m. The district consists for the most part of a broad plain, without

hills or rivers, stretching northward from the native borders to the ancient bed of the Sutlej. The soil is a rich clay, broken by large patches of shifting sand. On the eastern edge, towards Umballa, the clay is covered by a bed of rich mould, suitable for the cultivation of cotton and sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand occurs in union with the superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil, on which cereals form the most profitable crop. Even here, however, the earth is so retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped from fields which appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste. These southern uplands descend to the valley of the Sutlej by an abrupt terrace, which marks the former bed of the river. The principal stream has shifted to the opposite side of the valley, leaving an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width, between its ancient and its modern bed. The Sutlej itself is here only navigable for boats of small burden. A branch of the Sirhind canal irrigates a large part of the western area. The population in 1901 was 673,097. The principal crops are wheat, millets, pulse, maize and sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the main line of the North-Western railway from Delhi to Lahore, with two branches.

During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is bound up with that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted Rajputs, who received the country as a fief under the Sayyid dynasty, about 1445. The town of Ludhiana was founded in 1480 by two of the Lodi race (then ruling at Delhi), from whom it derives its name, and was built in great part from the prehistoric bricks of Sunet. The Lodis continued in possession until 1620, when it again fell into the hands of the Rais of Raikot. Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul empire the Raikot family held sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of the troubled period which accompanied the Mogul decadence to establish their supremacy south of the Sutlej. Several of their chieftains made encroachments on the domains of the Rais, who were only able to hold their own by the aid of George Thomas, the famous adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh crossed the Sutlej and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and distributed their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the British occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and population.

See _Ludhiana District Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1907).

LUDINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Marquette river, about 85 m. N.W. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 7166 (2259 foreign-born); (1904, state census) 7259; (1910) 9132. It is served by the Père Marquette, and the Ludington and Northern railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports. To Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Kewanee and Two Rivers, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, cars, especially those of the Père Marquette railway, are ferried from here. Ludington was formerly well known as a lumber centre, but this industry has greatly declined. There are various manufactures, and the city has a large grain trade. On the site of the city Père Marquette died and was buried, but his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace. Ludington was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in 1873. It was originally named Père Marquette, but was renamed in 1871 in honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman.

LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English parliamentarian, son of Sir Henry Ludlow of Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, whose family had been established in that county since the 15th century, was born in 1617 or 1618. He went to Trinity College, Oxford, and was admitted to the Inner Temple in 1638. When the Great Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in the life guard of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester, his next at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643, but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the 18th of March 1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged as major of Sir A. Hesilrige's regiment of horse. He was present at the second battle of Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of Basing House in November, and took part in an expedition to relieve Taunton in December. In January his regiment was surprised by Sir M. Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping with difficulty. In 1646 he was elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of his father and attached himself to the republican party. He opposed the negotiations with the king, and was one of the chief promoters of Pride's Purge in 1648. He was one of the king's judges, and signed the warrant for his execution. In February he was elected a member of the council of state. In January 1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as lieutenant-general of horse, holding also a civil commission. Here he spared neither health nor money in the public service. Ireton, the deputy of Ireland, died on the 26th of November 1651; Ludlow then held the chief command, and had practically completed the conquest of the island when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October 1652. Though disapproving Cromwell's action in dissolving the Long Parliament, he maintained his employment, but when Cromwell was declared Protector he declined to acknowledge his authority. On returning to England in October 1655 he was arrested, and on refusing to submit to the government was allowed to retire to Essex. After Oliver Cromwell's death Ludlow was returned for Hindon in Richard's parliament of 1659, but opposed the continuance of the protectorate. He sat in the restored Rump, and was a member of its council of state and of the committee of safety after its second expulsion, and a commissioner for the nomination of officers in the army. In July he was sent to Ireland as commander-in-chief. Returning in October 1659, he endeavoured to support the failing republican cause by reconciling the army to the parliament. In December he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in favour of the Long Parliament, but on arrival found himself almost without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660, and was met by an impeachment presented against him to the restored parliament. His influence and authority had now disappeared, and all chance of regaining them vanished with Lambert's failure. He took his seat in the Convention parliament as member for Hindon, but his election was annulled on the 18th of May. Ludlow was not excepted from the Act of Indemnity, but was included among the fifty-two for whom punishment less than capital was reserved. Accordingly, on the proclamation of the king ordering the regicides to come in, Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the 20th of June surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was not assured, he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva and Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection of the canton of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots to assassinate him he was unmolested by the government of that canton, which had also extended its protection to other regicides. He steadily refused during thirty years of exile to have anything to do with the desperate enterprises of republican plotters. But in 1689 he returned to England, hoping to be employed in Irish affairs. He was however remembered only as a regicide, and an address from the House of Commons was presented to William III. by Sir Edward Seymour, requesting the king to issue a proclamation for his arrest. Ludlow escaped again, and returned to Vevey, where he died in 1692. A monument raised to his memory by his widow is in the church of St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived was placed the inscription "Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris." Ludlow married Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of Wenvoe, Glamorganshire, but left no issue.

His _Memoirs_, extending to the year 1672, were published in 1698-1699 at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new edition, with notes and illustrative material and introductory memoir, was issued by C. H. Firth in 1894. They are strongly partisan, but the picture of the times is lifelike and realistic. Ludlow also published "a letter from Sir Hardress Waller ... to Lieutenant-General Ludlow with his answer" (1660), in defence of his conduct in Ireland. See C. H. Firth's article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Guizot's _Monk's Contemporaries_; A. Stein's _Briefe Englischer Flüchtlinge in der Schweiz_.

LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-Shrewsbury joint line of the Great Western and London & North Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 4552. It is beautifully situated at the junction of the rivers Teme and Corve, upon and about a wooded eminence crowned by a massive ruined castle. Parts of this castle date from the 11th century, but there are many additions such as the late Norman circular chapel, the Decorated state rooms, and details in Perpendicular and Tudor styles. The parish church of St Lawrence is a cruciform Perpendicular building, with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy east window, its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St Lawrence. There are many fine half-timbered houses of the 17th century, and one of seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school, founded in the reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I. The principal public buildings are the guildhall, town-hall and market-house, and public rooms, which include a museum of natural history. Tanning and flour-milling are carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 416 acres.

The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly, while the scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal Hill reaches 1235 ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.). Richard's Castle, 3 m. S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates from the reign of Edward the Confessor, but little more than its great artificial mound remains. At Bromfield, 3 m. above Ludlow on the Teme, the church and some remains of domestic buildings belonged to a Benedictine monastery of the 12th century.

Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan in the time of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire identifies it with one of the "Ludes" mentioned in the Domesday Survey, which was held by Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard and supposes that Roger built the castle soon after 1086, while a chronicle of the FitzWarren family attributes the castle to Roger earl of Shrewsbury. The manor afterwards belonged to the Lacys, and in the beginning of the 14th century passed by marriage to Roger de Mortimer and through him to Edward IV. Ludlow was a borough by prescription in the 13th century, but the burgesses owe most of their privileges to their allegiance to the house of York. Richard, duke of York, in 1450 confirmed their government by 12 burgesses and 24 assistants, and Edward IV. on his accession incorporated them under the title of bailiffs and burgesses, granted them the town at a fee-farm of £24, 3s. 4d., a merchant gild and freedom from toll. Several confirmations of this charter were granted; the last, dated 1665, continued in force (with a short interval in the reign of James II.) until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter of Edward IV. Ludlow returned 2 members to parliament, but in 1867 the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was disfranchised. The market rights are claimed by the corporation under the charters of Edward IV. (1461) and Edward VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was established at Ludlow in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be held here until it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow castle was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry VII. to Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton's Comus was performed in the castle under its original style of "A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle," before the earl of Bridgewater, Lord President of Wales. The castle was garrisoned in 1642 by Prince Rupert, who went there after the battle of Naseby, but in 1646 it surrendered to Parliament and was afterwards dismantled.

See _Victoria County History_, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, _The History of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood_ (1826).

LUDLOW GROUP, or LUDLOVIAN, in geology, the uppermost subdivision of the Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group contains the following formations in descending order:--Tilestones, Downton Castle sandstones (90 ft.), Ledbury shales (270 ft.), Upper Ludlow rocks (140 ft.), Aymestry limestone (up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow rocks (350 to 780 ft.). The Ludlow group is essentially shaly in character, except towards the top, where the beds become more sandy and pass gradually into the base of the Old Red Sandstone. The Aymestry limestone, which is irregular in thickness, is sometimes absent, and where the underlying Wenlock limestones are absent the shales of the Ludlow group graduate downwards into the Wenlock shales. The group is typically developed between Ludlow and Aymestry, and it occurs also in the detached Silurian areas between Dudley and the mouth of the Severn.

The _Lower Ludlow rocks_ are mainly grey, greenish and brown mudstones and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an abundance of fossils. The series has been zoned by means of the graptolites by E. M. R. Wood; the following in ascending order, are the zonal forms: _Monograptus vulgaris_, _M. Nilssoni_, _M. scanicus_, _M. tumescens_ and _M. leintwardinensis_. _Cyathaspis ludensis_, the earliest British vertebrate fossil, was found in these rocks at Leintwardine in Shropshire, a noted fossil locality. Trilobites are numerous (_Phacops caudatus_, _Lichas anglicus_, _Homolonotus delphinocephalus_, _Calymene Blumenbachii_); brachiopods (_Leptaena rhomboidalis_, _Rhynchonella Wilsoni_, _Atrypa reticularis_), pelecypods (_Cardiola interrupta_, _Ctenodonta sulcata_) and gasteropods and cephalopods (many species of _Orthoceras_ and also _Gomphoceras_, _Trochoceras_) are well represented. Other fossils are _Ceratiocaris_, _Pterygotus_, _Protaster_, _Palaeocoma_ and _Palaeodiscus_.

The _Upper Ludlow rocks_ are mainly soft mudstones and shales with some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as building-stones. These sandy beds are often found covered with ripple-marks and annelid tracks; one of the uppermost sandy layers is known as the "Fucoid bed" from the abundance of the seaweed-like impressions it bears. At the top of this sub-group, near Ludlow, a brown layer occurs, from a quarter of an inch to 4 in. in thickness, full of the fragmentary remains of fish associated with those of _Pterygotus_ and mollusca. This layer, known as the "Ludlow Bone bed," has been traced over a very large area (see BONE BED). The common fossils include plants (_Actinophyllum_, _Chondrites_), ostracods, phyllocarids, eurypterids, trilobites (less common than in the older groups), numerous brachiopods (_Lingula minima_, _Chonetes striatella_), gasteropods, pelecypods and cephalopods (_Orthoceras bullatum_). Fish include _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Auchenaspis_. The Tilestones, Downton Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales are occasionally grouped together under the term _Downtonian_. They are in reality passage beds between the Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, and were originally placed in the latter system by Sir R. I. Murchison. They are mostly grey, yellow or red micaceous, shaly sandstones. _Lingula cornea_, _Platyschisma helicites_ and numerous phyllocarids and ostracods occur among the fossils.

In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from below upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the _Monograptus leintwardinensis_ beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In the Silurian area of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming the upper part of the Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the Lower Ludlow; they are succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000 ft.), the Bannisdale Slates (5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags (2000 ft.).

In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks are represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district by the Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In the northern belt--Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills--the lower portion (or Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and greywackes; but the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up principally of thick red and yellow sandstones and conglomerates with green mudstones. The Ludlow rocks of Ireland include the "Salrock beds" of County Galway and the "Croagmarhin beds" of Dingle promontory.

See SILURIAN, and, for recent papers, the _Q. J. Geol. Soc._ (London) and _Geological Literature_ (Geol. Soc., London) annual.

LUDOLF (or LEUTHOLF), HIOB (1624-1704), German orientalist, was born at Erfurt on the 15th of June 1624. After studying philology at the Erfurt academy and at Leiden, he travelled in order to increase his linguistic knowledge. While in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an Abyssinian scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke of Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired to Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote a cherished scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but his efforts were unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the authorities of the Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort in 1684, he gave himself wholly to literary work, which he continued almost to his death on the 8th of April 1704. In 1690 he was appointed president of the _collegium imperiale historicum_.

The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with twenty-five languages, include _Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae_ (Jena, 1676); and the _Historia aethiopica_ (Frankfort, 1681), which has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was supplemented by a _Commentarius_ (1691) and by _Appendices_ (1693-1694). Among his other works are: _Grammatica linguae amharicae_ (Frankfort, 1698); _Lexicon amharico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1698); _Lexicon aethiopico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1699); and _Grammatica aethiopica_ (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his _Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache_ (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on the story of Ludolf's intimacy with Gregorius.

