barley contains enzymes, thus diastase of translocation, so called by Horace T. Brown and G. H. Morris, and catalase (H. van Laer). Proteolytic enzymes appear only to arise with the beginning of germination; but it has been asserted that raw barley contains proenzymes (zymogens), which can be rendered active by treatment with dilute lactic acid at an appropriate temperature. The action of the diastase of raw barley on starch has been studied by Julian L. Baker.

Barley should not be cut until it is properly ripe, but over-ripeness is much more to be guarded against by the maltster than premature cutting, as it is accompanied by a loss in germinative power. Moreover, unripe corn may to a certain extent be matured in stack, whilst a great improvement in germinative capacity is frequently produced by sweating. Very wet seasons are prejudicial to the ripening of the grain, and when the latter is stacked in too moist a condition it is apt to become what is known as mow burnt. Especially is this the case with barleys containing large percentages of nitrogen and of high enzymatic activities. Such barleys are denoted "warm" by M. Delbrück from their tendency to heat when stored in a moist condition. The effect of this heating is exhibited in the corns becoming black and discoloured at the tips; they are then said to be magpied. Even in an otherwise dry season a large amount of rain during harvest causes the corns to become "weathered," whilst some of them begin germinating and rot. At the same time heavy dews at night whilst the barley lies cut in the field, or even a sprinkling of rain, assists in mellowing the grain, which often in consequence works the more freely on the malting floors. Properly harvested barley is all the better for remaining in stack for two or three months, as was the practice in former years; if, however, it has been stacked too wet the sooner it is broken down the better.

It is difficult to give any specific test for ripeness, but a series of observations has been made by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe. Samples of barley were taken from the field on the 20th, 24th and 29th of July, and on the 2nd, 6th and 10th of August, and preserved in spirit so that they remained in the same state as when they were gathered. Sections were then cut of these corns, when it was found that the progress of maturation is attended by deformation and ultimate disintegration of the cell nuclei. The change which is denoted by the term nuclear senescence is said to begin in the starch-containing cells, near the periphery of the corn, immediately underlying the layer next to the aleurone layer. This deformation is followed by complete disintegration of the nucleus, and at the end of seven or eight days nearly the whole of the endosperm has been involved. Brown and Escombe state that when this nuclear test is properly applied it stamps as immature those corns in a sample which are manifestly unripe owing to premature desiccation as well as those in which the ratio of nitrogen to carbohydrate is unduly high, owing to an excess of nitrogenous manure in the soil, or to sparser sowing with its consequent reduction of root competition. This method, interesting though it be, is not fitted for practical use, and the agriculturist must rely as heretofore upon empirical methods for deciding whether or not the grain has attained ripeness or maturity.

The bushel weight is a useful criterion in arriving at an opinion regarding the value of a sample of barley; but in basing judgment upon this factor regard must be paid to the fact already mentioned that if the grains be dressed closely the bushel weight is increased. The reason of this is that with the removal of the awns the corns pack more closely together. The best British malting barleys should weigh 52-56 lb. per bushel, the standard weight for malting barleys being 56 lb.

During the storage of barley access of air is necessary, otherwise the grain dies from asphyxiation. Sound barley after being kiln-dried retains its vitality for a number of years; but the statement that the corns found in the Egyptian mummy cases, in which they had remained for several thousands of years, were still capable of germination, is contrary to modern experience. Moisture must also be carefully excluded, as it initiates germination in a few cells only of the endosperm and causes heating. A constant repetition of wetting such as may take place on account of alterations of the atmospheric temperature, which causes moisture to be deposited, in the form of dew, may ultimately destroy the vitality and foster the growth and development of mould fungi which usually grow on broken and damaged corns. In this connexion the advantage of screening and sweating of barley before storing it will be apparent (see below).

