v. 54); and what little his narrative thus loses in accuracy it gains in

dignity and warmth of feeling. In his portraits of the typical Romans of the old style, such as Q. Fabius Maximus, in his descriptions of the unshaken firmness and calm courage shown by the fathers of the state in the hour of trial, Livy is at his best; and he is so largely in virtue of his genuine appreciation of character as a powerful force in the affairs of men.

This enthusiasm for Rome and for Roman virtues is, moreover, saved from degenerating into gross partiality by the genuine candour of Livy's mind and by his wide sympathies with every thing great and good. Seneca (_Suasoriae_ vi. 22) and Quintilian (x. 1. 101) bear witness to his impartiality. Thus, Hasdrubal's devotion and valour at the battle on the Metaurus are described in terms of eloquent praise; and even in Hannibal, the lifelong enemy of Rome, he frankly recognizes the great qualities that balanced his faults. Nor, though his sympathies are unmistakably with the aristocratic party, does he scruple to censure the pride, cruelty and selfishness which too often marked their conduct (ii. 54; the speech of Canuleius, iv. 3; of Sextius and Licinius, vi. 36); and, though he feels acutely that the times are out of joint, and has apparently little hope of the future, he still believes in justice and goodness. He is often righteously indignant, but never satirical, and such a pessimism as that of Tacitus and Juvenal is wholly foreign to his nature.

Though he studied and even wrote on philosophy (Seneca, _Ep._ 100. 9), Livy is by no means a philosophic historian. We learn indeed from incidental notices that he inclined to Stoicism and disliked the Epicurean system. With the scepticism that despised the gods (x. 40) and denied that they meddled with the affairs of men (xliii. 13) he has no sympathy. The immortal gods are everywhere the same; they govern the world (xxxvii. 45) and reveal the future to men by signs and wonders (xliii. 13), but only a debased superstition will look for their hand in every petty incident, or abandon itself to an indiscriminate belief in the portents and miracles in which popular credulity delights. The ancient state religion of Rome, with its temples, priests and auguries, he not only reverences as an integral part of the Roman constitution, with a sympathy which grows as he studies it, but, like Varro, and in true Stoic fashion, he regards it as a valuable instrument of government (i. 19. 21), indispensable in a well-ordered community. As distinctly Stoical is the doctrine of a fate to which even the gods must yield (ix. 4), which disposes the plans of men (i. 42) and blinds their minds (v. 37), yet leaves their wills free (xxxvii. 45).

But we find no trace in Livy of any systematic application of philosophy to the facts of history. He is as innocent of the leading ideas which shaped the work of Polybius as he is of the cheap theorizing which wearies us in the pages of Dionysius. The events are graphically, if not always accurately, described; but of the larger causes at work in producing them, of their subtle action and reaction upon each other, and of the general conditions amid which the history worked itself out, he takes no thought at all. Nor has Livy much acquaintance with either the theory or the practice of politics. He exhibits, it is true, political sympathies and antipathies. He is on the whole for the nobles and against the commons; and, though the unfavourable colours in which he paints the leaders of the latter are possibly reflected from the authorities he followed, it is evident that he despised and disliked the multitude. Of monarchy he speaks with a genuine Roman hatred, and we know that in the last days of the republic his sympathies were wholly with those who strove in vain to save it. He betrays, too, an insight into the evils which were destined finally to undermine the imposing fabric of Roman empire. The decline of the free population, the spread of slavery (vi. 12, vii. 25), the universal craving for wealth (iii. 26), the employment of foreign mercenaries (xxv. 33), the corruption of Roman race and Roman manners by mixture with aliens (xxxix. 3), are all noticed in tones of solemn warning. But his retired life had given him no wide experience of men and things. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that he fails altogether to present a clear and coherent picture of the history and working of the Roman constitution, or that his handling of intricate questions of policy is weak and inadequate.

_Sources._--If from the general aim and spirit of Livy's history we pass to consider his method of workmanship, we are struck at once by the very different measure of success attained by him in the two great departments of an historian's labour. He is a consummate artist, but an unskilled and often careless investigator and critic. The materials which lay ready to his hand may be roughly classed under two heads: (1) the original evidence of monuments, inscriptions, &c., (2) the written tradition as found in the works of previous authors. It is on the second of these two kinds of evidence that Livy almost exclusively relies. Yet that even for the very early times a certain amount of original evidence still existed is proved by the use which was made of it by Dionysius, who mentions at least three important inscriptions, two dating from the regal period and one from the first years of the republic (iv. 26, iv. 58, x. 32). We know from Livy himself (iv. 20) that the breastplate dedicated by Aulus Cornelius Cossus (428 B.C.) was to be seen in his own day in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, nor is there any reason to suppose that the _libri lintei_, quoted by Licinius Macer, were not extant when Livy wrote. For more recent times the materials were plentiful, and a rich field of research lay open to the student in the long series of laws, decrees of the senate, and official registers, reaching back, as it probably did, at least to the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. Nevertheless it seems certain that Livy never realized the duty of consulting these relics of the past, even in order to verify the statements of his authorities. Many of them he never mentions; the others (e.g. the _libri lintei_) he evidently describes at second hand. Antiquarian studies were popular in his day, but the instances are very few in which he has turned their results to account. There is no sign that he had ever read Varro; and he never alludes to Verrius Flaccus. The haziness and inaccuracy of his topography make it clear that he did not attempt to familiarize himself with the actual scenes of events even that took place in Italy. Not only does he confuse Thermon, the capital of Aetolia, with Thermopylae (xxxiii. 35), but his accounts of the Roman campaigns against Volsci, Aequi and Samnites swarm with confusions and difficulties; nor are even his descriptions of Hannibal's movements free from an occasional vagueness which betrays the absence of an exact knowledge of localities.

The consequence of this indifference to original research and patient verification might have been less serious had the written tradition on which Livy preferred to rely been more trustworthy. But neither the materials out of which it was composed, nor the manner in which it had been put together, were such as to make it a safe guide. It was indeed represented by a long line of respectable names. The majority of the Roman annalists were men of high birth and education, with a long experience of affairs, and their defects did not arise from seclusion of life or ignorance of letters. It is rather in the conditions under which they wrote and in the rules and traditions of their craft that the causes of their shortcomings must be sought.

The Annalists.

It was not until the 6th century from the foundation of the city that historical writing began in Rome. The father of Roman history, Q. Fabius Pictor, a patrician and a senator, can scarcely have published his annals before the close of the Second Punic War, but these annals covered the whole period from the arrival of Evander in Italy down at least to the battle by Lake Trasimene (217 B.C.). Out of what materials, then, did he put together his account of the earlier history? Recent criticism has succeeded in answering this question with some degree of certainty. A careful examination of the fragments of Fabius (see H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Relliquiae_, Leipzig, 1870; and C. W. Nitzsch, _Röm. Annalistik_, Berlin, 1873) reveals in the first place a marked difference between the kingly period and that which followed the establishment of the republic. The history of the former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology. It is little more than a collection of fables told with scarcely any attempt at criticism, and with no more regard to chronological sequence than was necessary to make the tale run smoothly or to fill up such gaps as that between the flight of Aeneas from Troy and the supposed year of the foundation of Rome. But from its very commencement the history of the republic wears a different aspect. The mass of floating tradition, which had come down from early days, with its tales of border raids and forays, of valiant chiefs and deeds of patriotism, is now rudely fitted into a framework of a wholly different kind. This framework consists of short notices of important events, wars, prodigies, consecration of temples, &c., all recorded with extreme brevity, precisely dated, and couched in a somewhat archaic style. They were taken probably from one or more of the state registers, such as the annals of the pontiffs, or those kept by the aediles in the temple of Ceres. This bare official outline of the past history of his city was by Fabius filled in from the rich store of tradition that lay ready to his hand. The manner and spirit in which he effected this combination were no doubt wholly uncritical. Usually he seems to have transferred both annalistic notices and popular traditions to his pages much in the shape in which he found them. But he unquestionably gave undue prominence to the tales of the prowess and glory of the Fabii, and probably also allowed his own strong aristocratic sympathies to colour his version of the early political controversies. This fault of partiality was, according to Polybius, a conspicuous blot in Fabius's account of his own times, which was, we are told, full and in the main accurate, and, like the earlier portions, consisted of official annalistic notices, supplemented, however, not from tradition, but from his own experience and from contemporary sources. But even here Polybius charges him with favouring Rome at the expense of Carthage, and with the undue exaltation of the great head of his house, Q. Fabius Cunctator.

Nevertheless the comparative fidelity with which Fabius seems to have reproduced his materials might have made his annals the starting point of a critical history. But unfortunately intelligent criticism was exactly what they never received. It is true that in some respects a decided advance upon Fabius was made by subsequent annalists. M. Porcius Cato (234-149 B.C.) widened the scope of Roman history so as to include that of the chief Italian cities, and made the first serious attempt to settle the chronology. In his history of the Punic wars Caelius Antipater (c. 130 B.C.) added fresh material, drawn probably from the works of the Sicilian Greek Silenus, while Licinius Macer (70 B.C.) distinguished himself by the use he made of the ancient "linen books." No doubt, too, the later annalists, at any rate from Caelius Antipater onwards, improved upon Fabius in treatment and style. But in more essential points we can discern no progress. One annalist after another quietly adopted the established tradition, as it had been left by his predecessors, without any serious alterations of its main outlines. Of independent research and critical analysis we find no trace, and the general agreement upon main facts is to be attributed simply to the regularity with which each writer copied the one before him. But, had the later annalists contented themselves with simply reproducing the earlier ones, we should at least have had the old tradition before us in a simple and tolerably genuine form. As it was, while they slavishly clung to its substance, they succeeded, as a rule, in destroying all traces of its original form and colouring. L. Calpurnius Piso, tribune in 149 B.C. and consul in 133 B.C., prided himself on reducing the old legends to the level of common sense, and importing into them valuable moral lessons for his own generation. By Caelius Antipater the methods of rhetoric were first applied to history, a disastrous precedent enough. He inserted speeches, enlivened his pages with chance tales, and aimed, as Cicero tells us, at not merely narrating facts but also at beautifying them. His successors carried still farther the practice of dressing up the rather bald chronicles of earlier writers with all the ornaments of rhetoric. The old traditions were altered, almost beyond the possibility of recognition, by exaggerations, interpolations and additions. Fresh incidents were inserted, new motives suggested and speeches composed in order to infuse the required life and freshness into these dry bones of history. At the same time the political bias of the writers, and the political ideas of their day were allowed, in some cases perhaps half unconsciously, to affect their representations of past events. Annalists of the Gracchan age imported into the early struggles of patricians and plebeians the economic controversies of their own day, and painted the first tribunes in the colours of the two Gracchi or of Saturninus. In the next generation they dexterously forced the venerable records of the early republic to pronounce in favour of the ascendancy of the senate, as established by Sulla. To political bias was added family pride, for the gratification of which the archives of the great houses, the funeral panegyrics, or the imagination of the writer himself supplied an ample store of doubtful material. Pedigrees were invented, imaginary consulships and fictitious triumphs inserted, and family traditions and family honours were formally incorporated with the history of the state.

Things were not much better even where the annalists were dealing with recent or contemporary events. Here, indeed, their materials were naturally fuller and more trustworthy, and less room was left for fanciful decoration and capricious alteration of the facts. But their methods are in the main unchanged. What they found written they copied; the gaps they supplied, where personal experience failed, by imagination. No better proof of this can be given than a comparison of the annalist's version of history with that of Polybius. In the fourth and fifth decades of Livy the two appear side by side, and the contrast between them is striking. Polybius, for instance, gives the number of the slain at Cynoscephalae as 8000; the annalists raise it as high as 40,000 (Livy xxxiii. 10). In another case (xxxii. 6) Valerius Antias, the chief of sinners in this respect, inserts a decisive Roman victory over the Macedonians, in which 12,000 of the latter were slain and 2200 taken prisoner, an achievement recorded by no other authority.

Such was the written tradition on which Livy mainly relied. We have next to examine the manner in which he used it, and here we are met at the outset by the difficulty of determining with exactness what authorities he is following at any one time; for of the importance of full and accurate references he has no idea, and often for chapters together he gives us no clue at all. More often still he contents himself with such vague phrases as "they say," "the story goes," "some think," or speaks in general terms of "ancient writers" or "my authorities." Even where he mentions a writer by name, it is frequently clear that the writer named is not the one whose lead he is following at the moment, but that he is noticed incidentally as differing from Livy's guide for the time being on some point of detail (compare the references to Piso in the first decade, i. 55, ii. 32, &c.). It is very rarely that Livy explicitly tells us whom he has selected as his chief source (e.g. Fabius xxii. 7; Polybius xxxiii. 10). By a careful analysis, however, of those portions of his work which admit of a comparison with the text of his acknowledged authorities (e.g. fourth and fifth decades, see H. Nissen, _Untersuchungen_, Berlin, 1863), and elsewhere by comparing his version with the known fragments of the various annalists, and with what we are told of their style and method of treatment, we are able to form a general idea of his plan of procedure. As to the first decade, it is generally agreed that in the first and second books, at any rate, he follows such older and simpler writers as Fabius Pictor and Calpurnius Piso (the only ones whom he there refers to by name), to whom, so far as the first book is concerned, Niebuhr (_Lectures_, p. 33) would add the poet Ennius. With the close of the second book or the opening of the third we come upon the first traces of the use of later authors. Valerius Antias[3] is first quoted in iii. 5, and signs of his handiwork are visible here and there throughout the rest of the decade (vii. 36, ix. 27, x. 3-5). In the fourth book the principal authority is apparently Licinius Macer, and for the period following the sack of Rome by the Gauls Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, whose annals began at this point in the history. We have besides a single reference (vii. 3) to the antiquarian Cincius, and two (iv. 23, x. 9) to Q. Aelius Tubero, one of the last in the list of annalists. Passing to the third decade, we find ourselves at once confronted by a question which has been long and fully discussed--the relation between Livy and Polybius. Did Livy use Polybius at all, and, if so, to what extent?

Polybius.

It is conceded on all hands that Livy in this decade makes considerable use of other authorities than Polybius (e.g. Fabius xxii. 7; Caelius Antipater xxi. 38, 46, 47, xxii. 31, &c.), that he only once mentions Polybius (xxx. 45), and that, if he used him, he did so to a much less extent than in the fourth and fifth decades, and in a very different manner. It is also agreed that we can detect in Livy's account of the Hannibalic war two distinct elements, derived originally, the one from a Roman, the other from a non-Roman source. But from these generally accepted premises two opposite conclusions have been drawn. On the one hand, it is maintained (e.g. by Lachmann, C. Peter, H. Peter, _Hist. Rom. Relliq._) that those parts of Livy's narrative which point to a non-Roman authority (e.g. Hannibal's movements prior to his invasion of Italy) are taken by Livy directly from Polybius, with occasional reference of course to other writers, and with the omission (as in the later decades) of all matters uninteresting to Livy or his Roman readers, and the addition of rhetorical touches and occasional comments. It is urged that Livy, who in the fourth and fifth decades shows himself so sensible of the great merits of Polybius, is not likely to have ignored him in the third, and that his more limited use of him in the latter case is fully accounted for by the closer connexion of the history with Rome and Roman affairs, and the comparative excellence of the available Roman authorities, and, lastly, that the points of agreement with Polybius, not only in matter but in expression, can only be explained on the theory that Livy is directly following the great Greek historian. On the other hand, it is maintained (especially by Schwegler, Nitzsch, and K. Böttcher) that the extent and nature of Livy's agreement with Polybius in this part of his work point rather to the use by both of a common original authority. It is argued that Livy's mode of using his authorities is tolerably uniform, and that his mode of using Polybius in particular is known with certainty from the later decades. Consequently the theory that he used Polybius in the third decade requires us to assume that in this one instance he departed widely, and without sufficient reason, from his usual course of procedure. Moreover, even in the passages where the agreement with Polybius is most apparent, there are so many discrepancies and divergencies in detail, and so many unaccountable omissions and additions, as to render it inconceivable that he had the text of Polybius before him. But all these are made intelligible if we suppose Livy to have been here following directly or indirectly the same original sources that were used by Polybius. The earliest of these original sources was probably Silenus, with whom may possibly be placed, for books xxi. xxii., Fabius Pictor. The latter Livy certainly used directly for some parts of the decade. The former he almost as certainly knew only at second hand, the intermediate authority being probably Caelius Antipater. This writer, who confined himself to a history of the Second Punic War, in seven books, is expressly referred to by Livy eleven times in the third decade; and in other passages where his name is not mentioned Livy can be shown to have followed him (e.g. xxii. 5, 49, 50, 51, xxiv. 9). In the latter books of the decade his chief authority is possibly Valerius Antias.

In the fourth and fifth decades the question of Livy's authorities presents no great difficulties, and the conclusions arrived at by Nissen in his masterly _Untersuchungen_ have met with general acceptance. These may be shortly stated as follows. In the portions of the history which deal with Greece and the East, Livy follows Polybius, and these portions are easily distinguishable from the rest by their superior clearness, accuracy and fulness. On the other hand, for the history of Italy and western Europe he falls back on Roman annalists, especially, it seems, on Claudius Quadrigarius and Valerius Antias--a most unfortunate choice--and from them too he takes the annalistic mould into which his matter is cast.

Critical method.

Livy's general method of using these authorities was certainly not such as would be deemed satisfactory in a modern historian. He is indeed free from the grosser faults of deliberate injustice and falsification, and he resists that temptation to invent, to which "the minds of authors are only too much inclined" (xxii. 7). Nor is he unconscious of the necessity for some kind of criticism. He distinguishes between rumour and the precise statements of recognized authorities (cf. xxi. 46, v. 21, vii. 6). The latter he reproduced in the main faithfully, but with a certain exercise of discretion. Where they disagreed, he calls attention to the fact, occasionally pronouncing in favour of one version rather than another (ii. 41, xxi. 46) though often on no adequate grounds, or attempting to reconcile and explain discrepancies (vi. 12, 38). Where he detects or suspects the insertion of fabulous matter he has no scruple in saying so. Gross exaggerations, such as those in which Valerius Antias indulged, he roundly denounces, and with equal plainness of speech he condemns the family vanity which had so constantly corrupted and distorted the truth. "I suppose," he says (viii. 40), "that the record and memorial of these matters hath been depraved and corrupted by these funeral orations of praises, ... while every house and family draweth to it the honour and renown of noble exploits, martial feats and dignities by any untruth and lie, so it be colourable." The legendary character of the earliest traditions he frankly admits. "Such things as are reported either before or at the foundation of the city, more beautiful and set out with poets' fables than grounded upon pure and faithful records, I mean neither to aver nor disprove" (_Praef._); and of the whole history previous to the sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 B.C.) he writes that it was obscure "both in regard of exceeding antiquity, and also for that in those days there were very few writings and monuments, the only faithful safeguard and true remembrancers of deeds past; and, besides, whatsoever was registered in the commentaries of the priests and in other public or private records, the same for the most part, when the city was burned, perished withal." Further than this, however, Livy's criticism does not go. Where his written authorities are not palpably inconsistent with each other or with probability he accepts and transcribes their record without any further inquiry, nor does he ever attempt to get behind this record in order to discover the original evidence on which it rested. His acceptance in any particular case of the version given by an annalist by no means implies that he has by careful inquiry satisfied himself of its truth. At the most it only presupposes a comparison with other versions, equally second-hand, but either less generally accepted or less in harmony with his own views of the situation; and in many cases the reasons he gives for his preference of one account over another are eminently unscientific. Livy's history, then, rests on no foundation of original research or even of careful verification. It is a compilation, and even as such it leaves much to be desired. For we cannot credit Livy with having made such a preliminary survey of his authorities as would enable him to determine their relations to each other, and fuse their various narratives into a consistent whole. It is clear, on the contrary, that his circle of authorities for any one decade was a comparatively small one, that of these he selected one, and transcribed him with the necessary embellishments and other slight modifications until impelled by various reasons to drop him. He then, without warning, takes up another, whom he follows in the same way. The result is a curious mosaic, in which pieces of all colours and dates are found side by side, and in which even the great artistic skill displayed throughout fails to conceal the lack of internal unity. Thus many of Livy's inconsistencies are due to his having pieced together two versions, each of which gave a differently coloured account of the same event. Mommsen (_Rom. Forschungen_, ii.) has clearly shown that this is what has happened in his relation of the legal proceedings against the elder Africanus in book xxxviii.; and in the story of the first secession, as he tells it, the older version which represented it as due to political and the later which explained it by economical grievances are found side by side. Similarly a change from one authority to another leads him not unfrequently to copy from the latter statements inconsistent with those he took from the former, to forget what he has previously said, or to treat as known a fact which has not been mentioned before (cf. ii. 1, xxxiv. 6, and Weissenborn's _Introduction_, p. 37). In other cases where the same event has been placed by different annalists in different years, or where their versions of it varied, it reappears in Livy as two events. Thus the four campaigns against the Volsci (ii. 17 seq.) are, as Schwegler (_R.G._ i. 13) rightly says, simply variations of one single expedition. Other instances of such "doublettes" are the two single combats described in xxiii. 46 and xxv. 18, and the two battles at Baecula in Spain (xxvii. 18 and xxviii. 13). Without doubt, too, much of the chronological confusion observable throughout Livy is due to the fact that he follows now one now another authority, heedless of their differences on this head. Thus he vacillates between the Catonian and Varronian reckoning of the years of the city, and between the chronologies of Polybius and the Roman annalists.

To these defects in his method must be added the fact that he does not always succeed even in accurately reproducing the authority he is for the time following. In the case of Polybius, for instance, he allows himself great freedom in omitting what strikes him as irrelevant, or tedious, or uninteresting to his Roman readers, a process in which much valuable matter disappears. In other cases his desire to give a vividness and point to what he doubtless considered the rather bald and dry style of Polybius leads him into absurdities and inaccuracies. Thus by the treaty with Antiochus (188 B.C.) it was provided that the Greek communities of Asia Minor "shall settle their mutual differences by arbitration," and so far Livy correctly transcribes Polybius, but he adds with a rhetorical flourish, "or, if both parties prefer it, by war" (xxxviii. 38). Elsewhere his blunders are apparently due to haste, or ignorance or sheer carelessness; thus, for instance, when Polybius speaks of the Aetolians assembling at their capital Thermon, Livy (xxxiii. 35) not only substitutes Thermopylae but gratuitously informs his readers that here the Pylaean assemblies were held. Thanks partly to carelessness, partly to mistranslation, he makes sad havoc (xxxv. 5 seq.) of Polybius's account of the battle of Cynoscephalae. Finally, Livy cannot be altogether acquitted on the charge of having here and there modified Polybius in the interests of Rome.

Speeches.

_Style._--Serious as these defects in Livy's method appear if viewed in the light of modern criticism, it is probable that they were easily pardoned, if indeed they were ever discovered, by his contemporaries. For it was on the artistic rather than on the critical side of history that stress was almost universally laid in antiquity, and the thing that above all others was expected from the historian was not so much a scientific investigation and accurate exposition of the truth, as its skilful presentation in such a form as would charm and interest the reader. Tried by this standard, Livy deservedly won and held a place in the very first rank. Asinius Pollio sneered at his Patavinity, and the emperor Caligula denounced him as verbose, but with these exceptions the opinion of antiquity was unanimous in pronouncing him a consummate literary workman. The classical purity of his style, the eloquence of his speeches, the skill with which he depicted the play of emotion, and his masterly portraiture of great men, are all in turn warmly commended, and in our own day we question if any ancient historian is either more readable or more widely read. It is true that for us his artistic treatment of history is not without its drawbacks. The more trained historical sense of modern times is continually shocked by the obvious untruth of his colouring, especially in the earlier parts of his history, by the palpable unreality of many of the speeches, and by the naïveté with which he omits everything, however important, which he thinks will weary his readers. But in spite of all this we are forced to acknowledge that, as a master of what we may perhaps call "narrative history," he has no superior in antiquity; for, inferior as he is to Thucydides, to Polybius, and even to Tacitus in philosophic power and breadth of view, he is at least their equal in the skill with which he tells his story. He is indeed the prince of chroniclers, and in this respect not unworthy to be classed even with Herodotus (Quintilian, x. 1. 101). Nor is anything more remarkable than the way in which Livy's fine taste and sense of proportion, his true poetic feeling and genuine enthusiasm, saved him from the besetting faults of the mode of treatment which he adopted. The most superficial comparison of his account of the earliest days of Rome with that given by Dionysius shows from what depths of tediousness he was preserved by these qualities. Instead of the wearisome prolixity and the misplaced pedantry which make the latter almost unreadable, we find the old tales briefly and simply told. Their primitive beauty is not marred by any attempt to force them into an historical mould, or disguised beneath an accumulation of the insipid inventions of later times. At the same time they are not treated as mere tales for children, for Livy never forgets the dignity that belongs to them as the prelude to the great epic of Rome, and as consecrated by the faith of generations. Perhaps an even stronger proof of the skill which enabled Livy to avoid dangers which were fatal to weaker men is to be found in his speeches. We cannot indeed regard them, with the ancients, as the best part of his history, for the majority of them are obviously unhistorical, and nearly all savour somewhat too much of the rhetorical schools to be perfectly agreeable to modern taste. To appreciate them we must take them for what they are, pieces of declamation, intended either to enliven the course of the narrative, to place vividly before the reader the feelings and aims of the chief actors, or more frequently still to enforce some lesson which the author himself has at heart. The substance, no doubt, of many of them Livy took from his authorities, but their form is his own, and, in throwing into them all his own eloquence and enthusiasm, he not only acted in conformity with the established traditions of his art, but found a welcome outlet for feelings and ideas which the fall of the republic had deprived of all other means of expression. To us, therefore, they are valuable not only for their eloquence, but still more as giving us our clearest insight into Livy's own sentiments, his lofty sense of the greatness of Rome, his appreciation of Roman courage and firmness, and his reverence for the simple virtues of older times. But, freely as Livy uses this privilege of speechmaking, his correct taste keeps his rhetoric within reasonable limits. With a very few exceptions the speeches are dignified in tone, full of life and have at least a dramatic propriety, while of such incongruous and laboured absurdities as the speech which Dionysius puts into the mouth of Romulus, after the rape of the Sabine women, there are no instances in Livy.

But, if our estimate of the merits of his speeches is moderated by doubts as to his right to introduce them at all, no such scruples interfere with our admiration for the skill with which he has drawn the portraits of the great men who figure in his pages. We may indeed doubt whether in all cases they are drawn with perfect accuracy and impartiality, but of their life-like vigour and clearness there can be no question. With Livy this portrait-painting was a labour of love. "To all great men," says Seneca, "he gave their due ungrudgingly," but he is at his best in dealing with those who, like Q. Fabius Maximus, "the Delayer," were in his eyes the most perfect types of the true Roman.

The general effect of Livy's narrative is no doubt a little spoilt by the awkward arrangement, adopted from his authorities, which obliges him to group the events by years, and thus to disturb their natural relations and continuity. As the result his history has the appearance of being rather a series of brilliant pictures loosely strung together than a coherent narrative. But it is impossible not to admire the copious variety of thought and language, and the evenly flowing style which carried him safely through the dreariest periods of his history; and still more remarkable is the dramatic power he displays when some great crisis or thrilling episode stirs his blood, such as the sack of Rome by the Gauls, the battle by the Metaurus and the death of Hasdrubal.

In style and language Livy represents the best period of Latin prose writing. He has passed far beyond the bald and meagre diction of the early chroniclers. In his hands Latin acquired a flexibility and a richness of vocabulary unknown to it before. If he writes with less finish and a less perfect rhythm than his favourite model Cicero, he excels him in the varied structure of his periods, and their adaptation to the subject-matter. It is true that here and there the "creamy richness" of his style becomes verbosity, and that he occasionally draws too freely on his inexhaustible store of epithets, metaphors and turns of speech; but these faults, which did not escape the censure even of friendly critics like Quintilian, are comparatively rare in the extant parts of his work. From the tendency to use a poetic diction in prose, which was so conspicuous a fault in the writers of the silver age, Livy is not wholly free. In his earlier books especially there are numerous phrases and sentences which have an unmistakably poetic ring, recalling sometimes Ennius and more often his contemporary Virgil. But in Livy this poetic element is kept within bounds, and serves only to give warmth and vividness to the narrative. Similarly, though the influence of rhetoric upon his language, as well as upon his general treatment, is clearly perceptible, he has not the perverted love of antithesis, paradox and laboured word-painting which offends us in Tacitus; and, in spite of the Venetian richness of his colouring, and the copious flow of his words, he is on the whole wonderfully natural and simple.

These merits, not less than the high tone and easy grace of his narrative and the eloquence of his speeches, gave Livy a hold on Roman readers such as only Cicero and Virgil besides him ever obtained. His history formed the groundwork of nearly all that was afterwards written on the subject. Plutarch, writers on rhetoric like the elder Seneca, moralists like Valerius Maximus, went to Livy for their stock examples. Florus and Eutropius abridged him; Orosius extracted from him his proofs of the sinful blindness of the pagan world; and in every school Livy was firmly established as a text-book for the Roman youth.

_Text._--The received text of the extant thirty-five books of Livy is taken from different sources, and no one of our MSS. contains them all. The MSS. of the first decade, some thirty in number, are with one exception derived, more or less directly, from a single archetype, viz., the recension made in the 4th century by the two Nicomachi, Flavianus and Dexter, and by Victorianus. This is proved in the case of the older MSS. by written subscriptions to that effect, and in the case of the rest by internal evidence. Of all these descendants of the Nicomachean recension, the oldest is the Codex Parisinus of the 10th century, and the best the Codex Mediceus or Florentinus of the 11th. An independent value attaches to the ancient palimpsest of Verona, of which the first complete account was given by Mommsen in _Abhandl. der preussischen Akad. der Wissenschaften_ (1868). It contains the third, fourth, fifth and fragments of the sixth book, and, according to Mommsen, whose conclusions are accepted by Madvig (_Emend. Livianae_, 2nd ed., 1877, p. 37), it is derived, not from the Nicomachean recension, but from an older archetype common to both.

For the third decade our chief authority is the Codex Puteanus, an uncial MS. of the 5th century, now at Paris. For the fourth we have two leading MSS.--Codex Bambergensis, 11th century, and the slightly older Codex Moguntinus, now lost and only known through the Mainz edition of 1518-1519. What remains of the fifth decade depends on the 5th century Laurishamensis or Vindobonensis from the monastery of Lorsch, edited at Basel in 1531.

A bibliography of the various editions of Livy, or of all that has been written upon him, cannot be attempted here. The following may be consulted for purposes of reference; W. Engelmann, _Scriptores Latini_ (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1882); J. E. B. Mayor, _Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature_ (1875); Teuffel-Schwabe, _History of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans.), 256, 257; M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_. ii. 1 (2nd ed., 1899). The best editions of the complete text are those of W. Weissenborn (1858-1862, containing an introductory essay on Livy's life and writings; new edition by M. Müller, 1902), and J. N. Madvig and J. L. Ussing (1863-1873). The only English translation of any merit is by Philemon Holland (1600). (H. F. P.; X.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For the fragments of an epitome discovered at Oxyrhynchus see J. S. Reid in _Classical Review_ (July, 1904); E. Kornemann, _Die neue Livius-Epitome aus Oxyrhynchus_, with text and commentary (Leipzig, 1904); C. H. Moore, "The Oxyrhynchus Epitome of Livy in relation to Obsequens and Cassiodorus," in _American Journal of Philology_ (1904), 241.

[2] The various rumours once current of complete copies of Livy in Constantinople, Chios and elsewhere, are noticed by B. G. Niebuhr, _Lectures on the History of Rome from the first Punic War_ (ed. L. Schmitz, 1844), i. 65.

[3] For Livy's debt to Valerius Antias, see A. A. Howard in _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, xvii. (1906), pp. 161 sqq.

LIZARD (Lat. _lacerta_[1]), a name originally referred only to the small European species of four-legged reptiles, but now applied to a whole order (_Lacertilia_), which is represented by numerous species in all temperate and tropical regions. Lizards are reptiles which have a transverse external anal opening (instead of a longitudinal slit as in Crocodilians and tortoises) and which have the right and left halves of the mandibles connected by a sutural symphysis. The majority are distinguished from snakes by the possession of two pairs of limbs, of external ear-openings and movable eyelids, but since in not a few of the burrowing, snake-shaped lizards these characters give way entirely, it is well-nigh impossible to find a diagnosis which should be absolutely sufficient for the distinction between lizards and snakes. In such doubtful cases a number of characters have to be resorted to, and, while each of these may fail when taken singly, their combination decides the question. It is certain that the snakes have been evolved as a specialized branch from some Lacertilian stock, and that both "orders" are intimately related, but it is significant that it is only through the degraded members of the lizards that recent representatives of the two great groups seem to run into each other. Such critical characters are:--

Lizards. Snakes.

Limbs 2 pairs, 1 or 0. 0 or vestigial hind-limbs.

Ear-opening Usually present. Always absent.

Eyelids Mostly movable. No movable lids.

Tongue Often not retractile. Always bifid and retractile into itself.

Teeth Pleuro- or acrodont, Acrodont, anchylosed. not anchylosed.

Mandibles Mostly firmly united Never with suture, suturally. mostly ligamentous.

Columella cranii Mostly present. Absent. Mostly with bony arches across the temporal No bony arches. region. Osteoderms common. No bony arches. No osteoderms.

The lizards and snakes are the two dominant reptilian orders which are still on the increase in species, though certainly not in size. As a moderate estimate, the number of recent species of lizards is about 1700. As a group they are cosmopolitan, their northern limit approaching that of the permanently frozen subsoil, while in the southern hemisphere the southern point of Patagonia forms the farthest limit. As we approach the tropics, the variety of forms and the number of individuals increase, the most specialized and developed forms, and also the most degraded, being found in the tropics. In the temperate regions they hibernate. The majority live on broken ground, with or without much vegetation; many are arboreal and many are true desert animals, while a few are more or less aquatic; one, the leguan of the Galapagos, _Amblyrhynchus_, even enters the sea. Some, like the majority of the geckos, are nocturnal. In adaptation to these varied surroundings they exhibit great variety in shape, size and structure. Most of these modifications are restricted to the skin, limbs, tail or tongue. Most lizards live on animal food, varying from tiny insects and worms to lizards, snakes, birds and mammals, while others prefer a mixed or an entirely vegetable diet. Accordingly, the teeth and the whole digestive tract are modified. But swiftness, the apparatus necessary for climbing, running and digging, the mechanism of the tongue, the muscles of the jaws (hence modifications of the cranial arches) stand also in correlation with the kind of food and with the way in which it has to be procured. Generally the teeth are conical or pointed, more rarely blunt, grooved or serrated. They are inserted either on the inner side of the margin of the jaws (_pleurodonta_) or on the edge of the bones (_acrodonta_). The tongue is generally beset with more or less scaly or velvety papillae and has always a well-marked posterior margin, while the anterior portion may or may not be more or less retractile into the posterior part.

In many lizards the muscles of the segments of the tail are so loosely connected and the vertebrae are so weak that the tail easily breaks off. The severed part retains its muscular irritability for a short time, wriggling as if it were a living creature. A lizard thus mutilated does not seem to be much affected, and the lost part is slowly reproduced. This faculty is of advantage to those lizards which lack other means of escape when pursued by some other animal, which is satisfied with capturing the detached member.

The motions of most lizards are executed with great but not enduring rapidity. With the exception of the chameleon, all drag their body over the ground, the limbs being wide apart, turned outwards and relatively to the bulk of the body generally weak. But the limbs show with regard to development great variation, and an uninterrupted transition from the most perfect condition of two pairs with five separate clawed toes to their total disappearance; yet even limbless lizards retain bony vestiges beneath the skin. The motions of these limbless lizards are similar to those of snakes, which they resemble in their elongate body.

The eggs are elliptical in shape, both poles being equal, and are covered with a shell which may be thin and leathery or hard and calcareous. The number of eggs laid is small in comparison with other reptiles, rarely exceeding a score, and some like the anolids and the geckos deposit only one or two. The parents leave the eggs to hatch where they are deposited, in sand or in mould. Many lizards, however, retain the eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is fully developed; these species then bring forth living young and are called ovo-viviparous by purists. Some lizards possess a considerable amount of intelligence; they play with each other, become very tame, and act deliberately according to circumstances. As a rule the Iguanids and Varans are as bright as the Agamas are dull. Many have the power of changing colour, a faculty which they share only with various frogs, toads and fishes. Lizards are not poisonous, with the single exception of _Heloderma_.

The Lacertilia, or lizards in the wider sense, fall easily into three natural groups: geckos (q.v.), chameleons (q.v.) and lizards.

I. Suborder, GECKONES. Pleurodont lizards with well-developed limbs; without temporal bony arches; postthoracic ribs united across the abdomen. Tongue, thick and broad, slightly nicked anteriorly. With few exceptions they have amphicoelous vertebrae, the parietal bones remain separate and they have no eyelids, with very few exceptions.

1. Family, _Geckonidae._--Amphicoelous; parietals separate; clavicles dilated and with a perforation near the ventral end. Cosmopolitan, although mainly tropical, with about 270 species (see GECKO).

Nearly all geckos are nocturnal and the pupil contracts into a vertical slit, except in a few diurnal kinds, e.g. _Phelsuma_ of islands in the Indian Ocean, and _Lygodactylus_ of Africa. _Aelurosaurus_ of Borneo and Australia, and _Ptenopus_ of South Africa, have upper and lower movable eyelids. Whilst the skin is mostly soft on the back, with little granular tubercles, scales (except on the belly) are absent, but they are present in _Homopholis_, in _Geckolepis_ of Madagascar, and most fully developed in _Teratoscincus scincus_. This peculiar little inhabitant of the steppes and desert regions of Turkestan and Persia, by rubbing the imbricating scales upon each other, produces a shrill cricket-like noise, whilst sitting at night in front of its hole in the ground. Furthermore it is so thoroughly adapted to running upon the desert sand that its digits are devoid of adhesive lamellae. The same beautiful adaptation to the surroundings exists also in _Ptenopus_ (with fringed toes) and _Stenodactylus_, which are likewise deserticolous. _Aeluronyx_ of Madagascar and Seychelles has cat-like retractile claws. _Naultinus elegans_ of New Zealand is said to be viviparous; the others lay but one rather large egg at a time. Many species have a feeble voice which resembles a repeated click of the tongue, and their name "gecko" is supposed to be an Indian imitation of the sound.

2. Family, _Uroplatidae._--Amphicoelous; parietals separate; but the nasal bones are fused together, and the clavicles are not dilated. Genus _Uroplates_, with a few species, e.g. _U. fimbriatus_ in Madagascar.

3. Family, _Eublepharidae._--Procoelous; parietals united; eyelids functional; clavicles expanded as in the true geckos which they resemble in other respects. The few genera and species are undoubtedly a heterogeneous assembly, as indicated by their very scattered distribution, but they all agree in their decidedly handsome colour pattern, bands of dark brown to maroon upon a light ground. _Eublepharis_, with one species each in Panama, Mexico, Texas and California; two in India. _Coleonyx elegans_ in forests of Central America and Mexico. _Psilodactylus_ in West Africa.

II. Suborder, CHAMAELEONTES. Acrodont, Old World lizards, with laterally compressed body, prehensile tail and well developed limbs with the digits arranged in opposing, grasping bundles of two and three respectively. The chameleons (q.v.) have many structural peculiarities.

III. Suborder, LACERTAE. Procoelous vertebrae; ventral portions of the clavicles not dilated; parietal bones fused into one.

The general appearance is too misleading for the classification of the Lacertae. E. D. Cope (_Proc. Ac. Philad._, 1864, pp. 224 et seq. and _Proc. Amer. Ass._ xix., 1871, p. 236, &c.) therefore relied upon more fundamental characters, notably the presence or absence of osteoderms, the formation of the skull, the teeth and the tongue. G. A. Boulenger (_Ann. Nat. Hist._ 5, xiv., 1884, p. 117, &c.) has further improved upon the then prevailing arrangements, and has elaborated a classification which, used by himself in the three volumes of the catalogue of lizards in the British Museum, is followed in the present article with slight alterations in the order of treatment of the families. In the following diagnoses of the families preference is given to such characters as are most easily ascertained.