See C. Juncker, _Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi_ (Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, _Geschichte des alten Testaments in der christlichen Kirche_ (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, "Hiob Ludolf," in the _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_ (Leipzig, 1890-1891).

LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895), German physiologist, was born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on the 29th of December 1816. He studied medicine at Erlangen and Marburg, taking his doctor's degree at Marburg in 1839. He made Marburg his home for the next ten years, studying and teaching anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to F. L. Fick (1841), then as _privat-docent_ (1842), and finally as extraordinary professor (1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor of anatomy and physiology at Zürich, and six years afterwards he went to Vienna as professor in the Josephinum (school for military surgeons). In 1865 he was appointed to the newly created chair of physiology at Leipzig, and continued there until his death on the 23rd of April 1895. Ludwig's name is prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a large share in bringing about the change in the method of that science which took place about the middle of the 19th century. With his friends H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Brücke and E. Du Bois-Reymond, whom he met for the first time in Berlin in 1847, he rejected the assumption that the phenomena of living animals depend on special biological laws and vital forces different from those which operate in the domain of inorganic nature; and he sought to explain them by reference to the same laws as are applicable in the case of physical and chemical phenomena. This point of view was expressed in his celebrated _Text-book of Human Physiology_ (1852-1856), but it is as evident in his earliest paper (1842) on the process of urinary secretion as in all his subsequent work. Ludwig exercised enormous influence on the progress of physiology, not only by the discoveries he made, but also by the new methods and apparatus he introduced to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he showed that secretory glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than mere filters, and that their secretory action is attended by chemical and thermal changes both in themselves and in the blood passing through them. He demonstrated the existence of a new class of secretory nerves that control this action, and by showing that if the nerves are appropriately stimulated the salivary glands continue to secrete, even though the animal be decapitated, he initiated the method of experimenting with excised organs. He devised the kymograph as a means of obtaining a written record of the variations in the pressure of the blood in the blood-vessels; and this apparatus not only conducted him to many important conclusions respecting the mechanics of the circulation, but afforded the first instance of the use of the graphic method in physiological inquiries. For the purpose of his researches on the gases in the blood, he designed the mercurial blood-pump which in various modifications has come into extensive use, and by its aid he made many investigations on the gases of the lymph, the gaseous interchanges in living muscle, the significance of oxidized material in the blood, &c. There is indeed scarcely any branch of physiology, except the physiology of the senses, to which he did not make important contributions. He was also a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under him the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized centre of physiological research, whence issued a steady stream of original work; and though the papers containing the results usually bore the name of his pupils only, every investigation was inspired by him and carried out under his personal direction. Thus his pupils gained a practical acquaintance with his methods and ways of thought, and, coming from all parts of Europe, they returned to their own countries to spread and extend his doctrines. Possessed himself of extraordinary manipulative skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy work, and he insisted that experiments on animals should be planned and prepared with the utmost care, not only to avoid the infliction of pain (which was also guarded against by the use of an anaesthetic), but to ensure that the deductions drawn from them should have their full scientific value.

LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist and critic, was born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February 1813. His father, who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was twelve years old, and he was brought up amidst uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his leisure to poetry and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile career planned for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was directed to one of his musical compositions, an opera, _Die Köhlerin_, and Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused him to give up a musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary studies, and wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter, _Der Erbförster_ (1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly psychological study. It was followed by _Die Makkabäer_ (1852), in which the realistic method of _Der Erbförster_ was transferred to an historical _milieu_, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer play of the imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be added _Die Rechte des Herzens_ and _Das Fräulein von Scuderi_, the comedy _Hans Frey_, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer, Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany's most notable dramatic poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had married and settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his attention to fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, characterized by the same attention to minute detail and careful psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these are _Die Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel_ (1851), and Ludwig's masterpiece, the powerful novel, _Zwischen Himmel und Erde_ (1855). In his _Shakespeare-Studien_ (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm for Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way which found little favour among his countrymen. He died at Dresden on the 25th of February 1865.

Ludwig's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published by A. Stern and E. Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892); also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900). See A. Stern, _Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben_ (1891; 2nd ed., 1906), and A. Sauer, _Otto Ludwig_ (1893).

LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, 9 m. to the N. of Stuttgart by rail and 1½ m. from the river Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093. It was founded and laid out at the beginning of the 18th century by the duke of Württemberg, Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by Duke Charles Eugène. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military depot in Württemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in Germany, stands in a beautiful park and contains a portrait gallery and the burial vault of the rulers of Württemberg. The industries include the manufacture of organs and pianos, of cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, iron and wire goods, and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is the beautiful royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the park of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to 1824 the town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain.

See Belschner, _Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten_ (Ludwigsburg, 1904).

LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the left bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to Mannheim, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, (1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, timber, coal and agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a harbour opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose, artificial manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron foundries and breweries in the town. The place, which was founded in 1843 by Louis I., king of Bavaria, was only made a town in 1859.

See J. Esselborn, _Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen_ (Ludwigshafen, 1888).

LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop. (1905) 6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There is also another ducal residence, a fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. 1837). The town has a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. It has manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigslust was founded by the duke Frederick, being named after this duke's father, Christian Louis II. It became a town in 1876.

LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly used colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedish _lugg_, forelock, lock of hair, gives _lugga_, to pull, tug; and "lug" in some north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense of pulling a person's hair. "Luggage," passengers' baggage, means by origin that which has to be "lugged" about. The Scandinavian word may be also the source of "lug," in the sense of "ear," in Scotland the regular dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-shaped handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the word means something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also possibly the origin of the "lug" or "lug-sail," a four-sided sail attached to a yard which is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the name "lugger" of a sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The word may, however, be connected with the Dutch _logger_, a fishing-boat using drag-nets. "Lug" is also the name of a marine worm, _Arenicola marina_, used as bait.

LUGANO (Ger. _Lauis_), the most populous and most thriving town in the Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.) on the northern shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394, almost all Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it is dominated by the Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte Generoso (5591 ft.)--a magnificent view point. Both mountains are accessible by railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 51½ m. from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line, Lugano is now easily reached, so that it is much frequented by visitors (largely German) in spring and in autumn. Though politically Swiss since 1512, Lugano is thoroughly Italian in appearance and character. Of recent years many improvements have been made in the town, which has two important suburbs--Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The railway station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue of William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891), a native of the town, while other works by him are in the gardens of private villas in the neighbourhood. The principal church, San Lorenzo, in part dates back earlier than the 15th century, while its richly sculptured façade bears the figures 1517. This church is now the cathedral church of the bishop of Lugano, a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian parts of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains several very fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-1530 by Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures has been built on the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como. During the struggle of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from Lombardy, Lugano served as headquarters for Mazzini and his followers. Books and tracts intended for distribution in Italy were produced there and at Capolago (9 m. distant, at the S.E. end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian police to prevent their circulation were completely powerless. (W. A. B. C.)

LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO), one of the smaller lakes in Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.) and the Lake of Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the great promontory of Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting off the western arm from the main lake. The whole lake has an area of 19½ sq. m., its greatest length is about 22 m., its greatest width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft., while its surface is 899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the town of Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard railway line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano (at its northern end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from Bellinzona and 9 m. from Capolago, the station at the south-eastern extremity of the lake, which is but 8 m. by rail from Como. At the south-western extremity a railway leads S.W. from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the east end of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como, while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore. Of the total area of the lake, about 7½ sq. m. are in the Swiss Canton of Ticino (Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests made by the Swiss from the Milanese in 1512. The remainder of the area is in Italy. The lake lies among the outer spurs of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin from that of the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed by the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous torrents issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains, while it is drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing into Lago Maggiore. The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1856. (W. A. B. C.)

LUGANSK (also LUGAN and LUGANSKIY ZAVOD), a town of southern Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900) 34,175. It has a technical railway school and a meteorological observatory, stands on the small river Lugan, 10 m. from its confluence with the northern Donets, in the Lugan mining district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has prospered greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the coal-mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche, occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river. Although it is mentioned in the 16th century, and coal was discovered there at the time of Peter the Great, it was not until 1795 that an Englishman, Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established its first iron-works for supplying the Black Sea fleet and the southern fortresses with guns and shot. This proved a failure, owing to the great distance from the sea; but during the Crimean War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and gun-carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines, and machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have been the chief manufactures. There is an active trade in cattle, tallow, wools, skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured wares.

LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY (1858- ), British soldier, African explorer and administrator, son of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on the 22nd of January 1858. He entered the army in 1878, joining the Norfolk regiment. He served in the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan campaign of 1884-85, and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on temporary half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in the same year was engaged by the Imperial British East Africa Company. In their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting, chiefly notable for an unprovoked attack by the "French" on the "British" faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round Ruwenzori to Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the country. He also visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandonment of Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated by the fourth Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu, where, distancing his French and German rivals in a country up to then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties with the kings and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British company. In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In August 1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until the end of December 1899. The differences with France were then composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its charter, Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern Nigeria. The part of Northern Nigeria under effective control was small, and Lugard's task in organizing this vast territory was rendered more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfil their treaty obligations. In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir of Kano and the sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British control over the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906 he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully administered under the supervision of British residents (see NIGERIA). In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was created a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects for _The Times_. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published in 1893 _The Rise of our East African Empire_ (partly autobiographical), and was the author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. Throughout his African administrations Lugard sought strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native races, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.

LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends for about 40 m. from the estuary of Rivadéo to Cape de Vares, is extremely rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those of Rivadéo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especially in the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by the Miño. This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in the northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the southern boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most important are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces; the Masma, the Oro and the Landrove.

Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the Miño and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk are produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly owing to the extreme division of land that prevails throughout Galicia. The exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, was ruined by American and Australian competition. Iron is found at Caurel and Incio, arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous lead at Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic are exported from Rivadéo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of slate and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries are those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are registered at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being salted and tinned for export. The means of communication are insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads, and the railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna run through the province.

Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondoñedo (10,590), Monforte (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Vivero (12,843) are described in separate articles. The province contained in 1900 twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the largest being Sarria (11,998) and Saviñao (11,182). For a general description of the people and the history of this region see GALICIA.

LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the left bank of the river Miño and on the railway from Corunna to Madrid. Pop. (1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the original town, the form of which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with projecting semi-circular towers which numbered 85 as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were destroyed by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the 12th century, but was modernized in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural merit. The conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th century. The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Miño, are the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo.

Lugo (_Lucus Augusti_) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c. 19 B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a _conventus juridicus_ (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It was sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered greatly in the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from a very early period, and it is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago de Compostela.

LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krassó-Szörény, Hungary, 225 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on both banks of the river Temes, which divides the town in two quarters, the Rumanian on the right and the German on the left bank. It is the seat of a Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in wine, and has several important fairs, while the surrounding country, which is mountainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of grapes and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of greater relative importance than at present. It was the last seat of the Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849), and the last resort of Kossuth and several other leaders of the national cause, previous to their escape to Turkey.

LUGUDUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort or hill of the god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns in ancient Gaul. The most important was the town at the confluence of the Saône and Rhone now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in Roman times two elements. One was a Roman _colonia_ (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) situated on the hill near the present Fourviéres (_Forum vetus_). The other, territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and Belgica--the so-called Tres Galliae--sent delegates every summer to hold games and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements together composed the most important town of western Europe in Roman times. Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which passed from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa; it had a mint; it was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its position in the south, and its wealth was such that, when Rome was burnt in Nero's reign, its inhabitants subscribed largely to the relief of the Eternal City. (F. J. H.)

LUINI, BERNARDINO (?1465-?1540), the most celebrated master of the Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of Leonardo da Vinci, was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore. He wrote his name as "Bernardin Lovino," but the spelling "Luini" is now generally adopted. Few facts are known regarding his life, and until a comparatively recent date many even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500, or shortly before that event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the two artists had any personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in the painting-school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the later works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the style of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited Rome. His two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence been assigned to him; and even this can scarcely be true of the younger, who was born in 1530, when Bernardino was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has also been termed his disciple. One of the sons, Evangelista, has left little which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accomplished in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a brother of Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a poet, and is said to have composed a treatise on painting. The precise date of his death is unknown; he may perhaps have survived till about 1540. A serene, contented and happy mind, naturally expressing itself in forms of grace and beauty, seems stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same character is traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his fresco of "Christ crowned with Thorns" in the Ambrosian library in Milan--a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22 francs per day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission, he painted a Nativity for nothing.