An immense amount of damage is caused to the grain, during storage, by various insects, one of the most destructive of these being the common weevil (_Calandra granaria_). When fully developed this insect measures (1/6)th to (1/8)th of an inch in length, and is of a bright chestnut colour. The larvae are fleshy legless grubs, shorter than the perfect insect, with a series of tubercles along each side of the body; the head is round with strong jaws. The pupa is white, clear and transparent, showing the form of the future weevil. The female bores a hole in the grain with her snout and deposits an egg. The larva when hatched lives on the contents of the grain and undergoes its changes therein. Windisch asserts that only barley which has ripened in the granary is attacked by weevil. Grain which is only slightly attacked should be kilned at a temperature of 122° F., which destroys the weevil in all stages of development. To detect weevil in a sample of barley, the grain should be spread out on a sheet of white paper in bright sunlight. If weevils are present they soon appear, and betake themselves to a position outside the sunlight, to which they are averse. Treatment of the grain with carbon bisulphide has been suggested as a means of destroying weevil; even if efficacious, however, such a process could not be recommended on account of its danger, carbon bisulphide being highly inflammable. The only practical means of ridding a granary or shop of weevil is to clear out all the grain and leave it empty for a year or more.

The vitality of barley may be determined by causing a sample to germinate in any of the well-known forms of apparatus devised for that purpose, and counting the percentage of germinating and idle corns. The germinative capacity of a sample of barley may frequently be raised by sweating (see below), which, as already mentioned, brings about a kind of artificial maturation.

_Malting._--There are two systems of malting used in England: floor malting and pneumatic or drum malting. These systems will be described separately.

A floor malting consists of a rectangular building of several storeys, having the cisterns at one end and the kilns at the other. The uppermost floor is devoted to barley.

Figure 8 shows a longitudinal section of Messrs Watney, Combe, Reid & Co.'s 200 quarter malting at Mortlake. The barley is carried to the top of the building by the elevator A, where the screening and dressing machinery is situated. After leaving these machines the grain is conveyed on bands to the barley floors B and C. The floor C contains also the steeping cisterns. The six working floors are D, E, F, G, H, K. The floors are ventilated by louvres, N, N, N. The cisterns are connected to the floors by means of plugs. The "pieces," as they are termed, of germinating barley are gradually worked along the floors to the kilns M, M, on to which they are loaded by rotary bands. The fire-places O, O, are arranged so that the draught may be easily controlled. The hot air and products of combustion pass up the shafts P, P, to the hot-air chamber R, R, where they strike the baffle plates S, S. These plates disperse the hot air and gases evenly beneath the kiln floors T, T, through the green malt. After drying and curing, the malt is allowed to cool and is then carried by bands to the floor U, where by suitable machinery the coombs or rootlets are removed. The finished malt is stored in the bins V, V, V.

On arrival at the malting the barley has to be put through the following operations seriatim: receiving, hoisting and weighing, rough screening, drying and sweating, storing until required for use, screening, grading and removing broken corns, steeping, couching, flooring, withering, drying and curing, dressing and polishing, storing, weighing, sacking and discharging the finished malt.

In sweating barley the temperature should not be allowed to rise above 120° F.; it is usually conducted at 100° F.; and subsequently the barley should be stored for some weeks before it is steeped.

The capacity of a malting is described by the number of quarters which are put through it every four days. A fifty quarter malting does not merely mean that the cisterns have a capacity of fifty quarters, but that this quantity of barley goes through the house every four days. The average time the germinating barley is on the floors is twelve days, and, as a rule, kilning occupies four days. If, as sometimes happens, the malt has to be kept on the floors thirteen, fourteen, fifteen days, or even longer, the malting is not being worked at the capacity under which it is described, and the kilns may remain unused for a day or more. Conversely, when the malt is loaded at less than twelve days, a day or two has to be missed in steeping. In the former case when the kilns are not being used for drying and curing malt, advantage may be taken to utilize them for sweating barley.