The 17 "families" fall into 4 or 5 main groups. Presumably the presence of osteoderms and of complete cranial arches are more archaic than their absence, just as we conclude that limbless forms have been evolved from various groups possessed of fully developed limbs. _Zonuridae_ and _Anguidae_ assume a central position, with _Agamidae_ and _Iguanidae_ as two parallel families (not very different from each other) of highest development, one in the Old World, the other in America. _Xenosaurus_ seems to be an offshoot intermediate between the _Iguanidae_ and the _Anguidae_; a degraded form of latter is perhaps _Aniella_ of California, whilst _Heloderma_ and _Lanthanotus_ are also specialized and isolated offshoots. A second group is formed by the few American _Xantusiidae_, the numerous American _Tejidae_, and the burrowing, degraded American and African _Amphisbaenidae_. A third group comprises the cosmopolitan _Scincidae_, the African and Malagasy _Gerrhosauridae_ which in various features remind us of the _Anguidae_, and the African and Eurasian _Lacertidae_ which are the highest members of this group. _Anelytropidae_ and perhaps also _Dibamidae_ may be degraded Scincoids. The _Varanidae_ stand quite alone, in many respects the highest of all lizards, with some, quite superficial, Crocodilian resemblances. Lastly there are the few _Pygopodidae_ of the Australian region, with still quite obscure relationship.

Family 1. _Agamidae._--Acrodont; tongue broad and thick, not protractile; no osteoderms. Old World.

The agamas have always two pairs of well-developed limbs. The teeth are usually differentiated into incisors, canines and molars. The skin is devoid of ossifications, but large and numerous cutaneous spines are often present, especially on the head and on the tail. The family, comprising some 200 species, with about 30 genera, shows great diversity of form; the terrestrial members are mostly flat-bodied, the arboreal more laterally compressed and often with a very long tail. Most of them are insectivorous, but a few are almost entirely vegetable feeders. They are an exclusively Old World family; they are most numerous in Australia (except New Zealand) and the Indian and Malay countries; comparatively few live in Africa (none in Madagascar) and in the countries from Asia Minor to India.

The majority of the ground-agamas, and the most common species of the plains, deserts or rocky districts of Africa and Asia, belong to the genera _Stellio_ and _Agama_. Their scales are mixed with larger prominent spines, which in some species are particularly developed on the tail, and disposed in whorls. Nearly all travellers in the north of Africa mention the _Hardhón_ of the Arabs (_Agama stellio_), which is extremely common, and has drawn upon itself the hatred of the Mahommedans by its habit of nodding its head, which they interpret as a mockery of their own movements whilst engaged in prayer. In some of the Grecian islands they are still called _korkordilos_, just as they were in the time of Herodotus. _Uromastix_ is one of the largest of ground-agamas, and likewise found in Africa and Asia. The body is uniformly covered with granular scales, whilst the short, strong tail is armed with powerful spines disposed in whorls. The Indian species (_U. hardwicki_) is mainly herbivorous; the African _U. acanthinurus_ and _U. spinipes_, the Dab of the Arabs, take mixed food. _Phrynocephalus_ is typical of the steppes and deserts of Asia. _Ceratophora_ and _Lyriocephalus_ scutatus, the latter remarkable for its chameleon-like appearance, are Ceylonese. _Calotes_, peculiar to Indian countries, comprises many species, e.g. _C. ophiomachus_, generally known as the "bloodsucker" on account of the red colour on the head and neck displayed during excitement. _Draco_ (see DRAGON) is Indo-Malayan. _Physignathus_ is known from Australia to Cochin China.

Of the Australian agamas no other genus is so numerously represented and widely distributed as _Grammatophora_, the species of which grow to a length of from 8 to 18 in. Their scales are generally rough and spinous; but otherwise they possess no strikingly distinguishing peculiarity, unless the loose skin of their throat, which is transversely folded and capable of inflation, be regarded as such. On the other hand, two other Australian agamoids have attained some celebrity by their grotesque appearance, due to the extraordinary development of their integuments. One (fig. 1) is the frilled lizard (_Chlamydosaurus kingi_), which is restricted to Queensland and the north coast, and grows to a length of 3 ft., including the long tapering tail. It is provided with a frill-like fold of the skin round the neck, which, when erected, resembles a broad collar. This lizard when startled rises with the fore-legs off the ground and squats and runs on its hind-legs. The other lizard is one which most appropriately has been called _Moloch horridus_. It is covered with large and small spine-bearing tubercules; the head is small and the tail short. It is sluggish in its movements, and so harmless that its armature and (to a casual observer) repulsive appearance are its sole means of defence. It grows only to a length of 10 in., and is not uncommon in the flats of South and West Australia.

Family 2. _Iguanidae._--Pleurodont; tongue broad and thick, not protractile; no osteoderms. America, Madagascar and Fiji Islands.

According to the very varied habits, their external appearance varies within wide limits, there being amongst the 300 species, with 50 genera, arboreal, terrestrial, burrowing and semi-aquatic forms, and even one semi-marine kind. All have well-developed limbs. In their general structure the _Iguanidae_ closely resemble the _Agamidae_, from which they differ mainly by the pleurodont dentition. Most of them are insectivorous. Some, especially _Anolis_ and _Polychrus_, can change colour to a remarkable extent. The family ranges all through the neotropical region, inclusive of the Galapagos and the Antilles, into the southern and western states of North America. Remarkable cases of discontinuous distribution are _Chalarodon_ and _Hoplodon_ in Madagascar, and _Brachylophus fasciatus_ in the Fiji Islands. _Conolophus subcristatus_ and _Amblyrhynchus cristatus_ inhabit the Galapagos; the former feeds upon cactus and leaves, the latter is semi-marine, diving for the algae which grow below tide-marks. For _Basiliscus_ see BASILISK; IGUANA is dealt with under its own heading; allied is _Metopoceros cornutus_ of Hayti. _Polychrus_, the "chameleon," and _Liolaemus_ are South American; _Ctenosaura_ of Central America and Mexico resembles the agamoid _Uromastix_. _Corythophanes_ and _Laemanctus_, with only a few species, are rare inhabitants of the tropical forests of Central America and Mexico. _Sauromalus_, _Crotaphytus_, _Callisaurus_, _Holbrookia_, _Uma_, _Uta_ are typical Sonoran genera, some ranging from Oregon through Mexico. Allied is _Sceloporus_, with about 34 species, the most characteristic genus of Mexican lizards; only 4 species live in the United States, and only 3 or 4 are found south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and are restricted to Central America. The majority are humivagous, while others are truly arboreal, e.g. _S. microlepidotus_, a species which, moreover, has the greatest possible altitudinal range, from the hot country of southern Oaxaca to the upper tree-line of Citlaltepetl, about 13,500 ft. elevation; many species are viviparous. _Phrynosoma_, with about a dozen species, the "horned toads" of California to Texas, and through Mexico. Some of these comical-looking little creatures are viviparous, others deposit their eggs in the ground. They are well concealed by the colour of their upper parts, which in most cases agrees with the prevailing tone of their surroundings, mostly arid, stony or sandy localities; the large spikes on the head protect them from being swallowed by snakes. The enlarged spiny scales scattered over the back look as if it were sprinkled with the dried husks of seeds. They are entirely insectivorous, bask on the broiling hot sand and then can run fast enough; otherwise they are sluggish, dig themselves into the sand by a peculiar shuffling motion of the fringed edges of their flattened bodies, and when surprised they feign death. The statement, persistently repeated (O. P. Hay, _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus._ xv., 1892, pp. 375-378), that some, e.g. _P. blainvillei_ of California, have the power of squirting a blood-red fluid from the corner of the eye, still requires renewed investigation.

The smallest lizards of this family belong to the genus _Anolis_, extremely numerous as regards species (more than 100) and individuals on bushes and trees of tropical America, and especially of the West Indies. They offer many points of analogy to the humming birds in their distribution, colours and even disposition. Hundreds may be seen on a bright day, disporting themselves on trees and fences, and entering houses. Like the iguanas, they (at least the males) are provided with a large, expansible dewlap at the throat, which is brilliantly coloured, and which they display on the slightest provocation. This appendage is merely a fold of the skin, ornamental and sexual; it has no cavity in its interior, and has no communication with the mouth or with the respiratory organs; it is supported by the posterior horns of the hyoid bone, and can be erected and spread at the will of the animal. The presence of such dewlaps in lizards is always a sign of an excitable temper. Many, e.g. _A. carolinensis_, the "chameleon," can change colour to an extraordinary degree. They are much fed upon by birds and snakes, and have a fragile tail, easily reproduced. They bring forth only one large egg at a time, but probably breed several times during the season.

Family 3. _Xenosauridae._--Pleurodont; solid teeth; anterior part of tongue slightly emarginate and retractile, and covered with flat papillae; no osteoderms. Mexico.

The only representative of this family is _Xenosaurus grandis_, recorded from the mountains of Orizaba, Cordoba and Oaxaca. The four-footed creature is less than 1 ft. in length; the body is depressed, covered above with minute granules and tubercles; a distinct fold of skin extends from the axilla to the groin, reminding of the similar fold of some _Anguidae_, to which this singular genus seems to be allied.

Family 4. _Anguidae._--Pleurodont; teeth solid, sometimes (_Ophiosaurus_) grooved; anterior part of tongue emarginate and retractile into the posterior portion; osteoderms on the body, and especially on the head where they are roofing over the temporal fossa; entirely zoophagous and ovo-viviparous. America, Europe and India.

_Gerrhonotus_, 8 species, in mountainous countries, from British Columbia to Costa Rica; like _Diploglossus s. Celestus_ of Mexico, the Antilles and Central America, with well-developed limbs, but with a lateral fold. _Anguis fragilis_ and two species of _Ophiosaurus_ are the only members of this family which are not American, and even the third species of _Ophiosaurus_, _O. ventralis_, lives in the United States. _Ophiosaurus s. Pseudopus_, the glass-snake, from Morocco and the Balkan peninsula to Burma and Fokien; also in the U.S.A., with the limbs reduced to a pair of tiny spikes near the vent, and a lateral fold along the snake-like body. _Anguis_, with its sole species fragilis, the slow-worm or blind-worm, is devoid of a lateral fold, and the limbs are entirely absent. Europe, Algeria and western Asia.

Family 5. _Helodermatidae_, with _Heloderma_ of Arizona and Mexico, and _Lanthanotus_ of Borneo.--The teeth of _Heloderma_ are recurved, with slightly swollen bases, loosely attached to the inner edge of the jaws; each tooth is grooved, and those of the lower jaw are in close vicinity of the series of labial glands which secrete a poison; the only instance among lizards.[2] Limbs well developed. Tongue resembling that of the _Anguidae_. The skin of the upper surface is granular, with many irregular bony tubercles which give it an ugly warty look. _H. horridum_ in Mexico, and _H. suspectum_, the gila monster, in the hot and sandy lowlands of the Gila basin. The animal, which reaches a length of more than 2 ft., is blackish-brown and yellow or orange, and on the thick tail these "warning colours" are arranged in alternate rings. Small animals are probably paralyzed or killed by the bite, the poison being effective enough to produce severe symptoms even in man. The Zapotecs, who call the creature Talachini, and other tribes of Mexico have endowed it with fabulous properties and fear it more than the most poisonous snakes. _Lanthanotus corneensis_, of which only a few specimens are known, is apparently closely allied to _Heloderma_, although the teeth are not grooved, osteoderms are absent and probably also the poison glands.

Family 6. _Aniellidae._--One genus, _Aniella_, with a few worm- or snake-shaped species in California, which seem to be degraded forms of _Anguidae_. The eyes and ears are concealed, the limbs are entirely absent, body and tail covered with soft, imbricating scales. The tongue is villose, smooth, bifid anteriorly. The few teeth are recurved, with swollen bases. The skull is much reduced. Total length of _A. pulchra_ up to 8 in.

Family 7. _Zonuridae._--Pleurodont; tongue short, villose, scarcely protractile, feebly nicked at the tip. With osteoderms at least upon the skull, where they roof in the temporal region. Africa and Madagascar.

Only 4 genera, with about 15 species. _Zonurus_ of South Africa and Madagascar has the whole head, neck, back and tail covered with strong bony scales, the horny covering of which forms sharp spikes, especially on the tail. They defend themselves by jerking head and tail sidewards. _Z. giganteus_ reaches 15 in. in length, and is, like the other members of the family, zoophagous. The other genera live in southern and in tropical Africa: _Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_ and _Chamaesaura_; the latter closely approaches the _Anguidae_ by its snake-shaped body, very long tail and much reduced limbs, which in _C. macrolepis_ are altogether absent.

Family 8. _Xantusiidae._--Pleurodont; tongue very short and scaly; no osteoderms; supratemporal fossa roofed over by the cranial bones; eyes devoid of movable lids; tympanum exposed; femoral pores present; limbs and tail well developed. American.

_Xantusia_ (so named after Xantus, a Hungarian collector), e.g. _X. vigilis_ and a few other species from the desert tracts of Nevada and California to Lower California. _Lepidophyma flavomaculatum_, Central America; and _Cricosaura typica_ in Cuba.

Family 9. _Tejidae._--Teeth solid, almost acrodont; tongue long and narrow, deeply bifid, beset with papillae; no osteoderms; scales of the back very small or quite granular; limbs sometimes reduced. America.

This large, typically American family comprises more than 100 species which have been arranged in many genera. Some are entirely arboreal, dwellers in forests, while others, like _Cnemidophorus_ and _Ameiva_, are strictly terrestrial, with great running powers; a few dwell below the surface and are transformed into almost limbless worm-shaped creatures. The family is essentially neotropical. Of its several dozen genera only two extend through and beyond Central America: _Ameiva_ into the eastern and western Hot-lands of Mexico, _Cnemidophorus_ (monographed by H. Gadow, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1906, pp. 277-375) through Mexico into the United States, where _C. sexlineatus_, the "swift," has spread over most of the Union. _Tupinambis teguixin_, the "teju" of South America and the West Indies, is the largest member of the family; it reaches a length of a yard, most of which, however, belongs to the strong, whip-like tail. _Teguixin_ is taken from the Aztec _teco-ixin_, i.e. rock-lizard, the vernacular name of _Sceloporus torquatus_ which is one of the _Iguanidae_ misspelt and misapplied. The tejus frequent forests and plantations and are carnivorous, eating anything they can overpower. They in turn are much hunted for the sake of their delicate flesh. They defend themselves not only with their powerful jaws and sharp claws, but also with lashing strokes of the long tail. They also use this whip for killing snakes which they are said to eat. Their long-oval, hard-shelled eggs are deposited in the ground. They retire into self-dug burrows. _Cophias_ and _Scolecosaurus_ have very much reduced limbs. In the genus _Tejus_ the teeth of the adult become molar-like; and in _Dracaena_ they are transformed into large, oval crushers, indicating strictly herbivorous habits, while most members of the family live upon animal food.

Family 10. _Amphisbaenidae._--The body is covered with soft skin, forming numerous rings with mere vestiges of scales. Worm-shaped, without limbs, except _Chirotes_ which has short, clawed fore-limbs. Eyes and ears concealed. Tongue slightly elongated, covered with scale-like papillae and bifurcating. Tail extremely short. Acrodont or pleurodont. America, Mediterranean countries, and Africa with the exception of Madagascar.

_Chirotes canaliculatus_, and two other species; Pacific side of Mexico and Lower California. With five, four or three claws on the stout little digging fore-limbs. These pink, worm-like creatures live in sandy, moist localities, burrowing little tunnels and never appearing on the surface. _Amphisbaena_ (q.v.). _Rhinëura_ of Florida, and also known from the Oligocene of South Dakota; _Lepidosternum_ of South America; and _Anops_ in America and Africa; _Blanus cinereus_, Mediterranean countries. _Trogonophis_, _Pachycalamus_ and _Agamodon_ of Africa are all acrodont; the other genera are pleurodont. In all about a dozen genera, with some 60, mostly tropical species.

Family 11. _Scincidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue scaly, feebly nicked in front. Osteoderms on the head and body. Limbs often reduced. Cosmopolitan. The temporal region is covered over, as in the _Lacertidae_ and _Anguidae_, with strongly developed dermal ossifications. Similar osteoderms underlie the scales of the body and tail. Femoral pores are absent.

All the skinks seem to be viviparous, and they prefer dry, sandy ground, in which they burrow and move quickly about in search of their animal food. This partly subterranean life is correlated with the frequent reduction of the limbs which, in closely allied forms, show every stage from fully developed, five-clawed limbs to complete absence. Some have functional fore-limbs but mere vestiges of hind-limbs; in others this condition is reversed. In some deserticolous kinds e.g. _Ablepharus_, the lower eyelid is transformed into a transparent cover which is fused with the rim of the reduced upper lid. The same applies to the limbless little _Ophiopsiseps nasutus_ of Australia. This large family contains about 400 species, with numerous genera; the greatest diversity in numbers and forms occurs in the tropical parts of the Old World, especially in the Australian region, inclusive of many of the Pacific islands. New Zealand has at least 6 species of _Lygosoma_. America, notably South America, has comparatively very few skinks.

The skink, which has given the name to the whole family, is a small lizard (_Scincus officinalis_) of 6 or 8 in. in length, common in arid districts of North Africa and Syria. A peculiarly wedge-shaped snout, and toes provided with strong fringes, enable this animal to burrow rapidly in and under the sand of the desert. In former times large quantities of it were imported in a dry state into Europe for officinal purposes, the drug having the reputation of being efficacious in diseases of the skin and lungs; and even now it may be found in apothecaries' shops in the south of Europe, country people regarding it as a powerful aphrodisiac for cattle.

_Mabouia_, with many species, in the whole of Africa, southern Asia and in tropical America. _M. (Euprepes) vittata_, the "poisson de sable" of Algeria, is semi-aquatic. _Chalcides s. Seps_, of the Mediterranean countries and south-western Asia, has a transparent disk on the lower eyelid which is movable; limbs very short or reduced to mere vestiges. _Lygosoma_ circumtropical; _Eumeces_, also with many small species, in America, Africa and Asia. _Cyclodus s. Tiliqua_ of Australia, Tasmania and Malay Islands, has stout lateral teeth with rounded-off crowns; _C. gigas_ of the Moluccas and of New Guinea is the largest member of the family, reaching a length of nearly 2 ft.; the limbs are well developed, as in _Trachysaurus rugosus_ of Australia, which is easily recognized by the large and rough scales and the short, broad, stump-like tail.

Family 12. _Anelytropidae._--An artificial assembly of a few degraded Scincoids. The worm-shaped body is devoid of osteoderms. The tongue is short, covered with imbricating papillae and slightly nicked anteriorly. Teeth pleurodont. _Anelytropsis papillosus_, of which only three specimens are known, from the humus of forests in the state of Vera Cruz. Eyes concealed. _Typhlosaurus_ and _Feylinia_ in tropical Africa and Madagascar.

Family 13. _Dibamidae._--_Dibamus novae-Guineae_ of New Guinea, the Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands. Tongue arrow-shaped, covered with curved papillae. The vermiform body is covered with cycloid imbricating scales, devoid of osteoderms. Limbs and even their arches are absent, excepting a pair of flaps which represent the hind-limbs in the males.

Family 14. _Gerrhosauridae._--Pleurodont. Tongue long, with papillae, like that of the _Lacertidae_ but only feebly nicked anteriorly. Osteoderms on the head and body, roofing over the temporal region. Femoral pores present, also mostly a lateral fold. Limbs sometimes reduced to small stumps. Tail long and brittle. The few genera and species of this family are restricted to Africa, south of the Sahara and Madagascar.

_Gerrhosaurus_, with lateral fold and complete limbs; _Tetradactylus_ also with a fold, but with very variable limbs; _Condylosaurus_; all in Africa. _Zonosaurus_ and _Tracheloptychus_ in Madagascar.

Family 15. _Lacertidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue long and bifid, with papillae or folds, with osteoderms on the head but not on the body. Limbs always well developed. Palaearctic and palaeotropical with the exception of Madagascar; not in the Australian region.

The _Lacertidae_ or true lizards comprise about 20 genera, with some 100 species, most abundant in Africa; their northern limit coincides fairly with that of the permanently frozen subsoil. They all are terrestrial and zoophagous. The long, pointed tail is brittle.

Most of the European lizards with four well developed limbs belong to the genus _Lacerta_. Only three species occur in Great Britain (see fig. 2). The common lizard (_Lacerta vivipara_) frequents heaths and banks in England and Scotland, and is locally met with also in Ireland; it is viviparous. Much scarcer is the second species, the sand-lizard (_Lacerta agilis_), which is confined to some localities in the south of England, the New Forest and its vicinity; it does not appear to attain on English soil the same size as on the continent of Europe where it abounds, growing sometimes to a length of 9 in. Singularly, a snake (_Coronella laevis_), also common on the continent, and feeding principally on this lizard, has followed it across the British Channel, apparently existing in those localities only in which the sand-lizard has settled. This lizard is oviparous. The males differ by their brighter green ground colour from the females, which are brown, spotted with black. The third British species, the green lizard (_Lacerta viridis_), does not occur in England proper; it has found a congenial home in the island of Guernsey, but is there much less developed as regards size and beauty than on the continent. This species is larger than the two preceding; it is green, with minute blackish spots. In Germany and France one other species only (_Lacerta muralis_) appears; but in the south of Europe the species of _Lacerta_ are much more numerous, the largest and finest, being _L. ocellata_, which grows to a length of 18 or 20 in., and is brilliantly green, ornamented with blue eye-like spots on the sides. Even the small island-rocks of the Mediterranean, sometimes only a few hundred yards in diameter, are occupied by peculiar races of lizards, which have attracted much attention from the fact that they have assumed under such isolated conditions a more or less dark, almost black, coloration. _L. muralis_, with its numerous varieties, has been monographed by G. A. Boulenger, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xvii. (1905), pp. 351-422, pl. 22-29.

Other genera are _Psammodromus_ and _Acanthodactylus_ in south-western Europe and northern Africa. _Cabrita_ in India, with transparent lower eyelids. _Ophiops_, likewise with transparent but united lids, from North Africa to India.

Family 16. _Varanidae._--Pleurodont. Tongue very long, smooth and bifid. Osteoderms absent. Limbs always well developed. Old World.

This family contains only one genus, _Varanus_, with nearly 30 species, in Africa, Arabia and southern Asia, and Australia, but not in Madagascar. The generic term is derived from the Arabic _Ouaran_, which means lizard. Owing to a ridiculous muddle, this Arabic word has been taken to mean "warning" lizard, hence the Latin _Monitor_, one of the many synonyms of this genus, now often used as the vernacular. Many of the "monitors" are semi-aquatic, e.g. _V. niloticus_, and these have a laterally compressed tail; others inhabit dry sandy districts, e.g. _V. scincus_, the _ouaran el ard_ of North Africa; others prefer wooded localities. _V. salvator_ is the largest species, reaching a length of 7 ft.; it ranges from Nepal and southern China to Cape York; a smaller species, common in New Guinea and Australia, is _V. gouldi_. They all are predaceous, powerful creatures, with a partiality for eggs. Their own eggs are laid in hollow trees, or buried in the sand. The young are prettily spotted with white and black ocelli, but the coloration of the adult is mostly very plain.

The following families are much degraded in conformity with their, in most cases, subterranean life. They are of doubtful relationships and contain each but a few species.

Family 17. _Pygopodidae._--Pleurodont, snake-shaped, covered with roundish, imbricating scales. Tail long and brittle. Fore-limbs absent; hind-limbs transformed into a pair of scale-covered flaps. Tongue slightly forked. Eyes functional but devoid of movable lids. Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea.

_Pygopus_, e.g. _P. lepidopus_, about 2 ft. long, two-thirds belonging to the tail, distributed over the whole of Australia.

_Lialis burtoni_, of similar size and distribution, has the hind-limbs reduced to very small, narrow appendages. The members of this family seem to lead a snake-like life, not subterranean, and some are said to eat other lizards. _L. jicari_, from the Fly river, has a very snake-like appearance, with a long, pointed snout like certain tree-snakes, but with an easily visible ear-opening; their eyelids are reduced to a ring which is composed of two or three rows of small scales. (H. F. G.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] For the etymology of this word, see CROCODILE.

[2] For anatomical detail and experiments, see R. W. Shufeldt, _P. Z. S._ (1890), p. 178; G. A. Boulenger, _ibid._ (1891), p. 109, and C. Stewart, _ibid._ (1891), p. 119.

LIZARD POINT, or THE LIZARD, the southernmost point of Great Britain, in Cornwall, England, in 49° 57´ 30´´ N., 5° 12´ W. It is generally the first British land sighted by ships bound up the English Channel, and there are two lighthouses on it. The cliff scenery is magnificent, and attracts many visitors. The coast is fretted into several small bays, such as Housel and, most famous of all, Kynance Cove; caves pierce the cliffs at many points, and bold isolated rocks fringe the shore. The coloured veining of the serpentine rock is a remarkable feature. The Lion's Den is a chasm formed by the falling in of a sea-cave in 1847; the Stags is a dangerous reef stretching southward from the point, and at Asparagus Island, Kynance Cove, is a natural funnel in which the air is compressed by the waves and causes a violent ejection of foam. The principal village is Lizard Town, 10½ m. from Helston, the nearest railway station.

LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÅKAN JORDAN (1823-1905), Swedish man of letters, was born at Lund on the 6th of March 1823. He was educated at Lund university, where he was professor of German (1850-1859), of aesthetics (1859-1889) and rector (1875-1885). He had been a member of the Swedish Academy for twenty years at the time of his death in September 1905. His most important work, _Svenska vitterhetens häfder efter Gustav III.'s död_ (5 vols., Lund., 1873-1895), is a comprehensive study of Swedish literature in the 19th century. His other works include: _Framställning af de förnämste estetiska systemerna_ (an exposition of the principal system of aesthetics; 2 vols., 1856-1860); _Svenska dramat intill slutet af 17 århundradet_ (a history of the Swedish drama down to the end of the 17th century, Lund, 1864); an edition (1864) of the _Epistlar_ of Bellman and Fredman, and a history of the Swedish Academy in the year of its centenary (1886).

His scattered writings were collected as _Smärre Skrifter_ (3 vols., 1872-1881).

LLAMA, the Spanish modification of the Peruvian name of the larger of the two domesticated members of the camel-tribe indigenous to South America. The llama (_Lama huanacus glama_) is a domesticated derivative of the wild guanaco, which has been bred as a beast of burden. Chiefly found in southern Peru, it generally attains a larger size than the guanaco, and is usually white or spotted with brown or black, and sometimes altogether black. The following account by Augustin de Zarate was given in 1544:

"In places where there is no snow, the natives want water, and to supply this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make other living sheep carry them, for, it must be remarked, these sheep of Peru are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They can carry about one hundred pounds or more, and the Spaniards used to ride them, and they would go four or five leagues a day. When they are weary they lie down upon the ground, and as there are no means of making them get up, either by beating or assisting them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is a man on one of them, if the beast is tired and urged to go on, he turns his head round, and discharges his saliva, which has an unpleasant odour, into the rider's face. These animals are of great use and profit to their masters, for their wool is very good and fine, particularly that of the species called pacas, which have very long fleeces; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go four or five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep of Castile. There are now public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts of Peru, which was not the case when the Spaniards came first; for when one Indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came and took what they wanted, and then another Indian killed a sheep in his turn."

The disagreeable habit of spitting is common to all the group.

In a wide sense the term "llama" is used to designate all the South American _Camelidae_. (See TYLOPODA.)

LLANBERIS, a town of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 8½ m. E. by S. of Carnarvon, by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3015. It is finely situated in a valley near the foot of Snowdon. The valley has two lakes, Llyn Peris and Llyn Padarn, of over 1 m. and 2 m. long respectively, about ¼ m. apart. From Padarn rises the Seint, called Rothell in its upper part. Dolbadarn Castle is a circular tower near the foot of Peris lake. Dolbadarn means the "Padarn meadow." Several Welsh churches are dedicated to Padarn. In the castle Owen Goch (Owen the Red) was imprisoned from 1254 to 1277, by the last Llewelyn, whose brother Dafydd held it for some time against Edward I. During the time of Owen Glendower (_temp._ Henry IV. and Henry V.), the castle often changed hands. Near is Ceunantmawr waterfall. The Vaenol slate quarries are here, and hence is the easiest ascent of Snowdon, with a railway to the summit. From the road over the fine Llanberis pass towards Capel Curig, a turn to the right leads to Beddgelert, through Nant Gwynnant ("white" or "happy valley," or "stream"), where Pembroke and Ieuan ap Robert (for the Lancastrians) had many skirmishes in the time of Edward IV. Gwynnant Lake is about 1 m. long, by ¼ m. broad, and below it is the smaller Llyn Dinas.

LLANDAFF, a city of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the Taff Vale railway, 149 m. from London. Pop. (1901) 5777. It is almost entirely within the parliamentary borough of Cardiff. It is nobly situated on the heights which slope towards the southern bank of the Taff. Formerly the see of Llandaff was looked upon as the oldest in the kingdom; but its origin is obscure, although the first two bishops, St Dubricius and St Teilo, certainly flourished during the latter half of the 6th century. By the 12th century, when Urban was bishop, the see had acquired great wealth (as may be seen from the _Book of Llandaff_, a collection of its records and land-grants compiled probably by Geoffrey of Monmouth), but after the reign of Henry VIII. Llandaff, largely through the alienations of its bishops and the depredations of the canons, became impoverished, and its cathedral was left for more than a century to decay. In the 18th century a new church, in debased Italian style, was planted amid the ruins. This was demolished and replaced (1844-1869) by the present restored cathedral, due chiefly to the energy of Dean Williams. The oldest remaining portion is the chancel arch, belonging to the Norman cathedral built by Bishop Urban and opened in 1120. Jasper Tudor, uncle of Henry VII., was the architect of the north-west tower, portions of which remain. The cathedral is also the parish church. The palace or castle built by Urban was destroyed, according to tradition, by Owen Glendower in 1404, and only a gateway with flanking towers and some fragments of wall remain. After this, Mathern near Chepstow became the episcopal residence until about 1690, when it fell into decay, leaving the diocese without a residence until Llandaff Court was acquired during Bishop Ollivant's tenure of the see (1849-1882). For over 120 years the bishops had been non-resident. The ancient stone cross on the green (restored in 1897) is said to mark the spot on which Archbishop Baldwin, and his chaplain Giraldus Cambrensis, preached the Crusade in 1187. Money bequeathed by Thomas Howell, a merchant, who died in Spain in 1540, maintains an intermediate school for girls, managed by the Drapers' Company, Howell's trustees. There is an Anglican theological college, removed to Llandaff from Aberdare in 1907. The city is almost joined to Cardiff, owing to the expansion of that town.

Llandaff Court, already mentioned, was the ancient mansion of the Mathew family, from which Henry Matthews, 1st Viscount Llandaff (b. 1826), was descended. Another branch of this family formerly held the earldom of Llandaff in the Irish peerage. Henry Matthews, a barrister and Conservative M.P., whose father was a judge in Ceylon, was home secretary 1886-1892, and was created viscount in 1895.

LLANDEILO GROUP, in geology, the middle subdivision of the British Ordovician rocks. It was first described and named by Sir. R. I. Murchison from the neighbourhood of Llandeilo in Carmarthenshire. In the type area it consists of a series of slaty rocks, shales, calcareous flagstones and sandstones; the calcareous middle portion is sometimes termed the "Llandeilo limestone"; and in the upper portion volcanic rocks are intercalated. A remarkable feature in the history of the Llandeilo rocks in Britain, more especially in North Wales and Cumberland, was the outbreak of volcanic action; vast piles of Llandeilo lava and ashes form such hills as Cader Idris, and the Arenigs in Wales, and Helvellyn and Scafell in Westmorland and Cumberland. The series is also found at Builth and in Pembrokeshire. The average thickness in Wales is about 2000 ft. The group is usually divided in this area into three subdivisions. In the Corndon district of Shropshire the _Middleton Series_ represents the Llandeilo group; it includes, in descending order, the Rorrington black shales, the _Meadowtown limestones_ and flags, and the western grits and shales. In the Lake District the great _volcanic series of Borrowdale_, green slates and porphyries, 8000 to 9000 ft. in thickness, lies on this horizon; and in the Cross Fell area the _Milburn beds_ of the Skiddaw slates (see ARENIG) appear to be of the same age. In Scotland the Llandeilo group is represented by the _Glenkiln shales_, black shales and yellowish mudstones with radiolarian cherts and volcanic tuffs; by the _Barr Series_, including the Benan conglomerates, Stinchar limestone and Kirkland sandstones; and by the Glenapp conglomerates and Tappins mudstones and grits south of Stinchar. Graptolitic shales, similar to those of southern Scotland, are traceable into the north-east of Ireland.

The fossils of the Llandeilo group include numerous graptolites, _Coenograptus gracilis_ being taken as the zonal fossil of the upper portion, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_ of the lower. Other forms are _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_ and _Diplograptus foliaceus_. Many trilobites are found in these rocks, e.g. _Ogygia Buchi_, _Asaphus tyrannus_, _Calymene cambrensis_, _Cheirurus Sedgwickii_. Among the brachiopods are _Crania_, _Leptaena_, _Lingula_, _Strophomena_; _Cardiola_ and _Modiolopsis_ occur among the Pelecypods; _Euomphalus_, _Bellerophon_, _Murchisonia_ among the Gasteropods; _Conularia_ and _Hyolithes_ among the Pteropods; the Cephalopods are represented by _Orthoceras_ and _Cyrtoceras_. The green roofing slates and plumbago (graphite) of the Lake District are obtained from this group of rocks, (see ORDOVICIAN).

LLANDILO, or LLANDEILO FAWR, a market town and urban district of Carmarthenshire, Wales, picturesquely situated above the right bank of the river Towy. Pop. (1901) 1721. Llandilo is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway, and a terminus of the Llandilo-Llanelly branch line of the Great Western. The large parish church of St Teilo has a low embattled Perpendicular tower. Adjoining the town is the beautiful park of Lord Dynevor, which contains the ruined keep of Dinefawr Castle and the residence of the Rices (Lords Dynevor), erected early in the 17th century but modernized in 1858. Some of the loveliest scenery of South Wales lies within reach of Llandilo, which stands nearly in the centre of the Vale of Towy.

The name of Llandilo implies the town's early foundation by St Teilo, the great Celtic missionary of the 6th century, the friend of St David and reputed founder of the see of Llandaff. The historical interest of the place centres in its proximity to the castle of Dinefawr, now commonly called Dynevor, which was originally erected by Rhodri Mawr or his son Cadell about the year 876 on the steep wooded slopes overhanging the Towy. From Prince Cadell's days to the death of the Lord Rhys, last reigning prince of South Wales, in 1196, Dinefawr continued to be the recognized abode of South Welsh royalty. The castle ruins remain in the possession of the Rices, Lords Dynevor, heirs and descendants of Prince Cadell. At one period residence and park became known as New-town, a name now obsolete. Some personal relics of the celebrated Sir Rhys ap Thomas, K.G. (1451-1527), are preserved in the modern house. Dinefawr Castle and its estates were granted away by Henry VIII. on the execution for high treason of Sir Rhys's grandson, Rhys ap Griffith, but were restored to the family under Queen Mary.

LLANDOVERY (_Llan-ym-ddyffri_), a market town and ancient municipal borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated amid hills near the left bank of the Towy. Pop. (1901) 1809. Llandovery is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway. The old-fashioned town lies in the parish of Llandingat, and contains the two churches of Llandingat and Llanfair-ar-y-bryn. The slight remains of the castle stand on a hillock above the river Brân. The public school was founded here by Sir Thomas Phillips in 1847.

The place probably owes its Celtic name of Llan-ym-ddyffri (the church amid the waters) to the proximity of Llandingat church to the streams of the Towy, Brân and Gwydderig. On account of its commanding position at the head of the fertile vale of Towy, Llandovery was a strategic site of some importance in the middle ages. The castle erected here by the Normans early in the 12th century frequently changed owners during the course of the Anglo-Welsh wars before 1282. In 1485 the borough of Llandovery, or Llanymtheverye, was incorporated by a charter from Richard III., and this king's privileges were subsequently confirmed by Henry VIII. in 1521, and by Elizabeth in 1590, the Tudor queen's original charter being still extant and in the possession of the corporation, which is officially styled "the bailiff and burgesses of the borough of Llanymtheverye, otherwise Llandovery." The bailiff likewise holds the office of recorder, but has neither duties nor emoluments. In the 17th century the vicarage of Llandingat was held by the celebrated Welsh poet and preacher, Rhys Prichard, commonly called "the vicar of Llandovery" (d. 1644). In the middle of the 19th century William Rees of Tonn published at Llandovery many important works dealing with early Welsh history and archaeology.

LLANDOVERY GROUP, in geology, the lowest division of the Silurian (Upper Silurian) in Britain. C. Lapworth in 1879 proposed the name _Valentian_ (from the ancient north British province of Valentia) for this group. It includes in the type area the Tarannon Shales 1000-1500 ft., Upper Llandovery and May Hill Sandstone 800 ft., Lower Llandovery, 600-1500 ft.

The _Lower Llandovery_ rocks consist of conglomerates, sandstones and slaty beds. At Llandovery they rest unconformably upon Ordovician rocks (Bala), but in many other places no unconformity is traceable. These rocks occur with a narrow crop in Pembrokeshire, which curves round through Llandovery, and in the Rhyader district they attain a considerable thickness. Northwards they thin out towards Bala Lake. They occur also in Cardiganshire and Carmarthenshire in many places where they have not been clearly separated from the associated Ordovician rocks.

There is a change in the fauna on leaving the Ordovician and entering the Llandovery. Among the graptolites the Diplograptidae begin to be replaced by the Monograptidae. Characteristic graptolite zones, in descending order, are:--_Monograptus gregarius_, _Diplograptusvesiculosus_, _D. acuminatus_. Common trilobites are:--_Acidaspis_, _Encrinurus_, _Phacops_, _Proëtus_; among the brachiopods are _Orthis elegantula_, _O. testudinaria_, _Meristella crassa_ and _Pentamerus_ (_Stricklandinia_) _lens_ (_Pentamerus_ is so characteristic that the Llandovery rocks are frequently described as the "Pentamerus beds").

The _Upper Llandovery_, including the May Hill Sandstone of May Hill, Gloucestershire, is an arenaceous series generally conglomeratic at the base, with local lenticular developments of shelly limestone (Norbury, Hollies and Pentamerus limestones). It occurs with a narrow outcrop in Carmarthenshire at the base of the Silurian, disappearing beneath the Old Red Sandstone westward to reappear in Pembrokeshire; north-eastward the outcrop extends to the Longmynd, which the conglomerate wraps round. As it is followed along the crop it is found to rest unconformably upon the Lower Llandovery, Caradoc, Llandeilo, Cambrian and pre-Cambrian rocks. The fossils include the trilobites _Phacops caudata_, _Encrinurus punctatus_, _Calymene Blumenbachii_; the brachiopods _Pentamerus oblongus_, _Orthis calligramma_, _Atrypa reticularis_; the corals _Favosites_, _Lindostroemia_, &c.; and the zonal graptolites _Rastrites maximus_ and _Monograptus spinigerus_ and others (_Monograptus Sedgwicki_, _M. Clingani_, _M. proteus_, _Diplograptus Hughesii_).

The _Tarannon shales_, grey and blue slates, designated by A. Sedgwick the "paste rock," is traceable from Conway into Carmarthenshire; in Cardiganshire, besides the slaty facies, gritty beds make their appearance; and in the neighbourhood of Builth soft dark shales. The group is poor in fossils with the exception of graptolites; of these _Cyrtograptus grayae_ and _Monograptus exiguus_ are zonal forms. The Tarannon group is represented by the Rhyader Pale Shales in Radnorshire; by the Browgill beds, with _Monograptus crispus_ and _M. turriculatus_, in the Lake district; in the Moffat Silurian belt in south Scotland by a thick development, including the Hawick rocks and Ardwell beds, and the Queensberry group or Gala (Grieston shales, Buckholm grits and Abbotsford flags); in the Girvan area, by the Drumyork flags, Bargany group and Penkill group; and in Ireland by the Treveshilly shales of Strangford Lough, and the shales of Salterstown, Co. Louth.

The Upper and Lower Llandovery rocks are represented in descending order by the Pale shales, Graptolite shales, Grey slates and Corwen grit of Merionethshire and Denbighshire. In the Rhyader district the Caban group (Gafalt beds, shales and grits and Caban conglomerate), and the Gwastaden group (Gigrin mudstones, Ddol shales, Dyffryn flags, Cerig Gwynion grits) lie on this horizon; at Builth also there is a series of grits and shales. In the Lake district the lower part of the Stockdale shales (Skelgill beds) is of Llandovery age. In south Scotland in the central and southern belt of Silurian rocks, which extends across the country from Luce Bay to St Abb's Head, the Birkhill shales, a highly crumpled series of graptolitic beds, represent the Llandovery horizon. In the Girvan area to the north their place is taken by the Camregan, Shaugh Hill and Mullock Hill groups. In Ireland the Llandovery rocks are represented by the Anascaul slates of the Dingle promontory, by the Owenduff and Gowlaun grits, Co. Galway, by the Upper Pomeroy beds, by the Uggool and Ballaghaderin beds, Co. Mayo, and by rocks of this age in Coalpit Bay and Slieve Felim Mountains.