A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini's works. They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends at least as much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon the mere refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of expression appears in all Luini's productions, whether secular or sacred, and imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace--not ecclesiastical unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and less variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began indeed with a somewhat dry style, as in the "Pietà" in the church of the Passione; but this soon developed into the quality which distinguishes all his most renowned works; although his execution, especially as regards modelling, was never absolutely equal to that of Leonardo. Luini's paintings do not exhibit an impetuous style of execution, and certainly not a negligent one; yet it appears that he was in fact a very rapid worker, as his picture of the "Crowning with Thorns," painted for the College del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, is recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which an assistant added eleven. His method was simple and expeditious, the shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on thick, while the lights are of the same colour thinly used, and mixed with a little white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom of hand than the oil pictures; and they are on the whole less like the work of Da Vinci, having at an early date a certain resemblance to the style of Mantegna, as later on to that of Raphael. Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and shade forcible.

Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned. At Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life of the Madonna--her "Marriage," the "Presentation of the Infant Saviour in the Temple," the "Adoration of the Magi" and other incidents. His own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful "Jesus with the Doctors in the Temple." This series--in which some comparatively archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses--was partly repeated from one which Luini had executed towards 1520 in S. Croce. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the suppressed church of La Pace and the Convent della Pelucca--the former treating subjects from the life of the Virgin, the latter, of a classic kind, more decorative in manner. The subject of girls playing at the game of "hot-cockles," and that of three angels depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are particularly memorable, each of them a work of perfect charm and grace in its way. In the Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovid's _Metamorphoses_. The Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S. Maurizio) is a noble treasure-house of Luini's art--including a large Crucifixion, with about one hundred and forty figures; "Christ bound to the Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyrdom of this saint; the "Entombment of Christ," and a large number of other subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco (already mentioned), covering one entire wall of the Sala della S. Corona, of "Christ crowned with Thorns," with two executioners, and on each side six members of a confraternity; in the same building the "Infant Baptist playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the "Virgin Enthroned, with Saints" (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the "Daughter of Herodias receiving the Head of the Baptist"; in the Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna, the "Virgin between Saints Catherine and Barbara"; in the National Gallery, London, "Christ disputing with the Doctors" (or rather, perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or most of these gallery pictures used to pass for the handiwork of Da Vinci. The same is the case with the highly celebrated "Vanity and Modesty" in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, which also may nevertheless in all probability be assigned to Luini. Another singularly beautiful picture by him is in the Royal Palace in Milan--a large composition of "Women Bathing." That Luini was also pre-eminent as a decorative artist is shown by his works in the Certosa of Pavia.

A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900. (W. M. R.)

LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the Book of Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the New Testament. He alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin (Col. iv. 11, 14), a fact of great interest in relation to his writings. His name, a more familiar form of Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus, Acts xvii. 4, 1 Thess. i. 1, and see _Encycl. Bibl._ s.v., for instances of [Greek: Doukas] on Egyptian inscriptions), taken together with his profession of physician (Col. iv. 14), suggests that he was son of a Greek freedman possibly connected with Lucania in south Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all physicians in Rome (Sueton. _Jul._ 42), Luke may even have inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man would have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the works attributed to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's when in Rome (Philemon 24), where he seems to have remained in constant attendance on his leader, as physician as well as attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11). That Luke, before he became a Christian, was an adherent of the synagogue--not a full proselyte, but one of those "worshippers" of God to whom Acts makes frequent reference--is fairly certain from the familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from its sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from specific Paulinism, of which there is but little trace.

The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in MSS. of both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and Acts, and says that Paul took him for his companion _quasi ut juris studiosum_ ("as being a student of law"). Here _juris_ is almost certainly corrupt; and whether we take the sense to have been "as being devoted to travel" (_ut juris_ = _itineris_) or "as skilled in disease" ([Greek: nosou] passing into [Greek: nomou] in the Greek original), it is probably a mere inference from biblical data. Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria (cf. HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge, we have the belief to which Origen (_Hom._ i. _in Lucam_) witnesses as existing in his day, that Luke was the "brother" of 2 Cor. viii. 18, "whose praise in the Gospel" (as preached) was "throughout all the churches." Though the basis of the identification be a mistake, yet that this "brother," "who was also appointed by the churches (note the generality of this) to travel with us in the matter of the charity," was none other than Paul's constant companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he seems to have been almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. ix. 2-4) of Paul's circle available[1] at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in Greek, now known only in Latin, see _Nov. Test. Latine_ (Oxford), I. iii., II. i.), perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating that Luke died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is hard to see why this should be fiction, which usually took the form of martyrdom, as in a later tradition touching his end. The same prologue, and indeed all early tradition, connects him originally with Antioch (see Euseb. _Hist. Eccl._ iii. 4, 6, possibly after Julius Africanus in the first half of the 3rd century).

That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether any of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff., xiii. 1 ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used by him (cf. A. Harnack, _The Acts of the Apostles_, 245 ff.) or not, this knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that church. He shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have stood in any such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name "Christians" was first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in early Church life there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, "when _we_ were assembled," may imply memory of this.

But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's original home was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the "certain Macedonian" seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that, because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx. 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has probably a more subtle and psychological[2] meaning (see ACTS). The local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This accords at once with Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia[3] (_Luke the Physician_, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited, that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current already in the 2nd century).

The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius _Dial. de recta fide_, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from which came "the most beautiful book" ever written, as Renan styled his Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us--especially in the section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)--reflects his own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was indeed a _religio medici_ in its pity for frail and suffering humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine "healing art" upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, _The Acts, Excursus_, iii.). His was also a humane[4] spirit, a spirit so tender that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi. Luke, "the physician, the beloved physician," that was Paul's characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can measure? Harnack even maintains (_The Acts_, p. 301) that his story of the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's canon of New Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf. _Luke the Physician_, pp. 139-145).

LITERATURE.--Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's on Luke's Gospel in the "Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's _Acts of the Apostles_ ("Oxford Comm."); the article "Luke" in Hastings's _Dict. of the Bible_ and _Dict. of Christ and the Gospels_, the _Encycl. Biblica_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's _Paul the Traveller_ and _Pauline and other Studies_, and A. Harnack's _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and _Die Apostelgeschichte_ (1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Tychicus may be the other "brother," in viii. 22.

[2] So also A. Hilgenfeld, _Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft_ (1907), p. 214, argues that "we" marks the author's wish to give his narrative more vividness at great turning-points of the story--the passage from Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn progress of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards Rome, xxvii. 1 ff.

[3] Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia and Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.).

[4] Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and "the gentle doctrine of humanity" on Hellenic soil, as embodied in his description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (_Oxford and Cambridge Review_, i. 101 ff.).

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST, the third of the four canonical Gospels of the Christian Church.

1. _Authorship and Date._--The earliest indication which we possess of the belief that the author was Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul (Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11), is found in Justin Martyr, who, in his _Dialogue with Trypho_ (c. 103), when making a statement found only in our Luke, instead of referring for it simply to the "Apostolic Memoirs," his usual formula, says that it is contained in the memoirs composed by "the Apostles and _those that followed them_." But the first distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that by Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (_Adv. Haer._ III. i. 2, c. A.D. 180).

This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first comes clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part of the 2nd century, because the prominence and fame of Luke were not such as would of themselves have led to his being singled out to have a Gospel attributed to him. The question of the authorship cannot, however, be decided without considering the internal evidence, the interpretation of which in the case of the Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing attributed to Luke) is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally admitted that the same person is the author of both works in their present form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them (Acts i. 1); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout, though in some parts much more strongly than in others, by stylistic characteristics which we may conveniently call "Lucan" without making a premature assumption as to the authorship. The writer is more versed than any other New Testament writer except the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and very much more than most of them, in the literary Greek of the period of the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other writers, his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The variations in the degree to which these appear in different passages are in the main to be accounted for by his having before him in many cases documents or oral reports, which he reproduces with only slight alterations in the language, while at other times he is writing freely.

We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts (xvi. 9-17, xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16) in which the first person plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted that in these sections we have the genuine account of one who was a member of Paul's company, who may well have been Luke. But it has been and is still held by many critics that the author of Acts is a different person, and that as in the Third Gospel he has used documents for the Life of Christ, and perhaps also in the earlier half of the Acts for the history of the beginnings of the Christian Church, so in the "we" sections, and possibly in some other portions of this narrative of Paul's missionary life, he has used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the Apostle on some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, companion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is supposed to follow both from its theological temper and from discrepancies between its statements and those of the Pauline Epistles on matters of fact.

A careful examination, however, of the "we" sections shows that words and expressions characteristic of the author of the third Gospel and the Acts are found in them to an extent which is very remarkable, and that in many instances they belong to the very texture of the passages. This linguistic evidence, which is of quite unusual force, has never yet been fairly faced by those who deny Luke's authorship of Acts. Moreover, the difficulties in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not seem to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to explain some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul's Epistles on this assumption than on that of authorship by a writer who would have felt more dependent upon the information which might be gathered from those Epistles, and who would have been more likely to have had a collection of them at hand, if his work was composed c. A.D. 100, as is commonly assumed by critics who reject the authorship by Luke.

There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our third Gospel and the Acts. Another argument in support of this belief, upon which much reliance has been placed, is found in the descriptions of diseases, and the words common in Greek medical writers, contained in these two works. These, it is said, point to the author's having been a physician, as Luke (Col. iv. 14) was (see esp. Hobart, _The Medical Language of St Luke_, 1882). The instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very distinctive. Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based on a comparison of the "we" sections of the Acts, with the remainder of the two books.

If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person plural in Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they can hardly have been composed later than A.D. 96; he would then have been about 65 years old, even if he was a very young man when he first joined the Apostle. An earlier date than A.D. 96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his writings show acquaintance with the _Antiquities of the Jewish People_ by Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to be wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in 2nd ed. of Smith's _Dict. of Bible_, p. 39) and it is not easy to see why he should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand, a comparison of Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to show that in using his document Luke here mingled with the prophecy the interpretation which events had suggested and that the siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and dispersion of its inhabitants had already taken place some little time before. _Circa_ A.D. 80 may with probability be given as the time of the composition of his Gospel.

2. _Contents, Sources and Arrangement._--In the preface to his Gospel, i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which preceded his own. He does not say whether he made any use of them, but he seems to imply that his own was more complete. And this was true in regard to the two which, from a comparison of his Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know that he did use. These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. Luke also claims that he has written "in order." The instances in which he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in which he has introduced his additional matter into the Marcan outline, do not suggest the idea that he had any independent knowledge of an exact kind of the chronological sequence of events. By the phrase "in order" he may himself have intended chiefly to contrast the orderliness and consecutiveness of his account with the necessarily fragmentary character of the catechetical instruction which Theophilus had received. He may, also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative of the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the history at what he considered to be its true point of departure; to this he plainly alludes when he says that he has "traced the course of all things accurately from the first." He may, also, in part be thinking of those indications which he--and he alone among the evangelists--has given of the points in the course of secular history at which Jesus was born and the Baptist began to preach (ii. 1-3, iii. 1, 2), though it may be doubted whether these are in all respects accurate.

Chap. i. 5-ii. 52. _The Birth and Infancy of John and of Jesus._--This portion of the Gospel differs in style and character from all the remainder. Its source may be an Aramaic or a Hebrew document. Some critics, however, hold that it is wholly Luke's own composition, and that the Hebraic style--in which he was able to write in consequence of his familiarity with the LXX.--has been adopted by him as suitable to the subject in hand. Perhaps an intermediate view may be the most probable one; he may have obtained part of his materials, especially the hymns, from some source, and have skilfully worked these into his narrative.

Chap. iii. 1-iv. 13. _From the Commencement of the Preaching of the Baptist to the End of the Temptation in the Wilderness._--The accounts of the Baptist's preaching and of the temptation are taken from the Logian document. The genealogy of Jesus here given is peculiar to this Gospel.