Steeping cisterns were formerly rectangular vessels, of slate, brick or cement, from which the barley had to be discharged by shovelling it out. The forms approved most at the present day are conical and constructed of iron; they have arrangements at the apex of the cone, the lower portion, for discharging the grain by gravitation. The steeping period ranges from 48 to 70 hours; it varies according to the kind of barley, and the time of the year. In some of the older maltings there are no arrangements for heating the steep water, and in the winter steeping has occasionally to be performed with water at a temperature near its freezing-point. Steeping should be carried out at a temperature as near as possible to 55° and not higher than 60° F. The usual practice is to fill the cistern up to a certain height with water and throw the barley into it, stirring it until it is about level; the heavy corns will then sink directly to the bottom, whilst the light corns and refuse float on the surface and may be skimmed off. During the time the barley remains in the cistern it is usual to change the steep water two or three times, generally at intervals of twelve hours or tides. The advantage of this is not merely to keep the grain fresh and sweet, but to bring it into contact with the air during the time it is taking up water. Aëration of the steep has long been recognized in Germany as promoting germination, and several arrangements are on the market enabling air to be passed through the grain while it is in the cistern. It has been recommended by Graham, Stopes, Moritz and Morris, and experimental evidence as to its beneficial effects has been published by Windisch, Bleisch, Will, and Baker and Dick. When the corn is steep ripe it contains some 60% of water. Steeping does not consist, however, merely in the imbibition of a certain amount of water; in order to bring about germination this water must remain within the corn a certain length of time. Thus, although it is quite possible to force the necessary amount of water into the grain in less than the 48-70 hours usually taken up by the steeping process, the grain is not steep-ripe until certain changes initiated by the water have taken place, and these require time for their completion. The following average data are useful to remember in connexion with the steeping process:--

Amount of water in steep-ripe barley (about) 60%. Matter removed from barley during steeping (about) 1.5%. Increase in volume of barley due to water absorption (about) 18-20%.

There has been much discussion as to the influence of saline matters in water on the steeping process. The late Professor Lintner stated that common salt in water tended to extract the nitrogenous constituents of the grain, but impeded its germination. Mills and Pettigrew found that waters containing calcium salts extracted a minimum of nitrogenous compounds from the barley; they also came to the conclusion that the esteem in which the Lichfield water is held for steeping purposes is due to the presence of nitrates which, they assert, have a stimulating effect on the subsequent germination of the grain. The writer has added lime-water to the extent of one-third of the total volume of water at the first change, believing it to promote regularity of germination. Bearing in mind, however, the observations of Adrian J. Brown, that the barleycorn is enclosed in a membrane permeable to water but impermeable to most salts, it is difficult to see how the saline constituents of water can have any effect except in removing matter from the external portions of the grain and on those corns which are broken. The apparent beneficial effect of lime-water in the steep is probably entirely due to the removal of matters from the husks or paleae.

Malting floors may be constructed of cement, tiles or slate, the two former being preferable to the latter. Ford, in 1849, recommended 200 sq. ft. per quarter of barley steeped as the area of the working floors, and he was quite convinced of the necessity of allowing ample floor room, so that the grain could be worked on the slow, cool system. Subsequently, however, maltsters reduced their floor area, and put the grain rapidly through the malting, thus producing what is termed "forced" malt. This kind of malt was, however, condemned by practical brewers, and a chemical test whereby forcing could be detected having been devised by E. R. Moritz and G. H. Morris, maltsters have been compelled again to increase the area of their working floors. At the present time the approved area may be placed at 175-200 sq. ft. per quarter of barley steeped. The area is, however, largely ruled by the kind of barley to be malted.