Economic deposits in Llandovery rocks include slate pencils (Teesdale), building stone, flag-stone, road metal and lime. Lead ore occurs in Wales. (See SILURIAN.) (J. A. H.)

LLANDRINDOD, or LLANDRINDOD WELLS, a market town, urban district and health-resort of Radnorshire, Wales, situated in a lofty and exposed district near the river Ithon, a tributary of the Wye. Pop. (1901) 1827. Llandrindod is a station on the Mid-Wales section of the London & North-Western railway. The town annually receives thousands of visitors, and lies within easy reach of the beautiful Wye Valley and the wild district of Radnor Forest. The saline, sulphur and chalybeate springs of Llandrindod have long been famous. According to a treatise published by a German physician, Dr Wessel Linden, in 1754, the saline springs at Ffynon-llwyn-y-gog ("the well in the cuckoos' grove") in the present parish of Llandrindod had acquired more than a local reputation as early as the year 1696. In the 18th century both saline and sulphur springs were largely patronized by numbers of visitors, and about 1749 a Mr Grosvenor built a hydropathic establishment near the old church, on a site now covered by a farm-house known as Llandrindod Hall.

LLANDUDNO, a seaside resort in the Arfon parliamentary division of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, in a detached portion of the county east of the Conwy, on a strip of sandy soil terminating in the massive limestone of Great Orme's Head. Pop. of urban district (1901) 9279. The town is reached by the London & North-Western railway, and lies 227 m. N.W. of London. A village in 1850, Llandudno is to-day one of the most flourishing watering-places in North Wales. Sheltered by the Great Orme on the N.W. and by the Little Orme on the E., it faces a wide bay of the Irish Sea, and is backed by low sandhills. A Marine Drive encircles the Great Orme. The Little Orme has caverns and abounds in sea birds and rare plants. Close to the town are the Gloddaeth woods, open to visitors. On the Great Orme are old circular buildings, an ancient fortress, a "rocking-stone" (_cryd Tudno_) and the 7th-century church of St Tudno, restored in 1885. Druidical and other British antiquities are numerous in the district. At Deganwy, or Diganwy, 2 m. from Llandudno, is a castle, Dinas Gonwy (Conwy fort), known to English historians as Gannoc, dating from the 11th or (according to the Welsh) earlier than the 9th century.

LLANELLY, a market town, urban district, and seaport of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated on the north shore of the broad estuary of the river Loughor (Llwchwr), known as Burry river, which forms an inlet of Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (1901) 25,617. Llanelly is a station on the South Wales section of the Great Western railway. The town is wholly of modern appearance. The mother-church of St Elliw, or Elli (whence the town derives its name) has been practically rebuilt (1906), but it retains its 13th-century tower and other ancient features of the original fabric. Its situation on a broad estuary and its central position with regard to a neighbourhood rich in coal, iron and limestone, have combined to make Llanelly one of the many important industrial towns of South Wales. Anthracite and steam-coal from the collieries of the coast and along the Loughor Valley are exported from the extensive docks; and there are also large works for the smelting of copper and the manufacture of tin plates.

Llanelly, though an ancient parish and a borough by prescription under a portreeve and burgesses in the old lordship of Kidwelly, remained insignificant until the industrial development in South Wales during the 19th century. In 1810 the combined population of Llanelly, with its four subsidiary hamlets of Berwick, Glyn, Hencoed and Westowe, only amounted to 2972; in 1840 the inhabitants of the borough hamlet alone had risen to 4173. Llanelly is now the most populous town in Wales outside the confines of Glamorganshire. In 1832 Llanelly was added as a contributory borough to the Carmarthen parliamentary district.

LLANES, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, on the river Carrocedo and the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900) 18,684. The streets are mostly narrow and irregular, and contain some curious old houses. The principal buildings are a fine Gothic church and an old Augustinian monastery, which has been converted into a school and meteorological station. In summer the fine climate, scenery and sea-bathing attract many visitors. Llanes is a second-class port for light-draught vessels; but the entrance is narrow, and rather difficult in rough weather. The trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, timber, butter and fish.

LLANGOLLEN, a picturesque market-town and summer resort of Denbighshire, N. Wales, in the Dee (_Dyfrdwy_) valley, on a branch of the Great Western Railway, 9 m. S.W. of Wrexham, 202½ m. from London by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3303. The Dee is here crossed by a 14th-century bridge of four arches, "one of the seven wonders of Wales," built by John Trevor, afterwards bishop of St Asaph (_Llanelwy_). The Anglican church of St Collen, Norman and Early English, has a monument in the churchyard to the "Ladies of Llangollen," Lady Eleanor Butler and Hon. Sarah Ponsonby, of Plas Newydd, (1778 to 1829 and 1831 respectively). The house is now a museum. Castell Dinas Brân (the castle of the town of Brân; the mountain stream below is also called Brân), the ruins of a fortress on a high conical hill about 1 m. from the town, is supposedly British, of unknown date. "An old ruynous thinge," as the Elizabethan poet Churchyard calls it even in the 16th century, it was inhabited, apparently, about 1390, by Myfanwy Fechan of the Tudor Trevor family and beloved by the bard Howel ab Einion Llygliw, whose ode to her is still extant. Valle Crucis Abbey (_Llan Egwest_) is a Cistercian ruin at the foot of Bronfawr hill, some 2 m. N.W. of Llangollen, founded about 1200 by Madoc ab Gruffydd Maelor, lord of Dinas Brân and grandson of Owen Gwynedd, prince of Wales. Llan Egwest, dissolved in 1535, was given by James I. to Lord Edward Wootton. In the meadow adjoining, still called Llwyn y Groes ("grove of the cross"), is "Eliseg's Pillar." Eliseg was father of Brochmael, prince of Powys, and his grandson, Concen or Congen, appears to have erected the pillar, which is now broken, with an illegible inscription; the modern inscription dates only from 1779. At Llangollen are linen and woollen manufactures, and near are collieries, lime and iron works. Brewing, malting and slate-quarrying are also carried on. Within the parish, an aqueduct carries the Ellesmere canal across the Dee.

LLANQUIHUE (pron. _lan-kè-wa_), a province of southern Chile bordering on the northern shores of the Gulf and Straits of Chacao, and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine frontier. The province of Valdivia lies N. and is separated from it in part by the Bueno river. Pop. (1895) 78,315. Area 45,515 sq. m. It is a region of forests, rivers and lakes, and the greater part is mountainous. The rainfall is excessive, the average at Puerto Montt being 104 in. a year, and the temperature is singularly uniform, the average for the summer being 58½°, of the winter 47½°, and of the year 53° F. There are several large lakes in the eastern part of the province--Puyehue, on the northern frontier, Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos. Lake Llanquihue is the largest body of fresh water in Chile, having an extreme length from N. to S., or from Octai to Varas, of about 33 m., and extreme breadth of nearly the same. There is a regular steamship service on the lake between Octai and Varas, and its western shores are well settled. The volcanoes of Calbuco and Osorno rise from near its eastern shores, the latter to a height of 7382 ft. The outlet of the lake is through Maullin river, the lower course of which is navigable. The other large rivers of the province are the Bueno, which receives the waters of Lakes Puyehue and Rupanco, and the Puelo, which has its rise in a lake of the same name in the Argentine territory of Chubut. A short tortuous river of this vicinity, called the Petrohue, affords an outlet for the picturesque lake of Todos los Santos, and enters the Reloncavi Inlet near the Puelo. The southern coast of the province is indented by a number of inlets and bays affording good fishing, but the mouths of the rivers flowing into the Pacific are more or less obstructed by sand-bars. Apart from the lumber industry, which is the most important, the productions of Llanquihue include wheat, barley, potatoes and cattle. The white population is composed in great part of Germans, who have turned large areas of forest lands in the northern districts into productive wheat fields. The capital is Puerto Montt, on a nearly land-locked bay called the Reloncavi, designed to be the southern terminus of the longitudinal railway from Tacna, a distance of 2152 m. An important town in the northern part of the province is Osorno, on the Rahue river, which is chiefly inhabited by Germans. It exports wheat and other farm produce, leather, lumber and beer.

LLANTRISANT, a small town and a contributory parliamentary borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, picturesquely situated with a southern aspect, commanding a fine view of the vale of Glamorgan, in a pass on the mountain range which separates that vale from the valley of the Taff. The population of the parish in 1901 was 10,091 and of the contributory borough 2057. A branch of the Taff Vale railway running from Pontypridd to Cowbridge and Aberthaw has a station, Cross Inn, ½ m. below the town, while nearly 2 m. farther south it passes (near the village of Pontyclun) through Llantrisant station on the Great Western railway main line, which is 156¼ m. by rail from London and 11 m. N.W. from Cardiff. The castle, which according to G. T. Clark was "second only to Cardiff in military importance," dates from the reign of Henry III. or Edward I. Of the original building nothing remains, and of a later building only a tall and slender fragment. It was the head of the lordship of Miskin, a great part of which was in the hands of native owners, until the last of them, Howel ap Meredith, was expelled by Richard de Clare (1229-1262). Since then it has always been in the hands of the lord of Glamorgan. It was in the near neighbourhood of the town that Edward II. was captured in 1327. In 1426 the then lord of Glamorgan, Richard, 5th earl of Warwick, granted to the residents a charter confirming grants made by his predecessors in 1346, 1397 and 1424. The corporation was abolished in 1883, and its property (including 284 acres of common land) is administered by a town trust under a scheme of the charity commissioners. The "freemen" of the borough, however, still hold a court leet in the town-hall. The market formerly held here has been discontinued, but there are four annual fairs. The church was dedicated to three saints (Illtyd, Gwyno and Tyfodwg), whence the name Llantrisant. Originally a Norman building, most of the present fabric belongs to the 15th century. There are numerous chapels. Welsh is still the predominant language. Oliver Cromwell's forbears were natives of this parish, as also was Sir Leoline Jenkins, secretary of state under Charles II. There are tinplate works at Pontyclun and numerous collieries in the district.

LLANTWIT MAJOR (Welsh _Llan-Illtyd-Fawr_), a small market town in the southern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales, about 1 m. from the Bristol Channel, with a station on the Barry railway, 5 m. S. of Cowbridge. Pop. (1901) 1113. About 1 m. N.N.W. of the town there were discovered in 1888 the remains of a large Roman villa within a square enclosure of about 8 acres, which has been identified as part of the site of a Roman settlement mentioned in Welsh writings as Caer Wrgan. The building seemed to have been the scene of a massacre, possibly the work of Irish pirates in the 5th century, as some forty-three human skeletons and the remains of three horses were found within its enclosure. Etymological reasoning have led some to suggest that the Roman station of Bovium was at Boverton, 1 m. E. of the town, but it is more likely to have been at Ewenny (2 m. S.E. of Bridgend) or perhaps at Cowbridge. On the sea coast are two camps, one known as Castle Ditches, commanding the entrance to the creek of Colhugh, once the port of Llantwit. In the time of Henry I. a small colony of Flemings settled in the district. The town and church derive their name from St Illtyd or Iltutus, styled the "knight," a native of Brittany and a great-nephew of Germanus of Auxerre. Having come under the influence of St Cadoc, abbot of Llancarvan, 6 m. E.N.E. of Llantwit, Illtyd established at the latter place, about A.D. 520, a monastic college which became famous as a seat of learning. He attracted a number of scholars to him, especially from Brittany, including Samson, archbishop of Dol, Maglorius (Samson's successor) and Paul de Leon, while his Welsh students included David, the patron saint of Wales, Gildas the historian, Paulinus and Teilo. The college continued to flourish for several centuries, sending forth a large number of missionaries until, early in the 12th century, its revenues were appropriated to the abbey of Tewkesbury by Fitzhamon, the first Norman lord of Glamorgan. A school seems, however, to have lingered on in the place until it lost all its emoluments in the reign of Henry VIII. The present church of St Illtyd is the result of a sequence of churches which have sprung from a pre-Norman edifice, almost entirely rebuilt and greatly extended in the 13th century and again partially rebuilt late in the 14th century. It consists of an "eastern" church which (according to Professor Freeman) belonged probably to the monks, and is the only part now used for worship, a western one used as a parochial church before the dissolution, but now disused, and still farther west of this a chantry with sacristan's house, now in ruins. The western church consists of the nave of a once cruciform building, while in continuation of it was built the eastern church, consisting of chancel, nave (of great height and width but very short), aisles and an embattled western tower built over the junction of the two naves. A partial restoration was made in 1888, and a careful and more complete one in 1900-1905. In the church and churchyard are preserved some early monumental remains of the British church, dating from the 9th century, and some possibly from an earlier date. They include two cross-shafts and one cross with inscriptions in debased Latin (one being to the memory of St Illtyd) and two cylindrical pillars, most of them being decorated with interlaced work. There are some good specimens of domestic architecture of the 17th century. The town is situated in a fertile district and the inhabitants depend almost entirely on agriculture. Its weekly market is mainly resorted to for its stock sales. St Donats castle, 2 m. to the west, was for nearly seven centuries the home of the Stradling family.

As to the Roman remains, see the _Athenaeum_ for October 20 (1888), and the _Antiquary_ for August (1892). As to the church, see the _Archaeologia Cambrensis_, 3rd ser. iv. 31 (an article by Professor Freeman), 5th ser., v. 409 and xvii. 129, and 6th ser., iii. 56; A. C. Fryer, _Llantwit-Major: a Fifth Century University_ (1893). (D. Ll. T.)

LLANWRTYD WELLS, an urban district of Breconshire, south Wales, with a station on the central Wales section of the London & North Western railway, 231 m. from London. It is situated in the midst of wild mountain scenery on the river Irfon, a right-bank tributary of the Wye. The place is chiefly noted for its sulphur and chalybeate springs, the former being the strongest of the kind in Wales. The medicinal properties of the sulphur water were discovered, or perhaps rediscovered, in 1732 by a famous Welsh writer, the Rev. Theophilus Evans, then vicar of Llangammarch (to which living Llanwrtyd was a chapelry till 1871). Saline water is obtained daily in the season from Builth Wells. The Irfon is celebrated as a trout-stream. Out of the civil parish, which has an area of 10,785 acres and had in 1901 a population of 854, there was formed in 1907 the urban district, comprising 1611 acres, and with an estimated population at the date of formation of 812. Welsh is the predominant language of the district.

Four miles lower down the Irfon valley, at the junction of the Cammarch and Irfon, and with a station on the London & North Western railway, is the village of Llangammarch, noted for its barium springs. The ancient parish of Llangammarch consists of the townships of Penbuallt and Treflis, the wells being in the former, which comprises 11,152 acres and had in 1901 a population of only 433. John Penry, the Puritan martyr, was born at Cefn-brith in this parish. Charles Wesley's wife, Sarah Gwynne, was of Garth, an old residence just outside the parish.

LLEWELYN, the name of two Welsh princes.

LLEWELYN I., AB IORWERTH (d. 1240), prince of North Wales, was born after the expulsion of his father, Iorwerth, from the principality. In 1194, while still a youth, Llewelyn recovered the paternal inheritance. In 1201 he was the greatest prince in Wales. At first he was a friend of King John, whose illegitimate daughter, Joanna, he took to wife (1201); but the alliance soon fell through, and in 1211 John reduced Llewelyn to submission. In the next year Llewelyn recovered all his losses in North Wales. In 1215 he took Shrewsbury. His rising had been encouraged by the pope, by France, and by the English barons. His rights were secured by special clauses in Magna Carta. But he never desisted from his wars with the Marchers of South Wales, and in the early years of Henry III. he was several times attacked by English armies. In 1239 he was struck with paralysis and retired from the active work of government in favour of his son David. He retired into a Cistercian monastery.

See the lists of English chronicles for the reigns of John and Henry III.; also the Welsh chronicle _Brut y Tywysogion_ (ed. Rolls Series); O. M. Edwards, _History of Wales_ (1901); T. F. Tout in the _Political History of England_, iii. (1905).

LLEWELYN II., AB GRUFFYDD (d. 1282), prince of North Wales, succeeded his uncle David in 1246, but was compelled by Henry III. to confine himself to Snowdon and Anglesey. In 1254 Henry granted Prince Edward the royal lands in Wales. The steady encroachment of royal officers on Llewelyn's land began immediately, and in 1256 Llewelyn declared war. The Barons' War engaged all the forces of England, and he was able to make himself lord of south and north Wales. Llewelyn also assisted the barons. By the treaty of Shrewsbury (1265) he was recognized as overlord of Wales; and in return Simon de Montfort was supplied with Welsh troops for his last campaign. Llewelyn refused to do homage to Edward I., who therefore attacked him in 1276. He was besieged in the Snowdon mountains till hunger made him surrender, and conclude the humiliating treaty of Conway (1277). He was released, but in 1282 he revolted again, and was killed in a skirmish with the Mortimers, near Builth in central Wales.

See C. Bémont, _Simon de Montfort_ (Paris, 1884); T. F. Tout in the _Political History of England_, iii. (1905); J. E. Morris in _The Welsh Wars of Edward I._ (1901).

LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO (1756-1823), Spanish historian, was born on the 30th of March 1756 at Rincon de Soto in Aragon. He studied at the university of Saragossa, and, having been ordained priest, became vicar-general to the bishop of Calahorra in 1782. In 1785 he became commissary of the Holy Office at Logroño, and in 1789 its general secretary at Madrid. In the crisis of 1808 Llorente identified himself with the Bonapartists, and was engaged for a few years in superintending the execution of the decree for the suppression of the monastic orders, and in examining the archives of the Inquisition. On the return of King Ferdinand VII. to Spain in 1814 he withdrew to France, where he published his great work, _Historia critica de la inquisicion de España_ (Paris, 1815-1817). Translated into English, French, German, Dutch and Italian, it attracted much attention in Europe, and involved its author in considerable persecution, which, on the publication of his _Portraits politiques des papes_ in 1822, culminated in a peremptory order to quit France. He died at Madrid on the 5th of February 1823. Both the personal character and the literary accuracy of Llorente have been assailed, but although he was not an exact historian there is no doubt that he made an honest use of documents relating to the Inquisition which are no longer extant.

The English translation of the _Historia_ (London, 1826) is abridged. Llorente also wrote _Memorias para la historia de la revolucion española_ (Paris, 1814-1816), translated into French (Paris, 1815-1819); _Noticias historicas sobre las tres provincias vacongadas_ (Madrid, 1806-1808); an autobiography, _Noticia biografica_ (Paris, 1818), and other works.

LLOYD, EDWARD (1845- ), English tenor vocalist, was born in London on the 7th of March 1845, his father, Richard Lloyd, being vicar choralist at Westminster Abbey. From 1852 to 1860 he sang in the abbey choir, and was thoroughly trained in music, eventually becoming solo tenor at the Chapel Royal. He began singing at concerts in 1867, and in 1871 appeared at the Gloucester Musical Festival. His fine evenly-produced voice and pure style at once brought him into notice, and he gradually took the place of Sims Reeves as the leading English tenor of the day, his singing of classical music, and especially of Handel, being particularly admired. At the Handel Festivals after 1888 he was the principal tenor, and even in the vast auditorium at the Crystal Palace he triumphed over acoustic difficulties. In 1888, 1890 and 1892 he paid successful visits to the United States; but by degrees he appeared less frequently in public, and in 1900 he formally retired from the platform.

LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627-1717), English divine, successively bishop of St Asaph, of Lichfield and Coventry, and of Worcester, was born at Tilehurst, Berkshire, in 1627, and was educated at Oriel and Jesus Colleges, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1646. In 1663 he was prebendary of Ripon, in 1667 prebendary of Salisbury, in 1668 archdeacon of Merioneth, in 1672 dean of Bangor and prebendary of St Paul's, London, in 1680 bishop of St Asaph, in 1689 lord-almoner, in 1692 bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and in 1699 bishop of Worcester. Lloyd was an indefatigable opponent of the Roman Catholic tendencies of James II., and was one of the seven bishops who for refusing to have the Declaration of Indulgence read in his diocese was charged with publishing a seditious libel against the king and acquitted (1688). He engaged Gilbert Burnet to write _The History of the Reformation of the Church of England_ and provided him with much material. He was a good scholar and a keen student of biblical apocalyptic literature and himself "prophesied" to Queen Anne, Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, William Whiston, and John Evelyn the diarist. Lloyd was a stanch supporter of the revolution. His chief publication was _An Historical Account of Church Government as it was in Great Britain and Ireland when they first received the Christian Religion_ (London, 1684, reprinted Oxford, 1842). He died at Hartlebury castle on the 30th of August 1717.

LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813-1893), English man of letters, was born at Homerton, Middlesex, on the 11th of March 1813. He received his early education at Newcastle-under-Lyme grammar school, and at the age of fifteen entered a family business in London, with which he was connected for thirty-five years. He devoted his leisure to the study of art, architecture, archaeology, Shakespeare, classical and modern languages and literature. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1893. The work by which he is best known is _The Age of Pericles_ (1875), characterized by soundness of scholarship, great learning, and a thorough appreciation of the period with which it deals, but rendered unattractive by a difficult and at times obscure style. He wrote also: _Xanthian Marbles_ (1845); _Critical Essays upon Shakespeare's Plays_ (1875); _Christianity in the Cartoons_ [of Raphael] (1865), which excited considerable attention from the manner in which theological questions were discussed; _The History of Sicily to the Athenian War_ (1872); _Panics and their Panaceas_ (1869); an edition of _Much Ado about Nothing_, "now first published in fully recovered metrical form" (1884; the author held that all the plays were originally written in blank verse). A number of manuscripts still remain unpublished, the most important of which have been bequeathed to the British Museum, amongst them being: _A Further History of Greece_; _The Century of Michael Angelo_; _The Neo-Platonists_.

See Memoir by Sophia Beale prefixed to Lloyd's (posthumously published) _Elijah Fenton: his Poetry and Friends_ (1894), containing a list of published and unpublished works.

LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID (1863- ), British statesman, was born at Manchester on the 17th of January 1863. His father, William George, a Welshman of yeoman stock, had left Pembrokeshire for London at an early age and became a school teacher there, and afterwards in Liverpool and Haverfordwest, and then headmaster of an elementary school at Pwllheli, Carnarvonshire, where he married the daughter of David Lloyd, a neighbouring Baptist minister. Soon afterwards William George became headmaster of an elementary school in Manchester, but after the birth of his eldest son David his health failed, and he gave up his post and took a small farm near Haverfordwest. Two years later he died, leaving his widow in poor circumstances; a second child, another son, was posthumously born. Mrs George's brother, Richard Lloyd, a shoemaker at Llanystumdwy, and pastor of the Campbellite Baptists there, now became her chief support; it was from him that young David obtained his earliest views of practical and political life, and also the means of starting, at the age of fourteen, on the career of a solicitor.

Having passed his law preliminary, he was articled to a firm in Portmadoc, and in 1884 obtained his final qualifications. In 1888 he married Margaret, daughter of Richard Owen of Criccieth. From the first he managed to combine his solicitor's work with politics, becoming secretary of the South Carnarvonshire Anti-tithe League; and his local reputation was made by a successful fight, carried to the High Court, in defence of the right of Nonconformists to burial in the parish churchyard. In the first county council elections for Carnarvonshire he played a strenuous part on the Radical side, and was chosen an alderman; and in 1890, at a by-election for Carnarvon Boroughs, he was returned to parliament by a majority of 18 over a strong Conservative opponent. He held his seat successfully at the contests in 1892, 1895 and 1900, his reputation as a champion of Welsh nationalism, Welsh nonconformity and extreme Radicalism becoming thoroughly established both in parliament and in the country. In the House of Commons he was one of the most prominent guerrilla fighters, conspicuous for his audacity and pungency of utterance, and his capacity for obstruction while the Conservatives were in office. During the South African crisis of 1899-1902 he was specially vehement in opposition to Mr Chamberlain, and took the "pro-Boer" side so bitterly that he was mobbed in Birmingham during the 1900 election when he attempted to address a meeting at the Town Hall. But he was again returned for Carnarvon Boroughs; and in the ensuing parliament he came still more to the front by his resistance to the Education Act of 1902.

As the leader of the Welsh party, and one of the most dashing parliamentarians on the Radical side, his appointment to office when Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman became premier at the end of 1905 was generally expected; but his elevation direct to the cabinet as president of the Board of Trade was somewhat of a surprise. The responsibilities of administration have, however, often converted a political free-lance into a steady-going official, and the Unionist press did its best to encourage such a tendency by continual praise of the departmental action of the new minister. His settlement of the railway dispute in 1906 was universally applauded; and the bills he introduced and passed for reorganizing the port of London, dealing with Merchant Shipping, and enforcing the working in England of patents granted there, and so increasing the employment of British labour, were greeted with satisfaction by the tariff-reformers, who congratulated themselves that a Radical free-trader should thus throw over the policy of _laisser faire_. The president of the Board of Trade was the chief success of the ministry, and when Mr Asquith became premier in 1908 and promoted Mr Lloyd George to the chancellorship of the exchequer, the appointment was well received even in the City of London. For that year the budget was already settled, and it was introduced by Mr Asquith himself, the ex-chancellor; but Mr Lloyd George earned golden opinions, both at the Treasury and in parliament, by his industry and his handling of the Finance Bill, especially important for its inclusion of Old Age Pensions, in the later stages.

It was not till the time came nearer for the introduction of the budget for 1909-1910 that opinion in financial circles showed the change which was afterwards to become so marked. A considerable deficit, of about £16,000,000, was in prospect, and the chancellor of the exchequer aroused misgivings by alluding in a speech to the difficulty he had in deciding what "hen roost" to "rob." The government had been losing ground in the country, and Mr Lloyd George and Mr Winston Churchill were conspicuously in alliance in advocating the use of the budget for introducing drastic reforms in regard to licensing and land, which the resistance of the House of Lords prevented the Radical party from effecting by ordinary legislation. The well-established doctrine that the House of Lords could not amend, though it might reject, a money-bill, coupled with the fact that it never had gone so far as to reject a budget, was relied on by the extremists as dictating the obvious party tactics; and before the year 1909 opened, the possibility of the Lords being driven to compel a dissolution by standing on their extreme rights as regards the financial provision for the year was already canvassed in political circles, though it was hardly credited that the government would precipitate a constitutional crisis of such magnitude. When Mr Lloyd George, on the 29th of April, introduced his budget, its revolutionary character, however, created widespread dismay in the City and among the propertied classes. In a very lengthy speech, which had to be interrupted for half an hour while he recovered his voice, he ended by describing it as a "war budget" against poverty, which he hoped, in the result, would become "as remote to the people of this country as the wolves which once infested its forests." Some of the original proposals, which were much criticized, were subsequently dropped, including the permanent diversion of the Old Sinking Fund to a National Development Fund (created by a separate bill), and a tax on "ungotten minerals," for which was substituted a tax on mineral rights. But the main features of the budget were adhered to, and eventually passed the House of Commons on the 4th of November, in spite of the persistent opposition of the scanty Unionist minority. Apart from certain non-contentious provisions, such as a tax on motorcars, the main features of the measure were large increases in the spirit and tobacco duties, license duties, estate, legacy and succession duties, and income tax, and an elaborate and novel system of duties on land-values ("increment duty," "reversion duty," "undeveloped land duty"), depending on the setting up of arrangements for valuation of a highly complicated kind. The discussions on the budget entirely monopolized public attention for the year, and while the measure was defended by Mr Lloyd George in parliament with much suavity, and by Mr Asquith, Sir Edward Grey and Mr Haldane outside the House of Commons with tact and moderation, the feelings of its opponents were exasperated by a series of inflammatory public speeches at Limehouse and elsewhere from the chancellor of the exchequer, who took these opportunities to rouse the passions of the working-classes against the landed classes and the peers. When the Finance Bill went up to the House of Lords, Lord Lansdowne gave notice that on the second reading he would move "that this House is not justified in giving its consent to this bill until it has been submitted to the judgment of the country," and on the last day of November this motion was carried by an overwhelming majority of peers. The government passed a solemn resolution of protest in the House of Commons and appealed to the country; and the general election of January 1910 took place amid unexampled excitement. The Unionists gained a hundred seats over their previous numbers, but the constitutional issue undoubtedly helped the government to win a victory, depending indeed solely on the votes of the Labour members and Irish Nationalists, which a year before had seemed improbable.

Events had now made Mr Lloyd George and his financial policy the centre of the Liberal party programme; but party tactics for the moment prevented the ministry, who remained in office, from simply sending the budget up again to the Lords and allowing them to pass it. There was no majority in the Commons for the budget as such, since the Irish Nationalists only supported it as an engine for destroying the veto of the Lords and thus preparing the way for Irish Home Rule. Instead, therefore, of proceeding with the budget, the government allowed the financial year to end without one, and brought forward resolutions for curtailing the powers of the Lords, on which, if rejected by them, another appeal could be made to the people (see PARLIAMENT). Hardly, however, had the battle been arrayed when the King's death in May upset all calculations. An immediate continuance of hostilities between the two Houses was impossible. A truce was called, and a conference arranged between four leaders from each side--Mr Lloyd George being one--to consider whether compromise on the constitutional question was not feasible. The budget for 1909-10 went quietly through, and before the August adjournment the chancellor introduced his budget for 1910-11, discussion being postponed till the autumn. It imposed no new taxation, and left matters precisely as they were. (H. Ch.)

LLOYD'S, an association of merchants, shipowners, underwriters, and ship and insurance brokers, having its headquarters in a suite of rooms in the north-east corner of the Royal Exchange, London. Originally a mere gathering of merchants for business or gossip in a coffee-house kept by one Edward Lloyd in Tower Street, London, the earliest notice of which occurs in the _London Gazette_ of the 18th of February 1688, this institution has gradually become one of the greatest organizations in the world in connexion with commerce. The establishment existed in Tower Street up to 1692, in which year it was removed by the proprietor to Lombard Street, in the centre of that portion of the city most frequented by merchants of the highest class. Shortly after this event Mr Lloyd established a weekly newspaper furnishing commercial and shipping news, in those days an undertaking of no small difficulty. This paper took the name of _Lloyd's News_, and, though its life was not long, it was the precursor of the now ubiquitous _Lloyd's List_, the oldest existing paper, the _London Gazette_ excepted. In Lombard Street the business transacted at Lloyd's coffee-house steadily grew, but it does not appear that throughout the greater part of the 18th century the merchants and underwriters frequenting the rooms were bound together by any rules, or acted under any organization. By and by, however, the increase of marine insurance business made a change of system and improved accommodation necessary, and after finding a temporary resting-place in Pope's Head Alley, the underwriters and brokers settled in the Royal Exchange in March 1774. One of the first improvements in the mode of effecting marine insurance was the introduction of a printed form of policy. Hitherto various forms had been in use; and, to avoid numerous disputes the committee of Lloyd's proposed a general form, which was adopted by the members on the 12th of January 1779, and remains in use, with a few slight alterations, to this day. The two most important events in the history of Lloyd's during the 19th century were the reorganization of the association in 1811, and the passing of an act in 1871 granting to Lloyd's all the rights and privileges of a corporation sanctioned by parliament. According to this act of incorporation, the three main objects for which the society exists are--first, the carrying out of the business of marine insurance; secondly, the protection of the interests of the members of the association; and thirdly, the collection, publication and diffusion of intelligence and information with respect to shipping. In the promotion of the last-named object an intelligence department has been developed which for wideness of range and efficient working has no parallel among private enterprises. By Lloyd's Signal Station Act 1888, powers were conferred on Lloyd's to establish signal stations with telegraphic communications, and by the Derelict Vessels (Report) Act 1896, masters of British ships are required to give notice to Lloyd's agents of derelict vessels, which information is published by Lloyd's.

The rooms at Lloyd's are available only to subscribers and members. The former pay an annual subscription of five guineas without entrance fee, but have no voice in the management of the institution. The latter consist of non-underwriting members, who pay an entrance fee of twelve guineas, and of underwriting members who pay a fee of £100. Underwriting members are also required to deposit securities to the value of £5000 to £10,000, according to circumstances, as a guarantee for their engagements. The management of the establishment is delegated by the members to certain of their number selected as a "committee for managing the affairs of Lloyd's." With this body lies the appointment of all the officials and agents of the institution, the daily routine of duty being entrusted to a secretary and a large staff of clerks and other assistants. The mode employed in effecting an insurance at Lloyd's is simple. The business is done entirely by brokers, who write upon a slip of paper the name of the ship and shipmaster, the nature of the voyage, the subject to be insured, and the amount at which it is valued. If the risk is accepted, each underwriter subscribes his name and the amount he agrees to take or underwrite, the insurance being effected as soon as the total value is made up.

See F. Martin, _History of Lloyd's and of Marine Insurance in Great Britain_ (1876).

LLWYD, EDWARD (1660-1709), British naturalist and antiquary, was born in Cardiganshire in 1660. He was educated at Jesus College, Oxford, but did not graduate; he received the degree of M.A. however in 1701. In 1690, after serving for six years as assistant, he succeeded R. Plot as keeper of the Ashmolean museum, a position which he retained until 1709. In 1699 he published _Lithophylacii Britannici Ichnographia_, in which he described and figured various fossils, personally collected or received from his friends, and these were arranged in cabinets in the museum. They were obtained from many parts of England, but mostly from the neighbourhood of Oxford. A second edition was prepared by Llwyd, but not published until 1760. He issued in 1707 the first volume of _Archaeologia Britannica_ (afterwards discontinued). He was elected F.R.S. in 1708. He died at Oxford on the 30th of June 1709.

LOACH. The fish known as loaches (_Cobitinae_) form a very distinct subfamily of the _Cyprinidae_, and are even regarded by some authors as constituting a family. Characters: Barbels, three to six pairs; pharyngeal teeth in one row, in moderate number; anterior part of the air-bladder divided into a right and left chamber, separated by a constriction, and enclosed in a bony capsule, the posterior part free or absent. They are more or less elongate in form, often eel-shaped, and naked or covered with minute scales. Most of the species are small, the largest known measuring 12 (the European _Misgurnus fossilis_), 13 (the Chinese _Botia variegata_), or 14 in. (the Central Asian _Nemachilus siluroides_). They mostly live in small streams and ponds, and many are mountain forms. They are almost entirely confined to Europe and Asia, but one species (_Nemachilus abyssinicus_) has recently been discovered in Abyssinia. About 120 species are known, mostly from Central and South-Eastern Asia. Only two species occur in Great Britain: the common _Nemachilus barbatulus_ and the rarer and more local _Cobitis taenia_. The latter extends across Europe and Asia to Japan. Many of these fishes delight in the mud at the bottom of ponds, in which they move like eels. In some cases the branchial respiration appears to be insufficient, and the intestinal tract acts as an accessory breathing organ. The air-bladder may be so reduced as to lose its hydrostatic function and become subservient to a sensory organ, its outer exposed surface being connected with the skin by a meatus between the bands of muscle, and conveying the thermo-barometrical impressions to the auditory nerves. Loaches are known in some parts of Germany as "Wetterfisch."

LOAD; LODE. The O.E. _lád_, from which both these words are derived, meant "way," "journey," "conveyance," and is cognate with Ger. _Leite_. The Teutonic root is also seen in the O. Teut. _laidjan_, Ger. _leiten_, from which comes "to lead." The meanings of the word have been influenced by a supposed connexion with "lade," O.E. _hladan_, a word common to many old branches of Teutonic languages in the sense of "to place," but used in English principally of the placing of cargo in a ship, hence "bill of lading," and of emptying liquor or fluid out of one vessel into another; it is from the word in this sense that is derived "ladle," a large spoon or cup-like pan with a long handle. The two words, though etymologically one, have been differentiated in meaning, the influence of the connexion with "lade" being more marked in "load" than in "lode," a vein of metal ore, in which the original meaning of "way" is clearly marked. A "load" was originally a "carriage," and its Latin equivalent in the _Promptorium Parvulorum_ is _vectura_. From that it passed to that which is laid on an animal or vehicle, and so, as an amount usually carried, the word was used of a specific quantity of anything, a unit of weight, varying with the locality and the commodity. A "load" of wheat = 40 bushels, of hay = 36 trusses. Other meanings of "load" are: in electricity, the power which an engine or dynamo has to furnish; and in engineering, the weight to be supported by a structure, the "permanent load" being the weight of the structure itself, the "external load" that of anything which may be placed upon it.

LOAF, properly the mass of bread made at one baking, hence the smaller portions into which the bread is divided for retailing. These are of uniform size (see BAKING) and are named according to shape ("tin loaf," "cottage loaf," &c.), weight ("quartern loaf," &c.), or quality of flour ("brown loaf," &c.). "Loaf," O.E. _hláf_, is a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Laib_, or _Leib_, Dan. _lev_, Goth, _hlaifs_; similar words with the same meaning are found in Russian, Finnish and Lettish, but these may have been adapted from Teutonic. The ultimate origin is unknown, and it is uncertain whether "bread" (q.v.) or "loaf" is the earlier in usage. The O.E. _hláf_ is seen in "Lammas" and in "lord," i.e. _hlaford_ for _hlafweard_, the loaf-keeper, or "bread-warder"; cf. the O.E. word for a household servant _hláf-æta_, loaf-eater. The Late Lat. _companio_, one who shares, _panis_, bread, Eng. "companion," was probably an adaptation of the Goth, _gahlaiba_, O.H. Ger. _gileipo_, messmate, comrade. The word "loaf" is also used in sugar manufacture, and is applied to sugar shaped in a mass like a cone, a "sugar-loaf," and to the small knobs into which refined sugar is cut, or "loaf-sugar."

The etymology of the verb "to loaf," i.e. to idle, lounge about, and the substantive "loafer," an idler, a lazy vagabond, has been much discussed. R. H. Dana (_Two Years before the Mast_, 1840) called the word "a newly invented Yankee word." J. R. Lowell (_Biglow Papers_, 2nd series, Introd.) explains it as German in origin, and connects it with _laufen_, to run, and states that the dialectical form _lofen_ is used in the sense of "saunter up and down." This explanation has been generally accepted. The _New English Dictionary_ rejects it, however, and states that _laufen_ is not used in this sense, but points out that the German _Landläufer_, the English obsolete word "landlouper," or "landloper," one who wanders about the country, a vagrant or vagabond, has a resemblance in meaning. J. S. Farmer and W. E. Henley's _Dictionary of Slang and its Analogues_ gives as French synonyms of "loafer," _chevalier de la loupe_ and _loupeur_.

LOAM (O.E. _lám_; the word appears in Dut. _leem_ and Ger. _Lehm_; the ultimate origin is the root _lai_-, meaning "to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate "lime," Lat. _limus_, mud, clay), a fertile soil composed of a mixture of sand, clay, and decomposed vegetable matter, the quantity of sand being sufficient to prevent the clay massing together. The word is also used of a mixture of sand, clay and straw, used for making casting-moulds and bricks, and for plastering walls, &c. (see SOIL).

LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. _lån_, Icel. _lán_, Dut. _leen_; the O.E. _laén_ appears in "lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. [Greek: leipein] and Lat. _linquere_, to leave), that which is lent; a sum of money or something of value lent for a specific or indefinite period when it or its equivalent is to be repaid or returned, usually at a specified rate of interest (see USURY and MONEY-LENDING). For public loans see FINANCE, NATIONAL DEBT, and the various sections on finance under the names of the various countries.

LOANDA (_São Paulo de Loanda_), a seaport of West Africa, capital of the Portuguese province of Angola, situated in 8° 48´ S., 13° 7´ E., on a bay between the rivers Bango and Kwanza. The bay, protected from the surf by a long narrow island of sand, is backed by a low sandy cliff which at its southern end sweeps out with a sharp curve and terminates in a bold point crowned by Fort San Miguel. The depth of water at the entrance to the bay is 20 fathoms or more. The bay has silted up considerably, but there is a good anchorage about 1½ m. from the shore in 7 to 14 fathoms, besides cranage accommodation and a floating dock. Vessels discharge into lighters, and are rarely delayed on account of the weather. A part of the town lies on the foreshore, but the more important buildings--the government offices, the governor's residence, the palace of the bishop of Angola, and the hospital--are situated on higher ground. Most of the European houses are large stone buildings of one storey with red tile roofs. Loanda possesses a meteorological observatory, public garden, tramways, gas-works, statues to Salvador Correia de Sá, who wrested Angola from the Dutch, and to Pedro Alexandrino, a former governor, and is the starting-point of the railway to Ambaca and Malanje.