Chap. iv. 14-vi. 16 _From the Commencement of the Ministry of Jesus in Galilee to the Appointment of the Twelve._--In the main Luke here follows his Marcan document. He has, however, independent narratives of the visit of Jesus to Nazareth (iv. 16-30) and the call of the first disciples (v. 1-11). The former, which in Mark is placed some way on in the Galilean ministry (vi. 1-6_a_), is given by Luke at the very beginning of it, perhaps because of the previous connexion of Jesus with Nazareth. But that it is not in its right position here, before any mention of the work in Capernaum, appears from verse 23. Luke has also slightly altered the position of the call of the first disciples in the sequence of events.

Chap. vi. 17-viii. 3.--This is an insertion into the Marcan outline of matter chiefly taken from the Logian document (the Address, Luke vi. 20-49, corresponds with portions of the Sermon on the Mount in Matt, v.-vii.; the healing of the centurion's servant, Luke vii. 1-10 = Matt. viii. 5-13; the message of the Baptist and the discourse for which it gave occasion, Luke vii. 18-35 = Matt. xi. 2-19). He includes besides, a few pieces peculiar to this Gospel which Luke had probably himself collected.

Chap. viii. 4-ix. 50. _From the Adoption of Parabolic Teaching to the End of the Ministry in Galilee._--He begins again to follow his Marcan document for what he gives. Many sections, however, contained in the corresponding part of Mark have no parallel in Luke, while the parallel to one of them is placed later and differs considerably in form. Possibly this fact points to his Marcan document having been briefer than our Mark, and to its having afterwards received interpolations (see MARK, GOSPEL OF ST).

Chap. ix. 51-xviii. 14. _Incidents and Teaching connected with Journey towards Jerusalem._--This is another insertion into the Marcan outline, much longer than the previous one, and consisting partly of matter taken from the Logian document (warnings to men who offer to become disciples, Luke ix. 57-60 = Matt. viii. 19-22; a mission-charge, Luke x. 2-16 = Matt. ix. 37 and x. 7-16, 40; thanksgiving that the Father reveals to the simple that which is hidden from the wise, Luke x. 21-24 = Matt. xi. 25-27 and xiii. 16, 17, &c., &c.) and partly of sections peculiar to Luke, about which the same remark may be made as before.

Chap. xviii. 15-xxii. 13. _From the Bringing of young Children to Jesus to the Preparation for the Passover._--Luke again takes up his Marcan document, nearly at the point at which he left it, and follows it in the main, though he adds the story of Zacchaeus and the parable of the Minae (the Ten Pieces of Money), and omits the withering of the fig-tree and some matter at the end of the discourse on the Last Things, which are given in Mark.

Chap. xxii. 14 to end. _The Last Supper, Passion and Resurrection._-- Though in this portion of his Gospel signs of use of Mark are not wanting, he also has much that is peculiar to himself. It is supposed by some that he here made use of another document. It seems more likely that he had a good many distinct oral traditions for this part of the history and that he used them freely, sometimes substituting them for passages of the Marcan document, sometimes altering the latter in accordance therewith.

3. _Doctrinal, Ethical and Literary Characteristics._--The thought of divine forgiveness, as set forth in the teaching of Jesus and manifested in His own attitude towards, and power over, the hearts of the outcasts among the people, is peculiarly prominent in this Gospel. This feature of Christ's ministry appears only in one passage of Mark; some other illustrations of it are mentioned in Matthew, but in Luke there are several more which are peculiar to himself (see the three individual cases vii. 36 sqq.; xix. 1 sqq., xxiii. 40 sqq.; also the description at xv. 1, and the three parables that follow). These were "lost sheep of the house of Israel"; but Christ's freedom from Jewish exclusiveness is also brought out (1) as regards Samaritans, by the rebuke administered to the disciples at ix. 52 sqq., the parable in x. 30 sqq., and the incident at xvii. 15-19; whereas they are not mentioned in Mark, and in Matthew only in the saying (x. 5) in which the Twelve are forbidden to enter any village of theirs; (2) as regards Gentiles, by the words of Jesus at iv. 25-27, not to mention sayings which have parallels in the other Gospels. The promises of Old Testament prophets that the Gentiles would share in the blessing of the coming of Christ are also recalled, ii. 32-iii. 6. Once more the word [Greek: euangelizesthai] ("to proclaim good tidings") is a favourite one with Luke. These are all traits which we should expect to find in one who was a companion of Paul and a Gentile (Col. iv. 11, 14).

With the breadth and depth of the Saviour's sympathy, which are so fully exhibited in this Gospel, we may connect the clearness with which His true humanity is here portrayed. An incident of His boyhood is related in which His sense of vocation is revealed, and this is followed by the years of quiet growth that succeeded (ii. 41-52). Further, during the years of His public ministry more glimpses of His inner life are given us than in either Matthew or Mark. His being engaged in prayer is mentioned several times where there is no parallel in those Gospels (iii. 21, v. 16, vi. 12, ix. 18, 28, 29, xi. 1). Again, besides narrating the Temptation in the Wilderness and the Agony in the Garden, this evangelist gives a saying which implies that Jesus had undergone many temptations, or rather a life of temptation (xxii. 28). Once more he records a saying that shows Christ's sense of the intense painfulness of the work He was sent into the world to do, arising from the divisions which it caused (xii. 49 sqq.).

Among practical duties, the stress laid on that of almsgiving is remarkable (see especially xi. 41, xii. 33, xvi. 9 sqq., which are peculiar to this Gospel). In the second of these passages the disciples are exhorted to choose a life of voluntary poverty; the nearest parallel is the ideal set before the rich young man at Mark x. 21 = Matt. xix. 21 = Luke xviii. 22. In the Beatitudes in Luke vi. 20, 21 a condition of physical want is contemplated, not, as in Matt. v. 3, 6, poverty of spirit and spiritual hunger, while woes are denounced against the rich and the full (vi. 24, 25). The folly of absorption in the amassing and enjoyment of wealth is also shown (xii. 15 sqq. and xvi. 19 sqq.). But it would be an exaggeration to say, as some have done, that the poor are represented as being the heirs of a blessed hereafter, simply on the ground that they are now poor. In the Beatitudes Christ's own disciples are addressed, who were blessed _though_ poor, whereas the rich as a class were opposed or indifferent to the kingdom of God. Again, the contrast between Lazarus and Dives in the future state pictures vividly the reversals that are in store; but it is unreasonable to take it as implying that every poor man, whatever his moral character, will be blessed.

But while there is in Luke's Gospel this strain of asceticism--as to many in modern times it will appear to be--the prevailing spirit is gentle and tender, and there is in it a note of spiritual gladness, which is begun by the song and the messages of angels and the hymns and rejoicing of holy men and women, accompanying the birth of the Christ (chaps. i. and ii., _passim_), and prolonged by the expressions of joy, the ascriptions of thanksgiving and praise, called forth by the words and works of Christ and the wonders of the cross and resurrection, which are peculiarly frequent and full (iv. 15, v. 25, 26, vii. 16, x. 17, xiii. 13, 17, xvii. 15-18, xviii. 43, xix. 6, 37, 38, xxiii. 47, xxiv. 41, 52, 53. Cf. also xv. 5, 7, 10, 32).

The peculiar charm which this Gospel has been generally felt to possess is largely due to the spiritual and ethical traits which have been noted. But from a purely literary point of view, also, it is distinguished by great excellences. The evangelist's phraseology is indeed affected to some extent by the rhetorical style of the period when he wrote. Nevertheless his mode of narration is simple and direct. And the many fascinating character-sketches, which he has added to the portrait gallery of Scripture, are drawn clearly and without signs of effort. In some cases he has skilfully suggested parallelisms and contrasts. The chief instance is his careful interweaving of the accounts of the births and early years of John the Baptist and of Jesus. Later examples are the two sisters, Martha and Mary (x. 38-42), and the penitent and the impenitent thief (xxiii. 39-48). That he was a man of great versatility appears in the Acts from the speeches introduced on various occasions, if (as is probable) they were in part, at least, his own composition. In the Gospel he had no opportunity for showing his power in a manner strictly analogous. But if the hymns in the two introductory chapters owe even their Greek form in any measure to him, he was a poet of no mean order. His style varies greatly; at times, as in i. 1-4, it is Hellenistic; at others, as in i. 5 to end of ii., it is strongly Hebraic. Such differences are largely due, no doubt, to the degree in which he was in various parts independent of, or dependent upon, sources. But he would seem in some degree to have adapted his manner of writing to the subject-matter in hand. And at all events it is worthy of note that we pass without any sense of jar from passages in one style to those in another.

See Godet, _Commentaire sur l'évangile de S. Luc_ (Eng. trans., 1875); Plummer's _Comm. on St Luke_ (in international Series, 4th ed., 1906); W. Ramsay, _Was Christ born in Bethlehem?_ (3rd ed., 1905); A. Harnack, _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906); B. Weiss, _Die Quellen des Lukas-Evangeliums_ (1907); also books on the Four Gospels, or the Synoptic Gospels, mentioned at end of article GOSPEL. (V. H. S.)

LULEÅ, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (_län_) of Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sandö, at the mouth of the Lule river and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 9484. It is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the main line of railway from Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this line Luleå is 723 m. N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for the iron ore mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is closed by ice from November to the end of May. The town was almost entirely burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new--the church (1888-1893), the Norrbotten Museum and a technical school being the most important. Luleå as founded by Gustavus Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but was moved to the present site in 1649.

LULL (or LULLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315), Catalan author, mystic and missionary, was born at Palma (Majorca). Inheriting the estate conferred upon his father for services rendered during the victorious expedition (1229) against the Balearic Islands, Lull was married at an early age to Bianca Picany, and, according to his own account, led a dissipated life till 1266 when, on five different occasions, he beheld the vision of Christ crucified. After his conversion, he resolved to devote himself to evangelical work among the heathen, to write an exposure of infidel errors, and to promote the teaching of foreign tongues in seminaries. He dedicated nine years to the study of Arabic, and in 1275 showed such signs of mental exaltation that, at the request of his wife and family, an official was appointed to administer his estate. He withdrew to Randa, there wrote his _Ars major_ and _Ars generalis_, visited Montpellier, and persuaded the king of Majorca to build a Franciscan monastery at Miramar. There for ten years he acted as professor of Arabic and philosophy, and composed many controversial treatises. After a fruitless visit to Rome in 1285-1286, he journeyed to Paris, residing in that city from 1287 to 1289, and expounding his bewildering theories to auditors who regarded him as half insane. In 1289 he went to Montpellier, wrote his _Ars veritatis inventiva_, and removed to Genoa where he translated this treatise into Arabic. In 1291, after many timorous doubts and hesitations for which he bitterly blamed himself, Lull sailed for Tunis where he publicly preached Christianity for a year; he was finally imprisoned and expelled. In January 1293 he reached Naples where tradition alleges that he studied alchemy; there appears to be no foundation for this story, and the treatises on alchemy which bear his name are all apocryphal.[1] His efforts to interest Clement V. and Boniface VIII. in his favourite project of establishing missionary colleges were unavailing; but a visit to Paris in 1298 was attended with a certain measure of success. He was, however, disappointed in his main object, and in 1300 he sailed to Cyprus to seek support for his plan of teaching Oriental languages in universities and monasteries. He was rebuffed once more, but continued his campaign with undiminished energy. Between 1302 and 1305 he wrote treatises at Genoa, lectured at Paris, visited Lyons in the vain hope of enlisting the sympathies of Pope Clement V., crossed over to Bougie in Africa, preached the gospel, and was imprisoned there for six months. On being released he lectured with increasing effect at Paris, attended the General Council at Vienne in 1311, and there witnessed the nominal adoption of his cherished proposals. Though close on eighty years of age, Lull's ardour was unabated. He carried on his propaganda at Majorca, Paris, Montpellier and Messina, and in 1314 crossed over once more to Bougie. Here he resumed his crusade against Mahommedanism, raised the fanatical spirit of the inhabitants, was stoned outside the city walls and died of his wounds on the 29th of June 1315. There can be no reasonable doubt that these events actually occurred, but the scene is laid by one biographer at Tunis instead of Bougie.

The circumstances of Lull's death caused him to be regarded as a martyr, local patriotism helped to magnify his merits, and his fantastic doctrines found many enthusiastic partisans. The _doctor illuminatus_ was venerated throughout Catalonia and afterwards throughout Spain, as a saint, a thinker and a poet; but his doctrines were disapproved by the powerful Dominican order, and in 1376 they were formally condemned in a papal bull issued at the instance of the inquisitor, Nicolas Emeric. The authenticity of this document was warmly disputed by Lull's followers, and the bull was annulled by Martin V. in 1417. The controversy was renewed in 1503 and again in 1578; but the general support of the Jesuits and the staunch fidelity of the Majorcans saved Lull from condemnation. His philosophical treatises abound with incoherent formulae to which, according to their inventor, every demonstration in every science may be reduced, and posterity has ratified Bacon's disdainful verdict on Lull's pretensions as a thinker; still the fact that he broke away from the scholastic system has recommended him to the historians of philosophy, and the subtle ingenuity of his dialectic has compelled the admiration of men so far apart in opinion as Giordano Bruno and Leibniz.