After the barley has been thrown out of the cistern it is made up in a rectangular heap 16-20 in. deep, called the "couch"; the object of this is to enable it to gather heat and so start germinating. It usually remains in couch for 12-24 hours, until in fact the interior portion of the heap registers a temperature of about 60° F. During the days of the malt tax the exciseman gauged the quantity of the barley while it was in the couch. After couching the barley is spread thinly and evenly on the floor, forming what is known as the young floor or No. 1 piece. The first visible sign of germination is the sprouting of the rootlet, termed "chitting," and this occurs either while the grain is on the couch or on the young floor. As already mentioned, it may be quickened by aerating the grain in the cistern. From the time the barley is first cast out of the cistern up to the stage of the young floor, or No. 1 piece, it has a pleasant ethereal odour resembling apples. Drs Thomson, Hope and Coventry stated in the earlier part of the 19th century that they distilled "spirits" from germinating barley at this stage. In the light of our present knowledge it would not be surprising if alcoholic fermentation were proved to occur within the grain at this stage, since intramolecular or anaerobic respiration in certain vegetables has been found to be due to alcoholic fermentation.

The thickness at which the young floor is spread depends upon the outside temperature and the nature of the barley. If the weather be warm, or if there be a tendency for the barley to heat, the piece must be spread all the thinner. At this stage the grain loses its external wet appearance. When spread too thickly the grain will begin to sweat, and the rootlets will be thrown out suddenly and unevenly. As a rule, under these circumstances, the rootlets will be long and thin, when they are said to be "wild." A piece which has been allowed to get into this condition must at once be spread thinner. If the sweating has not continued long, the harm done may be confined to increased loss by respiration. The young floor is usually turned with a plough twice during twelve hours, and it may be forked between whiles, but no hard and fast rule can be laid down as to when this is necessary; it must be left to the maltster's judgment, as it depends entirely on what is going on within the grain. The object of turning is in the first place to aerate the grain and freshen it, secondly to check excessive rise of temperature, and thirdly to promote evenness of growth. Too frequent turning is not to be advised. After remaining four days on the young floor three or four rootlets should have appeared, and the acrospire should have begun to grow up the back of the corn. The apple-like odour of the piece then gives place to one resembling that of the common rush, and this should continue the whole time that the malt remains on the floor. On the fifth day the piece is next moved to No. 2 position, a stage nearer the kiln. It is here that sprinkling is resorted to when necessary. The amount of sprinkling and the time it is given cannot be exactly prescribed. The amount may vary from two to five gallons per quarter, and it should only be given when the rootlets, which ought to be short and curly, and five or more in number, show signs of losing their freshness. If an excessive amount of sprinkling be given forced growth ensues. It is preferable not to add the whole of the water at one time, but to divide it over two lots; and immediately after the piece has been sprinkled it should be thoroughly and carefully mixed, otherwise some of the grain will receive an undue proportion of water. When all the sprinkling water has been given to the piece, which as a rule should not be done later than at the sixth or seventh day of flooring, the temperature should be kept down to about 55° F. by turning. Too frequent turning may, however, detach the rootlet, and it may cause the grain to lose its vitality prematurely, so that growth of the acrospire stops.

By about the eighth day of flooring the acrospire should be about three-quarters up the corn. After this the germinating corn is moved forward to No. 3 piece, which is at first spread as thinly on the floors as in the previous pieces. Here it gradually dries and incipient withering of the rootlets sets in. The only treatment which is now given to the grain is to heap it up thicker and thicker by degrees until it is ready for loading on the kiln. This increase in thickness of the piece (now called the old piece) should not be too sudden, especially if the grain be fresh in appearance and contain a large quantity of water. When the piece is thickened up to say 10 in. in depth, while it is in a very moist condition, heating and sweating take place, with additional growth of acrospire and rootlet. Under such forcing conditions a large production of sugar and degradation of the proteïns will take place. When, however, the moisture has been gradually reduced before thickening up, the rootlet dies off; and although increase of temperature may occur, this is accompanied by little or no further growth of the acrospire, action being confined to the mellowing of the grain by the enzymes. When the malt is ready for loading on the kiln it should be possible to break down the contents of each corn between the thumb and finger. Opinions differ as to what the final temperature on the withering floor should be. If the moisture content of the malt be about 50%, the piece must be kept thin to avoid sweating. But under these conditions mellowing does not occur, hence the necessity of reducing the moisture content gradually after the last sprinkling water has been given. When the process has been conducted properly the temperature of the old piece may be allowed to rise as high as 70° F. during the six hours previous to loading. The moisture content of the green malt when loaded should not be much above 40%.