Loanda was founded in 1576, and except between 1640 and 1648, when it was occupied by the Dutch, has always been in Portuguese possession. It was for over two centuries the chief centre of the slave trade between Portuguese West Africa and Brazil. During that time the traffic of the port was of no small account, and after a period of great depression consequent on the suppression of that trade, more legitimate commerce was developed. There is a regular service of steamers between the port and Lisbon, Liverpool and Hamburg. The town has some 15,000 inhabitants, including a larger European population than any other place on the west coast of Africa. It is connected by submarine cables with Europe and South Africa. Fully half the imports and export trade of Angola (q.v.) passes through Loanda.

LOANGO, a region on the west coast of Africa, extending from the mouth of the Congo river in 6° S. northwards through about two degrees. At one time included in the "kingdom of Congo" (see ANGOLA, _History_), Loango became independent about the close of the 16th century, and was still of considerable importance in the middle of the 18th century. Buali, the capital, was situated on the banks of a small river not far from the port of Loango, where were several European "factories." The country afterwards became divided into a large number of petty states, while Portugal and France exercised an intermittent sovereignty over the coast. Here the slave trade was longer maintained than anywhere else on the West African seaboard; since its extirpation, palm oil and india-rubber have been the main objects of commerce. The Loango coast is now divided between French Congo and the Portuguese district of Kabinda (see those articles). The natives, mainly members of the Ba-Kongo group of Bantu negroes, and often called Ba-Fiot, are in general well-built, strongly dolichocephalous and very thick of skull, the skin of various shades of warm brown with the faintest suggestion of purple. Baldness is unknown, and many of the men wear beards. Physical deformity is extremely rare. In religious beliefs and in the use of fetishes they resemble the negroes of Upper Guinea.

LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH (1793-1856), Russian mathematician, was born at Makariev, Nizhniy-Novgorod, on the 2nd of November (N.S.) 1793. His father died about 1800, and his mother, who was left in poor circumstances, removed to Kazan with her three sons. In 1807 Nicolas, the second boy, entered as a student in the University of Kazan, then recently established. Five years later, having completed the curriculum, he began to take part in the teaching, becoming assistant professor in 1814 and extraordinary professor two years afterwards. In 1823 he succeeded to the ordinary professorship of mathematics, and retained the chair until about 1846, when he seems to have fallen into official disfavour. At that time his connexion with the university to which he had devoted his life practically came to an end, except that in 1855, at the celebration of his jubilee, he brought it as a last tribute his _Pangéométrie_, in which he summarized the results of his geometrical studies. This work was translated into German by H. Liebmann in 1902. He died at Kazan on the 24th of February (N.S.) 1856. Lobachevskiy was one of the first thinkers to apply a critical treatment to the fundamental axioms of geometry, and he thus became a pioneer of the modern geometries which deal with space other than as treated by Euclid. His first contribution to non-Euclidian geometry is believed to have been given in a lecture at Kazan in 1826, but the subject is treated in many of his subsequent memoirs, among which may be mentioned the _Geometrische Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Parallellinien_ (Berlin, 1840, and a new edition in 1887), and the _Pangéométrie_ already referred to, which in the subtitle is described as a précis of geometry founded on a general and rigorous theory of parallels. (See GEOMETRY, § _Non-Euclidean_, and GEOMETRY, § _Axioms of_.) In addition to his geometrical studies, he made various contributions to other branches of mathematical science, among them being an elaborate treatise on algebra (Kazan, 1834). Besides being a geometer of power and originality, Lobachevskiy was an excellent man of business. Under his administration the University of Kazan prospered as it had never done before; and he not only organized the teaching staff to a high degree of efficiency, but arranged and enriched its library, furnished instruments for its observatory, collected specimens for its museums and provided it with proper buildings. In order to be able to supervise the erection of the last, he studied architecture, with such effect, it is said, that he was able to carry out the plans at a cost considerably below the original estimates.

See F. Engel, _N. I. Lobatchewsky_ (Leipzig, 1899).

LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH, PRINCE (1824-1896), Russian statesman, was born on the 30th of December 1824, and educated, like Prince Gorchakov and so many other eminent Russians, at the lyceum of Tsarskoe Selo. At the age of twenty he entered the diplomatic service, and became minister at Constantinople in 1859. In 1863 a regrettable incident in his private life made him retire temporarily from the public service, but four years later he re-entered it and served for ten years as _adlatus_ to the minister of the interior. At the close of the Russo-Turkish war in 1878 he was selected by the emperor to fill the post of ambassador at Constantinople, and for more than a year he carried out with great ability the policy of his government, which aimed at re-establishing tranquillity in the Eastern Question, after the disturbances produced by the reckless action of his predecessor, Count Ignatiev. In 1879 he was transferred to London, and in 1882 to Vienna; and in March 1895 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession to M. de Giers. In this position he displayed much of the caution of his predecessor, but adopted a more energetic policy in European affairs generally and especially in the Balkan Peninsula. At the time of his appointment the attitude of the Russian government towards the Slav nationalities had been for several years one of extreme reserve, and he had seemed as ambassador to sympathize with this attitude. But as soon as he became minister of foreign affairs, Russian influence in the Balkan Peninsula suddenly revived. Servia received financial assistance; a large consignment of arms was sent openly from St Petersburg to the prince of Montenegro; Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria became ostensibly reconciled with the Russian emperor, and his son Boris was received into the Eastern Orthodox Church; the Russian embassy at Constantinople tried to bring about a reconciliation between the Bulgarian exarch and the oecumenical patriarch; Bulgarians and Servians professed, at the bidding of Russia, to lay aside their mutual hostility. All this seemed to foreshadow the creation of a Balkan confederation hostile to Turkey, and the sultan had reason to feel alarmed. In reality Prince Lobanov was merely trying to establish a strong Russian hegemony among these nationalities, and he had not the slightest intention of provoking a new crisis in the Eastern Question so long as the general European situation did not afford Russia a convenient opportunity for solving it in her own interest without serious intervention from other powers. Meanwhile he considered that the integrity and independence of the Ottoman empire must be maintained so far as these other powers were concerned. Accordingly, when Lord Salisbury proposed energetic action to protect the Armenians, the cabinet of St Petersburg suddenly assumed the rôle of protector of the sultan and vetoed the proposal. At the same time efforts were made to weaken the Triple Alliance, the principal instrument employed being the _entente_ with France, which Prince Lobanov helped to convert into a formal alliance between the two powers. In the Far East he was not less active, and became the protector of China in the same sense as he had shown himself the protector of Turkey. Japan was compelled to give up her conquests on the Chinese mainland, so as not to interfere with the future action of Russia in Manchuria, and the financial and other schemes for increasing Russian influence in that part of the world were vigorously supported. All this activity, though combined with a haughty tone towards foreign governments and diplomatists, did not produce much general apprehension, probably because there was a widespread conviction that he desired to maintain peace, and that his great ability and strength of character would enable him to control the dangerous forces which he boldly set in motion. However this may be, before he had time to mature his schemes, and when he had been the director of Russian policy for only eighteen months, he died suddenly of heart disease when travelling with the emperor on the 30th of August 1896. Personally Prince Lobanov was a _grand seigneur_ of the Russian type, proud of being descended from the independent princes of Rostov, and at the same time an amiable man of wide culture, deeply versed in Russian history and genealogy, and perhaps the first authority of his time in all that related to the reign of the emperor Paul. (D. M. W.)

LÖBAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Löbau water, 12 m. S.E. of the town of Bautzen, on the Dresden-Görlitz railway. Pop. (1905) 10,683. There is a spa, König Albert-Bad, largely frequented during the summer season. The town has agricultural implement, pianoforte, sugar, machine-building and button works, and trade in grain, yarn, linen and stockings. Other industries are spinning, weaving, dyeing, bleaching and brewing.

Löbau is first mentioned as a town in 1221; it received civic rights early in the 14th century and, in 1346, became one of the six allied towns of Lusatia. It suffered severely during the Hussite war and was deprived of its rights in 1547.

See Bergmann, _Geschichte der Oberlausitzer Sechsstadt Löbau_ (Bischofswerda, 1896); and Kretschmer, _Die Stadl Löbau_ (Chemnitz, 1904).

LOBBY, a corridor or passage, also any apartment serving as an ante-room, waiting room or entrance hall in a building. The Med. Lat. _lobia_, _laubia_ or _lobium_, from which the word was directly adapted, was used in the sense of a cloister, gallery or covered place for walking attached to a house, as defined by Du Cange (_Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lat._, s.v. _Lobia_), _porticus operta ad spatiandum idonea, aedibus adjuncta_. The French form of _lobia_ was _loge_, cf. Ital. _loggia_, and this gave the Eng. "lodge," which is thus a doublet of "lobby." The ultimate derivation is given under LODGE. Other familiar uses of the term "lobby" are its application (1) to the entrance hall of a parliament house, and (2) to the two corridors known as "division-lobbies," into which the members of the House of Commons and other legislative bodies pass on a division, their votes being recorded according to which "lobby," "aye" or "no," they enter. The entrance lobby to a legislative building is open to the public, and thus is a convenient place for interviews between members and their constituents or with representatives of public bodies, associations and interests, and the press. The influence and pressure thus brought to bear upon members of legislative bodies has given rise to the use of "to lobby," "lobbying," "lobbyist," &c., with this special significance. The practice, though not unknown in the British parliament, is most prevalent in the United States of America, where the use of the term first arose (see below).

LOBBYING, in America, a general term used to designate the efforts of persons who are not members of a legislative body to influence the course of legislation. In addition to the large number of American private bills which are constantly being introduced in Congress and the various state legislatures, there are many general measures, such as proposed changes in the tariff or in the railway or banking laws, which seriously affect special interests. The people who are most intimately concerned naturally have a right to appear before the legislature or its representative, the committee in charge of the bill, and present their side of the case. Lobbying in this sense is legitimate, and may almost be regarded as a necessity. Unfortunately, however, all lobbying is not of this innocent character. The great industrial corporations, insurance companies, and railway and traction monopolies which have developed in comparatively recent years are constantly in need of legislative favours; they are also compelled to protect themselves against legislation which is unreasonably severe, and against what are known in the slang of politics as _strikes_ or _hold-ups_.[1] In order that these objects may be accomplished there are kept at Washington and at the various state capitals paid agents whose influence is so well recognized that they are popularly called "the third house." Methods of the most reprehensible kind have often been employed by them.

Attempts have been made to remedy the evil by constitutional prohibition, by statute law and by the action of the governor of the state supported by public opinion. Improper lobbying has been declared a felony in California, Georgia, Utah, Tennessee, Oregon, Montana and Arizona, and the constitutions of practically all of the states impose restrictions upon the enactment of special and private legislation. The Massachusetts anti-lobbying act of 1890, which has served as a model for the legislation of Maryland (1900), Wisconsin (1905) and a few of the other states, is based upon the publicity principle. Counsel and other legislative agents must register with the sergeant-at-arms giving the names and addresses of their employers and the date, term and character of their employment. In 1907 alone laws regulating lobbying were passed in nine states--Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota and Texas.

See James Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (New York, ed. 1889), i. 673-678; Paul S. Reinsch, _American Legislatures and Legislative Methods_ (New York, 1907), chaps. viii., ix.; Margaret A. Schaffner, "Lobbying," in _Wisconsin Comparative Legislation Bulletins_, No. 2; and G. M. Gregory, _The Corrupt Use of Money in Politics and Laws for its Prevention_ (Madison, Wis., 1893).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Bills introduced for purposes of blackmail.

LOBE, any round projecting part, specifically the lower part of the external ear, one of the parts into which the liver is divided, also one of several parts of the brain, divided by marked fissures (see LIVER and BRAIN). The Greek [Greek: lobos], from which "lobe" is derived, was applied to the lobe of the ear and of the liver, and to the pod of a leguminous plant.

LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1781-1860), German classical scholar, was born at Naumburg on the 5th of June 1781. After having studied at Jena and Leipzig, he settled at Wittenberg in 1802 as privat-docent, and in 1810 was appointed to a professorship in the university. Four years later, he accepted the chair of rhetoric and ancient literature at Königsberg, which he occupied till within two years of his death (25th of August 1860). His literary activities were devoted to the history of Greek religion and to the Greek language and literature. His greatest work, _Aglaophamus_ (1829), is still valuable to students. In this he maintains, against the views put forward by G. F. Creuzer in his _Symbolik_ (1810-1823), that the religion of the Greek mysteries (especially those of Eleusis) did not essentially differ from the national religion; that it was not esoteric; that the priests as such neither taught nor possessed any higher knowledge of God; that the Oriental elements were a later importation. His edition of the _Ajax_ of Sophocles (1809) had gained him the reputation of a sound scholar and critic; his Phrynichus (1820) and _Paralipomena grammaticae graecae_ (1837) exhibit the widest acquaintance with Greek literature. He had little sympathy with comparative philology, holding that it needed a lifetime to acquire a thorough knowledge of a single language.

See the article by L. Friedländer in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_; C. Bursian's _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); Lehrs, _Populäre Aufsätze aus dem Altertum_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1875); Ludwich, _Ausgewählte Briefe von und an Chr. Aug. Lobeck und K. Lehrs_ (1894); also J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, i. (1908), 103.

LOBEIRA, JOÃO (c. 1233-1285), a Portuguese troubadour of the time of King Alphonso III., who is supposed to have been the first to reduce into prose the story of _Amadis de Gaula_ (q.v.). D. Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos, in her masterly edition of the _Cancioneiro de Ajuda_ (Halle, 1904, vol. i. pp. 523-524), gives some biographical notes on João Lobeira, who is represented in the Colocci Brancuti _Canzoniere_ (Halle, 1880) by five poems (Nos. 230-235). In number 230, João Lobeira uses the same _ritournelle_ that Oriana sings in _Amadis de Gaula_, and this has led to his being generally considered by modern supporters of the Portuguese case to have been the author of the romance, in preference to Vasco de Lobeira, to whom the prose original was formerly ascribed. The folklorist A. Thomas Pires (in his _Vasco de Lobeira_, Elvas, 1905), following the old tradition, would identify the novelist with a man of that name who flourished in Elvas at the close of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, but the documents he publishes contain no reference to this Lobeira being a man of letters.

LOBELIA, the typical genus of the tribe _Lobelieae_, of the order Campanulaceae, named after Matthias de Lobel, a native of Lille, botanist and physician to James I. It numbers about two hundred species, natives of nearly all the temperate and warmer regions of the world, excepting central and eastern Europe as well as western Asia. They are annual or perennial herbs or under-shrubs, rarely shrubby; remarkable arborescent forms are the tree-lobelias found at high elevations on the mountains of tropical Africa. Two species are British, _L. Dortmanna_ (named by Linnaeus after Dortmann, a Dutch druggist), which occurs in gravelly mountain lakes; and _L. urens_, which is only found on heaths, &c., in Dorset and Cornwall. The genus is distinguished from _Campanula_ by the irregular corona and completely united anthers, and by the excessive acridity of the milky juice. The species earliest described and figured appears to be _L. cardinalis_, under the name _Trachelium americanum sive cardinalis planta_, "the rich crimson cardinal's flower"; Parkinson (_Paradisus_, 1629, p. 357) says, "it groweth neere the riuer of Canada, where the French plantation in America is seated." It is a native of the eastern United States. This and several other species are in cultivation as ornamental garden plants, e.g. the dwarf blue _L. Erinus_, from the Cape, which, with its numerous varieties, forms a familiar bedding plant. _L. splendens_ and _L. fulgens_, growing from 1 to 2 ft. high, from Mexico, have scarlet flowers; _L. Tupa_, a Chilean perennial 6 to 8 ft. high, has reddish or scarlet flowers; _L. tenuior_ with blue flowers is a recent acquisition to the greenhouse section, while _L. amaena_, from North America, as well as _L. syphilitica_ and its hybrids, from Virginia, have also blue flowers. The last-named was introduced in 1665. The hybrids raised by crossing _cardinalis_, _fulgens_, _splendens_ and _syphilitica_, constitute a fine group of fairly hardy and showy garden plants. Queen Victoria is a well-known variety, but there are now many others.

The _Lobelia_ is familiar in gardens under two very different forms, that of the dwarf-tufted plants used for summer bedding, and that of the tall showy perennials. Of the former the best type is _L. Erinus_, growing from 4 to 6 in. high, with many slender stems, bearing through a long period a profusion of small but bright blue two-lipped flowers. The variety _speciosa_ offers the best strain of the dwarf lobelias; but the varieties are being constantly superseded by new sorts. A good variety will reproduce itself sufficiently true from seed for ordinary flower borders, but to secure exact uniformity it is necessary to propagate from cuttings.

The herbaceous lobelias, of which _L. fulgens_ may be taken as the type, may be called hardy except in so far as they suffer from damp in winter; they throw up a series of short rosette-like suckers round the base of the old flowering stem, and these sometimes, despite all the care taken of them, rot off during winter. The roots should either be taken up in autumn, and planted closely side by side in boxes of dry earth or ashes, these being set for the time they are dormant either in a cold frame or in any airy place in the greenhouse; or they may be left in the ground, in which case a brick or two should be put beside the plants, some coal ashes being first placed round them, and slates to protect the plants being laid over the bricks, one end resting on the earth beyond. About February they should be placed in a warm pit, and after a few days shaken out and the suckers parted, and potted singly into small pots of light rich earth. After being kept in the forcing pit until well established, they should be moved to a more airy greenhouse pit, and eventually to a cold frame preparatory to planting out. In the more favoured parts of the United Kingdom it is unnecessary to go to this trouble, as the plants are perfectly hardy; even in the suburbs of London they live for several years without protection except in very severe winters. They should have a loamy soil, well enriched with manure; and require copious waterings when they start into free growth. They may be raised from seeds, which, being very fine, require to be sown carefully; but they do not flower usually till the second year unless they are sown very early in heat.

The species _Lobelia inflata_, the "Indian tobacco" of North America, is used in medicine, the entire herb, dried and in flower, being employed. The species derives its specific name from its characteristic inflated capsules. It is somewhat irritant to the nostrils, and is possessed of a burning, acrid taste. The chief constituent is a volatile liquid alkaloid (cf. nicotine) named lobeline, which occurs to the extent of about 30 %. This is a very pungent body, with a tobacco-like odour. It occurs in combination with lobelic acid and forms solid crystalline salts. The single preparation of this plant in the British Pharmacopeia is the _Tinctura Lobeliae Ethereae_, composed of five parts of spirits of ether to one of lobelia. The dose is 5 to 15 minims. The ether is employed in order to add to the efficacy of the drug in asthma, but a simple alcoholic tincture would be really preferable.

Lobelia has certain pharmacological resemblances to tobacco. It has no action upon the unbroken skin, but may be absorbed by it under suitable conditions. Taken internally in small doses, e.g. 5 minims of the tincture, it stimulates the peristaltic movements of the coecum and colon. In large doses it is a powerful gastrointestinal irritant, closely resembling tobacco, and causing giddiness, headache, nausea, vomiting, purging and extreme prostration, with clammy sweats and faltering rapid pulse. Its action on the circulation is very decided. The cardiac terminals of the vagus nerves are paralysed, the pulse being thus accelerated by loss of the normal inhibitory influence, and the blood-vessels being relaxed owing to paresis of the vasomotor centre. The blood-pressure thus falls very markedly. The respiratory centre is similarly depressed, death ensuing from this action. Lobelia is thus a typical respiratory poison. In less than toxic doses the motor terminals of the vagi in the bronchi and bronchioles are paralysed, thus causing relaxation of the bronchial muscles. It is doubtful whether lobelia affects the cerebrum directly. It is excreted by the kidneys and the skin, both of which it stimulates in its passage. In general terms the drug may be said to stimulate non-striped muscular fibres in small, and paralyse them in toxic doses.

Five minims of the tincture may be usefully prescribed to be taken night and morning in chronic constipation due to inertia of the lower part of the alimentary canal. In spasmodic (neurotic) asthma, and also in bronchitis accompanied by asthmatic spasm of the bronchioles, the tincture may be given in comparatively large doses (e.g. one drachm) every fifteen minutes until nausea is produced. Thereafter, whether successful or not in relieving the spasm, the administration of the drug must be stopped.

LOBENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the principality of Reuss, on the Lemnitz, situated in a pleasant and fertile country, 25 m. N.W. from Hof by railway. Pop. (1905) 2990. The town, grouped round a rock, upon which stand the ruins of the old castle, is exceedingly picturesque. It contains a spacious parish church, a palace, until 1824 the residence of the princes of Reuss-Lobenstein-Elersdorf, and a hydropathic establishment. The manufactures include dyeing, brewing and cigar-making.

See Zedler and Schott, _Führer durch Lobenstein und Umgebung_ (2nd ed., Lobenstein, 1903).

LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES (?1575-?1627), Portuguese bucolic writer, a lineal descendant in the family of letters of Bernardim Ribeiro and Christovam Falcão. All we know of his life is that he was born of rich and noble parents at Leiria, and lived at ease in its picturesque neighbourhood, reading philosophy and poetry and writing of shepherds and shepherdesses by the rivers Liz and Lena. He studied at the university of Coimbra and took the degree of licentiate about 1600. He visited Lisbon from time to time, and tradition has it that he died by drowning on his way thither as he was descending the Tagus from Santarem. Though his first book, a little volume of verses (Romances) published in 1596, and his last, a rhymed welcome to King Philip III., published in 1623, are written in Spanish, he composed his eclogues and prose pastorals entirely in Portuguese, and thereby did a rare service to his country at a time when, owing to the Spanish domination, Castilian was the language preferred by polite society and by men of letters. His _Primavera_, a book that may be compared to the _Diana_ of Jorge de Montemôr (Montemayor), appeared in 1601, its second part, the _Pastor Peregrino_, in 1608, and its third, the _Desenganado_, in 1614. The dullness of these lengthy collections of episodes without plan, thread or ideas, is relieved by charming and ingenious pastoral songs named _serranilhas_. His eclogues in endecasyllables are an echo of those of Camoens, but like his other verses they are inferior to his _redondilhas_, which show the traditional fount of his inspiration. In his _Corte na Aldeia_ (1619), a man of letters, a young nobleman, a student and an old man of easy means, beguile the winter evenings at Cintra by a series of philosophic and literary discussions in dialogue which may still be read with pleasure. Lobo is also the author of an insipid epic in twenty cantos in _ottava rima_ on the Constable D. Nuno Alvares Pereira, the hero of the war of independence against Spain at the end of the 14th century. The characteristics of his prose style are harmony, purity and elegance, and he ranks as one of Portugal's leading writers. A disciple of the Italian school, his verses are yet free from imitations of classical models, his descriptions of natural scenery are unsurpassed in the Portuguese language, and generally his writings strike a true note and show a sincerity that was rare at the time. Their popularity may be seen by the fact that the _Primavera_ went through seven editions in the 17th century and nine in all, a large number for so limited a market as that of Portugal, while six editions exist of the _Pastor Peregrino_ and four of the epic poem. An edition of his collected works was published in one volume in Lisbon in 1723, and another in four volumes, but less complete, appeared there in 1774.

See Costa e Silva, _Ensaio biographico critico_, v. 5-112, for a critical examination of Lobo's writings; also Bouterwek's _History of Portuguese Literature_. (E. Pr.)

LOBO, JERONIMO (1593-1678), Jesuit missionary, was born in Lisbon, and entered the Order of Jesus at the age of sixteen. In 1621 he was ordered as a missionary to India, and in 1622 he arrived at Goa. With the intention of proceeding to Abyssinia, whose Negus (emperor) Segued had been converted to Roman Catholicism by Pedro Paez, he left India in 1624. He disembarked on the coast of Mombasa, and attempted to reach his destination through the Galla country, but was forced to return. In 1625 he set out again, accompanied by Mendez, the patriarch of Ethiopia, and eight missionaries. The party landed on the coast of the Red Sea, and Lobo settled in Abyssinia as superintendent of the missions in Tigré. He remained there until death deprived the Catholics of their protector, the emperor Segued. Forced by persecution to leave the kingdom, in 1634 Lobo and his companions fell into the hands of the Turks at Massawa, who sent him to India to procure a ransom for his imprisoned fellow-missionaries. In this he was successful, but could not induce the Portuguese viceroy to send an armament against Abyssinia. Intent upon accomplishing this cherished project, he embarked for Portugal, and after he had been shipwrecked on the coast of Natal, and captured by pirates, arrived at Lisbon. Neither at this city, however, nor at Madrid and Rome, was any countenance given to Lobo's plan. He accordingly returned to India in 1640, and was elected rector, and afterwards provincial, of the Jesuits at Goa. After some years he returned to his native city, and died there on the 29th of January 1678.

Lobo wrote an account of his travels in Portuguese, which appears never to have been printed, but is deposited in the monastery of St Roque, Lisbon. Balthazar Telles made large use of the information therein in his _Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta_ (Coimbra, 1660), often erroneously attributed to Lobo (see Machado's _Bibliotheca Lusitana_). Lobo's own narrative was translated from a MS. copy into French in 1728 by the Abbé Joachim le Grand, under the title of _Voyage historique d'Abissinie_. In 1669 a translation by Sir Peter Wyche of several passages from a MS. account of Lobo's travels was published by the Royal Society (translated in M. Thévenot's _Relation des voyages_ in 1673). An English abridgment of Le Grand's edition by Dr Johnson was published in 1735 (reprinted 1789). In a _Mémoire justificatif en réhabilitation des pères Pierre Paez et Jérôme Lobo_, Dr C. T. Beke maintains against Bruce the accuracy of Lobo's statements as to the source of the Abai branch of the Nile. See A. de Backer, _Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus_ (ed. C. Sommervogel, iv., 1893).

LOBSTER (O.E. _lopustre_, _lopystre_, a corruption of Lat. _locusta_, lobster or other marine shell-fish; also a locust), an edible crustacean found on the coasts of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. The name is sometimes loosely applied to any of the larger Crustacea of the order Macrura, especially to such as are used for food.

The true lobsters, forming the family _Homaridae_, are distinguished from the other Macrura by having the first three pairs of legs terminating in chelae or pincers. The first pair are large and massive and are composed of six segments, while the remaining legs are each composed of seven segments. The sternum of the last thoracic somite is immovably united with the preceding. This last character, together with some peculiarities of the branchial system, distinguish the lobsters from the freshwater crayfishes. The common lobster (_Homarus gammarus_ or _vulgaris_) is found on the European coasts from Norway to the Mediterranean. The American lobster (_Homarus americanus_), which should perhaps be ranked as a variety rather than as a distinct species, is found on the Atlantic coast of North America from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. A third species, found at the Cape of Good Hope, is of small size and of no economic importance.

Both in Europe and in America the lobster is the object of an important fishery. It lives in shallow water, in rocky places, and is usually captured in traps known as lobster-pots, or creels, made of wickerwork or of hoops covered with netting, and having funnel-shaped openings permitting entrance but preventing escape. These traps are baited with pieces of fish, preferably stale, and are sunk on ground frequented by lobsters, the place of each being marked by a buoy. In Europe the lobsters are generally sent to market in the fresh state, but in America, especially in the northern New England states and in the maritime provinces of Canada, the canning of lobsters is an important industry. The European lobster rarely reaches 10 pounds in weight, though individuals of 14 pounds have been found, and in America there are authentic records of lobsters weighing 20 to 23 pounds.

The effects of over-fishing have become apparent, especially in America, rather in the reduced average size of the lobsters caught than in any diminution of the total yield. The imposition of a close time to protect the spawning lobsters has been often tried, but as the female carries the spawn attached to her body for nearly twelve months after spawning it is impossible to give any effective protection by this means. The prohibition of the capture of females carrying spawn, or, as it is termed, "in berry," is difficult to enforce. A minimum size, below which it is illegal to sell lobsters, is fixed by law in most lobster-fishing districts, but the value of the protection so given has also been questioned.

The Norway lobster (_Nephrops norvegicus_) is found, like the common lobster, from Norway to the Mediterranean. It is a smaller species, with long and slender claws and is of an orange colour, often beautifully marked with red and blue. It is found in deeper water and is generally captured by trawling. It is a curious and unexplained fact that nearly all the individuals so captured are males. It is less esteemed for food than the common species. In London it is sold under the name of "Dublin prawn."

The rock lobster, spiny lobster, or sea-crawfish (_Palinurus vulgaris_) belongs to the family _Palinuridae_, distinguished from the _Homaridae_ by the fact that the first legs are not provided with chelae or pincers, and that all the legs possess only six segments. The antennae are very long and thick. It is found on the southern and western coasts of the British, Islands and extends to the Mediterranean. It is highly esteemed for the table, especially in France, where it goes by the name of _Langouste_. Other species of the same family are used for food in various parts of the world, especially on the Pacific coast of North America and in Australia and New Zealand.

In Melbourne and Sydney the name of "Murray lobster" is given to a large species of crayfish (_Astacopsis spinifer_, formerly known as _Astacus_, or _Potamobius serratus_) which is much used for food. (W. T. Ca.)

LOCAL GOVERNMENT, a phrase specially adopted in English usage for the decentralized or deconcentrated administration, within a state or national and central government, of local affairs by local authorities. It is restricted not only in respect of area but also in respect of the character and extent of the duties assigned to them. It is not to be confused with local self-government in the wider sense in which the words are sometimes employed, e.g. for the granting by the crown of self-government to a colony; the expression, in a general way, may mean this, but "local government" as technically used in England refers more narrowly to the system of county or municipal administration, and English usage transfers it to denote the similar institutions in other countries. The growth and persistence of this kind of subordinate government is due practically to the need of relieving the central authority in the state, and to experience of the failure of a completely centralized bureaucracy. The degree to which local government is adopted varies considerably in different countries, and those which are the best examples of it in modern times--the United Kingdom, the United States, France and Germany--differ very much in their local institutions, partly through historical, partly through temperamental, causes. A certain shifting of ideas from time to time, as to what is local and what is central, is inevitable, and the same view is not possible in countries of different configuration, history or political system. The history and present state of the local government in the various countries are dealt with in the separate articles on them (ENGLAND, GERMANY, &c.), in the sections dealing with government and administration, or political institutions.

The best recent comparative study of local government is Percy Ashley's _Local and Central Government_ (Murray, 1906), an admirable account of the evolution and working of the systems in England, France, Prussia and United States. Other important works, in addition to general works on constitutional law, are J. A. Fairlie's _Municipal Administration_, Shaw's _Municipal Government in Continental Europe_, Redlich and Hirst's _Local Government in England_, Mr and Mrs Sidney Webb's elaborate historical inquiry into English local government (1906), and for Germany, Bornhak's _Geschichte des preussischen Verwaltungsrechts_.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD, a department of the administration of the United Kingdom, constituted in 1871. It is the successor of the General Board of Health, established in 1848 pursuant to the Public Health Act of that year. The General Board of Health continued in existence until 1854, when it was reconstituted. Its existence under its new constitution was originally limited to one year, but was extended from year to year until 1858, when it was allowed to expire, its powers under the various acts for the prevention of diseases being transferred to the privy council, while those which related to the control of local authorities passed to the secretary of state for the home department, to whose department the staff of officers and clerks belonging to the board was transferred. This state of affairs continued until 1871, when the Local Government Board was created by the Local Government Board Act 1871. It consists of the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries of state, the lord privy seal, the chancellor of the exchequer and a president appointed by the sovereign. The board itself seldom meets, and the duties of the department are discharged by the president assisted by a parliamentary and a permanent secretary and a permanent staff. The president and one of the secretaries usually have seats in parliament, and the president is generally a member of the cabinet. The salary of the president, formerly £2000, was raised in 1910 to £5000 a year. The board has all the powers of the secretary of state under the Public Health Act 1848, and the numerous subsequent acts relating to sanitary matters and the government of sanitary districts; together with all the powers and duties of the privy council under the acts relating to the prevention of epidemic disease and to vaccination. The powers and duties of the board have been largely added to by legislation since its creation; it may be said that the board exercises a general supervision over the numerous authorities to whom local government has been entrusted (see ENGLAND: _Local Government_). A committee presided over by Lord Jersey in 1904 inquired into the constitution and duties of the board, but made no recommendation as to any change therein. It recommended, however, an increase in the salaries of the president and of the parliamentary and permanent secretaries.

LOCARNO (Ger. _Luggarus_), a small town of Italian appearance in the Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino, of which till 1881 it was one of the three capitals (the others being Bellinzona, q.v., and Lugano, q.v.). It is built at the north or Swiss end of the Lago Maggiore, not far from the point at which the Maggia enters that lake, and is by rail 14 m. S.W. of Bellinzona. Its height above the sea-level is only 682 ft., so that it is said to be the lowest spot in Switzerland. In 1900 its population was 3603, mainly Italian-speaking and Romanists. It was taken from the Milanese in 1512 by the Swiss who ruled it till 1798, when it became part of the canton of Lugano in the Helvetic Republic, and in 1803 part of that of Tessin or Ticino, then first erected. In 1555 a number of Protestant inhabitants were expelled for religious reasons, and going to Zürich founded the silk industry there. Above Locarno is the romantically situated sanctuary of the Madonna del Sasso (now rendered easily accessible by a funicular railway) that commands a glorious view over the lake and the surrounding country. (W. A. B. C.)

LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, 1ST BARON (1827-1900), British colonial administrator, son of James Loch, M.P., of Drylaw, Midlothian, was born on the 23rd of May 1827. He entered the navy, but at the end of two years quitted it for the East India Company's military service, and in 1842 obtained a commission in the Bengal Light Cavalry. In the Sikh war in 1845 he was given an appointment on the staff of Sir Hugh Gough, and served throughout the Sutlej campaign. In 1852 he became second in command of Skinner's Horse. At the outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854, Loch severed his connexion with India, and obtained leave to raise a body of irregular Bulgarian cavalry, which he commanded throughout the war. In 1857 he was appointed attaché to Lord Elgin's mission to the East, was present at the taking of Canton, and in 1858 brought home the treaty of Yedo. In April 1860 he again accompanied Lord Elgin to China, as secretary of the new embassy sent to secure the execution by China of her treaty engagements. The embassy was backed up by an allied Anglo-French force. With Harry S. Parkes he negotiated the surrender of the Taku forts. During the advance on Peking Loch was chosen with Parkes to complete the preliminary negotiations for peace at Tungchow. They were accompanied by a small party of officers and Sikhs. It having been discovered that the Chinese were planning a treacherous attack on the British force, Loch rode back and warned the outposts. He then returned to Parkes and his party under a flag of truce hoping to secure their safety. They were all, however, made prisoners and taken to Peking, where the majority died from torture or disease. Parkes and Loch, after enduring irons and all the horrors of a Chinese prison, were afterwards more leniently treated. After three weeks' time the negotiations for their release were successful, but they had only been liberated ten minutes when orders were received from the Chinese emperor, then a fugitive in Mongolia, for their immediate execution. Loch never entirely recovered his health after this experience in a Chinese dungeon. Returning home he was made C.B., and for a while was private secretary to Sir George Grey, then at the Home Office. In 1863 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man. During his governorship the House of Keys was transformed into an elective assembly, the first line of railway was opened, and the influx of tourists began to bring fresh prosperity to the island. In 1882 Loch, who had become K.C.B. in 1880, accepted a commissionership of woods and forests, and two years later was made governor of Victoria, where he won the esteem of all classes. In June 1889 he succeeded Sir Hercules Robinson as governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner of South Africa.

As high commissioner his duties called for the exercise of great judgment and firmness. The Boers were at the same time striving to frustrate Cecil Rhodes's schemes of northern expansion and planning to occupy Mashonaland, to secure control of Swaziland and Zululand and to acquire the adjacent lands up to the ocean. Loch firmly supported Rhodes, and, by informing President Kruger that troops would be sent to prevent any invasion of territory under British protection, he effectually crushed the "Banyailand trek" across the Limpopo (1890-91). Loch, however, with the approval of the imperial government, concluded in July-August 1890 a convention with President Kruger respecting Swaziland, by which, while the Boers withdrew all claims to territory north of the Transvaal, they were granted an outlet to the sea at Kosi Bay on condition that the republic entered the South African Customs Union. This convention was concluded after negotiations conducted with President Kruger by J. H. Hofmeyr on behalf of the high commissioner, and was made at a time when the British and Bond parties in Cape Colony were working in harmony. The Transvaal did not, however, fulfil the necessary condition, and in view of the increasingly hostile attitude of the Pretoria administration to Great Britain Loch became a strong advocate of the annexation by Britain of the territory east of Swaziland, through which the Boer railway to the sea would have passed. He at length induced the British government to adopt his view and on the 15th of March 1895 it was announced that these territories (Amatongaland, &c.), would be annexed by Britain, an announcement received by Mr Kruger "with the greatest astonishment and regret." Meantime Loch had been forced to intervene in another matter. When the commandeering difficulty of 1894 had roused the Uitlanders in the Transvaal to a dangerous pitch of excitement, he travelled to Pretoria to use his personal influence with President Kruger, and obtained the withdrawal of the obnoxious commandeering regulations. In the following year he entered a strong protest against the new Transvaal franchise law. Meanwhile, however, the general situation in South Africa was assuming year by year a more threatening aspect. Cecil Rhodes, then prime minister of Cape Colony, was strongly in favour of a more energetic policy than was supported by the Imperial government, and at the end of March 1895 the high commissioner, finding himself, it is believed, out of touch with his ministers, returned home a few months before the expiry of his term of office. In the same year he was raised to the peerage. When the Anglo-Boer war broke out in 1899 Loch took a leading part in raising and equipping a body of mounted men, named after him "Loch's Horse." He died in London on the 20th of June 1900, and was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son Edward (b. 1873).

LOCHABER, a district of southern Inverness-shire, Scotland, bounded W. by Loch Linnhe, the river and loch Lochy, N. by the Corryarrick range and adjoining hills, N.E. and E. by the district of Badenoch, S.E. by the district of Rannoch and S. by the river and loch Leven. It measures 32 m. from N.E. to S.W. and 25 m. from E. to W., and is remarkable for wild and romantic scenery, Ben Nevis being the chief mountain. The district has given its name to a celebrated type of axe, consisting of a long shaft with a blade like a scythe and a large hook behind it, which, according to Sir Walter Scott, was introduced into the Highlands and Ireland from Scandinavia. It was the weapon of the old City Guard of Edinburgh. The pathetic song of "Lochaber no more" was written by Allan Ramsay.

LOCHES, a town in France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Indre-et-Loire, 29 m. S.E. of Tours by rail, on the left bank of the Indre. Pop. (1906) 3751. The town, one of the most picturesque in central France, lies at the foot of the rocky eminence on which stands the castle of the Anjou family, surrounded by an outer wall 1¼ m. in circumference, and consisting of the old collegiate church of St Ours, the royal lodge and the donjon. The church of St Ours dates from the 10th to the 12th centuries; among its distinguishing features are the huge stone pyramids surmounting the nave and the beautiful carving of the west door. The royal lodge, built by Charles VII. and used as the subprefecture, contains the tomb of Agnes Sorel and the oratory of Anne of Brittany. The donjon includes, besides the ruined keep (12th century), the Martelet, celebrated as the prison of Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan, who died there in 1508, and the Tour Ronde, built by Louis XI. and containing the famous iron cages in which state prisoners, including--according to a story now discredited--their inventor Cardinal Balue, were confined. Loches has an hôtel-de-ville and several houses of the Renaissance period. It has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college and a training college. Liqueur-distilling and tanning are carried on together with trade in farm-produce, wine, wood and live-stock.

On the right bank of the Loire, opposite the town and practically its suburb, is the village of Beaulieu-lès-Loches, once the seat of a barony. Besides the parish church of St Laurent, a beautiful specimen of 12th-century architecture, it contains the remains of the great abbey church of the Holy Sepulchre founded in the 11th century by Fulk Nerra, count of Anjou, who is buried in the chancel. This chancel, which with one of the older transepts now constitutes the church, dates from the 15th century. The Romanesque nave is in ruins, but of the two towers one survives intact; it is square, crowned with an octagonal steeple of stone, and is one of the finest extant monuments of Romanesque architecture.

Loches (the Roman _Leucae_) grew up round a monastery founded about 500 by St Ours and belonged to the counts of Anjou from 886 till 1205. In the latter year it was seized from King John of England by Philip Augustus, and from the middle of the 13th century till after the time of Charles IX. the castle was a residence of the kings of France.

LOCHGELLY, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 7½ m. N.E. of Dunfermline by the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 5472. The town is modern and owes its prosperity to the iron-works and collieries in its immediate vicinity. Loch Gelly, from which the town takes its name, situated ½ m. S.E., measures ½ m. in length by ¾ m. in breadth, contains some trout and pike, and has on its west banks Lochgelly House, a seat of the earl of Minto. The Romans are said to have had a station at Loch Ore in the parish of Ballingry, 2¼ m. N. by W., which was drained about the end of the 18th century and then cultivated. To the N.E. rises the hill of Benarty (1131 ft.). Hallyards, about 2 m. S.E. of Lochgelly, is a ruined house that once belonged to Sir William Kirkaldy of Grange, who held Edinburgh Castle for Queen Mary. Here James V. was received after his defeat at Solway Moss in 1542, and here a few Jacobites used to meet in 1715.