The speculations of Lull are now obsolete outside Majorca where his philosophy still flourishes, but his more purely literary writings are extremely curious and interesting. In _Blanquerna_ (1283), a novel which describes a new Utopia, Lull renews the Platonic tradition and anticipates the methods of Sir Thomas More, Campanella and Harrington, and in the _Libre de Maravelles_ (1286) he adopts the Oriental apologue from _Kalilah and Dimnah_. And as a poet Lull takes a prominent position in the history of Catalan literature; such pieces as _El Desconort_ (1295) and _Lo Cant de Ramon_ (1299) combine in a rare degree simple beauty of expression with sublimity of thought and impassioned sincerity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Histoire littéraire de la France_ (Paris, 1885), vol. xxix.; _Obras rimadas de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, 1859), edited by G. Rosselló; _Obras de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, in progress), edited by G. Rosselló; José R. de Luanco, _Ramon Lull, considerado como alquimista_ (Barcelona, 1870) and _La Alquimia en España_ (2 vols., Barcelona, 1889-1897); K. Hofmann, "Ein Katalanische Thierepos," in the Bavarian Academy's _Abhandlungen_ (Munich, 1872), vol. xii. pp. 173-240; M. Menéndez y Pelayo, _Origenes de la novela_ (Madrid, 1905), pp. 72-86; Havelock Ellis in _Contemporary Review_ (May 1906). (J. F.-K.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The alchemical works ascribed to Lull, such as _Testamentum_, _Codicillus seu Testamentum_ and _Experimenta_, are of early although uncertain date. De Luanco ascribes some of them to a Raimundo de Tárraga (c. 1370), a converted Jew who studied the occult. Others are ascribed by Morhof to a Raymundus Lullius Neophytus, who lived about 1440. See ALCHEMY, and also J. Ferguson, _Bibliotheca chemica_ (1906).

LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to "lull" them to sleep; the melody being styled in Fr. _berceuse_ and in Ger. _Wiegenlied_. "Lull," cf. Swed. _lulla_, Du. _lullen_, &c., is of echoic or onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. _lallare_, to chatter.

LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (c. 1633-1687), Italian composer, was born in Florence. Through the duc de Guise he entered the services of Madame de Montpensier as scullery-boy, and with the help of this lady his musical talents were cultivated. A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in his dismissal. He then studied the theory of music under Métra and entered the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera. The influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the style of the dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and stately movements which had prevailed until then, he introduced lively ballets of rapid rhythm. In December 1661 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, his original name being Giovanni Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music master to the royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the king and ennobled. While directing a _Te Deum_ on the 8th of January 1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously that a cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the 22nd of March. Having found a congenial poet in Quinault, Lully composed twenty operas, which met with a most enthusiastic reception. Indeed he has good claim to be considered the founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian method of separate recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of the two and a quickened action of the story such as was more congenial to the taste of the French public. He effected important improvements in the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced several new instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of Molière, for some of whose best plays he composed illustrative music. His _Miserere_, written for the funeral of the minister Sequier, is a work of genius; and very remarkable are also his minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he wrote _Bisogna morire, peccatore_.

LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful aliment affecting the muscles of the lower part of the back, generally regarded as of rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may occur alone, or be associated with rheumatism in other parts of the body. It usually comes on by a seizure, often sudden, of pain in one or both sides of the small of the back, of a severe cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on movement of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the recumbent posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, coughing or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to suggest the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring internal organs, such as the kidneys, bowels, &c., but the absence of the symptoms specially characteristic of these latter complaints, or of any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain, renders the diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago seems to be brought on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the other exciting causes of rheumatism. Sometimes it follows a strain of the muscles of the loins. The attack is in general of short duration, but occasionally it continues for a long time, as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on movement. The treatment includes that for rheumatic affections in general (see RHEUMATISM) and the application of local remedies to allay the pain.

LUMBER, a word now meaning (1) useless discarded furniture or other rubbish, particularly if of a bulky or heavy character; (2) timber, when roughly sawn or cut into logs or beams (see TIMBER); (3) as a verb, to make a loud rumbling noise, to move in a clumsy heavy way, also to burden with useless material, to encumber. "Lumber" and "lumber-house" were formerly used for a pawnbroker's shop, being in this sense a variant of "Lombard," a name familiar throughout Europe for a banker, money-changer or pawnbroker. This has frequently been taken to be the origin of the word in sense (1), the reference being to the store of unredeemed and unsaleable articles accumulating in pawnbrokers' shops. Skeat adopts this in preference to the connexion with "lumber" in sense (3), but thinks that the word may have been influenced by both sources (_Etym. Dict._, 1910). This word is probably of Scandinavian origin, and is cognate with a Swedish dialect word _lomra_, meaning "to roar," a frequentative of _ljumma_, "to make a noise." The English word may be of native origin and merely onomatopoeic. The _New English Dictionary_, though admitting the probability of the association with "Lombard," prefers the second proposed derivation. The application of the word to timber is of American origin; the _New English Dictionary_ quotes from _Suffolk_ (Mass.) _Deeds_ of 1662--"Freighted in Boston, with beames ... boards ... and other lumber."

LUMBINI, the name of the garden or grove in which Gotama, the Buddha, was born. It is first mentioned in a very ancient Pali ballad preserved in the _Sutta Nipata_ (verse 583). This is the _Song of Nalaka_ (the Buddhist Simeon), and the words put in the mouth of the angels who announce the birth to him are: "The Wisdom-child, that jewel so precious, that cannot be matched, has been born at Lumbini, in the Sakiya land, for weal and for joy in the world of men." The commentaries on the _Jatakas_ (i. 52, 54), and on a parallel passage in the _Majjhima_ (_J.R.A.S._, 1895, p. 767), tell us that the mother of the future Buddha was on her way from Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu), the capital of the Sakiyas, to her mother's home at Devadaha, the capital of the adjoining tribe, the Koliyas, to be confined there. Her pains came upon her on the way, and she turned aside into this grove, which lay not far from Devadaha, and gave birth there to her son. All later Buddhist accounts, whether Pali or Sanskrit, repeat the same story.

A collection of legends about Asoka, included in the _Divyavadana_, a work composed probably in the 1st or 2nd century A.D., tells us (pp. 389, 390) how Asoka, the Buddhist emperor, visited the traditional site of this grove, under the guidance of Upagupta. This must have been about 248 B.C. Upagupta (Tissa: see PALI) himself also mentions the site in his _Katha Vatthu_ (p. 559). The Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, visiting India in the 5th and 7th centuries A.D., were shown the site; and the latter (ed. Watters, ii. 15-19) mentions that he saw there an Asoka pillar, with a horse on the top, which had been split, when Hsuan Tsang saw it, by lightning. This pillar was rediscovered under the following circumstances.

The existence, a few miles beyond the Nepalese frontier, of an inscribed pillar had been known for some years when, in 1895, the discovery of another inscribed pillar at Nigliva, near by, led to the belief that this other, hitherto neglected, one must also be an Asoka pillar, and very probably the one mentioned by Hsuan Tsang. At the request of the Indian government the Nepalese government had the pillar, which was half-buried, excavated for examination; and Dr Führer, then in the employ of the Archaeological Survey, arrived soon afterwards at the spot.

The stone was split into two portions, apparently by lightning, and was inscribed with Pali characters as used in the time of Asoka. Squeezes of the inscription were sent to Europe, where various scholars discussed the meaning, which is as follows: "His Majesty, Piyadassi, came here in the 21st year of his reign and paid reverence. And on the ground that the Buddha, the Sakiya sage, was born here, he (the king) had a flawless stone cut, and put up a pillar. And further, since the Exalted One was born in it, he reduced taxation in the village of Lumbini, and established the dues at one-eighth part (of the crop)."

The inscription, having been buried for so many centuries beneath the soil, is in perfect preservation. The letters, about an inch in height, have been clearly and deeply cut in the stone. No one of them is doubtful. But two words are new, and scholars are not agreed in their interpretation of them. These are the adjective _vigadabhi_ applied to the stone, and rendered in our translation "flawless"; and secondly, the last word, rendered in our translation "one-eighth part (of the crop)." Fortunately these words are of minor importance for the historical value of this priceless document. The date, the twenty-first year after the formal coronation of Asoka, would be 248 B.C. The name Piyadassi is the official epithet always used by Asoka in his inscriptions when speaking of himself. The inscription confirms in every respect the Buddhist story, and makes it certain that, at the time when it was put up, the tradition now handed down in the books was current at the spot. Any further inference that the birth really took place there is matter of probability on which opinions will differ.

The grove is situate about 3 m. north of Bhagwanpur, the chief town of a district of the same name in the extreme south of Nepal, just over the frontier dividing Nepal from the district of Basti in British territory. It is now called Rummin-dei, i.e. the shrine of the goddess of Rummin, a name no doubt derived from the ancient name Lumbini. There is a small shrine at the spot, containing a bas-relief representing the birth of the Buddha. But the Buddha is now forgotten there, and the bas-relief is reverenced only for the figure of the mother, who has been turned into a tutelary deity of the place. Except so far as the excavation of the pillar is concerned the site has not been explored, and four small stupas there (already noticed by Hsuan Tsang) have not been opened.

AUTHORITIES.--_Sutta Nipata_, ed. V. Fansböll (London Pali Text Society, 1884); _Katha Vatthu_, ed. A. C. Taylor (London, 1897); _Jataka_, ed. V. Fansböll, vol. i. (London, 1877); _Divyavadana_, ed. Cowell and Niel (Cambridge, 1886); G. Bühler in the _Proceedings of the Vienna Academy_ for Jan. 1897, in _Epigraphia Indica_, vol. v. (London, 1898) and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1897), p. 429. See also ibid. (1895), pp. 751 ff.; (1897) pp. 615, 644; (1898) pp. 199-203; A. Barth in the _Journal des savants_ (Paris, 1897); R. Pischel in _Sitzungsberichte der königl. preussischen Akademie_ for the 9th July 1903; Babu P. Mukherji, _Report on a Tour of Exploration of the Antiquities in the Terai_ (Calcutta, 1903); V. A. Smith in _Indian Antiquary_ (Bombay, 1905). (T. W. R. D.)

LUMP-SUCKER, or LUMP-FISH (_Cyclopterus lumpus_), a marine fish, which with another British genus (_Liparis_) and a few other genera forms a small family (Cyclopteridae). Like many littoral fishes of other families, the lump-suckers have the ventral fins united into a circular concave disk, which, acting as a sucker, enables them to attach themselves firmly to rocks or stones. The body (properly so called) is short and thick, with a thick and scaleless skin, covered with rough tubercles, the larger of which are arranged in four series along each side of the body. The first dorsal fin is almost entirely concealed by the skin, appearing merely as a lump on the back. The lump-sucker inhabits the coasts of both sides of the North Atlantic; it is not rare on the British coasts, but becomes more common farther north. It is so sluggish in its habits that individuals have been caught with sea-weed growing on their backs. In the spring the fish approaches the shores to spawn, clearing out a hollow on a stony bottom in which it deposits an immense quantity of pink-coloured ova. Fishermen assert that the male watches the spawn until the young are hatched, a statement which receives confirmation from the fact that the allied gobies, or at least some of them, take similar care of their progeny. The vernacular name, "cock and hen paddle," given to the lump-fish on some parts of the coast, is probably expressive of the difference between the two sexes in their outward appearance, the male being only half or one-third the size of the female, and assuming during the spawning season a bright blue coloration, with red on the lower parts. This fish is generally not esteemed as food, but Franz Faber (_Fische Islands_, p. 53) states that the Icelanders consider the flesh of the male as a delicacy.[1] The bones are so soft, and contain so little inorganic matter, that the old ichthyologists placed the lump-sucker among the cartilaginous fishes.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The "cock-padle" was formerly esteemed also in Scotland, and figures in the _Antiquary_, chap. xi.

LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896), Anglo-Indian soldier, son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born on the 12th of November 1821. He joined the 59th Bengal Native Infantry in 1838, was present at the forcing of the Khyber Pass in 1842, and went through the first and second Sikh wars, being wounded at Sobraon. Having become assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence at Lahore in 1846, he was appointed in 1847 to raise the Corps of Guides. The object of this corps, composed of horse and foot, was to provide trustworthy men to act as guides to troops in the field, and also to collect intelligence beyond as well as within the North-West frontier of India. The regiment was located at Mardan on the Peshawar border, and has become one of the most famous in the Indian army. For the equipment of this corps, Lumsden originated the _khaki_ uniform. In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar with his younger brother, Sir Peter Lumsden, in connexion with the subsidy paid by the Indian government to the amir, and was in Afghanistan throughout the Mutiny. He took part in the Waziri Expedition of 1860, was in command of the Hyderabad Contingent from 1862, and left India in 1869. He became lieutenant-general in 1875, and died on the 12th of August 1896.

See Sir Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, _Lumsden of the Guides_ (1899).

LUNA, ÁLVARO DE (d. 1453), Constable of Castile, Grand Master of Santiago, and favourite of King John II. of Castile, was the natural son of Álvaro de Luna, a Castilian noble. He was introduced to the court as a page by his uncle Pedro de Luna, archbishop of Toledo, in 1410. Álvaro soon secured a commanding influence over John II., then a mere boy. During the regency of the king's uncle Ferdinand, which ended in 1412, he was not allowed to be more than a servant. When, however, Ferdinand was elected king of Aragon, and the regency remained in the hands of the king's mother, Constance, daughter of John of Gaunt, a foolish and dissolute woman, Álvaro became a very important person. The young king regarded him with an affection which the superstition of the time attributed to witchcraft. As the king was surrounded by greedy and unscrupulous nobles, among whom his cousins, the sons of Ferdinand, commonly known as the Infantes (princes) of Aragon, were perhaps the worst, his reliance on a favourite who had every motive to be loyal to him is quite intelligible. Álvaro too was a master of all the accomplishments the king admired--a fine horseman, a skilful lance and a writer of court verse. Until he lost the king's protection he was the central figure of the Castilian history of the time. It was a period of constant conflict conducted by shifting coalitions of the nobles, who under pretence of freeing the king from the undue influence of his favourite were intent on making a puppet of him for their own ends. The part which Álvaro de Luna played has been diversely judged. To Mariana he appears as a mere self-seeking favourite. To others he has seemed to be a loyal servant of the king who endeavoured to enforce the authority of the crown, which in Castile was the only alternative to anarchy. He fought for his own hand, but his supremacy was certainly better than the rule of gangs of plundering nobles. His story is in the main one of expulsions from the court by victorious factions, and of his return when his conquerors fell out among themselves. Thus in 1427 he was solemnly expelled by a coalition of the nobles, only to be recalled in the following year. In 1431 he endeavoured to employ the restless nobles in a war for the conquest of Granada. Some successes were gained, but a consistent policy was impossible with a rebellious aristocracy and a king of indolent character. In 1445 the faction of the nobles allied with Álvaro's main enemies, the Infantes de Aragon, were beaten at Olmedo, and the favourite, who had been constable of Castile and count of Santestéban since 1423, became Grand Master of the military order of Santiago by election of the Knights. His power appeared to be thoroughly established. It was, however, based on the personal affection of the king. The king's second wife, Isabella of Portugal, was offended at the immense influence of the constable, and urged her husband to free himself from slavery to his favourite. In 1453 the king succumbed, Álvaro was arrested, tried and condemned by a process which was a mere parody of justice, and executed at Valladolid on the 2nd of June 1453.

The _Chronicle of Álvaro de Luna_ (Madrid, 1784), written by some loyal follower who survived him, is a panegyric and largely a romance. The other contemporary authority--the _Chronicle of John II._--is much less favourable to the constable. Don Jose Quintana has summarized the two chronicles in his life of Luna in the _Vidas de Españoles célebres; Biblioteca de Aulores Españoles_ (Madrid, 1846-1880), vol. xix.

LUNA (mod. _Luni_), an ancient city of Etruria, Italy, 4½ m. S.E. of the modern Sarzana. It was the frontier town of Etruria, on the left bank of the river, Macra, the boundary in imperial times between Etruria and Liguria. When the Romans first appeared in these parts, however, the Ligurians were in possession of the territory as far as Pisa. It derived its importance mainly from its harbour, which was the gulf now known as the Gulf of Spezia, and not merely the estuary of the Macra as some authors have supposed. The town was apparently not established until 177 B.C., when a colony was founded here, though the harbour is mentioned by Ennius, who sailed hence for Sardinia in 205 B.C. under Manlius Torquatus. An inscription of 155 B.C., found in the forum of Luna in 1857, was dedicated to M. Claudius Marcellus in honour of his triumph over the Ligurians and Apuani. It lost much of its importance under the Empire, though traversed by the coast road (Via Aurelia), and it was renowned for the marble from the neighbouring mountains of Carrara, which bore the name of Luna marble. Pliny speaks of the quarries as only recently discovered in his day. Good wine was also produced. There are some remains of the Roman period on the site, and a theatre and an amphitheatre may be distinguished. No Etruscan remains have come to light. O. Cuntz's investigations (_Jahreshefte des Österr. Arch. Instituts_, 1904, 46) seem to lead to the conclusion that an ancient road crossed the Apennines from it, following the line of the modern road (more or less that of the modern railway from Sarzana to Parma), and dividing near Pontremoli, one branch going to Borgotaro, Veleia and Placentia, and the other over the Cisa pass to Forum Novum (Fornovo) and Parma. The town was destroyed by the Arabs in 1016, and the episcopal see transferred to Sarzana in 1204.

See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), ii. 63. (T. As.)

LUNATION, the period of return of the moon (_luna_) to the same position relative to the sun; for example, from full moon to full moon. Its duration is 29.5305884 days.

LUNAVADA, a native state in India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay. Area, 388 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 63,967, showing a decrease of 28% in the decade, due to famine. The chief, whose title is maharana, is a Rajput of high lineage. Estimated revenue, £12,000; tribute, £1000. The capital is Lunavada town, said to have been founded in 1434; pop. (1901) 10,277.

LUNCHEON, in present usage the name given to a meal between breakfast and tea or dinner. When dinner was taken at an early hour, or when it is still the principal midday meal, luncheon was and is still a light repast. The derivation of the word has been obscured, chiefly owing to the attempted connexion with "nuncheon," with which the word has nothing to do etymologically. "Luncheon" is an extended form of "lunch" (another form of "lump," as "hunch" is of "hump"). Lunch and luncheon in the earliest meanings found are applied to a thick piece of bread, bacon, meat, &c.

The word "nuncheon," or "nunchion," with which "luncheon" has been frequently connected, appears as early as the 14th century in the form _noneschenche_. This meant a refreshment or distribution, properly of drink, but also accompanied with some small quantity of meat, taken in the early afternoon. The word means literally "noon-drink," from none or noon, i.e. _nona hora_, the ninth hour, originally 3 o'clock P.M., but later "midday"--the church office of "nones," and also the second meal of the day, having been shifted back--and _schenchen_, to pour out; cf. German _schenken_, which means to retail drink and to give, present. _Schenche_ is the same as "shank," the shin-bone, and the sense development appears to be shin-bone, pipe, hence tap for drawing liquor. See also Skeat, _Etymological Dict. of English Language_ (1910), s.v. "nunchion."

LUND, TROELS FREDERIK (1840- ), Danish historian, was born in Copenhagen on the 5th of September 1840. He entered the university of Copenhagen in 1858. About the age of thirty he took a post which brought before his notice the treasures of the archives of Denmark. His first important work, _Historiske Skitser_, did not appear until 1876, but after that time his activity was stupendous. In 1879 was published the first volume of his _Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af det xvi. Aarhundrede_, a history of daily life in Denmark and Norway at the close of the 16th century. Troels Lund was the pioneer of the remarkable generation of young historians who came forward in northern Europe about 1880, and he remained the most original and conspicuous of them. Saying very little about kings, armies and governments, he concentrates his attention on the life, death, employments, pleasures and prejudices of the ordinary men and women of the age with which he deals, using to illustrate his theme a vast body of documents previously neglected by the official historian. Lund was appointed historiographer-royal to the king of Denmark and comptroller of the Order of the Dannebrog. There was probably no living man to whom the destruction of the archives, when Christiansborg Castle was accidentally burned in 1884, was so acute a matter of distress. But his favourite and peculiar province, the MSS. of the 16th century, was happily not involved in that calamity.

LUND, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, in the district (_län_) of Malmöhus, 10 m. N.E. of Malmö by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,621. A university was founded here in 1668 by Charles XI., with faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy. The number of students ranges from 600 to 800, and there are about 50 professors. Its library of books and MSS. is entitled to receive a copy of every work printed in Sweden. Important buildings include the university hall (1882), the academic union of the students (1851) containing an art museum; the astronomical observatory, built in 1866, though observations have been carried on since 1760; the botanical museum, and ethnographical and industrial art collections, illustrating life in southern Sweden from early times. Each student belongs to one of twelve nations (_landskap_), which mainly comprises students from a particular part of the country. The Romanesque cathedral was founded about the middle of the 10th century. The crypt under the raised transept and choir is one of the largest in the world, and the church is one of the finest in Scandinavia. A statue of the poet Esaias Tegner stands in the Tegners Plads, and the house in which he lived from 1813 to 1826 is indicated by an inscribed stone slab. The chief industries are sugar-refining, iron and brick works, and the manufacture of furniture and gloves.

Lund (_Londinum Gothorum_), the "Lunda at Eyrarsund" of Egil's Saga, was of importance in Egil's time (c. 920). It appears that, if not actually a seaport, it was at least nearer the Sound than now. In the middle of the 11th century it was made a bishopric, and in 1103 the seat of an archbishop who received primatial rank over all Scandinavia in 1163, but in 1536 Lund was reduced to a bishopric. Close to the town, at the hill of Sliparabacke, the Danish kings used to receive the homage of the princes of Skare, and a monument records a victory of Charles XI. over the Danes (1676), which extinguished the Danish claim to suzerainty over this district.

LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839), American philanthropist, prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was born of Quaker parentage, at Hardwick, Warren county, New Jersey, on the 4th of January 1789. As a boy he worked on his father's farm, attending school for only brief periods, and in 1808-1812 he lived at Wheeling, Virginia (now W. Va.), where he served an apprenticeship to a saddler, and where--Wheeling being an important headquarters of the inter-State slave trade--he first became deeply impressed with the iniquity of the institution of slavery, and determined to devote his life to the cause of abolition. In 1815, while living at Saint Clairsville, Ohio, he organized an anti-slavery association, known as the "Union Humane Society," which within a few months had a membership of more than five hundred men. For a short time he assisted Charles Osborne in editing the _Philanthropist_; in 1819 he went to St Louis, Missouri, and there in 1810-1820 took an active part in the slavery controversy; and in 1821 he founded at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, an anti-slavery paper, the _Genius of Universal Emancipation_. This periodical, first a monthly and later a weekly, was published successively in Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, the District of Columbia and Pennsylvania, though it appeared irregularly, and at times, when Lundy was away on lecturing tours, was issued from any office that was accessible to him. From September 1829 until March 1830 Lundy was assisted in the editorship of the paper by William Lloyd Garrison (q.v.). Besides travelling through many states of the United States to deliver anti-slavery lectures, Lundy visited Haiti twice--in 1825 and 1829, the Wilberforce colony of freedmen and refugee slaves in Canada in 1830-1831, and in 1832 and again in 1833 Texas, all these visits being made, in part, to find a suitable place outside the United States to which emancipated slaves might be sent. Between 1820 and 1830, according to a statement made by Lundy himself, he travelled "more than 5000 m. on foot and 20,000 in other ways, visited nineteen states of the Union, and held more than 200 public meetings." He was bitterly denounced by slaveholders and also by such non-slaveholders as disapproved of all anti-slavery agitation, and in January 1827 he was assaulted and seriously injured by a slave-trader, Austin Woolfolk, whom he had severely criticized in his paper. In 1836-1838 Lundy edited in Philadelphia a new anti-slavery weekly, _The National Enquirer_, which he had founded, and which under the editorship of John G. Whittier, Lundy's successor, became _The Pennsylvania Freeman_. In 1838 Lundy removed to Lowell, La Salle county, Illinois, where he printed several copies of the _Genius of Universal Emancipation_. There, on the 22nd of August 1839, he died. Lundy is said to have been the first to deliver anti-slavery lectures in the United States.