The endosperm of green malt which is ready for the kiln should be soft and mealy, and should not exude moisture when pressed between the thumb-nails, but should crumble and disintegrate to a chalky mass having little or no adhesiveness.

The foregoing observations are not to be regarded as hard and fast rules, but they are simply intended to give some indications of the malting process when it proceeds on normal lines; it may be that on account of the presence of damaged corns the piece begins to develop mould by about the tenth day, and it then has to be kept thin and sometimes even loaded on kiln prematurely.

The malt made for grain distillers, in which a high diastatic activity is required, is manufactured on quite different lines from those above indicated. It is often sprinkled late, and loaded on kiln often in a sodden condition. In some cases sprinkling on kiln is resorted to, but it is doubtful if this leads to the desired object. Other things being equal, the smaller the corns--i.e. the greater number of embryos in a given weight--the higher the diastatic activity of the malt. In selecting a barley for the production of highly diastatic malt, the diastatic power of the original raw grain is a factor of great importance.

_Kilning._--When loaded on kiln, malt intended for brewing ale and stout is, if properly withered, in a moribund condition; nevertheless, during the first stages of the kilning process a certain amount of vital activity is manifested, and the malt undergoes mellowing by the action of enzymes on the contents of the endosperm. If the malt be loaded while the rootlets appear fresh on account of the presence of too much moisture, rapid growth of the acrospire ensues, giving rise to overshot corns, known in Germany as "hussars." To check this the moisture must be rapidly removed by the passage of large volumes of air through the malt. But under such circumstances mellowing does not occur. The ideal conditions of kilning are when the malt has been properly withered on the floors before loading, and, assuming that drying and curing occupy four days, that 25-30% of the moisture be removed very gradually, this occupying the first three days, at the end of which the malt is said to be hand-dry. The thickness at which the malt is spread on the kiln should not exceed 7-8 in., and until hand-dry (that is to say, reduced to a moisture content of 12-15%) it should not be turned; if moved at all (and that only is necessary when reek occurs), it should only be lightly forked. The rate at which the temperature is raised depends largely on the kind of malt to be made and the construction of the kiln. If high flavour and colour are required, these are produced by keeping the malt for several hours near a temperature of 160° F. while it still contains 12-15% of moisture. If more than this amount of moisture be present when the temperature reaches the limit just mentioned, the conditions known as stewing would obtain, with the result that "forced" malt would be produced. A certain amount of colour is produced at the final temperature to which the malt is raised; but when such means are relied upon for the production of the greater part of the colour, reduction of extract and deficiency of flavour follow, the colour being then almost exclusively the result of caramelization of the carbohydrates.

The so-called curing stage constitutes the last part of the kilning process, and the malt must then be turned frequently to ensure uniformity of action. Mechanical turners are exceedingly useful for this purpose. Curing in a drum, as in the so-called pneumatic malting process (see below), also effects satisfactory curing.

The following table will give an idea of the kilning temperatures usually employed for the three kinds of malt mentioned, but it must be remembered that these temperatures are largely regulated by the construction of the kiln and the amount of draught available. In this connexion it may be mentioned that the final curing temperature is not necessarily a criterion of the tint of the malt. A malt may have been finished off at a very high temperature and still be a pale malt, provided the moisture percentage has been sufficiently reduced in the initial stages of kilning.

Running Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt.

1st day temp. 90-100° F. 90-100° F. 90-100° F. 2nd " " 100-120 100-120 100-130 3rd " " 120-130(10 hrs.) 120-130( 6 hrs.) 130-150( 6 hrs.) 3rd " " 130-180( 8 " ) 130-150(12 " ) 150-160(12 " ) 3rd " " 180-190( 6 " ) 150-180( 6 " ) 160-180( 6 " ) 4th " " drop to 170(12 " ) 180-190(12 " ) 180-200(12 " ) 4th " " 190-200( 6 " ) 200-220( 6 " ) 4th " " drop to 180( 6 " ) drop to 190( 6 " )

The average laboratory values obtained from malts of the descriptions after about two months' storage should be as follows:--

Running Pale Malt. Ale Malt. Amber Malt.