LOCHGILPHEAD, a municipal and police burgh of Argyllshire, Scotland, at the head of Loch Gilp, a small arm on the western side of Loch Fyne. Pop. (1901) 1313. The herring-fishery is the chief industry, but there is some weaving of woollens and, in summer, a considerable influx of visitors. Ardrishaig (pop. 1285), a seaport on the west of the mouth of Loch Gilp, is the east terminus of the Crinan Canal. It is the place of transhipment from the large Glasgow passenger steamers to the small craft built for the navigation of the canal. It is an important harbour in connexion with the Loch Fyne herring-fishery, and there is also a distillery. During the summer there is a coach service to Ford at the lower end of Loch Awe.

LOCHMABEN, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 8 m. N.E. of Dumfries, with a station on the Caledonian railway company's branch from Dumfries to Locherbie. Pop. (1901) 1328. It is delightfully situated, there being eight lakes in the immediate neighbourhood, while the river Annan, and the Waters of Ae, Kinnel and Dryfe are in the vicinity. The town hall is a handsome edifice with clock tower. At the south end of Castle Loch, the chief lake, stand the ruins, a mere shell, of Lochmaben Castle, dating from the 13th century, where local tradition declares that Robert Bruce was born--an honour which is also claimed, however, for Turnberry Castle on the coast of Ayrshire. In the parish church is a bell said to have been presented to King Robert by the pope after reconciliation with him. A statue of the king stands in front of the town hall. Whether it were his birthplace or not, the associations of Bruce with Lochmaben were intimate. He exempted his followers in the district from feudal service and their descendants--the "kindly tenants of Lochmaben"--were confirmed in their tenure by the court of session in 1824. The Castle Loch is the only fresh water in Scotland, and possibly in the British Isles, where the vendace (_coregonus vandesius_) occurs. This fish, which is believed to be growing scarcer, is alleged on doubtful authority to have been introduced by Queen Mary. It is captured by the sweep-net in August, and is esteemed as a delicacy. The lakes adjoining the town afford the inhabitants exceptional advantages for the game of curling. There was once a team of Lochmaben Curlers entirely composed of shoemakers (souters) who held their own against all comers, and their prowess added the phrase "to souter" to the vocabulary of the sport, the word indicating a match in which the winners scored "game" to their opponents' "love." Lochmaben unites with Annan, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and Sanquhar (the Dumfries burghs) in returning one member to parliament.

LOCK, MATTHIAS, English 18th-century furniture designer and cabinet-maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown; but he was a disciple of Chippendale, and subsequently of the Adams, and was possibly in partnership with Henry Copeland (q.v.). During the greater part of his life he belonged to that flamboyant school which derived its inspiration from Louis XV. models; but when he fell under the influence of Robert Adam he absorbed his manner so completely that it is often difficult to distinguish between them, just as it is sometimes easy to confound Lock's work with the weaker efforts of Chippendale. Thus from being extravagantly rococo he progressed to a simple ordered classicism. His published designs are not equal to his original drawings, many of which are preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, while the pieces themselves are often bolder and more solid than is suggested by the author's representations of them. He was a clever craftsman and holds a distinct place among the minor furniture designers of the second half of the 18th century.

Among his works, some of which were issued in conjunction with Copeland, are: _A New Drawing Book of Ornaments_ (n. d.); _A New Book of Ornaments_ (1768); _A New Book of Pier Frames, Ovals, Girandoles, Tables, &c._ (1769); and _A New Book of Foliage_ (1769).

LOCK (from the O. Eng. _loc._; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as "hole," Ger. _Loch_, "lid," Swed. _lock_, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning "to enclose"), a fastening, particularly one which consists of a bolt held in a certain position by one or more movable parts which require to be placed in definite positions by the aid of a key or of a secret arrangement of letters, figures or signs, before the bolt can be moved. It is with such fastenings that the present article chiefly deals.

The word is also used, in the original sense of an enclosure or barrier, for a length of water in a river or canal, or at the entrance of a dock, enclosed at both ends by gates, the "lock-gates," and fitted with sluices, to enable vessels to be raised from a lower to a higher level or vice versa (see CANAL and DOCK). In guns and rifles the lock is the mechanism which effects the firing of the charge; it thus appears in the names of old types of weapons, such as wheel-lock, match-lock, flint-lock (see ARMS AND ARMOUR, § _Firearms_; also GUN and RIFLE). Lock (Ger. _Locke_) in the sense of a curl or tuft of hair, the separate groups in which the hair naturally grows, may be, in ultimate origin, connected with the root of the main word. Lockjaw is the popular name of the disease known as tetanus (q.v.). The name "Lock Hospital" is frequently used in English for a hospital for patients suffering from venereal diseases. According to the _New English Dictionary_ there was in Southwark as early as 1453 a leper-hospital, known as the Lock Lazar House, which later was used for the treatment of venereal diseases. The name appears to have become used in the present sense as early as the end of the 17th century. Lock hospitals were established in London in 1745-1747 and in Dublin in 1754-1755.

The forms in which locks are manufactured, such as padlock, rim-lock, mortise-lock, one-sided or two-sided, &c., are necessarily extremely numerous; and the variations in the details of construction of any one of these forms are still more numerous, so that it is impossible to do more here than describe the main types which have been or are in common use. Probably the earliest locks were of Chinese origin. Specimens of these still extant are quite as secure as any locks manufactured in Europe up to the 18th century, but it is impossible to ascertain the date of their manufacture. With the exception, in all probability, of these Chinese examples, the earliest lock of which the construction is known is the Egyptian, which was used four thousand years ago. In fig. 1, _aa_ is the body of the lock, _bb_ the bolt and _cc_ the key. The three pins _p, p, p_ drop into three holes in the bolt when it is pushed in, and so hold it fast; and they are raised again by putting in the key through the large hole in the bolt and raising it a little, so that the pins in the key push the locking pins up out of the way of the bolt. It was evidently to locks and keys of this nature that the prophet alluded: "And the key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder" (Isaiah xxii. 22), the word _muftah_ used in this passage being the common word for key to this day.

In the 18th century the European lock was nothing better than a mere bolt, held in its place, either shut or open, by a spring b (fig. 2), which pressed it down, and so held it at either one end or the other of the convex notch _aa_; and the only impediment to opening it was the wards which the key had to pass before it could turn in the keyhole. But it was always possible to find the shape of the wards by merely putting in a blank key covered with wax, and pressing it against them; and when this had been done it was unnecessary to cut out the key into the complicated form of the wards (such as fig. 3), because no part of that key does any work except the edge _bc_ farthest from the pipe a; and so a key of the form fig. 4 would do just as well. Thus a small collection of skeleton keys, as they are called, of a few different patterns, was all the stock in trade that a lock-picker required.

Lever locks.

The common single-tumbler lock (fig. 5) requires two operations instead of one to open it. The tumbler _at_ turns on a pivot at t, and has a square pin at a, which drops into a notch in the bolt _bb_, when it is either quite open or quite shut, and the tumbler must be lifted by the key before the bolt can be moved again. The tumbler offered little resistance to picking, as the height to which it might be lifted was not limited and the bolt would operate provided only that this height was sufficient; the improvement which formed the foundation of the modern key lock was the substitution of what is known as the "lever" for the tumbler, the difference being that the lever must be lifted to _exactly_ the right height to allow the bolt to pass. This improvement, together with the obvious one of using more than one lever, was introduced in 1778 by Robert Barron, and is illustrated in figs. 6 and 7. Unless the square pin a (fig. 6) is lifted by the key to the proper height and no higher, the bolt cannot move. Fig. 8 illustrates the key of such a lock with four levers, the different distances between the centre of the key barrel and the edge of the bit being adapted to lift the levers to the respective heights required. This lock differs from the modern lever lock only in the fact that Barron made his gating in the bolt and carried stumps on his levers, instead of having the main stump riveted into the bolt and the gatings in the levers as is the modern practice.

A lock operating on exactly the same principle but entirely different in construction (fig. 9) was invented by Joseph Bramah in 1784. It consists of an outer barrel _aaaa_, within which is a revolving barrel, _cccc_, held in place by a steel disk, _dd_, and provided with a pin b fixed eccentrically for operating the bolt; the barrel is prevented from turning by sheet metal sliders _ss_, which slide axially in radial grooves in the barrel and project into slots cut into the steel disk which is fastened to the case of the lock. Each slider has a gating cut in its outer edge sufficiently deep to allow it to embrace the inwardly projecting steel plate and turn on it with the barrel. The key is of tubular form having slots cut in its end, each of a depth corresponding to the position of the gating in one of the sliders; so that, on inserting the key, each slider is pushed in--against a spring--exactly far enough to bring its slot opposite the steel disk; in this position the barrel carrying the sliders is turned by the key and actuates the bolt.

Up to 1851 it was generally believed that well-made lever locks of all types were practically unpickable, but at this time Alfred Charles Hobbs--an American--demonstrated, by picking the locks of Barron, Chubb, Bramah and others, that this belief was a fallacy. The method of Hobbs became widely known as the "tickling" or "tentative" method. In the modern lever lock the bolt carries a projecting piece--the "main stump"--which, when the levers are all raised to the proper height, enters the slots--"gatings"--in their faces. If, when the levers are not in this position, pressure is applied to the bolt, the main stump will press against the face of the levers; but owing to inaccuracies of workmanship and other causes the pressure will not be equal on all the levers. If now, the pressure on the bolt being maintained, each lever in turn is carefully raised a little, one will be found on which the pressure of the stump is greatest; this one is lifted till it becomes easy and then carefully lowered till it is sustained by the pressure of the stump in a new position. Another lever now bears the greatest pressure, and this in its turn is similarly treated. By this gradual or "tentative" process the levers will in time all be raised to the correct height and the bolt will slip back without, if sufficient care has been exercised, any of the levers having been raised above its correct position. Although this method of picking only became generally known in 1851, it is evident that it was not novel, since in 1817 one of Bramah's workmen, named Russell, invented the use of false notches or gatings, which were slots similar to the true gating but of small depth cut in the face of the levers. Similar false gatings were used in Anthony Radford Strutt's lock in 1819. The only possible object of these gatings--two of which are shown in each of the sliders of Bramah's lock--was to prevent the tentative method of picking. They are, however, not efficient for their purpose although they render the operation more difficult and tedious.

The best-known locks up to 1851 were those of Jeremiah Chubb, their popularity being due to their superior workmanship and probably still more to their title "detector." His lock, patented in 1818, contained a device intended to frustrate attempts at picking, and further to detect if such an attempt had been made. This device, at any rate as far as detecting was concerned, had been anticipated by the patent of Thomas Ruxton in 1816. Since the device only comes into operation when any lever is raised too high, it is not effective against a skilful application of the tentative method. The original form of this lock is shown in fig. 10, when the lever DT, which turns on a pin in the middle, is acted upon at its end T by a spring S, which will evidently allow some play to the lever on either side of the corner X; but the moment it is pushed past that point the spring will carry it farther in the same direction, like what is called in clock-work a jumper. In its proper position that end always remains above the turning-point; but, if any one of the tumblers is raised too high, the other end D of the detector, which reaches over all the levers, is lifted so far that the end T is sent down below the corner, and the tooth T then falls into a notch in the bolt, and so prevents it from being drawn back, even though all the levers are raised properly by the right key. It thus at once becomes obvious that somebody has been trying to pick the lock. The way to open it, then, is to turn the key the other way, as if to overlock the bolt; a short piece of gating near the end of the levers allows the bolt to advance just far enough to push the tooth of the detector up again by means of its inclination there, and then the lock can be opened as usual. To render the mechanism of locks more inaccessible for picking purposes, two devices, the "curtain" and the "barrel," were in use; these devices were simply the one a disk and the other a cylinder carrying a keyhole which revolved with the key and so closed the fixed keyhole in the case.

It is to Hobbs himself that we are indebted for the invention of the movable stump, since called the safety lever, the only device introduced rendering the tentative method of picking inoperative. This invention was incorporated in the "protector" locks of Hobbs, Hart & Co.; it consists in the employment of a movable main stump which is not riveted into the bolt as usual, but is set on the end b of a bent lever _abc_ (fig. 11) which lies in a hollow of the bolt A behind it, turning on a pivot in the bolt itself, and kept steady by a small friction-spring e. The stump comes through a hole in the bolt large enough to let it have a little play; and the long end a of the lever stands just above the edge of a square pin d, which is fixed in the back plate of the lock. When the lock is locked, if the bolt be pushed back, no sensible pressure on the levers is produced, but only just enough to turn this protector lever, as Hobbs called it, on its pivot c, and so bring down its end a in front of the square pin, and then the bolt can no more be pushed back than when held by Chubb's detector. The protector is set free again by merely pushing the bolt forward with the key, without reference to the levers. However, the protector could be prevented from acting by a method used by the inventor himself for another purpose, viz., by pushing a piece of watch-spring through the keyhole, and up behind the bolt, so as to reach the protector at a, and keep it up while the bolt was pushed back, or, again, by pushing up the watch-spring between any two of the levers, and holding the end b of the protector with it, so as to press the stump against the levers. Both these devices, however, are prevented now by letting in a feather FF in a groove between the bolt and the back of the lock, which no watch-spring can pass, and also bringing a piece of the feather forward through the front gating of the levers just under the stump. In this form the lock is safe against any mode of picking known. A lock possessing valuable features was invented in 1852 by Sir Edmund Beckett--afterwards Lord Grimthorpe--but did not come into general use for commercial reasons.

All the locks containing many levers so far described have a common defect in that the levers are moved in one direction by the key and in the other by springs. But it not infrequently happens that dirt or grease gets between the levers and causes two or more to stick together, in which case one of them is lifted too high and the bolt is prevented from operating. To overcome this difficulty locks, especially those intended for safes, have been made so that alternate levers move in opposite directions, the key having two bits on opposite sides. This construction entails that the key enter the body of the levers instead of passing below them, an arrangement that had previously been in use to reduce the space into which gunpowder could be packed through the keyhole.

Key locks.

The key locks chiefly used in English safes have been the ordinary lever lock with 6-8 or 10 levers, Chubb's "detector," Hobbs's "protector" or variants of these. In the Yale lock, which reverts in some degree to the idea of the ancient Egyptian lock, America has produced one key lock which has come into almost universal use in that country and is certainly worthy of note. The key of this lock, shown full size at _ka_ in fig. 12, is remarkably small, being stamped from a piece of flat steel and weighing only a small fraction of an ounce. The barrel _abc_ has to turn, as in the Bramah lock, in order to move the bolt, which is not shown in the figure. That may be done either as in Bramah locks or by a tongue or bit attached to the end _ab_ of the barrel as in several other locks. The barrel is prevented from being turned, except by the proper key, thus. The (apparently) five plugs with spiral springs over them in fig. 12 are really all divided at the cross line _bc_, being all now lifted to the proper height by the key. Consequently the barrel _abc_ can turn round, as there is no plug either projecting from it or projecting into it. But when the key is out, all the plugs are pushed down by the springs, and so the upper ones descend into the barrel and hold it fast. And again, if any of the steps of a false key are too high, some of the lower plugs will be pushed up beyond the barrel into the holes above them, and so the barrel cannot turn. The bevelled end of the key near a enables it to be pushed in under the plugs, though with some friction and resistance.

It is frequently convenient to have a number of different locks so arranged that, whilst each has its own individual key, yet one special or "master" key will operate any of the series. In warded locks this is done by "differing" the wards of the individual locks so that each key will only pass its own lock, and then filing away the bit of an extra key so that it will pass all the wards; the objection to this method is that any of the individual keys can easily be filed away and so form a master key. A better method, which meets this objection, consists in making all the levers except one--or if need be two--of each lock alike and cutting another gating or widening the gating in the differing levers, so as to pass the master key which has one--or two--special steps.

The growth of safe deposits has called for special locks so that when a box changes tenants the outgoing tenant's key shall be useless. In some cases the lock has been taken off and another substituted, but this is a clumsy makeshift now rarely employed, and has been superseded by the use of changeable key locks.

The first of these, invented by Robert Newell in 1841, was introduced into Great Britain from America by Hobbs in 1851. A simpler form, the construction of which is clearly shown by fig. 13, was brought out by Hobbs, Hart & Co. The bolt of this lock, instead of the ordinary main stump, carries a set of sliders, PPS, one corresponding to each lever and each carrying a projection S corresponding to a portion of the main stump. It will be seen that if any key having steps of certain lengths is inserted when the lock is unlocked and the bolt B thrown thereby, each slider will be raised to a height corresponding to that to which its lever is raised by the key, and the two fixed teeth CC will engage two of the teeth in the front of each slider, so that they will be held in place ready to enter the lever gatings when the same key is inserted.

A changeable key lock introduced by the Chatwood Safe Co. has no gatings in the levers, whose fronts are cut with teeth gearing into similar teeth cut in a set of disks carrying the gatings. The disks are mounted on a stud which can be moved by a key from the back of the lock in such a way that while the main stump is in the gatings--keeping the disks in position--the disks are carried forward out of gear with the levers; the key can then be removed and another having steps of suitable length inserted and turned so as to raise the levers, the disks being then brought back into gear.

Both the above locks require that the key steps should have certain definite lengths corresponding to the teeth, but a later lock resembling to some extent that brought out by Hobbs, Hart & Co. has been introduced by the Chatwood Co., in which it is sufficient after unlocking the lock to file any of the key steps and so alter the pattern of the key in any way. In this lock, which is illustrated in fig. 14, unlike all those that have been described, the levers are not pivoted but slide upon guide stumps; the main stump is divided as in Hobbs Hart's lock, the various pieces being clamped together by a screw to form a solid stump. The sliders composing the main stump are not provided with teeth, the changing being effected as follows: when the bolt is partly shot by the correct key, the screw which binds the sliders together as it comes opposite an opening in the back of the case is loosened, the key is removed and altered--or a fresh key substituted--and is inserted so as to lift the levers to their correct height and expose the clamping screw at the back, which is then tightened. This lock is now commonly used for safe deposits, combined with a small lever lock of which the custodian carries the key, and which either blocks the bolt of the main lock or covers the keyhole.

In connexion with changeable key locks requiring key steps of definite lengths, much ingenuity has been displayed in designing keys with movable bits or steps, as fig. 15, which are useful chiefly as duplicates, being built up to match the key from time to time in use, and then deposited in some bank or other secure place to be used in case of emergency.

Combination locks.

From the very earliest times secret devices, either to hide keyholes or to take the place of locks proper, have been in use; these are to-day only seriously represented by "combination" locks which, whilst following the same general principles as key locks, differ entirely in construction. Locks in which the arranging of the internal parts in their proper positions was secured by the manipulation of external parts marked with letters or numbers were common in China in very early times, but their history is unfortunately lost. This form of lock has been developed to a very high degree of perfection and is, for safes, in almost universal use to-day in America.

The American lock consists of a series of disks mounted upon one spindle, only one, however--the bolt disk--being fixed thereto, and provided each with a gating into which a stump connected with the bolt can drop when all the gatings lie upon a given line parallel to the axis of the spindle. Each disk is provided with a driving pin so arranged that it can impinge on and drive a similar pin in its next neighbour; the gating in the bolt disk and the portion of the stump which enters it are so formed that the disk can draw the bolt back. The spindle is provided on the outside with a knob and graduated disk--usually with 100 divisions--surrounded by an annulus on which a fixed position is denoted. Each disk, including the bolt disk, is provided with a pin projecting from its surface in such a way that the pin of one disk comes into contact with that of the next disk and drives it round. If, then, the bolt disk being at the back, there are three letter disks and the spindle is rotated to the left, the bolt disk will in the course of one revolution pick up letter disk No. 1--counting from the bolt disk--in the second revolution it will pick up No. 2, and in the third No. 3, the revolution being continued for part of a turn till the number corresponding to the correct position of No. 3 is reached. The revolution of the spindle is now reversed. The bolt disk leaves No. 1 in the first revolution and picks it up again, and the second revolution picks up No. 2. The motion is continued for part of a revolution till No. 2 is brought to the correct position (No. 3 obviously not being disturbed) and is then reversed. No. 1 is again left behind and picked up in the first revolution to the left, the motion being continued till the correct position of No. 1 is reached, when, on reversal, the gating in the bolt disk comes into the correct position, the stump falls and a continuance of the motion to the right draws back the bolt. A lock constructed in this way would be of little utility, as the combination would have to be determined once for all by the maker. The difficulty is got over by making the letter disks in two parts, the inner part carrying the driving pin and the outer the gating; these two parts are locked together by small cams or other devices which come into such a position that they can be released with the help of a square key when the lock is unlocked. The combination is set by altering the position of the inner disks with the driving pins in relation to the outer part carrying the gatings which are meanwhile held steady by the square key.

Time locks.

One advantage of the combination lock is that there is no key to be lost or stolen, but the means adopted by burglars, especially in America, are such that even this is not a perfect protection, cases having occurred in which a person has been compelled to disclose the combination. With key locks the keyhole through the safe door forms a distinct point of danger, and with combination locks the spindle passing through the door may be attacked by explosives. To obviate these two risks time locks were introduced in America and have been used in Europe. Essentially the time lock consists of a high-class chronometer or watch movement, little liable to get out of order, driving a disk provided with a gating such that the bolt can only enter the gating during certain hours; as a rule two, three or four chronometers are used, any one of which can release the lock.

The Yale time lock contains two chronometer movements which revolve two dial plates studded with twenty-four pins to represent the twenty-four hours of the day. These pins, when pushed in, form a track on which run rollers supporting the lever which secures the bolt or locking agency, but when they are drawn out the track is broken, the rollers fall down and the bolt is released. By pulling out the day pins, say from 9 till 4, the door is automatically prepared for opening between these hours, and at 4 it again of itself locks up. For keeping the repository closed over Sundays and holidays, a subsidiary segment or track is brought into play by which a period of twenty-four hours is added to the locked interval. Careful provision is made against the eventuality of running down or accidental stoppage of the clock motion, by which the rightful owner might be as seriously incommoded as the burglar. In the Yale lock, just before the chronometers run out, a trigger is released which depresses the lever by which the bolt is held in position. (A. B. Ch.)

LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704), English philosopher, was born at Wrington, 10 m. W. of Belluton, in Somersetshire, on the 29th of August 1632, six years after the death of Bacon, and three months before the birth of Spinoza. His father was a small landowner and attorney at Pensford, near the northern boundary of the county, to which neighbourhood the family had migrated from Dorsetshire early in that century. The elder Locke, a strict but genial Puritan, by whom the son was carefully educated at home, was engaged in the military service of the parliamentary party. "From the time that I knew anything," Locke wrote in 1660, "I found myself in a storm, which has continued to this time." For fourteen years his education, more or less interrupted, went on in the rural home at Belluton, on his father's little estate, half a mile from Pensford, and 6 m. from Bristol. In 1646 he entered Westminster School and remained there for six years. Westminster was uncongenial to him. Its memories perhaps encouraged the bias against public schools which afterwards disturbed his philosophic calm in his _Thoughts on Education_. In 1652 he entered Christ Church, Oxford, then under John Owen, the Puritan dean and vice-chancellor of the university. Christ Church was Locke's occasional home for thirty years. For some years after he entered, Oxford was ruled by the Independents, who, largely through Owen, unlike the Presbyterians, were among the first in England to advocate genuine religious toleration. But Locke's hereditary sympathy with the Puritans was gradually lessened by the intolerance of the Presbyterians and the fanaticism of the Independents. He had found in his youth, he says, that "what was called general freedom was general bondage, and that the popular assertors of liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too, and not unfitly called its _keepers_." And the influence of the liberal divines of the Church of England afterwards showed itself in his spiritual development.

Under Owen scholastic studies were maintained with a formality and dogmatism unsuited to Locke's free inquisitive temper. The aversion to them which he expressed showed thus early an innate disposition to rebel against empty verbal reasoning. He was not, according to his own account of himself to Lady Masham, a hard student at first. He sought the company of pleasant and witty men, and thus gained knowledge of life. He took the ordinary bachelor's degree in 1656, and the master's in 1658. In December 1660 he was serving as tutor of Christ Church, lecturing in Greek, rhetoric and philosophy.

At Oxford Locke was nevertheless within reach of liberal intellectual influence tending to promote self-education and strong individuality. The metaphysical works of Descartes had appeared a few years before he went to Oxford, and the _Human Nature_ and _Leviathan_ of Hobbes during his undergraduate years. It does not seem that Locke read extensively, but he was attracted by Descartes. The first books, he told Lady Masham, which gave him a relish for philosophy, were those of this philosopher, although he very often differed from him. At the Restoration potent influences were drawing Oxford and England into experimental inquiries. Experiment in physics became the fashion. The Royal Society was then founded, and we find Locke experimenting in chemistry in 1663, also in meteorology, in which he was particularly interested all his life.

The restraints of a professional career were not suited to Locke. There is a surmise that early in his Oxford career he contemplated taking orders in the Church of England. His religious disposition attracted him to theology. Revulsion from the dogmatic temper of the Presbyterians, and the unreasoning enthusiasm of the Independents favoured sympathy afterwards with Cambridge Platonists and other liberal Anglican churchmen. Whichcote was his favourite preacher, and close intimacy with the Cudworth family cheered his later years. But, though he has a place among lay theologians, dread of ecclesiastical impediment to free inquiry, added to strong inclination for scientific investigation, made him look to medicine as his profession, and before 1666 we find him practising as a physician in Oxford. Nevertheless, although known among his friends as "Doctor Locke," he never graduated in medicine. His health was uncertain, for he suffered through life from chronic consumption and asthma. A fortunate event soon withdrew him from the medical profession.

Locke early showed an inclination to politics, as well as to theology and medicine. As early as 1665 he diverged for a short time from medical pursuits at Oxford, and was engaged as secretary to Sir Walter Vane on his mission to the Elector of Brandenburg. Soon after his return in 1666 the incident occurred which determined his career. Lord Ashley, afterwards first earl of Shaftesbury, had come to Oxford for his health. Locke was introduced to him by his physician, Dr Thomas. This was the beginning of a lasting friendship, sustained by common sympathy with liberty--civil, religious and philosophical. In 1667 Locke moved from Christ Church to Exeter House, Lord Ashley's London residence, to become his confidential secretary. Although he retained his studentship at Christ Church, and occasionally visited Oxford, as well as his patrimony at Belluton, he found a home and shared fortune with Shaftesbury for fifteen years.

Locke's commonplace books throw welcome light on the history of his mind in early life. A paper on the "Roman Commonwealth" which belongs to this period, expresses convictions about religious liberty and the relations of religion to the state that were modified and deepened afterwards; objections to the sacerdotal conception of Christianity appear in another article; short work is made of ecclesiastical claims to infallibility in the interpretation of Scripture in a third; a scheme of utilitarian ethics, wider than that of Hobbes, is suggested in a fourth. The most significant of those early revelations is the _Essay concerning Toleration_ (1666), which anticipates conclusions more fully argued nearly thirty years later.

The Shaftesbury connexion must have helped to save Locke from those idols of the "Den" to which professional life and narrow experience is exposed. It brought him into contact with public men, the springs of political action and the duties of high office. The place he held as Shaftesbury's adviser is indeed the outstanding circumstance in his middle life. Exeter House afforded every opportunity for society. He became intimate among others with the illustrious Sydenham; he joined the Royal Society and served on its council. The foundation of the monumental work of his life was laid when he was at Exeter House. He was led to it in this way. It was his habit to encourage informal reunions of his intimates, to discuss debatable questions in science and theology. One of these, in the winter of 1670, is historically memorable. "Five or six friends," he says, met in his rooms and were discussing "principles of morality and religion. They found themselves quickly at a stand by the difficulties that arose on every side." Locke proposed some criticism of the necessary "limits of human understanding" as likely to open a way out of their difficulties. He undertook to attempt this, and fancied that what he had to say might find sufficient space on "one sheet of paper." What was thus "begun by chance, was continued by entreaty, written by incoherent parcels, and after long intervals of neglect resumed again as humour and occasions permitted." At the end of nearly twenty years the issue was given to the world as Locke's now famous _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_.

The fall of Shaftesbury in 1675 enabled Locke to escape from English politics. He found a retreat in France, where he could unite calm reflection upon the legitimate operations of "human understanding" with attention to his health. He spent three years partly at Montpellier and partly in Paris. His journals and commonplace books in these years show the _Essay_ in preparation. At Paris he met men of science and letters--Peter Guenellon, the well-known Amsterdam physician; Ole Römer, the Danish astronomer; Thoynard, the critic; Melchisédech Thévenot, the traveller; Henri Justel, the jurist; and François Bernier, the expositor of Gassendi. But there is no mention of Malebranche, whose _Recherche de la vérité_ had appeared three years before, nor of Arnauld, the illustrious rival of Malebranche.

Locke returned to London in 1679. Reaction against the court party had restored Shaftesbury to power. Locke resumed his old confidential relations, now at Thanet House in Aldersgate. A period of often interrupted leisure for study followed. It was a time of plots and counterplots, when England seemed on the brink of another civil war. In the end Shaftesbury was committed to the Tower, tried and acquitted. More insurrectionary plots followed in the summer of 1682, after which, suspected at home, the versatile statesman escaped to Holland, and died at Amsterdam in January 1683. In these two years Locke was much at Oxford and in Somerset, for the later movements of Shaftesbury did not commend themselves to him. Yet the government had their eyes upon him. "John Locke lives a very cunning unintelligible life here," Prideaux reported from Oxford in 1682. "I may confidently affirm," wrote John Fell, the dean of Christ Church, to Lord Sunderland, "there is not any one in the college who has heard him speak a word against, or so much as censuring, the government; and, although very frequently, both in public and private, discourses have been purposely introduced to the disparagement of his master, the earl of Shaftesbury, he could never be provoked to take any notice, or discover in word or look the least concern; so that I believe there is not in the world such a master of taciturnity and passion." Unpublished correspondence with his Somerset friend, Edward Clarke of Chipley, describes Locke's life in those troubled years. It also reveals the opening of his intimate intercourse with the Cudworth family, who were friends of the Clarkes, and connected by birth with Somerset. The letters allude to toleration in the state and comprehension in the church, while they show an indifference to theological dogma hardly consistent with an exclusive connexion with any sect.

In his fifty-second year, in the gloomy autumn of 1683, Locke retired to Holland, then the asylum of eminent persons who were elsewhere denied liberty of thought. Descartes and Spinoza had speculated there; it had been the home of Erasmus and Grotius; it was now the refuge of Bayle. Locke spent more than five years there; but his (unpublished) letters show that exile sat heavily upon him. Amsterdam was his first Dutch home, where he lived in the house of Dr Keen, under the assumed name of Dr Van der Linden. For a time he was in danger of arrest at the instance of the English government. After months of concealment he escaped; but he was deprived of his studentship at Christ Church by order of the king, and Oxford was thus closed against him. Holland introduced him to new friends. The chief of these was Limborch, the successor of Episcopius as Remonstrant professor of theology, lucid, learned and tolerant, the friend of Cudworth, Whichcote and More. By Limborch he was introduced to Le Clerc, the youthful representative of letters and philosophy in Limborch's college, who had escaped from Geneva and Calvinism to the milder atmosphere of Holland and the Remonstrants. The _Bibliothèque universelle_ of Le Clerc was then the chief organ in Europe of men of letters. Locke contributed several articles. It was his first appearance as an author, although he was now fifty-four years of age. This tardiness in authorship is a significant fact in his life, in harmony with his tempered wisdom.

In the next fourteen years the world received through his books the thoughts which had been gradually forming, and were taking final shape while he was in Holland. The _Essay_ was finished there, and a French epitome appeared in 1688 in Le Clerc's journal, the forecast of the larger work. Locke was then at Rotterdam, where he lived for a year in the house of a Quaker friend, Benjamin Furley, or Furly, a wealthy merchant and lover of books. At Rotterdam he was a confidant of political exiles, including Burnet and the famous earl of Peterborough, and he became known to William, prince of Orange. William landed in England in November 1688; Locke followed in February 1689, in the ship which carried the princess Mary.

After his return to England in 1689 Locke emerged through authorship into European fame. Within a month after he reached London he had declined an offer of the embassy to Brandenburg, and accepted the modest office of commissioner of appeals. The two following years, during which he lived at Dorset Court in London, were memorable for the publication of his two chief works on social polity, and of the epoch-making book on modern philosophy which reveals the main principles of his life. The earliest of these to appear was his defence of religious liberty, in the _Epistola de Tolerantia_, addressed to Limborch, published at Gouda in the spring of 1689, and translated into English in autumn by William Popple, a Unitarian merchant in London. _Two Treatises on Government_, in defence of the right of ultimate sovereignty in the people, followed a few months later. The famous _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ saw the light in the spring of 1690. He received £30 for the copyright, nearly the same as Kant got in 1781 for his _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_. In the _Essay_ Locke was the critic of the empirical data of human experience: Kant, as the critic of the intellectual and moral presuppositions of experience, supplied the complement to the incomplete and ambiguous answer to its own leading question that was given in Locke's _Essay_. The _Essay_ was the first book in which its author's name appeared, for the _Epistola de Tolerantia_ and the _Treatises on Government_ were anonymous.

Locke's asthma was aggravated by the air of London; and the course of public affairs disappointed him, for the settlement at the Revolution fell short of his ideal. In spring, 1691, he took up his residence in the manor house of Otes in Essex, the country seat of Sir Francis Masham, between Ongar and Harlow. Lady Masham was the accomplished daughter of Ralph Cudworth, and was his friend before he went to Holland. She told Le Clerc that after Locke's return from exile, "by some considerably long visits, he had made trial of the air of Otes, which is some 20 m. from London, and he thought that none would be so suitable for him. His company," she adds, "could not but be very desirable for us, and he had all the assurances we could give him of being always welcome; but, to make him easy in living with us, it was necessary he should do so on his own terms, which Sir Francis at last assenting to, he then believed himself at home with us, and resolved, if it pleased God, here to end his days as he did." At Otes he enjoyed for fourteen years as much domestic peace and literary leisure as was consistent with broken health, and sometimes anxious visits to London on public affairs, in which he was still an active adviser. Otes was in every way his home. In his letters and otherwise we have pleasant pictures of its inmates and domestic life and the occasional visits of his friends, among others Lord Peterborough, Lord Shaftesbury of the _Characteristics_, Sir Isaac Newton, William Molyneux and Anthony Collins.

At Otes he was busy with his pen. The _Letter on Toleration_ involved him in controversy. An _Answer_ by Jonas Proast of Queen's College, Oxford, had drawn forth in 1690 a _Second Letter_. A rejoinder in 1691 was followed by Locke's elaborate _Third Letter on Toleration_ in the summer of the following year. In 1691 currency and finance were much in his thoughts, and in the following year he addressed an important letter to Sir John Somers on the _Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and Raising the Value of Money_. When he was in Holland he had written letters to his friend Clarke of Chipley about the education of his children. These letters formed the substance of the little volume entitled _Thoughts on Education_ (1693), which still holds its place among classics in that department. Nor were the "principles of revealed religion" forgotten. The subtle theological controversies of the 17th century made him anxious to show how simple after all fundamental Christianity is. In the _Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures_ (anonymous, 1695), Locke sought to separate the divine essence of Christ's religion from later accretions of dogma, and from reasonings due to oversight of the necessary limits of human thought. This intended Eirenicon involved him in controversies that lasted for years. Angry polemics assailed the book. A certain John Edwards was conspicuous. Locke's _Vindication_, followed by a _Second Vindication_ in 1697, added fuel to this fire. Above all, the great _Essay_ was assailed and often misinterpreted by philosophers and divines. Notes of opposition had been heard almost as soon as it appeared. John Norris, the metaphysical rector of Bemerton and English disciple of Malebranche, criticized it in 1690. Locke took no notice at the time, but his second winter at Otes was partly employed in _An Examination of Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_, and in _Remarks upon some of Mr Norris's Books_, tracts which throw light upon his own ambiguous theory of perception through the senses. These were published after his death. A second edition of the _Essay_, with a chapter added on "Personal Identity," and numerous alterations in the chapter on "Power," appeared in 1694. The third, which was only a reprint, was published in 1695. Wynne's well-known abridgment helped to make the book known in Oxford, and his friend William Molyneux introduced it in Dublin. In 1695 a revival of controversy about the currency diverted Locke's attention. Events in that year occasioned his _Observations on Silver Money_ and _Further Considerations on Raising the Value of Money_.

In 1696 Locke was induced to accept a commissionership on the Board of Trade. This required frequent visits to London. Meantime the _Essay on Human Understanding_ and the _Reasonableness of Christianity_ were becoming more involved in a wordy warfare between dogmatists and latitudinarians, trinitarians and unitarians. The controversy with Edwards was followed by a more memorable one with Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester. John Toland, in his _Christianity not Mysterious_, had exaggerated doctrines in the _Essay_, and then adopted them as his own. In the autumn of 1696, Stillingfleet, an argumentative ecclesiastic more than a religious philosopher, in his _Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity_, charged Locke with disallowing mystery in human knowledge, especially in his account of the metaphysical idea of "substance." Locke replied in January 1697. Stillingfleet's rejoinder appeared in May, followed by a _Second Letter_ from Locke in August, to which the bishop replied in the following year. Locke's _Third Letter_, in which the ramifications of this controversy are pursued with a copious expenditure of acute reasoning and polished irony, was delayed till 1699, in which year Stillingfleet died. Other critics of the _Essay_ entered the lists. One of the ablest was John Sergeant, a priest of the Roman Church, in _Solid Philosophy Asserted Against the Fancies of the Ideists_ (1697). He was followed by Thomas Burnet and Dean Sherlock. Henry Lee, rector of Tichmarch, criticized the _Essay_, chapter by chapter in a folio volume entitled _Anti-Scepticism_ (1702); John Broughton dealt another blow in his _Psychologia_ (1703); and John Norris returned to the attack, in his _Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World_ (1701-1704). On the other hand Locke was defended with vigour by Samuel Bolde, a Dorsetshire clergyman. The _Essay_ itself was meanwhile spreading over Europe, impelled by the name of its author as the chief philosophical defender of civil and religious liberty. The fourth edition (the last while Locke was alive) appeared in 1700, with important additional chapters on "Association of Ideas" and "Enthusiasm." What was originally meant to form another chapter was withheld. It appeared among Locke's posthumous writings as _The Conduct of the Understanding_, one of the most characteristic of his works. The French translation of the _Essay_ by Pierre Coste, Locke's amanuensis at Otes, was issued almost simultaneously with the fourth edition. The Latin version by Richard Burridge of Dublin followed a year after, reprinted in due time at Amsterdam and at Leipzig.

In 1700 Locke resigned his commission at the Board of Trade, and devoted himself to Biblical studies and religious meditation. The Gospels had been carefully studied when he was preparing his _Reasonableness of Christianity_. He now turned to the Epistles of St Paul, and applied the spirit of the _Essay_ and the ordinary rules of critical interpretation to a literature which he venerated as infallible, like the pious Puritans who surrounded his youth. The work was ready when he died, and was published two years after. A tract on _Miracles_, written in 1702, also appeared posthumously. Fresh adverse criticism of the _Essay_ was reported to him in his last year, and the book was formally condemned by the authorities at Oxford. "I take what has been done rather as a recommendation of the book," he wrote to his young friend Anthony Collins, "and when you and I next meet we shall be merry on the subject." One attack only moved him. In 1704 his adversary, Jonas Proast, revived their old controversy. Locke in consequence began a _Fourth Letter on Toleration_. A few pages, ending in an unfinished paragraph, exhausted his remaining strength; but the theme which had employed him at Oxford more than forty years before, and had been a ruling idea throughout the long interval, was still dominant in the last days of his life.

All the summer of 1704 he continued to decline, tenderly nursed by Lady Masham and her step-daughter Esther. On the 28th of October he died, according to his last recorded words, "in perfect charity with all men, and in sincere communion with the whole church of Christ, by whatever names Christ's followers call themselves." His grave is on the south side of the parish church of High Laver, in which he often worshipped, near the tombs of the Mashams, and of Damaris, the widow of Cudworth. At the distance of 1 m. are the garden and park where the manor house of Otes once stood.