See _The Life, Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy_ (Philadelphia, 1847), compiled (by Thomas Earle) "under the direction and on behalf of his children."

LUNDY, ROBERT (fl. 1689), governor of Londonderry. Nothing is known of Lundy's parentage or early life; but he had seen service in the foreign wars before 1688, when he was at Dublin with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the regiment of Lord Mountjoy. When the apprentices of Derry closed the gates in the face of the earl of Antrim, who was approaching the city at the head of an Irish Catholic force in the interests of James II., the viceroy Tyrconnel despatched Mountjoy to pacify the Protestants. Mountjoy and his regiment were well received in the north, and the citizens of Derry permitted him to leave within their walls a small Protestant garrison under the command of Lundy, who assumed the title of governor. Popular feeling in Derry ran so strongly in favour of the prince of Orange that Lundy quickly declared himself an adherent of William; and he obtained from him a commission confirming his appointment as governor. Whether Lundy was a deliberate traitor to the cause he had embraced with explicit asseveration of fidelity in a signed document, or whether, as Macaulay suggests, he was only a cowardly poltroon, cannot certainly be known. What is certain is that from the moment Londonderry was menaced by the troops of King James, Lundy used all his endeavours to paralyse the defence of the city. In April 1689 he was in command of a force of Protestants who encountered some troops under Richard Hamilton at Strabane, when, instead of holding his ground, he told his men that all was lost and ordered them to shift for themselves; he himself was the first to take flight back to Derry. King James, then at Omagh on his way to the north, similarly turned in flight towards Dublin on hearing of the skirmish, but returned next day on receiving the true account of the occurrence. On the 14th of April English ships appeared in the Foyle with reinforcements for Lundy under Colonel Cunningham. Lundy dissuaded Cunningham from landing his regiments, representing that a defence of Londonderry was hopeless; and that he himself intended to withdraw secretly from the city. At the same time he sent to the enemy's headquarters a promise to surrender the city at the first summons. As soon as this became known to the citizens Lundy's life was in danger, and he was vehemently accused of treachery. When the enemy appeared before the walls Lundy gave orders that there should be no firing. But all authority had passed out of his hands. The people flew to arms under the direction of Major Henry Baker and Captain Adam Murray, who organized the famous defence in conjunction with the Rev. George Walker (q.v.). Lundy, to avoid popular vengeance, hid himself until nightfall, when by the connivance of Walker and Murray he made his escape in disguise. He was apprehended in Scotland and sent to the Tower of London. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity in 1690, but his subsequent fate is unknown.

See Lord Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iii. (Albany edition of complete works, London, 1898); Rev. George Walker, _A True Account of the Siege of Londonderry_ (London, 1689); J. Mackenzie, _Narrative of the Siege of Londonderry_ (London, 1690); John Hempton, _The Siege and History of Londonderry_ (Londonderry, 1861); Rev. John Graham, _A History of the Siege of Derry and Defence of Enniskillen, 1688-9_ (Dublin, 1829). (R. J. M.)

LUNDY, an English island at the entrance of the Bristol Channel, 12 m. N.W. by N. of the nearest point on the mainland, namely Hartland Point on the Devonshire coast. The nearest ports are Clovelly and Bideford. The extreme length of the island is 3 m. from N. to S., the mean breadth about half a mile, but at the south the breadth is nearly 1 m. The area is about 1150 acres. The component rock is a hard granite, except at the south, where slate occurs. This granite was used in the construction of the Victoria Embankment, London. An extreme elevation of about 450 ft. is found in the southern half of the island; the northern sloping gently to the sea, but the greater part of the coast is cliff-bound and very beautiful. The landing, at the south-east, is sheltered by the small Rat Island, where the once common black rat survives. There are a few prehistoric remains on Lundy, and the foundations of an ancient chapel of St Helen. There are also ruins, and the still inhabited keep, of Marisco Castle, occupying a strong precipitous site on the south-east, held in the reign of Henry II. by Sir Jordan de Marisco. The Mariscos, in their inaccessible retreat, lived lawlessly until in 1242 Sir William Marisco was hanged for instigating an attempt on the life of Henry III. In 1625 the island was reported to be captured by Turkish pirates, and in 1633 by Spaniards. Later it became an object of attack and a hiding place for French privateers. The island, which is reckoned as extra-parochial, has some cultivable land and heath pasture, and had a population in 1901 of 94.

LÜNEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, situated near the foot of a small hill named the Kalkberg, on the navigable Ilmenau, 14 m. above its confluence with the Elbe and 30 m. by rail S.E. of Hamburg by the main line to Hanover. Pop. (1905) 26,751. Numerous handsome medieval buildings testify to its former prosperity as a prominent member of the Hanseatic league, and its many quaint houses with high gables and overhanging eaves have gained for it the appellation "the Nüremberg of the North." Portions of the old walls survive, but the greater part of the former circumvallation has been converted into promenades and gardens, outside which a modern town has sprung up. The finest of its squares are the market-place and the so-called Sand. The churches of St John, with five aisles and a spire 375 ft. in height; of St Michael, containing the tombs of the former princes of Lüneburg, and of St Nicolas, with a huge nave and a lofty spire, are fine Gothic edifices of the 14th and 15th centuries. The old town-hall in the market square is a huge pile, dating originally from the 13th century, but with numerous additions. It has an arcade with frescoes, restored by modern Munich artists, and contains a magnificent hall--the Fürstensaal--richly decorated with wood-carving and stained-glass windows. Galvanoplastic casts of the famous Lüneburg silver plate, consisting of 36 pieces which were acquired in 1874 by the Prussian government for £33,000 and are now housed in the art museum in Berlin, are exhibited here. Among other public edifices are the old palace; the convent of St Michael (now converted into a school and law court), and the Kaufhaus (merchants' hall). There are a museum, a library of 36,000 volumes, classical and commercial schools, and a teachers' seminary. Lüneburg owes its importance chiefly to the gypsum and lime quarries of the Kalkberg, which afford the materials for its cement works, and to the productive salt-spring at its base which has been known and used since the 10th century. Hence the ancient saying which, grouping with these the commercial facilities afforded by the bridge over the Ilmenau, ascribes the prosperity of Lüneburg to its _mons, fons, pons_. Other industries are the making of chemicals, ironware, soda and haircloth. There is a considerable trade in French wines, for which Lüneburg has for centuries been one of the chief emporia in north Germany, and also in grain and wool. Celebrated are its lampreys, _Lüneburger Bricken_.

Lüneburg existed in the days of Charlemagne, but it did not gain importance until after the erection of a convent and a castle on the Kalkberg in the 10th century. After the destruction of Bardowiek, then the chief commercial centre of North Germany, by Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, in 1189, Lüneburg inherited much of its trade and subsequently became one of the principal towns of the Hanseatic league. Having belonged to the extensive duchy of Saxony it was the capital of the duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from 1235 to 1369; later it belonged to one or other of the branches of the family of Brunswick, being involved in the quarrels, and giving its name to cadet lines, of this house. From the junior line of Brunswick-Lüneburg the reigning family of Great Britain is descended. The reformed doctrines were introduced into the town in 1530 and it suffered heavily during the Thirty Years' War. It reached the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, and in the 17th century it was the depot for much of the merchandise exported from Saxony and Bavaria to the mouth of the Elbe; then after a period of decay the 19th century witnessed a revival of its prosperity. In 1813 the German war of liberation was begun by an engagement with the French near Lüneburg.

See W. F. Volger, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lüneburg_ (3 vols., Lüneburg, 1872-1877); E. Bodemann, _Die älteren Zunfturkunden der Stadt Lüneburg_ (Hanover, 1883); O. Jürgens, _Geschichte der Stadt Lüneburg_ (Lüneburg, 1891); _Des Propstes Jakob Schomaker Lüneburger Chronik_, edited by T. Meyer (Hanover, 1904); A. Wrede, _Die Einführung der Reformation in Lüneburg_ (Göttingen, 1887), and W. Reinecke, _Lüneburgs ältestes Stadtbuch und Verfasstungsregister_ (Hanover, 1903). For the history of the principality see von Leuthe, _Archiv für Geschichte und Verfassung des Fürstentums Lüneburg_ (Celle, 1854-1863).

LÜNEBURGER HEIDE, a district of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, lying between the Aller and the Elbe and intersected by the railways Harburg-Hanover and Bremen-Stendal. Its main character is that of a broad saddle-back, running for 55 m. from S.E. to N.W. of a mean elevation of about 250 ft. and attaining its greatest height in the Wilseder Berg (550 ft.) at its northern end. The soil is quartz sand and is chiefly covered with heather and brushwood. In the north, and in the deep valleys through which the streams descend to the plain, there are extensive forests of oak, birch and beech, and in the south, of fir and larch. Though the climate is raw and good soil rare, the heath is not unfertile. Its main products are sheep--the celebrated Heidschnucken breed,--potatoes, bilberries, cranberries and honey. The district is also remarkable for the numerous Hun barrows found scattered throughout its whole extent.

See Rabe, _Die Lüneburger Heide und die Bewirthschaftung der Heidhöfe_ (Jena, 1900); Kniep, _Führer durch die Lüneburger Heide_ (Hanover, 1900); Linde, _Die Lüneburger Heide_ (Lüneburg, 1905), and Kück, _Das alte Bauernleben der Lüneburger Heide_ (Leipzig, 1906).

LUNETTE (French diminutive of _lune_, moon), a crescent-shaped, semi-circular object. The term is particularly applied in architecture to a circular opening at the intersection of vaulting by a smaller vault, as in a ceiling for the entrance of light or in the lower stories of towers for the passage of bells. It is also used of a panel space of semi-circular shape, filled by a fresco or other decorative treatment. In fortification a "lunette" was originally an earthwork of half-moon shape; later it became a redan with short flanks, in trace somewhat resembling a bastion standing by itself without curtains on either side. The gorge was generally open.

LUNÉVILLE, an industrial and garrison town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. E.S.E. of Nancy on the railway to Strassburg. Pop. (1906) town, 19,199; commune, 24,266 (including troops). The town stands on the right bank of the Meurthe between that river and its affluent the Vezouze, a little above their confluence. Its château, designed early in the 18th century by the royal architect Germain Boffrand, was the favourite residence of Duke Leopold of Lorraine, where he gathered round him an academy composed of eminent men of the district. It is now a cavalry barracks, and the gardens form a public promenade. Lunéville is an important cavalry station with a large riding school. The church of St Jacques with its two domed towers dates from 1730-1745. There are statues of General Count Antoine de Lasalle, and of the Conventional Abbé Henri Grégoire. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. It carries on cotton-spinning and the manufacture of railway material, motor vehicles, porcelain, toys, hosiery, embroidery, straw-hats and gloves. Trade is in grain, wine, tobacco, hops and other agricultural produce.

The name of Lunéville (_Lunae villa_) is perhaps derived from an ancient cult of Diana, the moon goddess, a sacred fountain and medals with the effigy of this goddess having been found at Leormont, some 2 m. E. of the town. Lunéville belonged to Austrasia, and after various changes fell, in 1344, to the house of Lorraine. A walled town in the middle ages, it suffered in the Thirty Years' War and in the campaigns of Louis XIV. from war, plague and famine. The town flourished again under Dukes Leopold and Stanislas, on the death of the latter of whom, which took place at Lunéville, Lorraine was united to France (1766). The treaty of Lunéville between France and Austria (1801) confirmed the former power in the possession of the left bank of the Rhine.

LUNG, in anatomy, the name of each of the pair of organs of respiration in man and other air-breathing animals, the corresponding organs in fishes being the _branchiae_ or gills (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). The word in Old English was _lungen_; it appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. _Lunge_, Du. _long_, Swed. _lunga_; the Teutonic root from which these are derived meant "light," and the lungs were so-called from their lightness. The word "lights" was formerly used as synonymous with "lungs," but is now confined to the lungs of sheep, pigs or cattle; it is etymologically connected with "lung," the pre-Teutonic root being seen in Sansk. _laghu_, Gr. [Greek: elaphros].

SURGERY OF THE LUNG AND PLEURA.--When a person meets with a severe injury to the chest, as from a wheel passing over him, the ribs may be broken and driven into the lung. Air then entering into the pleural space, the lung collapses, and breathing becomes so difficult that death may ensue from asphyxia. Short of this, however, there is a cough with the spitting of frothy, blood-stained mucus or of bright red blood. All that can be done is to place the person on his back, slightly propped up by pillows, and to combat syncope by subcutaneous injections of ether and strychnia.