Extract per standard quarter of 336 lb. 95-98 lb. 94-96 lb. 94-96 lb. Moisture about 2.0% in each case Diastatic activity (Lintner) 30-35 20-30 8-10 Tint (Lovibond 52 series neutral) 3-5 6-8 20-25

_Metabolic Changes._--All through the malting process metabolic changes are proceeding, in which both carbohydrates and proteïns are concerned. In its resting stage the embryo of a barleycorn is generally free from starch; as soon as germination sets in, however, starch appears in the scutellum, while the amount of sucrose there present increases, these being apparently formed from maltose originating from the action of diastase on the starch of the endosperm. Sucrose also augments in the aleurone layer, but starch is never formed in the aleurone cells. These changes occur when the malt is first loaded on kiln; indeed, at no part of the malting process is there greater physiological activity.

Kilning has been specially studied by J. Grüss, who divides the process into four stages, the first being that at which the temperature limit is 113° F. It is characterized by a continuation of the living processes, especially growth of the acrospire, which, as already stated, proceeds too far if the malt be loaded too wet. In any case the rootlet dies away. The metabolism of the carbohydrates already mentioned is accompanied by that of the nitrogenous constituents, the reserve proteïn of the sub-aleurone layer being attacked by proteolytic enzymes and broken down into simpler compounds. This is a most important matter from the point of view of the brewing value of barley, for the degradation products of the proteïns are necessary constituents of wort as yeast food. Moreover, unless proper modification of these proteïn bodies occurs it is impossible to produce tender malt. A barley which contains a high percentage of reserve proteïn is as a rule unfitted for malting purposes, and indeed, the higher the proteïn content the greater the difficulty the maltster experiences in dealing with it. Proteïn hydrolysis requires the presence of a certain amount of moisture, and if this be removed too rapidly by a forced draught at the early stages of kilning the proteolytic enzymes cannot perform their function. If, on the other hand, the grain be loaded in too moist a condition, and the temperature be raised too quickly, the proteolytic enzymes lose their activity and the proteïns remain for the most part unattacked. When germination is allowed to proceed on the kiln too great degradation of the proteïn occurs, and the malt is liable to produce fretty beers, on account of the presence of an excessive amount of nitrogenous nutritive matter, which leads to the development of disease organisms.

The second stage of the kilning process, according to Grüss, is that at which the temperatures range from 113° to 167° F. The life of the corn is now suspended, but enzymatic processes continue. The starch is further saccharified, and the dividing line of the aleurone layer at the furrow is attacked, as are also the cell walls of the endosperm, which are still intact, these being partially converted into gummy substances. This change, however, also requires the presence of a certain amount of moisture. If too much air be passed through the malt at this stage the above-named dividing partition of the cell walls is not attacked. The air may expand the grain to some extent and produce malt of a low bushel weight, which, however, is not properly modified and cannot give satisfactory results in practice.

During the third stage of kilning, an enzyme, which Grüss claims to have recognized, and which he denotes spermoxidase, is said to exert its activity.

Schönfeld has confirmed the discoveries of Grüss by practical experiments.

_Fuel._--The fuel used for drying and curing malt is either anthracite or coke, and the greatest care is necessary in selecting it on account of its liability to contain arsenic, which is to a greater or less extent an invariable constituent of all coal. The fuel used for malting purposes should not contain more arsenic than (1/20)th grain per lb. Gas coke should on no account be used, unless it has been proved to be sufficiently free from arsenic; but the best oven coke frequently contains so little arsenic that it may be employed with perfect safety, especially if it be mixed with a proportion (e.g. 5%) of milk of lime, which retains the arsenic as calcium arsenate. In Germany malt is, as a rule, dried and cured with hot air, whilst in Great Britain the products of combustion are passed through the malt, as it is believed that they exert a beneficial influence on the flavour. The proportion of fuel used for drying and curing malt varies according to the quality of the fuel and the construction of the kiln, but on an average it may be placed at 50-80 lb. per quarter.