Locke's writings have made his intellectual and moral features familiar. The reasonableness of taking probability as our guide in life was in the essence of his philosophy. The desire to see for himself what is true in the light of reasonable evidence, and that others should do the same, was his ruling passion, if the term can be applied to one so calm and judicial. "I can no more know anything by another man's understanding," he would say, "than I can see by another man's eyes." This repugnance to believe blindly what rested on arbitrary authority, as distinguished from what was seen to be sustained by self-evident reason, or by demonstration, or by good probable evidence, runs through his life. He is typically English in his reverence for facts, whether facts of sense or of living consciousness, in his aversion from abstract speculation and verbal reasoning, in his suspicion of mysticism, in his calm reasonableness, and in his ready submission to truth, even when truth was incapable of being fully reduced to system by man. The delight he took in exercising reason in regard to everything he did was what his friend Pierre Coste remarked in Locke's daily life at Otes. "He went about the most trifling things always with some good reason." Above all things he loved order; and he had got the way of observing it in everything with wonderful exactness. As he always kept the useful in his eye in all his disquisitions, he esteemed the employments of men only in proportion to the good they were capable of producing; for which cause he had no great value for the critics who waste their lives in composing words and phrases in coming to the choice of a various reading, in a passage that has after all nothing important in it. He cared yet less for those professed disputants, who, being taken up with the desire of coming off with victory, justify themselves behind the ambiguity of a word, to give their adversaries the more trouble. And whenever he had to deal with this sort of folks, if he did not beforehand take a strong resolution of keeping his temper, he quickly fell into a passion; for he was naturally choleric, but his anger never lasted long. If he retained any resentment it was against himself, for having given way to so ridiculous a passion; which, as he used to say, "may do a great deal of harm, but never yet did anyone the least good." Large, "round-about" common sense, intellectual strength directed by a virtuous purpose, not subtle or daring speculation sustained by an idealizing faculty, in which he was deficient, is what we find in Locke. Defect in speculative imagination appears when he encounters the vast and complex final problem of the universe in its organic unity.

Locke is apt to be forgotten now, because in his own generation he so well discharged the intellectual mission of initiating criticism of human knowledge, and of diffusing the spirit of free inquiry and universal toleration which has since profoundly affected the civilized world. He has not bequeathed an imposing system, hardly even a striking discovery in metaphysics, but he is a signal example in the Anglo-Saxon world of the love of attainable truth for the sake of truth and goodness. "If Locke made few discoveries, Socrates made none." But both are memorable in the record of human progress.

In the inscription on his tomb, prepared by himself, Locke refers to his books as a true representation of what he was. They are concerned with _Social Economy_, _Christianity_, _Education_ and _Philosophy_, besides _Miscellaneous_ writings.

I. SOCIAL ECONOMY.--(1) _Epistola de Tolerantia_ (1689, translated into English in the same year). (2) _Two Treatises on Government_ (1690) (the _Patriarcha_ of Filmer, to which the _First Treatise_ was a reply, appeared in 1680). (3) _A Second Letter concerning Toleration_ (1690). (4) _Some Considerations on the Consequence of Lowering the Rate of Interest and Raising the Value of Money_ (1691). (5) _A Third Letter for Toleration_ (1692). (6) _Short Observations on a printed paper entitled, "For encouraging the Coining of Silver Money in England, and after for Keeping it here"_ (1695). (7) _Further Considerations concerning Raising the Value of Money_ (1695) (occasioned by a _Report_ containing an "Essay for the Amendment of Silver Coins," published that year by William Lowndes, secretary for the Treasury). (8) _A Fourth Letter for Toleration_ (1706, posthumous).

II. CHRISTIANITY.--(1) _The Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures_ (1695). (2) _A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity from Mr Edwards's Reflections_ (1695). (3) _A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity_ (1697). (4) _A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St Paul to the Galatians, First and Second Corinthians, Romans and Ephesians. To which is prefixed an Essay for the understanding of St Paul's Epistles by consulting St Paul himself_ (1705-1707, posthumous). (5) _A Discourse of Miracles_ (1716, posthumous).

III. EDUCATION.--(1) _Some Thoughts concerning Education_ (1693). (2) _The Conduct of the Understanding_ (1706, posthumous). (3) _Some Thoughts concerning Reading and Study for a Gentleman_ (1706, posthumous). (4) _Instructions for the Conduct of a Young Gentleman_ (1706, posthumous). (5) _Of Study_ (written in France in Locke's journal, and published in L. King's _Life of Locke_ in 1830).

IV. PHILOSOPHY.--(1) _An Essay concerning Human Understanding_, in four books (1690). (2) _A Letter to the Bishop of Worcester concerning some passages relating to Mr Locke's Essay of Human Understanding in a late Discourse of his Lordship's in Vindication of the Trinity_ (1697). (3) _Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's Answer to his Letter_ (1697). (4) _Mr Locke's Reply to the Bishop of Worcester's Answer to his Second Letter_ (1699). (5) _An Examination of Father Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_ (1706, posthumous). (6) _Remarks upon Some of Mr Norris's Books, wherein he asserts Father Malebranche's Opinion of Seeing all Things in God_ (1720, posthumous).

MISCELLANEOUS.--(1) _A New Method of a Common Place Book_ (1686). This was Locke's first article in the _Bibliothèque_ of Le Clerc; his other contributions to it are uncertain, except the _Epitome of the Essay_, (in 1688). (2) _The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina_ (prepared in 1673 when Locke was Lord Shaftesbury's secretary at Exeter House, remarkable for recognition of the principle of toleration, published in 1706, in the posthumous collection). (3) _Memoirs relating to the Life of Anthony, First Earl of Shaftesbury_ (1706). (4) _Elements of Natural Philosophy_ (1706). (5) _Observations upon the Growth and Culture of Vines and Olives_ (1706). (6) _Rules of a Society which met once a Week, for their improvement in Useful Knowledge, and for the Promotion of Truth and Christian Charity_ (1706). (7) _A Letter from a Person of Quality to his Friend in the Country_, published in 1875 (included by Des Maizeaux in his _Collection of Several Pieces of Mr John Locke's_, 1720), and soon afterwards burned by the common hangman by orders from the House of Lords, was disavowed by Locke himself. It may have been dictated by Shaftesbury. There are also miscellaneous writings of Locke first published in the biographies of Lord King (1830) and of Mr Fox Bourne (1876).

_Letters_ from Locke to Thoynard, Limborch, Le Clerc, Guenellon, Molyneux, Collins, Sir Isaac Newton, the first and the third Lord Shaftesbury, Lords Peterborough and Pembroke, Clarke of Chipley and others are preserved, many of them unpublished, most of them in the keeping of Lord Lovelace at Horseley Towers, and of Mr Sanford at Nynehead in Somerset, or in the British Museum. They express the gracious courtesy and playful humour which were natural to him, and his varied interests in human life.

I. _Social Economy._--It has been truly said that all Locke's writings, even the _Essay on Human Understanding_ itself, were occasional, and "intended directly to counteract the enemies of reason and freedom in his own age." This appears in his works on social polity, written at a time when the principles of democracy and toleration were struggling with divine right of kings, and when "the popular assertors of public liberty were the greatest engrossers of it too." "The state" with Locke was the deliberate outcome of free contract rather than a natural growth or organism. That the people, in the exercise of their sovereignty, have the right to govern themselves in the way they judge to be for the common good; and that civil government, whatever form it assumes, has no right to interfere with religious beliefs that are not inconsistent with civil society, is at the foundation of his political philosophy. He rested this sovereignty on virtual mutual contract on the part of the people themselves to be so governed. But the terms of the contract might be modified by the sovereign people themselves, from time to time, in accommodation to changing circumstances. He saw that things in this world were in a constant flux, so that no society could remain long in the same state, and that "the grossest absurdities" must be the issue of "following custom when reason has left the custom." He was always disposed to liberal ecclesiastical concessions for the sake of peace, and he recommended harmonious co-operation with the civil magistrate in all matters of worship and government that were not expressly determined by Scripture.

The social contract.

The attack on Sir Robert Filmer in Locke's _First Treatise on Government_ was an anachronism. The democratic principle argued for in the _Second Treatise_, while in advance of the practice of his age, was in parts anticipated by Aquinas and Bodin, as well as by Grotius and Hooker. Its guiding principle is, that civil rulers hold their power not absolutely but conditionally, government being essentially a moral trust, forfeited if the conditions are not fulfilled by the trustees. This presupposes an original and necessary law of nature or reason, as insisted on by Hooker. But it points to the constitution of civil society in the abstract rather than to the actual origin of government as a matter of fact and past history. There is no historical proof that power was formally entrusted to rulers by the conscious and deliberate action of the ruled. Indeed Locke seems to allow that the consent was at first tacit, and by anterior law of nature conditional on the beneficial purpose of the trust being realized. His _Treatises on Government_ were meant to vindicate the Convention parliament and the English revolution, as well as to refute the ideas of absolute monarchy held by Hobbes and Filmer. They are classics in the library of English constitutional law and polity.

Religious Toleration.

Locke's philosophical defence of religious liberty in the four _Letters of Toleration_ is the most far-reaching of his contributions to social polity. He had a more modest estimate of human resources for forming true judgments in religion, and a less pronounced opinion of the immorality of religious error, than either the Catholic or the Puritan. The toleration which he spent his life in arguing for involved a change from the authoritative and absolute to the relative point of view, as regards man's means of knowledge and belief. It was a protest against those who in theology "peremptorily require demonstration and demand certainty where probability only is to be had." The practice of universal toleration amidst increasing religious differences was an application of the conception of human understanding which governs his _Essay_. Once a paradox it is now commonplace, and the superabundant argument in the _Letters on Toleration_ fatigues the modern reader. The change is due more to Locke himself than to anyone else. Free thought and liberty of conscience had indeed been pleaded for, on various grounds, in the century in which he lived. Chillingworth, Jeremy Taylor, Glanvill and other philosophical thinkers in the Church of England urged toleration in the state, in conjunction with wide comprehension in the church, on the ground of our necessary intellectual limitation and inability to reach demonstration in theological debates. Puritans like Owen and Goodwin, whose idea of ecclesiastical comprehension was dogmatic and narrow, were ready to accept sectarian variety, because it was their duty to allow many religions in the nation, but only one form of theology within their own sect. The existence of separate nationalities, on the other hand, was the justification of national churches according to the latitudinarian churchmen with whom Locke associated: a national church comprehensive in creed, and thus co-extensive with the nation was their ideal. Locke went far to unite in a higher principle elements in the broad Anglican and the Puritan theories, while he recognized the individual liberty of thought which distinguishes the national church of England. A constant sense of the limits of human understanding was at the bottom of his arguments for tolerance. He had no objection to a national establishment of religion, provided that it was comprehensive enough, and was really the nation organized to promote goodness; not to protect the metaphysical subtleties of sectarian theologians. The recall of the national religion to the simplicity of the gospels would, he hoped, make toleration of nonconformists unnecessary, as few would then remain. To the atheist alone Locke refuses full toleration, on the ground that social obligation can have no hold over him, for "the taking away of God dissolves all." He argued, too, against full toleration of the Church of Rome in England, on the ground of its unnational allegiance to a foreign sovereign. The unfitness of persecution as a means of propagating truth is copiously insisted on by Locke. Persecution can only transform a man into a hypocrite; belief is legitimately formed only by discernment of sufficient evidence; apart from evidence, a man has no right to control the understanding; he cannot determine arbitrarily what his neighbours must believe. Thus Locke's pleas for religious toleration resolve at last into his philosophical view of the foundation and limits of human knowledge.

II. _The Reasonableness of Christianity._--The principles that governed Locke's social polity largely determined his attitude to Christianity. His "latitudinarianism" was the result of extraordinary reverence for truth, and a perception that knowledge may be sufficient for the purposes of human life while it falls infinitely short of speculative completeness. He never loses sight of essential reasonableness as the only ground on which Christian faith can ultimately rest. But Locke accepted Holy Scripture as infallible with the reverence of a Puritan. "It has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its matter." Yet he did not, like many Puritans, mean Scripture as interpreted by himself or by his sect. And faith in its infallibility was combined in Locke with deep distrust in "enthusiasm." This predisposed him to regard physical miracles as the solid criterion for distinguishing reasonable religious conviction from "inclinations, fancies and strong assurances." Assent in religion as in everything else he could justify only on the ground of its harmony with reason; professed "illumination without search, and certainty without proof" was to him a sign of absence of the divine spirit in the professor. Confidence that we are right, he would say, is in itself no proof that we are right: when God asks assent to the truth of a proposition in religion, he either shows us its intrinsic rationality by ordinary means, or he offers miraculous proof of the reality of which we need reasonable evidence. But we must know what we mean by miracle. Reasonableness, in short, must always at last be our guide. His own faith in Christianity rested on its moral excellence when it is received in its primitive simplicity, combined with the miracles which accompanied its original promulgation. But "even for those books which have the attestation of miracles to confirm their being from God, the miracles," he says, "are to be judged by the doctrine, and not the doctrine by the miracles." Miracles alone cannot vindicate the divinity of immoral doctrine. Locke's _Reasonableness of Christianity_ was an attempt to recall religion from the crude speculations of theological sects, destructive of peace among Christians, to its original simplicity; but this is apt to conceal its transcendent mystery. Those who practically acknowledge the supremacy of Jesus as Messiah accept all that is essential to the Christianity of Locke. His own Christian belief, sincere and earnest, was more the outcome of the common sense which, largely through him, moulded the prudential theology of England in the 18th century, than of the nobler elements present in More, Cudworth and other religious thinkers of the preceding age, or afterwards in Law and Berkeley, Coleridge and Schleiermacher.

III. _Education._--Locke has his place among classic writers on the theory and art of Education. His contribution may be taken as either an introduction to or an application of the _Essay on Human Understanding_. In the _Thoughts on Education_ imaginative sentiment is never allowed to weigh against utility; information is subordinate to the formation of useful character; the part which habit plays in individuals is always kept in view; the dependence of intelligence and character, which it is the purpose of education to improve, upon health of body is steadily inculcated; to make children happy in undergoing education is a favourite precept; accumulating facts without exercising thought, and without accustoming the youthful mind to look for evidence, is always referred to as a cardinal vice. Wisdom more than much learning is what he requires in the teacher. In instruction he gives the first place to "that which may direct us to heaven," and the second to "the study of prudence, or discreet conduct, and management of ourselves in the several occurrences of our lives, which most assists our quiet prosperous passage through this present life." The infinity of real existence, in contrast with the necessary finitude of human understanding and experience, is always in his thoughts. This "disproportionateness" between the human mind and the universe of reality imposes deliberation in the selection of studies, and disregard for those which lie out of the way of a wise man. Knowledge of what other men have thought is perhaps of too little account with Locke. "It is an idle and useless thing to make it one's business to study what have been other men's sentiments in matters where only reason is to be judge." In his _Conduct of the Understanding_ the pupil is invited to occupy the point at which "a full view of all that relates to a question" is to be had, and at which alone a rational discernment of truth is possible. The uneducated mass of mankind, he complains, either "seldom reason at all," or "put passion in the place of reason," or "for want of large, sound, round-about sense" they direct their minds only to one part of the evidence, "converse with one sort of men, read but one sort of books, and will not come in the hearing of but one sort of notions, and so carve out to themselves a little Goshen in the intellectual world, where light shines, and, as they conclude, day blesses them; but the rest of the vast expansion they give up to night and darkness, and avoid coming near it." Hasty judgment, bias, absence of an a priori "indifference" to what the evidence may in the end require us to conclude, undue regard for authority, excessive love for custom and antiquity, indolence and sceptical despair are among the states of mind marked by him as most apt to interfere with the formation of beliefs in harmony with the Universal Reason that is active in the universe.

IV. _Philosophy._--The _Essay Concerning Human Understanding_ embodies Locke's philosophy. It was the first attempt on a great scale, and in the Baconian spirit, to estimate critically the certainty and the adequacy of human knowledge, when confronted with God and the universe.

The "Introduction" to the _Essay_ is the keynote to the whole. The ill-fortune of men in their past endeavours to comprehend themselves and their environment is attributed in a great measure to their disposition to extend their inquiries into matters beyond the reach of human understanding. To inquire with critical care into "the original, certainty and extent of human knowledge, together with the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion and assent," is accordingly Locke's design in this _Essay_. Excluding from his enquiry "the physical consideration of the mind," he sought to make a faithful report, based on an introspective study of consciousness, as to how far a human understanding of the universe can reach. Although his report might show that our knowledge at its highest must be far short of a "universal or perfect comprehension of whatsoever is," it might still be "sufficient" for us, because "suited to our individual state." The "light of reason," the "candle of the Lord," that is set up in us may be found to shine bright enough for all _our_ purposes. If human understanding cannot fully solve the infinite problem of the universe, man may at least see that at no stage of his finite experience is he necessarily the sport of chance, and that he can practically secure his own wellbeing.

The last book of the _Essay_, which treats of Knowledge and Probability, is concerned more directly than the three preceding ones with Locke's professed design. It has been suggested that Locke may have begun with this book. It contains few references to the foregoing parts of the _Essay_, and it might have appeared separately without being much less intelligible than it is. The other books, concerned chiefly with ideas and words, are more abstract, and may have opened gradually on his mind as he studied more closely the subject treated in the fourth book. For Locke saw that the ultimate questions about our knowledge and its extent _presuppose_ questions about ideas. Without ideas knowledge is impossible. "Idea" is thus a leading term in the _Essay_. It is used in a way peculiar to himself--"the term which, I think, stands best for whatsoever is the object of the understanding when a man thinks" or "whatever it is which the mind can be employed about." But ideas themselves are, he reminds us, "neither true nor false, being nothing but bare appearances," phenomena as we might call them. Truth and falsehood belong only to assertions or denials concerning ideas, that is, to our interpretations of our ideas according to their mutual relations.

Innate ideas.

That none of our ideas are "innate" is the argument contained in the first book. This means that the human mind, before any ideas are present to it, is a _tabula rasa_: it needs the quickening of ideas to become intellectually alive. The inward purpose of this famous argument is apt to be overlooked. It has been criticized as if it was a speculative controversy between empiricism and intellectualism. For this Locke himself is partly to blame. It is not easy to determine the antagonist he had in view. Lord Herbert is referred to as a defender of innateness. Locke was perhaps too little read in the literature of philosophy to do full justice to those more subtle thinkers who, from Plato downwards, have recognized the need for categories of the understanding and presuppositions of reason in the constitution of knowledge. "Innate," Lord Shaftesbury says, "is a word Mr Locke poorly plays on." For the real question is not about the _time_ when ideas entered the mind, but "whether the constitution of man be such that, being adult and grown up, the ideas of order and administration of a God will not infallibly and necessarily spring up in him." This Locke himself sometimes seems to allow. "That there are certain propositions," we find him saying, "which, though the soul from the beginning, or when a man is born, does not know, yet, by assistance from the outward senses, and the help of some previous cultivation, it may afterwards come certainly to know the truth of, is no more than what I have affirmed in my first book" ("Epistle to Reader," in second edition). And much of our knowledge, as he shows in the fourth book, is rational insight, immediate or else demonstrable, and thus intellectually necessary in its constitution.

What Locke really objects to is, that any of our supposed knowledge should claim immunity from free criticism. He argues in the first book against the innateness of our knowledge of God and of morality; yet in the fourth book he finds that the existence of God is demonstrable, being supported by causal necessity, without which there can be no knowledge; and he also maintains that morality is as demonstrable as pure mathematics. The positions are not inconsistent. The demonstrable rational necessity, instead of being innate, or conscious from our birth, may lie latent or subconscious in the individual mind; but for all that, when we gradually become more awake intellectually, such truths are seen to "carry their own evidence along with them." Even in the first book he appeals to the common reason, which he calls "common sense." "He would be thought void of common sense who asked, on the one side, or, on the other, went to give a reason, _why_ 'it is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be.' It carries its own light and evidence with it, and needs no other proof: he that understands the terms assents to it for its own sake, or else nothing else will ever be able to prevail with him to do it" (bk. i. chap. 3, § 4).

The truth is that neither Locke, on the one hand, nor the intellectualists of the 17th century, on the other, expressed their meaning with enough of precision; if they had, Locke's argument would probably have taken a form less open to the charge of mere empiricism. Locke believed that in attacking "innate principles" he was pleading for universal reasonableness instead of blind reliance on authority, and was thus, as he says, not "pulling up the foundations of knowledge," but "laying those foundations surer." When men heard that there were propositions that could not be doubted, it was a short and easy way to assume that what are only arbitrary prejudices are "innate" certainties, and therefore must be accepted unconditionally. This "eased the lazy from the pains of search, stopped the inquiry of the doubtful, concerning all that was once styled innate. It was no small advantage to those who affected to be masters and teachers to make this the principle of principles--that principles must not be questioned." The assumption that they were "innate" was enough "to take men off the use of their own reason and judgment, and to put them upon believing and taking upon trust without further examination.... Nor is it a small power it gives one man over another to have the authority to make a man swallow that for an innate principle which may serve his purpose who teacheth them" (bk. i. chap. 4, § 24).

Genesis of ideas.

The second book proposes a hypothesis regarding the genesis of our ideas and closes after an elaborate endeavour to verify it. The hypothesis is, that all human ideas, even the most complex and abstract and sublime, ultimately depend upon "experience." Otherwise, what we take to be ideas are only empty words. Here the important point is what human "experience" involves. Locke says that our "ideas" all come, either from the five senses or from reflective consciousness; and he proposes to show that even those concerned with the Infinite depend at last on one or other of these two sources: our "complex ideas" are all made up of "simple ideas," either from without or from within. The "verification" of this hypothesis, offered in the thirteenth and following chapters of the second book, goes to show in detail that even those ideas which are "most abstruse," how remote soever they may seem from original data of outward sense, or of inner consciousness, "are only such as the understanding frames to itself by repeating and joining together simple ideas that it had at first, either from perceiving objects of sense, or from reflection upon its own operations."

To prove this, our thoughts of space, time, infinity, power, substance, personal identity, causality, and others which "seem most remote from the supposed original" are examined in a "plain historical method," and shown to depend either on (a) perception of things external, through the five senses, or on (b) reflection upon operations of the mind within. Reflection, "though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects," is yet, he says, "very like it, and might properly enough be called internal sense." But the suggestion that "sense" might designate _both_ the springs of experience is misleading, when we find in the sequel how much Locke tacitly credits "reflection" with. The ambiguity of his language makes opposite interpretations of this cardinal part of the Essay possible; the best we can do is to compare one part with another, and in doubtful cases to give him the benefit of the doubt.

Although the second book is a sort of inventory of our ideas, as distinguished from the certainty and boundaries of our knowledge, Locke even here makes the assumption that the "simple ideas" of the five senses are practically qualities of things which exist without us, and that the mental "operations" discovered by "reflection" are those of a person continuously existing. He thus relieves himself of the difficulty of having at the outset to explain _how_ the immediate data of outward sense and reflection are accepted as "qualities" of things and persons. He takes this as a fact.

Such, according to Locke, are the only simple ideas which can appear even in the sublimest human speculations. But the mind, in becoming gradually stored with its "simple ideas" is able to elaborate them in numberless modes and relations; although it is not in the power of the most exalted wit or enlarged understanding to invent or frame any new simple idea, not taken in in one or the other of these two ways. All that man can imagine about the universe or about God is necessarily confined to them. For proof of this Locke would have any one try to fancy a taste which had never affected his palate, or to frame the idea of a scent he had never felt, or an operation of mind, divine or human, foreign to all human consciousness.

Qualities of matter.

The contrast and correlation of these two data of experience is suggested in the chapter on the "qualities of matter" in which we are introduced to a noteworthy vein of speculation (bk. ii. chap. 8). This chapter, on "things and their qualities," looks like an interpolation in an analysis of mere "ideas." Locke here treats simple ideas of the five senses as qualities of outward things. And the sense data are, he finds, partly (a) revelations of external things themselves in their mathematical relations, and partly (b) sensations, boundless in variety, which are somehow awakened in us through contact and collision with things relatively to their mathematical relations. Locke calls the former sort "primary, original or essential qualities of matter," and the others "secondary or derived qualities." The primary, which are quantities rather than qualities, are inseparable from matter, and virtually identical with the ideas we have of them. On the other hand, there is nothing perceived in the mathematical relations of bodies which in the least resembles their secondary qualities. If there were no sentient beings in existence, the secondary qualities would cease to exist, "except perhaps as unknown modes of the primary, or, if not, as something still more obscure." On the other hand, "solidity, extension, figure and motion would," he assumes, "be really in the world as they are, whether there were any sensible being to perceive them or not."

Matter.

Thus far the outcome of what Locke teaches about matter is, that it is Something capable of being expressed in terms of mathematical quantity, and also in terms of our own sensations. A further step was to suggest the ultimate dependence of the secondary qualities of bodies upon "the bulk, figures, number, situation and motions of the solid parts of which the bodies consist," these mathematical or primary qualities "existing as we think of them whether or not they are perceived." This Locke proposes in a hesitating way. For we, "not knowing what particular size, figure and texture of parts they are on which depend, and from which result, those qualities which make our complex idea, for example, of gold, it is impossible we should know what other qualities result from, or are incompatible with, the same constitution of the insensible parts of gold; and so consequently must always coexist with that complex idea we have of it, or else are inconsistent with it."

Some of the most remarkable chapters in the second book concern what may be called "crucial instances" in verification of its fundamental hypothesis of the dependence of human knowledge upon the simple ideas presented in our dual experience (bk. ii. ch. 13-28). They carry us towards the ultimate mysteries which attract meditative minds. The hypothesis, that even our most profound and sublime speculations are all limited to data of the senses and of reflection, is crucially tested by the "modes" and "substances" and "relations" under which, in various degrees of complexity, we somehow find ourselves obliged to conceive those simple phenomena. Such are modes of quantity in space, and time and number, under which Locke reports that we find ourselves mentally impelled towards immensity, eternity and the innumerable--in a word, towards Infinity which seems to transcend quantity; then there is the complex thought of Substance, to which we find ourselves mysteriously impelled, when the simple phenomena of the senses come to be regarded as qualities of "something"; again there is the obscure idea of the identity of persons, notwithstanding their constant changes of state; and there is, above all, the inevitable tendency we somehow have to refund a change into what we call its "Cause," with the associated idea of active power. Locke begins with our complex ideas of Space, Succession or Time, and Number.

Immensity and endlessness and infinity.

Space, he says, appears when we use our senses of sight and touch; succession he finds "suggested" by all the changing phenomena of sense, and by "what passes in our minds"; number is "suggested by every object of our senses, and every thought of our minds, by everything that either doth exist or can be imagined." The modifications of which these are susceptible he reports to be "inexhaustible and truly infinite, extension alone affording a boundless field to the mathematicians." But the mystery latent in our ideas of space and time is, that "something in the mind" irresistibly hinders us from allowing the possibility of any limit to either. We find ourselves, when we try, compelled to lose our positive ideas of finite spaces in the negative idea of Immensity or Boundlessness, and our positive ideas of finite times in the negative thought of Endlessness. We have never seen, and we cannot imagine, an object whose extent is boundless. Yet we find when we reflect that something forces us to think that space and time must be unlimited. Thus Locke seems by implication to acknowledge something added by the mind to the original "simple ideas" of extension and succession; though he finds that what is added is not positively conceivable. When we reflect on immensity and eternity, we find them negations of all that is imaginable; and that whether we try infinite addition or infinite subdivision. He accepts this fact; he does not inquire why mind finds itself obliged to add without limit and to divide without limit. He simply reports that immensity and eternity are inevitable negative ideas, and also that every endeavour to realize them in positive images must be an attempt to represent as quantity what is beyond quantity. After all our additions we are as far from the infinite idea as we were at the beginning.

Substance and personality.

Locke is too faithful to facts to overlook the ultimate mysteries in human experience. This is further illustrated in his acknowledgment of the inconceivable that is at the root of our idea of Substance. He tries to phenomenalize it, and thus resolve it into simple ideas; but he finds that it cannot be phenomenalized, and yet that we cannot dispense with it. An unsubstantiated succession of phenomena, without a centre of unity to which they are referable as qualities, is unintelligible: we cannot have a language of adjectives without nouns. Locke had some apprehension of this transcendent intellectual obligation. According to his report, "the mind" always obliges us to suppose Something beyond positive phenomena to which the phenomena must be attributed; but he was perplexed by this "confused negative" idea. So for him the word substance means "only an uncertain supposition of we know not what." If one were to ask him what the substance is in which this colour and that taste or smell inhere, "he would find himself in a difficulty like that of the Indian, who, after saying that the world rested on an elephant, and the elephant on a broad-backed tortoise, could only suppose the tortoise to rest on 'Something, I know not what.'" The attempt to conceive it is like the attempt positively to conceive immensity or eternity: we are involved in an endless, ultimately incomprehensible, regress. We fail when we try either positively to phenomenalize substance or to dispense with the superphenomenal abstraction. Our only positive idea is of an aggregate of phenomena. And it is only thus, he says, that we can approach a positive conception of God, namely by "enlarging indefinitely some of the simple ideas we received from reflection." Why man must remain in this mental predicament, Locke did not inquire. He only reported the fact. He likewise struggled bravely to be faithful to fact in his report of the state in which we find ourselves when we try to conceive continued personal identity. The paradoxes in which he here gets involved illustrate this (bk. ii. ch. 27).

Causality.

Locke's thoughts about Causality and Active Power are especially noteworthy, for he rests our knowledge of God and of the external universe on those ultimate ideas. The intellectual demand for "the cause" of an event is what we find we cannot help having; yet it is a demand for what in the end the mind cannot fully grasp. Locke is content to trace the idea of "cause and effect," as far as mere natural science goes, to our "constant observation" that "qualities and finite substances begin to exist, and receive their existence from other beings which produce them." We find that this connexion is what gives intelligibility to ceaseless and what seemed chaotic changes, converting them into the divinely concatenated system which we call "the universe." Locke seems hardly to realize all that is implied in scientific prevision or expectation of change. Anything, as far as "constant observation" tells us, might a priori have been the natural cause of anything; and no finite number of "observed" sequences, _per se_, can guarantee universality and necessity. The idea of power, or _active_ causation, on the other hand, "is got," he acknowledges, not through the senses, but "through our consciousness of our own voluntary agency, and therefore through reflection" (bk. ii. ch. 21). In bodies we observe no active agency, only a sustained natural order in the succession of passive sensuous phenomena. The true source of change in the material world must be analogous to what we are conscious of when we exert volition. Locke here unconsciously approaches the spiritual view of active power in the physical universe afterwards taken by Berkeley, forming the constructive principle of his philosophy.

Ideas and words.

Locke's book about Ideas leads naturally to his Third Book which is concerned with Words, or the sensible signs of ideas. Here he analyses "abstract ideas," and instructively illustrates the confusion apt to be produced in them by the inevitable imperfection of words. He unfolds the relations between verbal signs and the several sorts of ideas; words being the means for enabling us to treat ideas as typical, abstract and general. "Some parts of this third book," concerning Words, Locke tells his friend Molyneux, "though the thoughts were easy and clear enough, yet cost me more pains to express than all the rest of my _Essay_. And therefore I should not much wonder, if there be in some places of it obscurity and doubtfulness."

Theory of knowledge.

The Fourth Book, about Knowledge proper and Probability, closes the _Essay_. Knowledge, he says, is perception of relations among ideas; it is expressed in our affirmations and negations; and real knowledge is discernment of the relations of ideas to what is real. In the foregoing part of the _Essay_ he had dealt with "ideas" and "simple apprehension," here he is concerned with intuitive "judgment" and demonstrative "reasoning," also with judgments and reasonings about matters of fact. At the end of this patient search among our ideas, he supposes the reader apt to complain that he has been "all this while only building a castle in the air," and to ask what the purpose of all this stir is, if we are not thereby carried beyond mere ideas. "If it be true that knowledge lies only in the agreement or disagreement of ideas, the visions of an enthusiast and the reasonings of a sober man will be equally certain. It is no matter how things themselves are" (bk. iv. 4). This gives the keynote to the fourth book. It does not, however, carry him into a critical analysis of the rational constitution of knowledge, like Kant. Hume had not yet shown the sceptical objections against conclusions which Locke accepted without criticism. The subtle agnostic, who doubted reason because reason could not be supported in the end by empirical evidence, was less in his view than persons blindly resting on authority or prejudice. Total scepticism he would probably have regarded as unworthy of the serious attention of a wise man. "Where we perceive the agreement or disagreement of any of our ideas there is certain knowledge; and wherever we are sure these ideas agree with the reality of things, there is certain _real_ knowledge" (bk. iv. ch. 4).

Four sorts of knowable relations.

Locke's report about human knowledge and its narrow extent forms the first thirteen chapters of the fourth book. The remainder of the book is concerned for the most part with the probabilities on which human life practically turns, as he and Butler are fond of reminding us. As regards kinds of knowledge, he finds that "all knowledge we are capable of" must be assertion or denial of some one of three sorts of relation among our ideas themselves, or else of relations between our ideas and reality that exists independently of us and our ideas. Accordingly, knowledge is concerned either with (a) relations of identity and difference among ideas, as when we say that "blue is not yellow"; or (b) with mathematical relations, as that "two triangles upon equal bases between two parallels must be equal"; or (c) in assertions that one quality does or does not coexist with another in the same substance, as that "iron is susceptible of magnetical impressions, or that ice is not hot"; or (d) with ontological reality, independent of our perceptions, as that "God exists" or "I exist" or "the universe exists." The first sort is analytical; mathematical and ethical knowledge represents the second; physical science forms the third; real knowledge of self, God and the world constitutes the fourth.

Intuition and demonstration.

Locke found important differences in the way in which knowledge of any sort is reached. In some instances the known relation is self-evident, as when we judge intuitively that a circle cannot be a triangle, or that three must be more than two. In other cases the known relation is perceived to be intellectually necessary through the medium of premisses, as in a mathematical demonstration. All that is strictly knowledge is reached in these two ways. But there is a third sort, namely sense-perception, which hardly deserves the name. For "our perceptions of the particular existence of finite beings without us" go beyond mere probability, yet they are not purely rational. There is nothing self-contradictory in the supposition that our perceptions of things external are illusions, although we are somehow unable to doubt them. We find ourselves inevitably "conscious of a different sort of perception," when we actually see the sun by day and when we only imagine the sun at night.

Locke next inquired to what extent knowledge--in the way either of intuitive certainty, demonstrative certainty, or sense perception--is possible, in regard to each of the four (already mentioned) sorts of knowable relation. There is only one of the four in which our knowledge is co-extensive with our ideas. It is that of "identity and diversity": we cannot be conscious at all without distinguishing, and every affirmation necessarily implies negation. The second sort of knowable relation is sometimes intuitively and sometimes demonstrably discernible. Morality, Locke thinks, as well as mathematical quantity, is capable of being demonstrated. "Where there is no property there is no injustice," is an example of a proposition "as certain as any demonstration in Euclid." Only we are more apt to be biassed, and thus to leave reason in abeyance, in dealing with questions of morality than in dealing with problems in mathematics.

Turning from abstract mathematical and moral relations to concrete relations of coexistence and succession among phenomena--the third sort of knowable relation--Locke finds the light of pure reason disappear; although these relations form "the greatest and most important part of what we desire to know." Of these, including as they do all inductive science, he reports that demonstrable knowledge "is very short, if indeed we have any at all"; and are not thrown wholly on presumptions of probability, or else left in ignorance. Man cannot attain perfect and infallible science of bodies. For natural science depends, he thinks, on knowledge of the relations between their secondary qualities on the one hand, and the mathematical qualities of their atoms on the other, or else "on something yet more remote from our comprehension." Now, as perception of these atoms and their relations is beyond us, we must be satisfied with inductive presumptions, for which "experimental verification" affords, after all, only conclusions that wider experience may prove to be inadequate. But this moral venture Locke accepts as "sufficient for our purposes."

Real existence.

Our knowledge under Locke's fourth category of relations--real existence--includes (a) intuitive perceptions of our own existence; (b) demonstrable certainty of the existence of God; and (c) actual perception of the existence of surrounding things, as long as, but only as long as the things are present to sense. "If I doubt all other things, that very doubt makes me perceive my own existence, and will not suffer me to doubt of that" (iv. 9. 3). Faith in the existence of God is virtually with Locke an expression of faith in the principle of active causality in its ultimate universality. Each person knows that he now exists, and is convinced that he had a beginning; with not less intuitive certainty he knows that "_nothing_ can no more produce any real being than it can be equal to two right angles." His final conclusion is that there must be eternally "a most powerful and most knowing Being, in which, as the origin of all, must be contained all the perfections that can ever after exist," and out of which can come only what it has already in itself; so that as the cause of my mind, it must be Mind. There is thus causal necessity for Eternal Mind, or what we call "God." This is cautiously qualified thus in a letter to Anthony Collins, written by Locke a few months before he died: "Though I call the thinking faculty in me 'mind,' yet I cannot, because of that name, equal it in anything to that infinite and incomprehensible Being, which, for want of right and distinct conceptions, is called 'Mind' also." But the immanence of God in the things and persons that compose the universal order, with what this implies, is a conception foreign to Locke, whose habitual conception was of an extra-mundane deity, the dominant conception in the 18th century.

Knowledge of the external world.

Turning from our knowledge of Spirit to our knowledge of Matter, nearly all that one can affirm or deny about "things external is," according to Locke, not knowledge but venture or presumptive trust. We have, strictly speaking, no "knowledge" of real beings beyond our own self-conscious existence, the existence of God, and the existence of objects of sense as long as they are actually present to sense. "When I see an external object at a distance, a man for instance, I cannot but be satisfied of his existence while I am looking at him. (Locke might have added that when one only 'sees a man' it is merely his _visible_ qualities that are perceived; his other qualities are as little 'actual present sensations' as if he were out of the range of sense.) But when the man leaves me alone, I cannot be certain that he still exists." "There is no necessary connexion between his existence a minute since (when he was present to any sense of sight) and his existence now (when he is absent from all my senses); by a thousand ways he may have ceased to be. I have not that certainty of his continued existence which we call knowledge; though the great likelihood of it puts it past doubt. But this is but probability and not knowledge" (chap. 11, § 9). Accordingly, purely rational science of external Nature is, according to Locke, impossible. All our "interpretations of nature" are inadequate; only reasonable probabilities, not final rational certainties. This boundless region affords at the best probabilities, ultimately grounded on moral faith, all beyond lies within the veil. Such is Locke's "plain, matter-of-fact" account of the knowledge of the Real that is open to man.

The rationale of probability.

We learn little from Locke as to the rationale of the probabilities on which man thus depends when he deals with the past, the distant or the future. The concluding chapters of the fourth book contain wise advice to those whose lives are passed in an ever-changing environment, for avoiding the frequent risk of error in their conclusions, with or without the help of syllogism, the office of which, as a means of discovery, is here critically considered.

Locke and Hume.

Investigation of the foundation of inductive inference was resumed by Hume where Locke left it. With a still humbler view of human reason than Locke's, Hume proposed as "a subject worthy of curiosity," to inquire into "the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real existence and matter of fact, _beyond_ the present testimony of our senses and the records of our memory; a part of philosophy that has been little cultivated either by the ancients or the moderns." Hume argues that custom is a sufficient practical explanation of this gradual enlargement of our objective experience, and that no deeper explanation is open to man. All beyond each present transitory "impression" and the stores of memory is therefore reached blindly, through custom or habitual association. Associative tendency, individual or inherited, has since been the favourite constructive factor of human experience in Empirical Philosophy. This factor is not prominent in Locke's _Essay_. A short chapter on "association of ideas" was added to the second book in the fourth edition. And the tendency to associate is there presented, not as the fundamental factor of human knowledge, but as a chief cause of human error.

Locke and Kant.

Kant's critical analysis of pure reason is more foreign to Locke than the attempts of 18th- and 19th-century associationists and evolutionists to explain experience and science. Kant's aim was to show the necessary rational constitution of experience. Locke's design was less profound. It was his distinction to present to the modern world, in his own "historical plain method," perhaps the largest assortment ever made by any individual of facts characteristic of human understanding. Criticism of the presuppositions implied in those facts--by Kant and his successors, and in Britain more unpretentiously by Reid, all under the stimulus of Hume's sceptical criticism--has employed philosophers since the author of the _Essay on Human Understanding_ collected materials that raised deeper philosophical problems than he tried to solve. Locke's mission was to initiate modern criticism of the foundation and limits of our knowledge. Hume negatively, and the German and Scottish schools constructively, continued what it was Locke's glory to have begun.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ has passed through more editions than any classic in modern philosophical literature. Before the middle of the 18th century it had reached thirteen, and it has now passed through some forty editions, besides being translated into Latin, French, Dutch, German and modern Greek. There are also several abridgments. In addition to those criticisms which appeared when Locke was alive, among the most important are Leibnitz's _Nouveaux Essais sur l'entendement humain_--written about 1700 and published in 1765, in which each chapter of the _Essay_ of Locke is examined in a corresponding chapter by Leibnitz; Cousin's "École sensualiste: système de Locke," in his _Histoire de la philosophie au XVIII^e siècle_ (1829); and the criticisms in T. H. Green's Introduction to the _Philosophical Works of Hume_ (1874). The _Essay, with Prolegomena, biographical, critical and historical_, edited by Professor Campbell Fraser and published by the Oxford Clarendon Press in 1894, is the only annotated edition, unless the _Nouveaux Essais_ of Leibnitz may be reduced to this category.