_Empyema_ means the presence of an abscess between the lung and the chest wall, i.e. in the pleural space; it is the result of a septic inflammation of the pleura by the micro-organisms of pneumonia or of typhoid fever, or by some other germs. As the abscess increases in size, the lung is pushed towards the spine, and that side of the chest gives a dull note on percussion. If much fluid collects the heart may be pushed out of its place, and, the lung-space being taken up, respiration is embarrassed. Having made sure of the presence of an abscess by exploring with syringe and hollow needle, the surgeon opens and drains it. The drainage is made more effectual by removing an inch or so of one of the ribs, for, unless this is done, there is a risk of the rubber drainage tube being compressed as the ribs come closer together again.

The lung itself has sometimes to be operated on, as when it is the seat of an hydatid cyst, or when it contains an abscess cavity which cannot otherwise be drained, or when it becomes necessary to remove a foreign body the exact situation of which has been revealed by the X-rays. Portions of some of the ribs having been resected, the pleural cavity is opened, and if the lung has not already become glued to the chest-wall by inflammatory adhesions, it is stitched up to the chest-wall, and in a few days, when adhesions have taken place, an incision is safely made into the lung-tissue. See also RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. (E. O.*)

LUNG, one of the four symbolical creatures of Chinese legend. It is a dragon with a scaly snake-like body, long claws, horns, a bristly face, and its back-bone armed with spikes. Originally three-clawed, it has become, as the official dragon of the present dynasty, a five-clawed beast. The form is embroidered on the state robes of the emperor of China, and it is traditionally connected with the dynasty's history and fortunes.

LUNGCHOW, a town in the province of Kwangsi, China, in 22° 21´ N., 106° 45´ E., near the Tongking frontier, and at the junction of the Sung-chi and Kao-ping rivers. Pop. (estimate) 22,000. The town is prettily situated in a circular valley. From a military point of view it is considered important, and considerable bodies of troops are stationed here. It was selected as the seat of frontier trade by the French convention of 1886, and was opened in 1889. In 1898 the total value of its trade amounted to only £20,000, but in 1904 the figures increased to £56,692.

LUNGE, GEORG (1839- ), German chemist, was born at Breslau on the 15th of September 1839. He studied at Heidelberg (under R. W. Bunsen) and Breslau, graduating at the latter university in 1859. Turning his attention to technical chemistry, he became chemist at several works both in Germany and England, and in 1876 he was appointed professor of technical chemistry at Zürich polytechnic. Lunge's original contributions cover a very wide field, dealing both with technical processes and analysis. In addition, he was a voluminous writer, enriching scientific literature with many standard works. His treatises _Coal Tar and Ammonia_ (5th ed. 1909; 1st ed. 1867), _Destillation des Steinkohlentheers_ and _Sulphuric Acid and Alkali_ (1st ed. 1878, 4th ed. 1909), established his position as the highest authority on these subjects, while the _Chemische-technische Untersuchungs-Methoden_ (1899-1900; Eng. trans.), to which he contributed, testified to his researches in technical analysis. His jubilee was celebrated at Zürich on the 15th of September 1909.

LUPERCALIA, a very ancient, possibly pre-Roman, pastoral festival in honour of Lupercus. Its rites were under the superintendence of a corporation of priests called Luperci,[1] whose institution is attributed either to the Arcadian Evander, or to Romulus and Remus. In front of the Porta Romana, on the western side of the Palatine hill, close to the Ficus Ruminalis and the Casa Romuli, was the cave of Lupercus; in it, according to the legend, the she-wolf had suckled the twins, and the bronze wolf, which is still preserved in the Capitol, was placed in it in 296 B.C. But the festival itself, which was held on February 15th, contains no reference to the Romulus legend, which is probably later in origin, though earlier than the grecizing Evander legend. The festival began with the sacrifice by the Luperci (or the flamen dialis) of goats and a dog; after which two of the Luperci were led to the altar, their foreheads were touched with a bloody knife, and the blood wiped off with wool dipped in milk; then the ritual required that the two young men should laugh. The smearing of the forehead with blood probably refers to human sacrifice originally practised at the festival. The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs from the skins of the victims and ran in two bands round the walls of the old Palatine city, the line of which was marked with stones, striking the people who crowded near. A blow from the thong prevented sterility in women. These thongs were called _februa_, the festival Februatio, and the day _dies februatus_ (_februare_ = to purify); hence the name of the month February, the last of the old Roman year. The object of the festival was, by expiation and purification, to secure the fruitfulness of the land, the increase of the flocks and the prosperity of the whole people. The Lupercal (cave of Lupercus), which had fallen into a state of decay, was rebuilt by Augustus; the celebration of the festival had been maintained, as we know from the famous occurrence of it in 44 B.C. It survived until A.D. 494, when it was changed by Gelasius into the feast of the Purification. Lupercus, in whose honour the festival was held, is identified with Faunus or Inuus, Evander ([Greek: Euandros]), in the Greek legend being a translation of Faunus (the "kindly"). The Luperci were divided into two _collegia_, called Quinctiliani (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from the gens Quinctilia (or Quinctia)[2] and Fabia; at the head of each of these colleges was a magister. In 44 B.C. a third college, Luperci Julii, was instituted in honour of Julius Caesar, the first magister of which was Mark Antony. In imperial times the members were usually of equestrian standing.

See Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885) p. 438; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals_ (1899), p. 390 foll., and article in Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed. 1891).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Many derivations are suggested, but it seems most probable that Luperci simply means "wolves" (the last part of the word exhibiting a similar formation to _nov-erca_), the name having its origin in the primitive worship of the wolf as a wolf-god.

[2] Mommsen considers the Quinctia to be the older gens, and the Quinctilia a later introduction from Alba.

LUPINE (_Lupinus_), in botany, a genus of about 100 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants of the tribe _Genisteae_, of the order Leguminosae. Species with digitate leaves range along the west side of America from British Columbia to northern Chile, while a few occur in the Mediterranean regions. A few others with entire leaves are found in Brazil and eastern North America. The leaves are remarkable for "sleeping" in three different ways. From being in the form of a horizontal star by day, the leaflets either fall and form a hollow cone with their bases upwards (_L. pilosus_), or rise and the cone is inverted (_L. luteus_), or else the shorter leaflets fall and the longer rise, and so together form a vertical star as in many species; the object in every case being to protect the surfaces of the leaflets from radiation and consequent wetting with dew (Darwin, _Movements of Plants_, p. 340). The flowers are of the usual "papilionaceous" or pea-like form, blue, white, purple or yellow, in long terminal spikes. The stamens are monadelphous and bear dimorphic anthers. The species of which earliest mention is made is probably _L. Termis_, which was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. It is wild in some parts of the Mediterranean area and is extensively cultivated in Egypt. Its seeds are eaten by the poor after being steeped in water to remove their bitterness; the stems furnish fuel and charcoal for gunpowder. The lupine of the ancient Greeks and Romans was probably _L. albus_, which is still extensively cultivated in Italy, Sicily and other Mediterranean countries for forage, for ploughing in to enrich the land, and for its round flat seeds, which form an article of food. Yellow lupine (_L. luteus_) and blue lupine (_L. angustifolius_) are also cultivated on the European continent as farm crops for green manuring.

Lupines are easily cultivated in moderately good garden soil; they include annuals which are among the most ornamental and most easily grown of summer flowering plants (sow in open borders in April and May), and perennials, which are grown from seed or propagated by dividing strong plants in March and April. Many of the forms in cultivation are hybrid. One of the best known of the perennial species is _L. polyphyllus_, a western North American species. It grows from 3 to 6 ft. high, and has numerous varieties, including a charming white-flowered one. The tree lupine (_L. arboreus_) is a Californian bush, 2 to 4 ft. high, with fragrant yellow flowers. It is only hardy in the most favoured parts of the kingdom.

LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS, Roman rhetorician, flourished during the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of a treatise on the figures of speech ([Greek: Schêmata lexeôs]), abridged from a similar work by the rhetorician Gorgias (of Athens, not the well-known sophist of Leontini), the tutor of Cicero's son. In its present form it is incomplete, as is clearly shown by the express testimony of Quintilian (_Instit._ ix. 2, 103, 106) that Lupus also dealt with figures of sense, rhetorical figures ([Greek: Schêmata dianoias]). The work is valuable chiefly as containing a number of examples, well translated into Latin, from the lost works of Greek rhetoricians. The author has been identified with the Lupus mentioned in the Ovidian catalogue of poets (_Ex Ponto_, iv. 16), and was perhaps the son of the Publius Rutilius Lupus, who was a strong supporter of Pompey.

Editions by D. Ruhnken (1768), F. Jacob (1837), C. Halm in _Rhetores latini minores_ (1863); see also monographs by G. Dzialas (1860 and 1869), C. Schmidt (1865), J. Draheim (1874), Thilo Krieg (1896).

LUPUS (Lat. _lupus_, wolf), a disease characterized by the formation in the skin or mucous membrane of small tubercles or nodules consisting of cell growth which has an inclination to retrograde change, leading to ulceration and destruction of the tissues, and, if it heals, to the subsequent formation of permanent white scars. _Lupus vulgaris_ is most commonly seen in early life, and occurs chiefly on the face, about the nose, cheeks or ears. But it may also affect the body or limbs. It first shows itself as small, slightly prominent, nodules covered with thin crusts or scabs. These may be absorbed and removed at one point whilst spreading at another. Their disappearance is followed by a permanent white cicatrix. The disease may be superficial, in which case both the ulceration and the resulting scar are slight (_lupus non-exedens_); or the ulcerative process may be deep and extensive, destroying a large portion of the nose or cheek, and leaving much disfigurement (_lupus exedens_). A milder form, _lupus erythematosus_, occurs on the nose and adjacent portions of the cheeks in the form of red patches covered with thin scales, underneath which are seen the widened openings of the sebaceous ducts. With a longitudinal patch on the nose and spreading symmetrical patches on each cheek the appearance is usually that of a large butterfly. It is slow in disappearing, but does not leave a scar. Lupus is more frequently seen in women than in men; it is connected with a tuberculous constitution. In the superficial variety the application of soothing ointments when there is much redness, and linear incisions, or scrapings with a sharp spoon, to destroy the increased blood supply, are often serviceable. In the ordinary form the local treatment is to remove the new tissue growth by solid points of caustic thrust into the tubercles to break them up, or by scraping with a sharp spoon. The light-treatment has been successfully applied in recent years. As medicines, cod-liver oil, iron and arsenic are useful. (E. O.*)

LUQMAN, or LOKMAN, the name of two, if not of three (cf. note to Terminal Essay in Sir Rd. Burton's translation of the _Arabian Nights_), persons famous in Arabian tradition. The one was of the family of 'Ad, and is said to have built the great dike of Marib and to have received the gift of life as long as that of seven vultures, each of which lived eighty years. The name of the seventh vulture--Lubad--occurs in proverbial literature. The name of the second Luqman, called "Luqman the Sage," occurs in the Koran (31, 11). Two accounts of him are current in Arabian literature. According to Mas'udi (i. 110) he was a Nubian freedman who lived in the time of David in the district of Elah and Midian. According to some commentators on the Koran (e.g., Baidawi) he was the son of Ba'ura, one of the sons of Job's sister or maternal aunt. Derenbourg in his _Fables de Loqmân le sage_ (1850) identifies Ba'ura with Beoi, and believes the name Luqman to be a translation of _Balaam_. The grave of _Luqman_ was shown on the east coast of the lake of Tiberias, also in Yemen (cf. Yaqut, vol. iii. p. 512).

The so-called _Fables of Luqman_ are known to have existed in the 13th century, but are not mentioned by any Arabian writer. They were edited by Erpenius (Leiden, 1615) and have been reprinted many times. For the relation of these to similar literature in other lands, see J. Jacobs's edition of Caxton's _Fables of Aesop_, vol. i. (London, 1889). The name of Luqman also occurs in many old verses, anecdotes and proverbs; cf. G. Freytag's _Arabum Proverbia_ (Bonn, 1838-1843) and such Arabian writers as Tabari, Mas'udi, Damiri and the _Kitab al-Mu'ammarin_ (ed. by I. Goldziher, Leiden, 1899). (G. W. T.)