Fig. 9.--Diagrammatic view of pneumatic malting, showing pneumatic washing and steeping cisterns.]

_Storing._--After the malt has passed through the curing stage it is generally heaped up for a few hours. This is believed to increase its flavour. The malt is then stripped from the kiln, and the rootlets, technically known as the coombs, are removed. Formerly this was effected by workmen treading the malt, who wore heavy boots for the purpose. At the present time, however, the rootlets are usually removed by machinery, special forms of which have been devised for this as well as for dressing and polishing the malt. It is the custom of some maltsters to store malt with the rootlets still attached; but this is an objectionable practice, since malt coombs attract moisture, and the presence of more than 3% of moisture in malt produces the condition known as "slackness." When the malt is packed in bin it is often covered with a layer of coombs, which then prevent access of atmospheric moisture. Malt, to preserve its good qualities intact, should be stored in bins made as nearly as possible air-tight, and it should never be placed in bin until it is quite cool. It is probably wrong to store malt in bins adjacent to the kilns, where it is kept at a higher temperature than that of the surrounding atmosphere. During storage of the malt a kind of mellowing occurs, the mechanism of which is not understood. It is, however, known by practical brewers that the best results cannot be obtained when new malt is used.

_Premature Malting._--Several years ago Galland suggested germinating barley in a drum, his idea being to do away with handling of the grain, and also to be independent of changes of atmospheric temperature. The latest development of this system, the so-called Galland-Henning process of pneumatic malting, has been improved by Mr R. Blair Robertson, and a diagrammatic view of the interior of one of these maltings, showing the drums and conical steeping cisterns, is shown in fig. 9.

The drums are provided with a perforated channel for the passage of air through the malt, which is packed in the annular space between this channel and outside wall of the drum. Each drum is capable of revolving on its axis, and there are arrangements for passing either moist, saturated or dry air through the malt. The system as now improved is capable of producing some of the best malt, especially if, after germination has been completed in the drums, the green malt is loaded on an ordinary kiln and the initial stages of kilning (see above) conducted in the usual way; the curing, however, may be carried out successfully in a special form of drum.

_Yield and Weight._--The malting process is attended with a certain amount of loss of dry substance of the barley, as follows:--

In the steep 1.5 to 2.0% By respiration on floors and on kilns 3.0 " 5.0% Coombs 3.0 " 4.0% --- ----- Total 7.5 " 11.0%

In addition to this, barley, as already mentioned, contains from 15 to 20% of moisture, whereas finished malt contains 1 to 2%. The total loss in weight which barley undergoes in the malting process may be put down at from 17 to 28%. Since, however, malt is lighter than barley (and the quantity of both was in former years measured exclusively by volume), it frequently happens that a given number of quarters of barley yields a larger number of quarters of finished malt. When this happens it is usual to speak of an increase having been obtained. At the present time weight replaces measure for both barley and malt, and although it is usual to speak of the quantity of grain in terms of quarters, what is meant is not the measured quarter, but so many weighed standard quarters. The standard quarter for English malting barley is 448 lb. and for malt 336 lb. From this it will be seen that when a given number of weighed quarters of barley yields the same number of quarters of finished malt, the actual yield is 75%, and there is then said to be neither increase nor decrease. As a rule, in practical working the yield of malt varies from a 4% decrease to a 10% increase, corresponding to an actual yield on the original barley of 72 to 82.5%.

J. Baverstock, an old writer, says that finished malt should weigh one-fifth less than the barley from which it is produced. This corresponds to a malting increase of about 7%, which is a high yield. As a rule, foreign barley will give a greater malting increase than English barley, because, on the one hand, the former usually contains less moisture than the latter, and, further, because there is less loss on the floors by respiration and rootlet growth.