The _Letters on Toleration_, _Thoughts on Education_ and _The_ _Reasonableness of Christianity_ have also gone through many editions, and been translated into different languages.

The first collected edition of Locke's _Works_ was in 1714, in three folio volumes. The best is that by Bishop Law, in four quartos (1777). The one most commonly known is in ten volumes (1812).

The _Éloge_ of Jean le Clerc (_Bibliothèque choisie_, 1705) has been the basis of the memoirs of Locke prefixed to the successive editions of his _Works_, or contained in biographical dictionaries. In 1829 a _Life of Locke_ (2nd ed. in two volumes, with considerable additions, 1830), was produced by Peter, 7th Baron King, a descendant of Locke's cousin, Anne Locke. This adds a good deal to what was previously known, as Lord King was able to draw from the mass of correspondence, journals and commonplace books of Locke in his possession. In the same year Dr Thomas Foster published some interesting letters from Locke to Benjamin Furly. The most copious account of the life is contained in the two volumes by H. R. Fox-Bourne (1876), the results of laborious research among the Shaftesbury Papers, Locke MSS. in the British Museum, the Public Record Office, the Lambeth, Christ Church and Bodleian libraries, and in the Remonstrants' library at Amsterdam. Monographs on Locke by T. H. Fowler in 1880, in "English Men of Letters," and by Fraser, in 1890, in Blackwood's "Philosophical Classics" may be mentioned; also addresses by Sir F. Pollock and Fraser at the bicentenary commemoration by the British Academy of Locke's death, published in the _Proceedings_ of the Academy (1904). See also C. Bastide, _John Locke; ses théories politiques et leur influence en Angleterre_ (Paris, 1907); H. Ollion, _La Philosophie générale de J. L._ (1909). (A. C. F.)

LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677), English musician, perhaps the earliest English writer for the stage, was born at Exeter, where he became a chorister in the cathedral. His music, written with Christopher Gibbons (son of Orlando Gibbons), for Shirley's masque _Cupid and Death_, was performed in London in 1653. He wrote some music for Davenant's _Siege of Rhodes_ in 1656; and in 1661 was appointed composer in ordinary to Charles II. During the following years he wrote a number of anthems for the Chapel Royal, and excited some criticism on the score of novelty, to which he replied with considerable heat (_Modern Church Music; pre-accused, censured and obstructed in its Performance before His Majesty, April 1st, 1666, &c._; copies in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, and the Royal College of Music). A good deal of music for the theatre followed, the most important being for Davenant's productions of _The Tempest_ (1667) and of _Macbeth_ (1672), but some doubt as to this latter has arisen, Purcell, Eccles or Leveridge, being also credited with it. He also composed various songs and instrumental pieces, and published some curious works on musical theory. He died in August 1677, an elegy being written by Purcell.

LOCKERBIE, a municipal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in the district of Annandale, 14½ m. E.N.E. of Dumfries by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2358. It has long been famous for its cattle and sheep sales, but more particularly for the great August lamb fair, the largest in Scotland, at which as many as 126,000 lambs have been sold. The town hall and Easton institute are in the Scottish Baronial style. The police station is partly accommodated in an ancient square tower, once the stronghold of the Johnstones, for a long period the ruling family under whose protection the town gradually grew up. At Dryfe Sands, about 2 m. to the W., a bloody encounter took place in 1593 between the Johnstones and Maxwells. The Maxwells were pursued into Lockerbie and almost exterminated; hence "Lockerbie Lick" became a proverbial expression, signifying an overwhelming defeat.

LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK (1821-1895), English man of letters, was born, on the 29th of May 1821, at Greenwich Hospital. His father, who was Civil Commissioner of the Hospital, was Edward Hawke Locker, youngest son of that Captain William Locker who gave Nelson the memorable advice "to lay a Frenchman close, and beat him." His mother, Eleanor Mary Elizabeth Boucher, was a daughter of the Rev. Jonathan Boucher, vicar of Epsom and friend of George Washington. After a desultory education, Frederick Locker began life in a colonial broker's office. Soon deserting this uncongenial calling, he obtained a clerkship in Somerset House, whence he was transferred to Lord Haddington's private office at the Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and _précis_ writer. In 1850 he married Lady Charlotte Bruce, daughter of the Lord Elgin who brought the famous marbles to England, and sister of Lady Augusta Stanley. After his marriage he left the Civil Service, in consequence of ill-health. In 1857 he published _London Lyrics_, a slender volume of 90 pages, which, with subsequent extensions, constitutes his poetical legacy. _Lyra Elegantiarum_ (1867), an anthology of light and familiar verse, and _Patchwork_ (1879), a book of extracts, were his only other publications. In 1872 Lady Charlotte Locker died. Two years later Locker married Miss Hannah Jane Lampson, the only daughter of Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson, Bart., of Rowfant, Sussex, and in 1885 took his wife's surname. At Rowfant he died on the 30th of May 1895. Chronic ill-health debarred Locker from any active part in life, but it did not prevent his delighting a wide circle of friends by his gifts as a host and _raconteur_, and from accumulating many treasures as a connoisseur. His books are catalogued in the volume called the _Rowfant Library_ (1886), to which an appendix (1900) was added, after his death, under the superintendence of his eldest son. As a poet, Locker belongs to the choir who deal with the gay rather than the grave in verse--with the polished and witty rather than the lofty or emotional. His good taste kept him as far from the broadly comic on the one side as his kind heart saved him from the purely cynical on the other. To something of Prior, of Praed and of Hood he added qualities of his own which lent his work distinction--a distinction in no wise diminished by his unwearied endeavour after directness and simplicity.

A posthumous volume of Memoirs, entitled _My Confidences_ (1896), and edited by his son-in-law, Mr Augustine Birrell, gives an interesting idea of his personality and a too modest estimate of his gifts as a poet. (A. D.)

LOCKHART, GEORGE (1673-1731), of Carnwath, Scottish writer and politician, was a member of a Lanarkshire family tracing descent from Sir Simon Locard (the name being originally territorial, de Loch Ard), who is said to have accompanied Sir James Douglas on his expedition to the East with the heart of Bruce, which relic, according to Froissart, Locard brought home from Spain when Douglas fell in battle against the Moors, and buried in Melrose Abbey; this incident was the origin of the "man's heart within a fetterlock" borne on the Lockhart shield, which in turn perhaps led to the altered spelling of the surname. George Lockhart's grandfather was Sir James Lockhart of Lee (d. 1674), a lord of the court of session with the title of Lord Lee, who commanded a regiment at the battle of Preston. Lord Lee's eldest son, Sir William Lockhart of Lee (1621-1675), after fighting on the king's side in the Civil War, attached himself to Oliver Cromwell, whose niece he married, and by whom he was appointed commissioner for the administration of justice in Scotland in 1652, and English ambassador at the French court in 1656, where he greatly distinguished himself by his successful diplomacy. Lord Lee's second son, Sir George Lockhart (c. 1630-1689), was lord-advocate in Cromwell's time, and was celebrated for his persuasive eloquence; in 1674, when he was disbarred for alleged disrespect to the court of session in advising an appeal to parliament, fifty barristers showed their sympathy for him by withdrawing from practice. Lockhart was readmitted in 1676, and became the leading advocate in political trials, in which he usually appeared for the defence. He was appointed lord-president of the court of session in 1685; and was shot in the streets of Edinburgh on the 31st of March 1689 by John Chiesley, against whom the lord-president had adjudicated a cause. Sir George Lockhart purchased the extensive estates of the earls of Carnwath in Lanarkshire, which were inherited by his eldest son, George, whose mother was Philadelphia, daughter of Lord Wharton.

George Lockhart, who was member for the city of Edinburgh in the Scottish parliament, was appointed a commissioner for arranging the union with England in 1705. After the union he continued to represent Edinburgh, and later the Wigton burghs. His sympathies were with the Jacobites, whom he kept informed of all the negotiations for the union; in 1713 he took part in an abortive movement aiming at the repeal of the union. He was deeply implicated in the rising of 1715, the preparations for which he assisted at Carnwath and at Dryden, his Edinburgh residence. He was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle, but probably, through the favour of the duke of Argyll, he was released without being brought to trial; but his brother Philip was taken prisoner at the battle of Preston and condemned to be shot, the sentence being executed on the 2nd of December 1715. After his liberation Lockhart became a secret agent of the Pretender; but his correspondence with the prince fell into the hands of the government in 1727, compelling him to go into concealment at Durham until he was able to escape abroad. Argyll's influence was again exerted in Lockhart's behalf, and in 1728 he was permitted to return to Scotland, where he lived in retirement till his death in a duel on the 17th of December 1731. Lockhart was the author of _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland_, dealing with the reign of Queen Anne till the union with England, first published in 1714. These _Memoirs_, together with Lockhart's correspondence with the Pretender, and one or two papers of minor importance, were published in two volumes in 1817, forming the well-known "Lockhart Papers," which are a valuable authority for the history of the Jacobites.

Lockhart married Eupheme Montgomerie, daughter of Alexander, 9th earl of Eglinton, by whom he had a large family. His grandson James, who assumed his mother's name of Wishart in addition to that of Lockhart, was in the Austrian service during the Seven Years' War, and was created a baron and count of the Holy Roman Empire. He succeeded to the estates of Lee as well as of Carnwath, both of which properties passed, on the death of his son Charles without issue in 1802, to his nephew Alexander, who was created a baronet in 1806.

See _The Lockhart Papers_ (2 vols., London, 1817); Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_ (4 vols., London, 1900). For the story of Sir Simon Lockhart's adventures with the heart of the Bruce, see Sir Walter Scott's _The Talisman_. (R. J. M.)

LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON (1794-1854), Scottish writer and editor, was born on the 14th of July 1794 in the manse of Cambusnethan in Lanarkshire, where his father, Dr John Lockhart, transferred in 1796 to Glasgow, was minister. His mother, who was the daughter of the Rev. John Gibson, of Edinburgh, was a woman of considerable intellectual gifts. He was sent to the Glasgow high school, where he showed himself clever rather than industrious. He fell into ill-health, and had to be removed from school before he was twelve; but on his recovery he was sent at this early age to Glasgow University, and displayed so much precocious learning, especially in Greek, that he was offered a Snell exhibition at Oxford. He was not fourteen when he entered Balliol College, where he acquired a great store of knowledge outside the regular curriculum. He read French, Italian, German and Spanish, was interested in classical and British antiquities, and became versed in heraldic and genealogical lore. In 1813 he took a first class in classics in the final schools. For two years after leaving Oxford he lived chiefly in Glasgow before settling to the study of Scottish law in Edinburgh, where he was called to the bar in 1816. A tour on the continent in 1817, when he visited Goethe at Weimar, was made possible by the kindness of the publisher Blackwood, who advanced money for a promised translation of Schlegel's _Lectures on the History of Literature_, which was not published until 1838. Edinburgh was then the stronghold of the Whig party, whose organ was the _Edinburgh Review_, and it was not till 1817 that the Scottish Tories found a means of expression in _Blackwood's Magazine_. After a somewhat hum-drum opening, _Blackwood_ suddenly electrified the Edinburgh world by an outburst of brilliant criticism. John Wilson (Christopher North) and Lockhart had joined its staff in 1817. Lockhart no doubt took his share in the caustic and aggressive articles which marked the early years of _Blackwood_; but his biographer, Mr Andrew Lang, brings evidence to show that he was not responsible for the virulent articles on Coleridge and on "The Cockney School of Poetry," that is on Leigh Hunt, Keats and their friends. He has been persistently accused of the later _Blackwood_ article (August 1818) on Keats, but he showed at any rate a real appreciation of Coleridge and Wordsworth. He contributed to _Blackwood_ many spirited translations of Spanish ballads, which in 1823 were published separately. In 1818 the brilliant and handsome young man attracted the notice of Sir Walter Scott, and the acquaintance soon ripened into an intimacy which resulted in a marriage between Lockhart and Scott's eldest daughter Sophia, in April 1820. Five years of domestic happiness followed, with winters spent in Edinburgh and summers at a cottage at Chiefswood, near Abbotsford, where Lockhart's two eldest children, John Hugh and Charlotte, were born; a second son, Walter, was born later at Brighton. In 1820 John Scott, the editor of the _London Magazine_, wrote a series of articles attacking the conduct of _Blackwood's Magazine_, and making Lockhart chiefly responsible for its extravagances. A correspondence followed, in which a meeting between Lockhart and John Scott was proposed, with Jonathan Henry Christie and Horace Smith as seconds. A series of delays and complicated negotiations resulted early in 1821 in a duel between Christie and John Scott, in which Scott was killed. This unhappy affair, which has been the subject of much misrepresentation, is fully discussed in Mr Lang's book on Lockhart.

Between 1818 and 1825 Lockhart worked indefatigably. In 1819 _Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk_ appeared, and in 1822 he edited Peter Motteux's edition of _Don Quixote_, to which he prefixed a life of Cervantes. Four novels followed: _Valerius_ in 1821, _Some Passages in the Life of Adam Blair_, _Minister of Gospel at Cross Meikle_ in 1822, _Reginald Dalton_ in 1823 and _Matthew Wald_ in 1824. But his strength did not lie in novel writing, although the vigorous quality of _Adam Blair_ has been recognized by modern critics. In 1825 Lockhart accepted the editorship of the _Quarterly Review_, which had been in the hands of Sir John Taylor Coleridge since Gifford's resignation in 1824. He had now established his literary position, and, as the next heir to his unmarried half-brother's property in Scotland, Milton Lockhart, he was sufficiently independent, though he had abandoned the legal profession. In London he had great social success, and was recognized as a brilliant editor. He contributed largely to the _Quarterly Review_ himself, his biographical articles being especially admirable. He showed the old railing spirit in an amusing but violent article in the _Quarterly_ on Tennyson's _Poems_ of 1833, in which he failed to discover the mark of genius. He continued to write for _Blackwood_; he produced for _Constable's Miscellany_ in 1828 what remains the most charming of the biographies of Burns; and he undertook the superintendence of the series called "Murray's Family Library," which he opened in 1829 with a _History of Napoleon_. But his chief work was the _Life of Sir Walter Scott_ (7 vols., 1837-1838; 2nd ed., 10 vols., 1839). There were not wanting those in Scotland who taxed Lockhart with ungenerous exposure of his subject, but to most healthy minds the impression conveyed by the biography was, and is, quite the opposite. Carlyle did justice to many of its excellencies in a criticism contributed to the _London and Westminster Review_ (1837). Lockhart's account of the transactions between Scott and the Ballantynes and Constable caused great outcry; and in the discussion that followed he showed unfortunate bitterness by his pamphlet, "The Ballantyne Humbug handled." The _Life of Scott_ has been called, after Boswell's _Johnson_, the most admirable biography in the English language. The proceeds, which were considerable, Lockhart resigned for the benefit of Scott's creditors.

The close of Lockhart's life was saddened by family bereavement, resulting in his own breakdown in health and spirits. His eldest boy (the suffering "Hugh Littlejohn" of Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_) died in 1831; Scott himself in 1832; Mrs Lockhart in 1837; and the surviving son, Walter Lockhart, in 1852. Resigning the editorship of the _Quarterly Review_ in 1853, he spent the next winter in Rome, but returned to England without recovering his health; and being taken to Abbotsford by his daughter Charlotte, who had become Mrs James Robert Hope-Scott, he died there on the 25th of November 1854. He was buried in Dryburgh Abbey, near Sir Walter Scott.

Lockhart's _Life_ (2 vols., London and New York, 1897) was written by Andrew Lang. A. W. Pollard's edition of the _Life of Scott_ (1900) is the best.

LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER (1841-1900), British general, was born in Scotland on the 2nd of September 1841, his father being a Lanarkshire clergyman. He entered the Indian army in 1858, in the Bengal native infantry. He served in the Indian Mutiny, the Bhutan campaign (1864-66), the Abyssinian expedition (1867-68; mentioned in despatches), the Hazara Black Mountain expedition (1868-69; mentioned in despatches). From 1869 to 1879 he acted as deputy-assistant and assistant quartermaster-general in Bengal. In 1877 he was military attaché with the Dutch army in Acheen. He served in the Afghan War of 1878-80, was mentioned in despatches and made a C.B., and from 1880 to 1885 was D.Q.G. in the intelligence branch at headquarters. He commanded a brigade in the Third Burmese War (1886-87), and was made K.C.B., C.S.I., and received the thanks of the government. An attack of fever brought him to England, where he was employed as assistant military secretary for Indian affairs; but in 1890 he returned to India to take command of the Punjab frontier force, and for five years was engaged in various expeditions against the hill tribes. After the Waziristan campaign in 1894-95 he was made K.C.S.I. He became full general in 1896, and in 1897 he was given the command against the Afridis and Mohmands, and conducted the difficult Tirah campaign with great skill. He was made G.C.B., and in 1898 became commander-in-chief in India. He died on the 18th of March 1900. Sir William Lockhart was not only a first-rate soldier, but also had a great gift for dealing with the native tribesmen. Among the latter he had the _sobriquet_ of Amir Sahib, on account of their respect and affection for him.

LOCK HAVEN, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the west branch of the Susquehanna river, near the mouth of Bald Eagle Creek, about 70 m. N.N.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 7210 (618 foreign-born and 122 negroes); (1910) 7772. It is served by branches of the Pennsylvania and the New York Central & Hudson River railways and by electric interurban railways. The city is pleasantly situated in an agricultural region, and there are large deposits of cement and of fire-brick clay in the vicinity. Lock Haven is the seat of the Central State Normal School (opened 1877), and has a public library and a hospital. There are various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. The locality was settled in 1769. A town was founded in 1833, the Pennsylvania Canal (no longer in use here) was completed to this point in 1834, and the name of the place was suggested by two canal locks and the harbour, or haven, for rafts in the river. Lock Haven was made the county-seat immediately after the erection of Clinton county in 1839, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and first chartered as a city in 1870.

LOCKPORT, a city of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Des Plaines river and the Illinois & Michigan Canal, and the terminus of the Chicago Sanitary District Drainage Canal, about 33 m. S.W. of Chicago and 4 m. N.N.E. of Joliet. Pop. (1900) 2659 (552 being foreign-born and 130 negroes); (1910) 2555. Lockport is served by the Chicago & Alton, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet Electric railway. It is in a picturesque farming country, and there are good limestone quarries in the valley of the Des Plaines river. It has manufactures and a considerable trade, especially in grain. A settlement was made here about 1827; in 1837 the site was chosen as headquarters for the Illinois & Michigan Canal and a village was laid out; it was incorporated in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1904. In 1892 work was begun on the Chicago Drainage Canal, whose controlling works are here and whose plant, developing 40,000 h.p. from the 40 ft. fall between Joliet and Lockport, supplies Lockport with cheap power and has made it a manufacturing rather than a commercial city.

LOCKPORT, a city and the county-seat of Niagara county, New York, U.S.A., on the Erie Canal, 26 m. by rail N. by E. of Buffalo and 56 m. W. of Rochester. Pop. (1900) 16,581, of whom 2036 were foreign-born and 160 were negroes; (1910 census) 17,970. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, by the International railway (electric interurban), and by the Erie Canal. The city owes its name to the five double locks of the canal, which here falls 66 ft. (over a continuation of the Niagara escarpment locally known as "Mountain Ridge") from the level of Lake Erie to that of the Genesee river. In 1909 a scheme was on foot to replace these five locks by a huge lift lock and to construct a large harbour immediately W. of the city. The surplus water from Tonawanda Creek, long claimed both by the Canal and by the Lockport manufacturers, after supplying the canal furnishes water-power, and electric power is derived from Niagara. The factory products, mostly paper and wood-pulp, flour and cereal foods, and foundry and machine-shop products, were valued in 1905 at $5,807,980. Lockport lies in a rich farming and fruit (especially apple and pear) country, containing extensive sandstone and Niagara limestone quarries, and is a shipping point for the fruits and grains and the limestone and sandstone of the surrounding country. Many buildings in the business part of the city are heated by the Holly distributing system, which pipes steam from a central station or plant, and originated in Lockport. The city owns and operates the water-works, long operated under the Holly system, which, as well as the Holly distributing system, was devised by Birdsill Holly, a civil engineer of Lockport. In 1909 a new system was virtually completed, water being taken from the Niagara river at Tonawanda and pumped thence to a stand-pipe in Lockport.

The site, that of the most easterly village in New York state held by the Neutral Nation of Indians, was part of the tract bought by the Holland Company in 1792-1793. Subsequently most of the land on which the city stands was bought from the Holland Company by Esek Brown, the proprietor of a local tavern, and fourteen others, but there were few settlers until after 1820. In 1822 the place was made the county-seat, and in 1823 it was much enlarged by the settlement here of workmen on the Erie Canal, and was the headquarters for a time of the canal contractors. It was incorporated as a village in 1829, was reached by the Erie railway in 1852, and in 1865 was chartered as a city.

LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD (1838- ), French politician, son of Joseph Philippe Simon (1803-1891), an actor and dramatist who took the name of Lockroy, was born in Paris on the 18th of July 1838. He had begun by studying art, but in 1860 enlisted as a volunteer under Garibaldi. The next three years were spent in Syria as secretary to Ernest Renan, and on his return to Paris he embarked in militant journalism against the second empire in the _Figaro_, the _Diable à quatre_, and eventually in the _Rappel_, with which his name was thenceforward intimately connected. He commanded a battalion during the siege of Paris, and in February 1871 was elected deputy to the National Assembly where he sat on the extreme left and protested against the preliminaries of peace. In March he signed the proclamation for the election of the Commune, and resigned his seat as deputy. Arrested at Vanves he remained a prisoner at Versailles and Chartres until June when he was released without being tried. He was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the press, and in 1872 for a duel with Paul de Cassagnac. He was returned to the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-Rhône in 1876, 1877 and 1881 for Aix, and in 1881 he was also elected in the 11th arrondissement of Paris. He elected to sit for Paris, and was repeatedly re-elected. During the elections of 1893 he was shot at by a cab-driver poet named Moore, but was not seriously injured. For the first ten years of his parliamentary life he voted consistently with the extreme left, but then adopted a more opportunist policy, and gave his unreserved support to the Brisson ministry of 1885. In the new Freycinet cabinet formed in January he held the portfolio of commerce and industry, which he retained in the Goblet ministry of 1886-1887. In 1885 he had been returned at the head of the poll for Paris, and his inclusion in the Freycinet ministry was taken to indicate a prospect of reconciliation between Parisian Radicalism and official Republicanism. During his tenure of the portfolio of commerce and industry he made the preliminary arrangements for the Exposition of 1889, and in a witty letter he defended the erection of the Tour Eiffel against artistic Paris. After the Panama and Boulangist scandals he became one of the leading politicians of the Radical party. He was vice-president of the Chamber in 1894 and in 1895, when he became minister of marine under Léon Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform alarmed moderate politicians, but he had the confidence of the country, and held the same portfolio under Henri Brisson (1898) and Charles Dupuy (1898-1899). He gave his support to the Waldeck-Rousseau Administration, but actively criticized the marine policy of Camille Pelletan in the Combes ministry of 1902-1905, during which period he was again vice-president of the Chamber. M. Lockroy was a persistent and successful advocate of a strong naval policy, in defence of which he published _La Marine de Guerre_ (1890), _Six mois rue Royale_ (1897), _La Défense navale_ (1900), _Du Weser à la Vistula_ (1901), _Les Marines française et allemande_ (1904), _Le Programme naval_ (1906). His other works include _M. de Moltke et la guerre future_ (1891) and _Journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la Révolution_ (1881) derived from the letters of his great-grandmother. M. Lockroy married in 1877 Madame Charles Hugo, the daughter-in-law of the poet.

LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK (1846-1897), English lawyer, was born at Doncaster. His grandfather and great-grandfather were mayors of Doncaster, and the former for some years filled the office of judge on the racecourse. He was educated at a private school, at Manchester grammar school, and Caius College, Cambridge. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1872, he joined the old midland circuit, afterwards going to the north-eastern, making in his first year 120 guineas and in the next 265 guineas. From that time he had a career of uninterrupted success. In 1882 he was made a queen's counsel, in 1884 he was made recorder of Sheffield, and in 1894 he became solicitor-general in Lord Rosebery's ministry, and was knighted, having first entered parliament as Liberal member for York in 1885, after two unsuccessful attempts, the one at King's Lynn in 1880, the other at York in 1883. He was solicitor-general for less than a year. In 1896 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, Mr Montague Crackanthorpe and Sir Frank Lockwood went to the United States to attend, as specially invited representatives of the English bar, the nineteenth meeting of the American Bar Association. On this trip Sir Frank Lockwood sustained the reputation which he enjoyed in England as a humorous after-dinner speaker, and helped to strengthen the bond of friendship which unites the bench and bar of the United States with the bench and bar of England. He died in London on the 18th of December 1897. Lockwood had considerable talent for drawing, inherited from his father, which he employed, chiefly for the amusement of himself and his friends, in the making of admirable caricatures in pen and ink, and of sketches of humorous incidents, real or imaginary, relating to the topic nearest at hand. An exhibition of them was held soon after his death.

See Augustine Birrell's biography of Lockwood and _The Frank Lockwood Sketch-Book_ (1898).

LOCKWOOD, WILTON (1861- ), American artist, was born at Wilton, Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1861. He was a pupil and an assistant of John La Farge, and also studied in Paris, becoming a well-known portrait and flower painter. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1898), and of the Copley Society, Boston, and an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York.

LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN (1836- ), English astronomer, was born at Rugby on the 17th of May 1836. After completing his education on the Continent of Europe, he obtained a clerkship in the War Office in 1857. His leisure was devoted to the study of astronomy, and he was appointed in 1870 secretary to the duke of Devonshire's royal commission on science. In 1875 he was transferred to the Science and Art Department at South Kensington, and on the foundation of the Royal College of Science he became director of the solar physics observatory and professor of astronomical physics. Eight British government expeditions for observing total solar eclipses were conducted by him between 1870 and 1905. On the 26th of October 1868 he communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences, almost simultaneously with Dr P. J. C. Janssen, a spectroscopic method for observing the solar prominences in daylight, and the names of both astronomers appear on a medal which was struck by the French government in 1872 to commemorate the discovery. Lockyer was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1869, and received the Rumford medal in 1874. He initiated in 1866 the spectroscopic observation of sunspots; applied Doppler's principle in 1869 to determine the radial velocities of the chromospheric gases; and successfully investigated the chemistry of the sun from 1872 onward. Besides numerous contributions to the _Proceedings_ of the Royal and the Royal Astronomical Societies, he published several books, both explanatory and speculative. The _Chemistry of the Sun_ (1887) is an elaborate treatise on solar spectroscopy based on the hypothesis of elemental dissociation through the intensity of solar heat. The _Meteoritic Hypothesis_ (1890) propounds a comprehensive scheme of cosmical evolution, which has evoked more dissent than approval, while the _Sun's Place in Nature_ (1897) lays down the lines of a classification of the stars, depending upon their supposed temperature-relations. Among Lockyer's other works are--_The Dawn of Astronomy_ (1894), to which _Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments astronomically considered_ (1906) may be considered a sequel; _Recent and coming Eclipses_ (1897); and _Inorganic Evolution_ (1900). He was created K.C.B. in 1897, and acted as president of the British Association in 1903-1904. His fifth son, WILLIAM JAMES STEWART LOCKYER (b. 1868), devoted himself to solar research, and became chief assistant in the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington.

LOCLE, LE, a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel, 24 m. by rail N. of Neuchâtel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds. It is built (3035 ft. above the sea-level) on the Bied stream in a valley of the Jura, and is about 1 m. from the French frontier. In 1681 Daniel Jean Richard introduced watch-making here, which soon drove out all other industries. In 1900 the population was 12,559, mainly Protestants and French-speaking. The church tower dates from 1521, but the old town was destroyed by fire in 1833. The valley in which the town is situated used to be subject to inundations, but in 1805 a tunnel was constructed by means of which the surplus waters of the Bied are carried into the Doubs. About 1 m. W. of the town the Bied plunged into a deep chasm, on the steep rock face of which were formerly the subterranean mills of the Col des Roches, situated one above another; but the stream is now diverted by the above-mentioned tunnel, while another serves the railway line from Le Locle to Morteau in France (8 m.). (W. A. B. C.)

LOCMARIAQUER, a village of western France, on the W. shore of the Gulf of Morbihan, in the department of Morbihan, 8½ m. S. of Auray by road. Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer has a small port, and oyster culture is carried on close to it. Roman remains are to be seen, but the place owes its celebrity to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity, some of which are among the largest extant. The menhir of Men-er-H'roeck (Fairy stone), which was broken into four pieces by lightning in the 18th century, previously measured about 67 ft. in height, and from 9 to 13 ft. in thickness.

LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA (Gr. [Greek: ha], priv., and [Greek: taxis], order; synonyms, _Tabes dorsalis_, _posterior spinal sclerosis_), a progressive degeneration of the nervous system, involving the posterior columns of the spinal cord with other structures, and causing muscular incoordination and disorder of gait and station. The essential symptoms of the disease--stamping gait, and swaying with the eyes shut, the occurrence of blindness and of small fixed pupils--were recognized by Romberg (1851), but it was the clinical genius of Duchenne and his masterly description of the symptoms which led to its acceptance as a definite disease (1858), and he named it locomotor ataxia after its most striking symptom. In 1869 Argyll Robertson discovered that the eye-pupil is inactive to light but acts upon accommodation in the great majority of cases. This most important sign is named the "Argyll Robertson pupil." With an ever-increasing knowledge of the widespread character of this disease and its manifold variations in the complex of symptoms, the tendency among neurologists is to revert to the term employed by Romberg--_tabes dorsalis_. "Locomotor ataxia," although it expresses a very characteristic feature of the disease, has this objection: it is a symptom which does not occur in the first (preataxic) stage of the disease; indeed a great number of years may elapse before ataxy comes on, and sometimes the patient, after suffering a very long time from the disease, may die from some intercurrent complication, having never been ataxic.

It is generally recognized by neurologists that persons who are not the subjects of acquired or hereditary syphilis do not suffer from this disease; and the average time of onset after infection is ten years (see NEUROPATHOLOGY). There are three stages: (1) The preataxic, (2) the ataxic, (3) the bed-ridden paralytic. The duration of the first stage may be from one or two years, up to twenty years or even longer. In this stage various symptoms may arise. The patient usually complains of shooting, lightning-like pains in the legs, which he may attribute to rheumatism. If a physician examines him he will almost certainly find the knee-jerks absent and Argyll Robertson pupils present; probably on inquiry he will ascertain that the patient has had some difficulty in starting urination, or that he is unable to retain his water or to empty his bladder completely. In other cases, temporary or permanent paralysis of one or more muscles of the eyeball (which causes squint and double vision), a failure of sight ending in blindness, attacks of vomiting (or gastric crises), painless spontaneous fractures of bones and dislocations of joints, failing sexual power and impotence, may lead the patient to consult a physician, when this disease will be diagnosed, although the patient may not as yet have had locomotor ataxy. All cases, however, if they live long enough, pass into the second ataxic stage. The sufferer complains now of difficulty of walking in the dark; he sways with his eyes shut and feels as if he would fall (Romberg's symptom); he has the sensation of walking on wool, numbness and formication of the skin, and many sensory disturbances in the form of partial or complete loss of sensibility to pain, touch and temperature. These disturbances affect especially the feet and legs, and around the trunk at the level of the fourth to the seventh ribs, giving rise to a "girdle sensation." There may be a numbed feeling on the inner side of the arm, and muscular incoordination may affect the upper limb as well as the lower, although there is no wasting or any electrical change. The ataxic gait is very characteristic, owing to the loss of reflex tonus in the muscles, and the absence of guiding sensations from all the deep structures of the limbs, muscles, joints, bones, tendons and ligaments, as well as from the skin of the soles of the feet; therefore the sufferer has to be guided by vision as to where and how to place his feet. This necessitates the bending forward of the body, extension of the knees and broadening of the basis of support; he generally uses a walking stick or even two, and he jerks the leg forward as if he were on wires, bringing the sole of the foot down on the ground with a wide stamping action. If the arm be affected, he is unable to touch the tip of his nose with the eyes shut. Sooner or later he passes into the _third_ bed-ridden stage, with muscles wasted and their tonus so much lost that he is in a perfectly helpless condition.

The complications which may arise in this disease are intercurrent affections due to septic conditions of the bladder, bedsores, pneumonia, vascular and heart affections. About 10% of the cases, at least, develop general paralysis of the insane. This is not surprising seeing that it is due to the same cause, and the etiology of the two diseases is such as to lead many neurologists to consider them one and the same disease affecting different parts of the nervous system. _Tabes dorsalis_ occurs with much greater frequency in men than in women (see NEUROPATHOLOGY).

The avoidance of all stress of the nervous system, whether physical, emotional or intellectual, is indicated, and a simple regular life, without stimulants or indulgence of the sexual passion, is the best means of delaying the progress of the disease. Great attention should be paid to micturition, so as to avoid retention and infection of the bladder. Drugs, even anti-syphilitic remedies, appear to have but little influence upon the course of the disease.

LOCO-WEEDS, or CRAZY-WEEDS, leguminous plants, chiefly species of _Astragalus_ and _Lupinus_, which produce a disease in cattle known as "loco-disease." The name is apparently taken from the Spanish _loco_, mad. The disease affects the nervous system of the animals eating the plants, and is accompanied by exhaustion and wasting.

LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece, inhabiting two distinct districts, one extending from the north-east of Parnassus to the northern half of the Euboean channel, between Boeotia and Malis, the other south-west of Parnassus, on the north shore of the Corinthian Gulf, between Phocis and Aetolia. The former were divided into the northern Locri Epicnemidii, situated on the spurs of Mount Cnemis, and the southern Locri Opuntii, so named from their chief town Opus (q.v.): and the name Opuntia is often applied to the whole of this easterly district. Homer mentions only these eastern Locrians: their national hero in the Trojan war is Ajax Oileus, who often appears afterwards on Locrian coins. From Hesiod's time onwards, the Opuntians were thought by some to be of "Lelegian" origin (see LELEGES), but they were Hellenized early (though matriarchal customs survived among them)--, and Deucalion, the father of Hellen himself, is described as the first king of Opus. The westerly Locri "in Ozolae" on the Corinthian Gulf, a rude and barbarous people, make no appearance in Greek history till the Peloponnesian war. It was believed that they had separated from the eastern Locrians four generations before the Trojan war; yet Homer has no hint of their existence. Probably the Locrians were once a single people, extending from sea to sea, till subsequent immigrations forced them apart into two separate districts. The Locrian dialect of Greek is little known, but resembles that of Elis: it has [Greek: st] for [Greek: sth]; uses [alpha]; and has [Greek: ois] in dat. plur. 3rd decl. A colony of Locrians (whether from Opus or Ozolae was disputed in antiquity) settled, about the end of the 8th century B.C., at the south-west extremity of Italy. They are often called Locri Epizephyrii from Cape Zephyrion 15 m. S. of the city. Their founder's name was Euanthes. Their social organization resembled that of the Opuntian Locri, and like them they venerated Ajax Oileus and Persephone. Aristotle (ap. Polyb. xii. 5 sqq.) records a tradition that these western Locrians were base-born, like the Parthenians of Tarentum; but this was disputed by his contemporary Timaeus. See LOCRI (town) below. (J. L. M.)

LOCRI, an ancient city of Magna Graecia, Italy. The original settlers took possession of the Zephyrian promontory (Capo Bruzzano some 12 m. N. of Capo Spartivento), and though after three or four years they transplanted themselves to a site 12 m. farther north, still near the coast, 2 m. S. of Gerace Marina below the modern Gerace, they still retained the name of Locri Epizephyrii ([Greek: Lokroi hoi epizephurioi]), which served to distinguish them from the Ozolian and Opuntian Locri of Greece itself (see preceding article). The foundation of Locri goes back to about 683 B.C. It was the first of all Greek communities to have a written code of laws given by Zaleucus in 664 B.C. From Locri were founded the colonies of Meisma and Heiponium (Hipponium). It succeeded in repelling the attacks of Croton (battle on the river Sagras, perhaps sometime in the 6th century), and found in Syracuse a support against Rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of Athenian aggrandisement in the west. Pindar extolls its uprightness and love of the heroic muse of beauty, of wisdom, and of war, in the 10th and 11th Olympian Odes. Stesichorus (q.v.) was indeed of Locrian origin. But it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that Dionysius I. of Syracuse selected his wife from Locri: its territory was then increased, and the circuit of its walls was doubled, but it lost its freedom. In 356 B.C. it was ruled by Dionysius II. From the battle of Heraclea to the year 205 (when it was captured by P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Maior, and placed under the control of his legate Q. Pleminius), Locri was continually changing its allegiance between Rome and her enemies; but it remained an ally, and was only obliged like other Greek coast towns to furnish ships. In later Roman times it is often mentioned, but was apparently of no great importance. It is mentioned incidentally until the 6th century A.D., but was destroyed by the Saracens in 915.

Excavations in 1889-1890 led to the discovery of an Ionic temple (the Doric style being usual in Magna Graecia) at the north-west angle of the town--originally a cella with two naves, a closed pronaos on the E. and an adytum at the back (W.), later converted into a hexastyle peripheral temple with 34 painted terra-cotta columns. This was then destroyed about 400 B.C. and a new temple built on the ruins, heptastyle peripteral, with no intermediate columns in the cella and opisthodomos, and with 44 columns in all. The figures from the pediment of the twin Dioscuri, who according to the legend assisted Locri against Crotona, are in the Naples museum (see R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Griechische Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_, Berlin, 1899, pp. l sqq.). Subsequent excavations in 1890-1891 were of the greatest importance, but the results remained unpublished up to 1908. From a short account by P. Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Storico_, vol. v. (Archeologia) Rome, 1904, p. 201, we learn that the exploration of the environs of the temple led to the discovery of a large number of archaic terra-cottas, and of some large trenches, covered with tiles, containing some 14,000 scyphoi arranged in rows. The plan of the city was also traced; the walls, the length of which was nearly 5 m., consisted of three parts--the fortified castles ([Greek: phrouria]) with large towers, on three different hills, the city proper, and the lower town--the latter enclosed by long walls running down to the sea. In the Roman period the city was restricted to the plain near the sea. Since these excavations, a certain amount of unauthorized work has gone on, and some of the remains have been destroyed. In the course of these excavations some prehistoric objects have been discovered, which confirm the accounts of Thucydides and Polybius that the Greek settlers found the Siculi here before them. (T. As.)

LÖCSE (Ger. _Leutschau_), the capital of the county of Szepes, in Hungary, 230 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 6845, mostly Germans and Slovaks. The county of Szepes is the highest part of Hungary, and its north-western portion is occupied by the Tátra Mountains. Löcse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains, and is one of the oldest towns of Hungary. The church of St James is a Gothic structure of the 13th century, with richly carved altar, several monuments, and a celebrated organ erected in 1623, and long reputed the largest in Hungary. The old town-hall, restored in 1894, contains a Protestant upper gymnasium, founded in 1544, and one of the oldest printing establishments in Hungary, founded in 1585. Bee-keeping and the raising of garden produce are the chief industries.

Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Löcse had by the early part of the 16th century attained a position of great relative importance. In 1599 a fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and during the 17th century it suffered repeatedly at the hands of the Transylvanian princes and leaders.

LOCUS (Lat. for "place"; in Gr. [Greek: topos]), a geometrical term, the invention of the notion of which is attributed to Plato. It occurs in such statements as these: the locus of the points which are at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point which moves so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point, is a circle; conversely a circle is the locus of the points at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point moving so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point; and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus of the points which satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to satisfy, a given condition. The theory of loci is thus identical with that of curves (see CURVE and GEOMETRY: § _Analytical_). The notion of a locus applies also to solid geometry. Here the locus of the points satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface; the locus of the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold condition) is a curve in space, which is in general a twisted curve or curve of double curvature.

LOCUST.[1] In its general acceptation this term is applied only to certain insects of the order _Orthoptera_, family _Acridiidae_. The family _Locustidae_ is now viewed zoologically in a sense that does not admit of the species best known as "locusts" being included therein. The idea of a very destructive insect is universally associated with the term; therefore many orthopterous species that cannot be considered true locusts have been so-called; in North America it has even embraced certain _Hemiptera-Homoptera_, belonging to the _Cicadidae_, and in some parts of England cockchafers are so designated. In a more narrow definition the attribute of migration is associated with the destructive propensities, and it therefore becomes necessary that a true locust should be a migratory species of the family _Acridiidae_. Moreover, the term has yet a slightly different signification as viewed from the Old or New World. In Europe by a locust is meant an insect of large size, the smaller allied species being ordinarily known as "grasshoppers," hence the "Rocky Mountain locust" of North America is to Eastern ideas rather a grasshopper than a locust.