The yield of malt from barley may be determined in the laboratory in an extremely simple manner. Since every grain of barley must yield a grain of malt, if we know the respective weights of a definite number of barley and malt grains, provided that this number is large enough to represent the average, then obviously this gives the data requisite for calculating the yield of malt from barley. The number of corns the weight of which is determined for this purpose is usually 1000, and if the weight of this number be determined on several different 1000 corns, the average will closely approximate to the truth. Instead of counting the corns by hand, an instrument may be used for this purpose.

If 1000 corns of a barley were found to weigh 42 grammes, and 1000 corns of a finished malt from the same barley 32 grammes, then the yield of malt is (32 × 100)/42 = 76.1, this corresponding to a 1% increase. Assuming that the moisture content of the barley was 15% and that of the finished malt 2%, 100 grammes of malt will contain 2 grammes of moisture, and 76.1 grammes will contain (76.1 × 2)/100 = 1.5 grammes moisture; therefore 76.1 grammes of malt contain 76.1 - 1.5 = 74.6 grammes of dry matter. This was obtained from 100 - 15 = 85 grammes of barley dry substance. Hence 100 parts of barley dry substance will yield (74.6 × 100)/85 = 87.7 corresponding with a loss of dry substance equal to 12.5% of the dry substance of the barley, or with a loss of 10.7% on the barley containing 15% of moisture.

The results obtained by this method of laboratory control when it is accurately carried out agree very closely with those deduced from the practical results of weighing the barley, malt and coombs in the malting.

_Special Malts._--In addition to the kinds of malt considered in what precedes, there are others mostly used for imparting specific flavours and colour to beers and stout. These are crystal malt, imperial malt, brown or blown malt, and black or roasted malt. Crystal malt is grown for a shortened period on the floors, and then placed in a wire cylinder, which is rotated over a fire so that it is dried at a very high temperature. The weight per quarter is from 250 to 280 lb. Imperial malt is dried off on an ordinary kiln at a final temperature of 240-270° F., but it is not allowed the usual length of time on the withering floor. It is placed on the drying kiln in a layer not exceeding one inch and a half in thickness. A moderate heat from burnt wood is first applied until the bulk of the moisture has been driven off, when the temperature is suddenly raised so that the grains swell some 25% and the malt takes up a strong empyreumatic flavour from the products of combustion. This kind of malt weighs 270-300 lb. per quarter. Black or roasted malt is prepared by roasting malt in a cylinder. Ford states that perfectly malted corn gives a colour of less intensity and permanence than does partially malted corn, and this has been confirmed by other observers. A certain quantity of the so-called black malt is actually made from raw barley, but this gives a product of inferior flavour. The weight per quarter of black malt varies as much as from 215 to 290 lb.

_Valuation._--For the valuation of malt the following determinations are usually carried out: Extract per standard quarter, moisture, diastatic activity by the Lintner process, tint, and matters soluble in cold water. The physical examination of malt is also a matter of importance, inasmuch as direct evidence is obtained thereby of the modification of the malt. Among the methods adopted for this purpose may be mentioned counting the percentage of corns in which the acrospire has grown up to one-half, two-thirds and three-fourths the entire length of the corn. In properly made malt the modification of the endosperm should proceed _pari passu_ with the growth of the acrospire. The sinker test is also useful when carried out in an intelligent manner. Those corns which sink in water and lie flat are improperly modified. Normal malt has a specific gravity less than water and the corns have equal density throughout; consequently they float horizontally in water. In forced samples the proximal ends are frequently lighter than the distal ends, and the corns float horizontally in water, with the germ directed upwards. The latter, however, may in some cases fill with water, and the corns lie flat or sink. This is a characteristic of over-modified malt. It will be seen from these remarks that it is essential to carry out the sinker test under standard conditions. The modification of the malt may also be determined by means of the diaphanoscope already referred to under Barley.

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