In Europe, and a greater part of the Old World, the best known migratory locust is that which is scientifically termed _Pachytylus cinerascens_ with which an allied species _P. migratorius_ has been often confounded. Another locust found in Europe and neighbouring districts is _Caloptenus italicus_, and still another, _Acridium peregrinum_, has once or twice occurred in Europe, though its home (even in a migratory sense) is more properly Africa and Asia. These practically include all the locusts of the Old World, though a migratory species of South Africa known as _Pachytylus pardalinus_ (presumed to be distinct from _P. migratorius_) should be mentioned. The Rocky Mountain locust of North America is _Caloptenus spretus_, and in that continent there occurs an _Acridium_ (_A. americanum_) so closely allied to _A. peregrinum_ as to be scarcely distinct therefrom, though there it does not manifest migratory tendencies. In the West Indies and Central America _A. peregrinum_ is also reported to occur.

The females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous secretion. The young larvae hatch and immediately commence their destructive career. As these insects are "hemimetabolic" there is no quiescent stage; they go on increasing rapidly in size, and as they approach the perfect state the rudiments of the wings begin to appear. Even in this stage their locomotive powers are extensive and their voracity great. Once winged and perfect these powers become infinitely more disastrous, redoubled by the development of the migratory instinct. The laws regulating this instinct are not perfectly understood. Food and temperature have a great deal to do with it, and there is a tendency for the flights to take a particular direction, varied by the physical circumstances of the breeding districts. So likewise each species has its area of constant location, and its area of extraordinary migration. Perhaps the most feasible of the suggestions as to the causes of the migratory impulse is that locusts naturally breed in dry sandy districts in which food is scarce, and are impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life; but against this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly productive district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the barren home of their ancestors. Another ingenious suggestion is that migration is intimately connected with a dry condition of the atmosphere, urging them to move on until compelled to stop for food or procreative purposes. Swarms travel considerable distances, though probably generally fewer than 1000 m., though sometimes very much more. As a rule the progress is only gradual, and this adds vastly to the devastating effects. When an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a district, all vegetation rapidly disappears, and then hunger urges it on another stage. The large Old World species, although undoubtedly phytophagous, when compelled by hunger sometimes attack at least dry animal substances, and even cannibalism has been asserted as an outcome of the failure of all other kinds of food. The length of a single flight must depend upon circumstances. From peculiarities in the examples of _Acridium peregrinum_ taken in England in 1869, it has been asserted that they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of Africa; and what is probably the same species has been seen in the Atlantic at least 1200 m. from land, in swarms completely covering the ship; thus, in certain cases flight must be sustained for several days and nights together. The height at which swarms fly, when their horizontal course is not liable to be altered by mountains, has been very variously estimated at from 40 to 200 ft., or even in a particular case to 500 ft. The extent of swarms and the number of individuals in a swarm cannot be accurately ascertained. They come sometimes in such numbers as to completely obscure the sun, when the noise made by the rustling of the wings is deafening. Nevertheless some idea on this point may be formed from the ascertained fact that in Cyprus in 1881, at the close of the season, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases, each containing a considerable number of eggs, had been destroyed; the estimated weight exceeding 1300 tons. Yet two years later, it is believed that not fewer than 5,076,000,000 egg-cases were again deposited in the island.

In Europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species is _Pachytylus cinerascens_, and it is to it that most of the numerous records of devastations in Europe mainly refer, but it is probably not less destructive in many parts of Africa and Asia. That the arid steppes of central Asia are the home of this insect appears probable; still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. In any case the area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional distribution is still greater. The former area extends from the parallel of 40° N. in Portugal, rising to 48° in France and Switzerland, and passing into Russia at 55°, thence continuing across the middle of Siberia, north of China to Japan; thence south to the Fiji Islands, to New Zealand and North Australia; thence again to Mauritius and over all Africa to Madeira. The southern distribution is uncertain and obscure. Taking exceptional distribution, it is well known that it occasionally appears in the British Isles, and has in them apparently been noticed as far north as Edinburgh; so also does it occasionally appear in Scandinavia, and it has probably been seen up to 63° N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard to the exact determination of the species, and in Europe especially is this the case, because there exists a distinct species, known as _P. migratorius_, the migratory area of which appears to be confined to Turkestan and eastern Europe.

_P. cinerascens_ is certainly the most common of the "locusts" occasionally found in the British Isles, and E. de Selys-Longchamps is of opinion that it breeds regularly in Belgium, whereas the true _P. migratorius_ is only accidental in that country.

A South African species allied to the preceding and provisionally identified as _Pachytylus salcicollis_ is noteworthy from the manifestation of the migratory instinct in immature wingless individuals. The families of young, after destroying the vegetation of a district, unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh pastures, devastating the country as they go and proceeding of necessity on foot, hence they are known to the Dutch as "voetgangers." Travelling northwards towards the centre of the continent, the home of their parents before migration, they are diverted from their course by no obstacles. Upon reaching a river or stream they search the bank for a likely spot to cross, then fearlessly cast themselves upon the water where they form floating islands of insects, most of which usually succeed in gaining the opposite bank, though many perish in the attempt.

_Acridium peregrinum_ (fig. 2) can scarcely be considered even an accidental visitor to Europe; yet it has been seen in the south of Spain, and in many examples spread over a large part of England in the year 1869. It is a larger insect than _P. migratorius_. There is every reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust throughout Africa and in India and other parts of tropical Asia, and its ravages are as great as those of _P. migratorius_. Presumably it is the species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the Atlantic, very far from land, and presumably also it occurs in the West Indies and some parts of Central America. In the Argentine Republic a (possibly) distinct species (_A. paranense_) is the migratory locust.

_Caloptenus italicus_ (fig. 3) is a smaller insect, with a less extended area of migration; the destruction occasioned in the districts to which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its more terrible allies. It is essentially a species of the Mediterranean district, and especially of the European side of that sea, yet it is also found in North Africa, and appears to extend far into southern Russia.

_Caloptenus spretus_ (fig. 4) is the "Rocky Mountain locust" or "hateful grasshopper" of the North American continent. Though a comparatively small insect, not so large as some of the grasshoppers of English fields, its destructiveness has procured for it great notoriety. By early travellers and settlers the species was not recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners. But in 1877, Congress appointed a United States Entomological Commission to investigate the subject. The report of the commissioners (C. V. Riley, A. S. Packard and C. Thomas) deals with the whole subject of locusts both in America and the Old world. _C. spretus_ has its home or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the Rocky Mountains, extending slightly into the southern portion of Canada; outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-permanent is applied, and this is again bounded by the limits of only occasional distribution, the whole occupying a large portion of the North American continent; but it is not known to have crossed the Rocky Mountains westward, or to have extended into the eastern states.

As to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages of locusts, little unfortunately can be said; but anything that will apply to one species may be used with practically all. Something can be done (as is now done in Cyprus) by offering a price for all the egg-tubes collected, which is the most direct manner of attacking them. Some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an unwinged condition, and by digging trenches in the line of march into which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to. Little can be done with the winged hordes; starvation, the outcome of their own work, probably here does much. In South Africa some success has attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic. It has been shown that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places, or true homes, are comparatively barren districts (mostly elevated plateaus); hence the progress of colonization, and the conversion of those heretofore barren plains into areas of fertility, may (and probably will) gradually lessen the evil.

Locusts have many enemies besides man. Many birds greedily devour them, and it has many times been remarked that migratory swarms of the insects were closely followed by myriads of birds. Predatory insects of other orders also attack them, especially when they are in the unwinged condition. Moreover, they have still more deadly insect foes as parasites. Some attack the fully developed winged insect. But the greater part attack the eggs. To such belong certain beetles, chiefly of the family _Cantharidae_, and especially certain two-winged flies of the family _Bombyliidae_. These latter, both in the Old and New World, must prevent vast quantities of eggs from producing larvae.

The larger Old World species form articles of food with certain semi-civilized and savage races, by whom they are considered as delicacies, or as part of ordinary diet, according to the race and the method of preparation. (R. M'L.; R. I. P.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Lat. _locusta_ was first applied to a lobster or other marine shell-fish and then, from its resemblance, to the insect.

LOCUST-TREE, or CAROB-TREE (_Ceratonia siliqua_), a member of the tribe _Cassieae_ of the order Leguminosae, the sole species of its genus, and widely diffused spontaneously and by cultivation from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean regions. The name of the genus is derived from the often curved pod (Gr. [Greek: keration], a little horn). The flowers have no petals and are polygamous or dioecious (male, female and hermaphrodite flowers occur). The seed-pod is compressed, often curved, indehiscent and coriaceous, but with sweet pulpy divisions between the seeds, which, as in other genera of the _Cassieae_, are albuminous. The pods are eaten by men and animals, and in Sicily a spirit and a syrup are made from them. These husks being often used for swine are called swine's bread, and are probably referred to in the parable of the Prodigal Son. It is also called St John's bread, from a misunderstanding of Matt. iii. 4. The carob-tree was regarded by Sprengel as the tree with which Moses sweetened the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as the _kharrúb_, according to Avicenna (p. 205), has the property of sweetening salt and bitter waters. Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1241) cultivated it in 1597, it having been introduced in 1570.

LODÈVE, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement of the department of Hérault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906), 6142. It is situated in the southern Cévennes at the foot of steep hills in a small valley where the Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of the Hérault. Two bridges over the Lergue connect the town with the faubourg of Carmes on the left bank of the river, and two others over the Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the château de Montbrun (13th century). The old fortified cathedral of St Fulcran, founded by him in 950, dates in its present condition from the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries; the cloister, dating from the 15th and 17th centuries, is in ruins. In the picturesque environs of the town stands the well-preserved monastery of St Michel de Grammont, dating from the 12th century and now used as farm buildings. In the neighbourhood are three fine dolmens. The manufacture of woollens for army clothing is the chief industry. Wool is imported in large quantities from the neighbouring departments, and from Morocco; the exports are cloth to Italy and the Levant, wine, brandy and wood. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal college.

Lodève (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans, who for some time called it _Forum Neronis_. The inhabitants were converted to Christianity by St Flour, first bishop of the city, about 323. After passing successively into the hands of the Visigoths, the Franks, the Ostrogoths, the Arabs and the Carolingians, it became in the 9th century a separate countship, and afterwards the domain of its bishops. During the religious wars it suffered much, especially in 1573, when it was sacked. It ceased to be an episcopal see at the Revolution.

LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839), English writer on heraldry, was born in London on the 13th of June 1756, son of Edmund Lodge, rector of Carshalton, Surrey. He held a cornet's commission in the army, which he resigned in 1773. In 1782 he became Bluemantle pursuivant-at-arms in the College of Arms. He subsequently became Lancaster herald, Norroy king-at-arms, Clarencieux king-at-arms, and, in 1832, knight of the order of the Guelphs of Hanover. He died in London on the 16th of January 1839. He wrote _Illustrations of British History_, _Biography and Manners in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth and James I._ ... (3 vols., 1791), consisting of selections from the MSS. of the Howard, Talbot and Cecil families preserved at the College of Arms; _Life of Sir Julius Caesar ..._ (2nd ed., 1827). He contributed the literary matter to _Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain_ (1814, &c.), an elaborate work of which a popular edition is included in Bohn's "Illustrated Library." His most important work on heraldry was _The Genealogy of the existing British Peerage ..._ (1832; enlarged edition, 1859). In _The Annual Peerage and Baronetage_ (1827-1829), reissued after 1832 as _Peerage of the British Empire_, and generally known as Lodge's Peerage, his share did not go beyond the title-page.

LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850- ), American political leader and author, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of May 1850. He graduated at Harvard College in 1871 and at the Harvard Law School in 1875; was admitted to the Suffolk (Massachusetts) bar in 1876; and in 1876-1879 was instructor in American history at Harvard. He was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1880-1881, and of the National House of Representatives in 1887-1893; succeeded Henry L. Dawes as United States Senator from Massachusetts in 1893; and in 1899 and in 1905 was re-elected to the Senate, where he became one of the most prominent of the Republican leaders, and an influential supporter of President Roosevelt. He was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Commission of 1903, and of the United States Immigration Commission of 1907. In the National Republican Convention of 1896 his influence did much to secure the adoption of the gold standard "plank" of the party's platform. He was the permanent chairman of the National Republican Convention of 1900, and of that of 1908. In 1874-1876 he edited the _North American Review_ with Henry Adams; and in 1879-1882, with John T. Morse, Jr., he edited the _International Review_. In 1884-1890 he was an overseer of Harvard College. His doctoral thesis at Harvard was published with essays by Henry Adams, J. L. Laughlin and Ernest Young, under the title _Essays on Anglo-Saxon Land Law_ (1876). He wrote: _Life and Letters of George Cabot_ (1877); _Alexander Hamilton_ (1882), _Daniel Webster_ (1883) and _George Washington_ (2 vols., 1889), in the "American Statesmen" series; _A Short History of the English Colonies in America_ (1881); _Studies in History_ (1884); _Boston_ (1891), in the "Historic Towns" series; _Historical and Political Essays_ (1892); with Theodore Roosevelt, _Hero Tales from American History_ (1895); _Certain Accepted Heroes_ (1897); _The Story of the American Revolution_ (2 vols., 1898); _The War with Spain_ (1899); _A Fighting Frigate_ (1902); _A Frontier Town_ (1906); and, with J. W. Garner, _A History of the United States_ (4 vols., 1906). He edited _The Works of Alexander Hamilton_ (9 vols., 1885-1886) and _The Federalist_ (1891).

His son, GEORGE CABOT LODGE (1873-1909), also became known as an author, with _The Song of the Wave_ (1898), _Poems, 1899-1902_ (1902), _The Great Adventure_ (1905), _Cain: a Drama_ (1904), _Herakles_ (1908) and other verse.

LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851- ), English physicist, was born at Penkhull, Staffordshire, on the 12th of June 1851, and was educated at Newport (Salop) grammar school. He was intended for a business career, but being attracted to science he entered University College, London, in 1872, graduating D.Sc. at London University in 1877. In 1875 he was appointed reader in natural philosophy at Bedford College for Women, and in 1879 he became assistant professor of applied mathematics at University College, London. Two years later he was called to the chair of physics in University College, Liverpool, where he remained till in 1900 he was chosen first principal of the new Birmingham University. He was knighted in 1902. His original work includes investigations on lightning, the seat of the electromotive force in the voltaic cell, the phenomena of electrolysis and the speed of the ion, electromagnetic waves and wireless telegraphy, the motion of the aether near the earth, and the application of electricity to the dispersal of fog and smoke. He presided over the mathematical and physical section of the British Association in 1891, and served as president of the Physical Society in 1899-1900 and of the Society for Psychical Research in 1901-1904. In addition to numerous scientific memoirs he wrote, among other works, _Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards_, _Signalling without Wires_, _Modern Views of Electricity_, _Electrons_ and _The Ether of Space_, together with various books and papers of a metaphysical and theological character.

LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558-1625), English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born about 1558 at West Ham. He was the second son of Sir Thomas Lodge, who was lord mayor of London in 1562-1563. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and Trinity College, Oxford; taking his B.A. degree in 1577 and that of M.A. in 1581. In 1578 he entered Lincoln's Inn, where, as in the other Inns of Court, a love of letters and a crop of debts and difficulties were alike wont to spring up in a kindly soil. Lodge, apparently in disregard of the wishes of his family, speedily showed his inclination towards the looser ways of life and the lighter aspects of literature. When the penitent Stephen Gosson had (in 1579) published his _Schoole of Abuse_, Lodge took up the glove in his _Defence of Poetry, Music and Stage Plays_ (1579 or 1580; reprinted for the Shakespeare Society, 1853), which shows a certain restraint, though neither deficient in force of invective nor backward in display of erudition. The pamphlet was prohibited, but appears to have been circulated privately. It was answered by Gosson in his _Playes Confuted in Five Actions_; and Lodge retorted with his _Alarum Against Usurers_ (1584, reprinted ib.)--a "tract for the times" which no doubt was in some measure indebted to the author's personal experience. In the same year he produced the first tale written by him on his own account in prose and verse, _The Delectable History of Forbonius and Prisceria_, both published and reprinted with the _Alarum_. From 1587 onwards he seems to have made a series of attempts as a playwright, though most of those attributed to him are mainly conjectural. That he ever became an actor is improbable in itself, and Collier's conclusion to that effect rested on the two assumptions that the "Lodge" of Henslowe's M.S. was a player and that his name was Thomas, neither of which is supported by the text (see C. M. Ingleby, _Was Thomas Lodge an Actor?_ 1868). Having, in the spirit of his age, "tried the waves" with Captain Clarke in his expedition to Terceira and the Canaries, Lodge in 1591 made a voyage with Thomas Cavendish to Brazil and the Straits of Magellan, returning home by 1593. During the Canaries expedition, to beguile the tedium of his voyage, he composed his prose tale of _Rosalynde, Euphues' Golden Legacie_, which, printed in 1590, afterwards furnished the story of Shakespeare's _As You Like It_. The novel, which in its turn owes some, though no very considerable, debt to the medieval _Tale of Gamelyn_ (unwarrantably appended to the fragmentary _Cookes Tale_ in certain MSS. of Chaucer's works), is written in the euphuistic manner, but decidedly attractive both by its plot and by the situations arising from it. It has been frequently reprinted. Before starting on his second expedition he had published an historical romance, _The History of Robert, Second Duke of Normandy, surnamed Robert the Divell_; and he left behind him for publication _Catharos, Diogenes in his Singularity_, a discourse on the immorality of Athens (London). Both appeared in 1591. Another romance in the manner of Lyly, _Euphues Shadow, the Battaile of the Sences_ (1592), appeared while Lodge was still on his travels. His second historical romance, the _Life and Death of William Longbeard_ (1593), was more successful than the first. Lodge also brought back with him from the new world _A Margarite of America_ (published 1596), a romance of the same description interspersed with many lyrics. Already in 1589 Lodge had given to the world a volume of poems bearing the title of the chief among them, _Scillaes Metamorphosis, Enterlaced with the Unfortunate Love of Glaucus_, more briefly known as _Glaucus and Scilla_ (reprinted with preface by S. W. Singer in 1819). To this tale Shakespeare was possibly indebted for the idea of _Venus and Adonis_. Some readers would perhaps be prepared to give up this and much else of Lodge's sugared verse, fine though much of it is in quality, largely borrowed from other writers, French and Italian in particular, in exchange for the lost _Sailor's Kalendar_, in which he must in one way or another have recounted his sea adventures. If Lodge, as has been supposed, was the Alcon in _Colin Clout's come Home Again_, it may have been the influence of Spenser which led to the composition of _Phillis_, a volume of sonnets, in which the voice of nature seems only now and then to become audible, published with the narrative poem, _The Complaynte of Elstred_, in 1593. _A Fig for Momus_, on the strength of which he has been called the earliest English satirist, and which contains eclogues addressed to Daniel and others, an epistle addressed to Drayton, and other pieces, appeared in 1595. Lodge's ascertained dramatic work is small in quantity. In conjunction with Greene he, probably in 1590, produced in a popular vein the odd but far from feeble play of _A Looking Glasse for London and England_ (printed in 1594). He had already written _The Wounds of Civile War. Lively set forth in the Tragedies of Marius and Scilla_ (produced perhaps as early as 1587, and published in 1594), a good second-rate piece in the half-chronicle fashion of its age. Mr F. G. Fleay thinks there were grounds for assigning to Lodge _Mucedorus and Amadine_, played by the Queen's Men about 1588, a share with Robert Greene in _George a Greene, the Pinner of Wakefield_, and in Shakespeare's 2nd part of _Henry VI._; he also regards him as at least part-author of _The True Chronicle of King Leir and his three Daughters_ (1594); and _The Troublesome Raigne of John, King of England_ (c. 1588); in the case of two other plays he allowed the assignation to Lodge to be purely conjectural. That Lodge is the "Young Juvenal" of Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_ is no longer a generally accepted hypothesis. In the latter part of his life--possibly about 1596, when he published his _Wits Miserie_ and the _World's Madnesse_, which is dated from Low Leyton in Essex, and the religious tract _Prosopopeia_ (if, as seems probable, it was his), in which he repents him of his "lewd lines" of other days--he became a Catholic and engaged in the practice of medicine, for which Wood says he qualified himself by a degree at Avignon in 1600. Two years afterwards he received the degree of M.D. from Oxford University. His works henceforth have a sober cast, comprising translations of Josephus (1602), of Seneca (1614), a _Learned Summary_ of Du Bartas's _Divine Sepmaine_ (1625 and 1637), besides a _Treatise of the Plague_ (1603), and a popular manual, which remained unpublished, on _Domestic Medicine_. Early in 1606 he seems to have left England, to escape the persecution then directed against the Catholics; and a letter from him dated 1610 thanks the English ambassador in Paris for enabling him to return in safety. He was abroad on urgent private affairs of one kind and another in 1616. From this time to his death in 1625 nothing further concerning him remains to be noted.

Lodge's works, with the exception of his translations, have been reprinted for the Hunterian Club with an introductory essay by Mr Edmund Gosse. This preface was reprinted in Mr Gosse's _Seventeenth Century Studies_ (1883). Of _Rosalynde_ there are numerous modern editions. See also J. J. Jusserand, _English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare_ (Eng. trans., 1890); F. G. Fleay, _Biographical Chronicle of the English Drama_ (vol. ii., 1891). (A. W. W.)

LODGE, a dwelling-place, small and usually temporary, a hut, booth or tent. The word was in M. Eng. _logge_, from Fr. _loge_, arbour, in modern French a hut; also box in a theatre; the French word, like the Italian _loggia_, came from the Med. Lat. _laubia_ or _lobia_, the sheltered promenade in a cloister, from which English "lobby" is derived. The Latin is of Teutonic origin from the word which survives in the Mod. Ger. _Laube_, an arbour, but which earlier was used for any hut, booth, &c. The word is probably ultimately from the root which appears in "leaf," meaning a rough shelter of foliage or boughs. The word is especially used of a house built either in a forest or away from habitation, where people stay for the purpose of sport, as a "hunting lodge," "shooting lodge," &c. The most frequent use of the word is of a small building, usually placed at the entrance to an estate or park and inhabited by a dependant of the owner. In the same sense the word means the room or box inhabited by the porter of a college, factory or public institution. Among Freemasons and other societies the "lodge" is the name given to the meeting-place of the members of the branch or district, and is applied to the members collectively as "a meeting of the lodge." The governing body of the Freemasons presided over by the grand master is called the "Grand Lodge." At the university of Cambridge the house where the head of a college lives is called the "lodge." Formerly the word was used of the den or lair of an animal, but is now only applied to that of the beaver and the otter. It is also applied to the tent of a North American Indian, a wigwam or tepee, and to the number of inhabitants of such a tent. In mining the term is used of a subterraneous reservoir made at the bottom of the pit, or at different levels in the shaft for the purpose of draining the mine. It is used also of a room or landing-place next to the shaft, for discharging ore, &c.

LODGER AND LODGINGS. The term "lodger" (Fr. _loger_, to lodge) is used in English law in several slightly different senses. It is applied (i.) most frequently and properly to a person who takes furnished rooms in a house, the landlord also residing on the premises, and supplying him with attendance; (ii.) sometimes to a person, who takes unfurnished rooms in a house finding his own attendance; (iii.) to a boarder in a boarding-house (q.v.). It is with (i.) and (ii.) alone that this article is concerned.

Where furnished apartments are let for immediate use, the law implies an undertaking on the part of the landlord that they are fit for habitation, and, if this condition is broken, the tenant may refuse to occupy the premises or to pay any rent. But there is no implied contract that the apartments shall _continue_ fit for habitation; and the rule has no application in the case of unfurnished lodgings. In the absence of express agreement to the contrary, a lodger has a right to the use of everything necessary to the enjoyment of the premises, such as the door bell and knocker and the skylight of a staircase, whether the rent of apartments can be distrained for by the immediate landlord where he resides on the premises and supplies attendance is a question the answer to which is involved in some uncertainty. The weight of authority seems to support the negative view (see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_, 3rd ed. p. 434). To make good a right to distrain it is necessary to show that the terms of the letting create a tenancy or exclusive occupation and not a mere licence, where the owner, although residing on the premises, does not supply attendance, the question depends on whether there is a real tenancy, giving the lodger an exclusive right of occupation as against the owner. The ordinary test is whether the lodger has the control of the outer door. But the whole circumstances of each case have to be taken account of. A lodger is rateable to the poor-rate where he is in exclusive occupation of the apartments let to him, and the landlord does not retain the control and dominion of the whole structure. As to distress on a lodger's goods for rent due by an immediate to a superior landlord, see RENT. As to the termination of short tenancies, as of apartments, see LANDLORD AND TENANT. The landlord has no lien on the goods of the lodger for rent or charges. Overcrowding lodging-houses may be dealt with as a nuisance under the Public Health Acts 1875 and 1891 and the Housing of the Working Classes Acts. As to the lodger franchise, see REGISTRATION OF VOTERS. It has been held in England that keepers of lodging-houses do not come within the category of those persons (see CARRIER; INNKEEPER) who hold themselves out to the public generally as trustworthy in certain employments; but that they are under an obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of their lodgers' goods; see _Scarborough_ v. _Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 805. As to Scots Law see Bell's _Prin._ s. 236 (4).

In the United States, the English doctrine of an implied warranty of fitness for habitation on a letting of furnished apartments has only met with partial acceptance; it was repudiated, e.g. in the District of Columbia, but has been accepted in Massachusetts. In the French _Code Civil_, there are some special rules with regard to furnished apartments. The letting is reputed to be made for a year, a month or a day, according as the rent is so much per year, per month or per day; if that test is inapplicable, the letting is deemed to be made according to the custom of the place (art. 1758). There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium (art. 1758), Holland (art. 1622) and Spain (Civil Code, art. 1581).

See also the articles, BOARDING HOUSE, and FLAT; and the bibliographies to FLAT and LANDLORD AND TENANT. (A. W. R.)

LODI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Milan, 20½ m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill above the right bank of the Adda, 230 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 19,970 (town), 26,827 (commune). The site of the city is an eminence rising very gradually from the Lombard plain, and the surrounding country is one of the richest dairy districts in Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a Gothic façade and a 16th-century lateral tower, has a restored interior. The church of the Incoronata was erected by Battaggio (1488) in the Bramantesque style. It is an elegant octagonal domed structure, and is decorated with frescoes by the Piazza family, natives of the town, and four large altar-pieces by Calisto Piazza (died after 1561). There is a fine organ of 1507. The 13th-century Gothic church of San Francesco, restored in 1889, with 14th-century paintings, is also noticeable. The Palazzo Modegnani has a fine gateway in the style of Bramante, and the hospital a cloistered quadrangle. In the Via Pompeia is an early Renaissance house with fine decorations in marble and terra-cotta. Besides an extensive trade in cheese (Lodi producing more Parmesan than Parma itself) and other dairy produce, there are manufactures of linen, silk, majolica and chemicals.

The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3½ m. W. of the present city, and the site is still occupied by a considerable village, Lodi Vecchio, with the old cathedral of S. Bassiano, now a brick building, which contains 15th-century frescoes. It was the point where the roads from Mediolanum to Placentia and Cremona diverged, and there was also a road to Ticinum turning off from the former, but it is hardly mentioned by classical writers. It appears to have been a _municipium_. No ruins exist above ground, but various antiquities have been found here. From which Pompeius, whether Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who gave citizenship to the Transpadani, or his son, the more famous Pompey, it took its name is not certain. In the middle ages Lodi was second to Milan among the cities of northern Italy. A dispute with the archbishop of Milan about the investiture of the bishop of Lodi (1024) proved the beginning of a protracted feud between the two cities. In 1111 the Milanese laid the whole place in ruins and forbade their rivals to restore what they had destroyed, and in 1158, when in spite of this prohibition a fairly flourishing settlement had again been formed, they repeated their work in a more thorough manner. A number of the Lodigians had settled on Colle Eghezzone; and their village, the Borgo d'Isella, on the site of a temple of Hercules, soon grew up under the patronage of Frederick Barbarossa into a new city of Lodi (1162). At first subservient to the emperor, Lodi was before long compelled to enter the Lombard League, and in 1198 it formed alliance offensive and defensive with Milan. The strife between the Sommariva or aristocratic party and the Overgnaghi or democratic party was so severe that the city divided into two distinct communes. The Overgnaghi, expelled in 1236, were restored by Frederick II. who took the city after three months' siege. Lodi was actively concerned in the rest of the Guelph and Ghibelline struggle. In 1416 its ruler, Giovanni Vignati, was treacherously taken prisoner by Filippo Maria Visconti, and after that time it became dependent on Milan. The duke of Brunswick captured it in 1625, in the interests of Spain; and it was occupied by the French (1701), by the Austrians (1706), by the king of Sardinia (1733), by the Austrians (1736), by the Spaniards (1745), and again by the Austrians (1746). On the 10th of May 1796 was fought the battle of Lodi between the Austrians and Napoleon, which made the latter master of Lombardy.

LODZ (_Lódz_; more correctly _Lodzia_), a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Piotrków, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw. It is situated on the Lodz plateau, which at the beginning of the 19th century was covered with impenetrable forests. Now it is the centre of a group of industrial towns--Zgerz, Leczyca, Pabianice, Konstantinov and Aleksandrov. Chiefly owing to a considerable immigration of German capitalists and workers, Lodz has grown with American-like rapidity. It consists principally of one main street, 7 m. long, and is a sort of Polish Manchester, manufacturing cottons, woollens and mixed stuffs, with chemicals, beer, machinery and silk. One of the very few educational institutions is a professional industrial school. The population, which was only 50,000 in 1872, reached 351,570 in 1900; the Poles numbering about 37%, Germans 40% and Jews 22½%.

LOESS (Ger. _Löss_), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical loess is a soft, porous rock, pale yellowish or buff in colour; one characteristic property is its capacity to retain vertical, or even over-hanging, walls in the banks of streams. These vertical walls have been well described by von Richthofen (_Führer für Forschungsreisende_, Berlin, 1886) in China, where they stand in some places 500 ft. high and contain innumerable cave dwellings; ancient roads too have worn their way vertically downwards deep into the deposit, forming trench-like ways. This character in the loess of the Mississippi region gave rise to the name "Bluff formation." A coarse columnar structure is often exhibited on the vertical weathered faces of the rock. Another characteristic is the presence throughout the rock of small capillary tubules, which appear to have been occupied by rootlets; these are often lined with calcite. Typical loess is usually calcareous; some geologists regard this as an essential property, and when the rock has become decalcified, as it frequently is on the surface by weathering, they call it "loess-loam" (_lösslehm_). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the calcium carbonate tends to form concretions, which on account of their mimetic forms have received such names as _lösskindchen_, _lösspuppen_, _poupées du loess_, "loess dolls." In deposits of this nature in South America these concretionary masses form distinct beds. Bedding is absent from typical loess. The mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in different regions, but the particles are always small; they consist of angular grains of quartz, fine particles of hydrated silicates of alumina, mica scales and undecomposed fragments of felspar, hornblende and other rock-forming silicates.

In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the margins of the great ice sheets of the glacial period; thus in Europe they stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In both regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits. For this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene period; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been in process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period onward, and in South America the great loess formations known as the Pampean or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and Pleistocene periods. Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne rock, formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface even while the deposit was slowly increasing. Others contend that loess is of the nature of alluvial loam; this may be true of certain deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of most of the typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks quite independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the agency of prevalent winds.

The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great thickness in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as _Succinea_. Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash, this is the so-called "lake-loess" (_see-löss_); according to Tukowski the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous loess, (2) the _gehanglöss_, mixed with subsoil rocks, and (3) the sand or _thal-löss_, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the black earth (_Tschernozom_) of southern Russia, the dark _Bordelöss_ of the Magdeburg district, and the black "cotton soil" (_regur_) of the Deccan.

LOFFT, CAPEL (1751-1824), English miscellaneous writer, was born in London on the 14th of November 1751. He was educated at Eton, and Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left to become a member of Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar in 1775, and left by his father's and uncle's deaths with a handsome property and the family estates. He was a prolific writer on a variety of topics, and a vigorous contentious advocate of parliamentary and other reforms, and carried on a voluminous correspondence with all the literary men of his time. He became the patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author of _The Farmer's Boy_, and secured for him the very successful publication of that work. Byron, in a note to his _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, ridiculed Lofft as "the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed versemen; a kind of gratis _accoucheur_ to those who wish to be delivered of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth." He died at Montcalieri, near Turin, on the 26th of May 1824.

His fourth son Capel Lofft, the younger (1806-1873), also a writer on various topics, inherited his father's liberal ideas and principles, and carried them in youth to greater extremes. In his old age he abandoned these theories, which had brought him into the company of some of the leading political agitators of the day. He died in America, where he had a Virginia estate.

LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN, a large and picturesque group of islands lying N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of Norway, between 67° 30´ and 69° 20´ N., and between 12° and 16° 35´ E. forming part of the _amt_ (county) of Nordland. The extreme length of the group from Andenaes, at the north of Andö, to Röst, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about 1560 sq. m. It is separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord, Tjaeldsund and Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections by the Raftsund between Hindö and Öst-Vaagö. To the W. and S. of the Raftsund lie the Lofoten Islands proper, of which the most important are Öst-Vaagö, Gimsö, Vest-Vaagö, Flakstadö, Moskenaesö, Mosken, Värö and Röst; E. and N. of the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the chief being Hindö, Ulvö, Langö, Skogsö and Andö. The islands, which are all of granite or metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and lofty. The highest points and finest scenery are found on Öst-Vaagö, in the neighbourhood of the narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund and Troldfjord. The principal peaks are Higrafstind (3811 ft.), Gjeitgaljartind (3555), Rulten (3483), the Noldtinder (3467), Svartsundtind (3506). The long line of jagged and fantastic peaks seen from the Vestfjord forms one of the most striking prospects on the Norwegian coast, but still finer is the panorama from the Digermuler (1150 ft.), embracing the islands, the Vestfjord, and the mountains of the mainland. The channels which separate the islands are narrow and tortuous, and generally of great depth; they are remarkable for the strength of their tidal currents, particularly the Raftsund and the famous Maelström or Moskenström between Moskenaes and Mosken. The violent tempests which sweep over the Vestfjord, which is exposed to the S.W., are graphically described in Jonas Lie's _Den Fremsynte_ (1870) and in H. Schultze's _Udvalgte Skrifter_ (1883), as the Maelström is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. Though situated wholly within the Arctic circle, the climate of the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not rigorous when compared with that of the rest of Norway. The isothermal line which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south from the Lofotens, passing a little to the east of Bergen onward to Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The prevailing winds are from the S. and W., the mean temperature for the year is 38.5° F., and the annual rainfall is 43.34 in. In summer the hills have only patches of snow, the snow limit being about 3000 ft. The natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits the rearing of cattle to some extent; but the growth of cereals (chiefly barley, which here matures in ninety days) is insignificant. The islands yield no wood. The characteristic industry, and an important source of the national wealth, is the cod fishery carried on along the east coast of the Lofotens in the Vestfjord in spring. This employs about 40,000 men during the season from all parts of Norway, the population being then about doubled, and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts. The average yield is valued at about £35,000. The fish are taken in nets let down during the night, or on lines upwards of a mile in length, or on ordinary hand-lines. The fishermen are paid in cash, and large sums of money are sent to the islands by the Norwegian banks each February. Great loss of life is frequent during the sudden local storms. The fish, which is dried during early summer, is exported to Spain (where it is known as _bacalao_), Holland, Great Britain, Belgium, &c. Industries arising out of the fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of artificial manure. The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are also valuable. The herring is taken in large quantities off the west coasts of Vesteraalen, but is a somewhat capricious visitant. The islands contain no towns properly so called, but Kabelvaag on Öst-Vaagö and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island are considerable centres of trade and (in the fishing season) of population; Lödingen also, at the head of the Vestfjord on Hindö, is much frequented as a port of call. A church existed at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the 12th century, and here Hans Egede, the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. There are factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Öst-Vaagö), Kabelvaag, Svolvaer, Lödingen, and at Bretesnäs on Store Molla. Regular means of communication are afforded by the steamers which trade between Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, and also by local vessels; less accessible spots can be visited by small boats, in the management of which the natives are adepts. There are some roads on Hindö, Langö, and Andö. The largest island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindö, with an area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern portion of it belongs to the _amt_ of Tromsö. In the island of Andö there is a bed of coal at the mouth of Ramsaa.

LOFT (connected with "lift," i.e. raised in the air; O. Eng. _lyft_; cf. Ger. _Luft_; the French term is _grenier_ and Ger. _Boden_), the term given in architecture to an upper room in the roof, sometimes called "cockloft"; when applied over stabling it is known as a hay-loft; the gallery over a chancel screen, carrying a cross, is called a rood-loft (see ROOD). The term is also given to a gallery provided in the choir-aisle of a cathedral or church, and used as a watching-loft at night.

LOFTUS, ADAM (c. 1533-1605), archbishop of Armagh and Dublin, and lord chancellor of Ireland, the son of a Yorkshire gentleman, was educated at Cambridge. He accompanied the earl of Sussex to Ireland as his chaplain in 1560, and three years later was consecrated archbishop of Armagh by Hugh Curwen, archbishop of Dublin. In 1565 Queen Elizabeth, to supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal see owing to the disturbed state of the country, appointed Loftus temporarily to the deanery of St Patrick's; and in the same year he became president of the new commission for ecclesiastical causes. In 1567 he was translated to the archbishopric of Dublin, where the queen looked to him to carry out reforms in the Church. On several occasions he temporarily executed the functions of lord keeper, and in August 1581 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland. Loftus was constantly occupied in attempts to improve his financial position by obtaining additional preferment. He had been obliged to resign the deanery of St Patrick's in 1567, and twenty years later he quarrelled violently with Sir John Perrot, the lord deputy, over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the cathedral to the foundation of a university. Loftus, however, favoured the project of founding a university in Dublin, though on lines different from Perrot's proposal, and it was largely through his influence that the corporation of Dublin granted the lands of the priory of All Hallows as a beginning of the endowment of Trinity College, of which he was named first provost in the charter creating the foundation in 1591. Loftus, who had an important share in the administration of Ireland under successive lords deputy, and whose zeal and efficiency were commended by James I. on his accession, died in Dublin on the 5th of April 1605. By his wife, Jane Purdon, he had twenty children.

His brother Robert was father of ADAM LOFTUS (c. 1568-1643), who became lord chancellor of Ireland in 1619, and in 1622 was created Viscount Loftus of Ely, King's county, in the peerage of Ireland. Lord Loftus came into violent conflict with the lord deputy, Viscount Falkland, in 1624; and at a later date his quarrel with Strafford was still more fierce. One of the articles in Strafford's impeachment was based on his dealings with Loftus. The title, which became extinct on the death of his grandson, the 3rd viscount, in 1725 (when the family estate of Monasterevan, re-named Moore Abbey, passed to his daughter's son Henry, 4th earl of Drogheda), was re-granted in 1756 to his cousin Nicholas Loftus, a lineal descendant of the archbishop. It again became extinct more than once afterwards, but was on each occasion revived in favour of a descendant through the female line; and it is now held by the marquis of Ely in conjunction with other family titles.

See Richard Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1840); J. R. O'Flanagan, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1870); John D'Alton, _Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin_ (Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton, _Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae_ (5 vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason, _History and Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near Dublin_ (Dublin, 1819); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ vol. iii., sub. "Ely" (London, 1890).

LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomatopoeic; the _New English Dictionary_ rejects the derivation from Norwegian _lág_, a fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, wood. The word is also used in various figurative senses, and more particularly for the "nautical log," an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships. Its employment in this sense depends on the fact that a piece of wood attached to a line was thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed position, motionless, the vessel's speed being calculated by observing what length of line ran out in a given time ("common log"); and the word has been retained for the modern "patent" or "continuous" log, though it works in an entirely different manner.

The origin of the "common log" is obscure, but the beginnings of the "continuous log" may be traced back to the 16th century. By an invention probably due to Humfray Cole and published in 1578 by William Bourne in his _Inventions and Devices_, it was proposed to register a ship's speed by means of a "little small close boat," with a wheel, or wheels, and an axle-tree to turn clockwork in the little boat, with dials and pointers indicating fathoms, leagues, scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues. About 1668 Dr R. Hooke showed some members of the Royal Society an instrument for the same purpose, depending on a vane or fly which rotated as the vessel progressed (Birch, _History of the Royal Society_,