Part 30

CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors).--R. Adamson, _Philosophy of Kant_ (1879; Germ. trans., 1880); Felix Adler, _A Critique of Kant's Ethics_ (1908); S. Aicher, _Kants Begriff der Erkenntnis verglichen mit dem des Aristoteles_ (1907); M. Apel, _Immanuel Kant: Ein Bild seines Lebens und Denkens_ (1904); Arnoldt, _Kritische Exkurse im Gebiete der Kantforschung_ (1894); C. Bache, "_Kants Prinzip der Autonomie im Verhaltnis zur Idee des Reichs der Zwecke_" (_Kantstudien_, 1909); B. Bauch, _Luther und Kant_ (1904); Paul Boehm, _Die vorkritischen Schriften Kants_ (1906); E. Caird, _Critical Philosophy of Kant_ (2 vols., 1889); Chalybaus, _Historische Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel_ (5th ed., 1860); H. S. Chamberlain, _Immanuel Kant_ (1909); Cousin, _Lecons sur la philosophie de Kant_ (4th ed., 1864); B. Erdmann, _Immanuel Kant, Kants Kritizismus in der 1 und 2 Auflage der "Kritik der reinen Vernunft_" (1877); O. Ewald, _Kants kritischer Idealismus als Grundlage von Erkenntnistheorie und Ethik_ (1908) and _Kants Methodologie in ihren Grundzugen_ (1906); Kuno Fischer, _Immanuel Kant_ (4th ed., 1898-1899), _Die beiden Kantischen Schulen in Jena_ (1862), and _Commentary on Kant's Kritik of Pure Reason_ (1878); F. Forster, _Der Entwicklungsgang der Kantischen Ethik bis zur Kritik der reinen Vernunft_ (1893); A. Fouillee, _Le Moralisme de Kant et l'amoralisme contemporaine_ (1905); C. R. E. von Hartmann, _Kants Erkenntnistheorie und Metaphysik in den vier Perioden ihrer Entwickelung_ (1894); A. Hegler, _Die Psychologie in Kants Ethik_ (1891); G. D. Hicks, _Die Begriffe Phanomenon und Noumenon in ihrem Verhaltniss zu einander bei Kant_ (1897); G. Jacoby, _Herders und Kants Aesthetik_ (1907); W. Kabitz, _Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichteschen Wissenschaftslehre aus der Kantischen Philosophie_ (1902); M. Kelly, _Kant's Philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer_ (1909); W. Koppelmann, _I. Kant und die Grundlagen der christlichen Religion_ (1890); M. Kronenberg, _Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (1897; 3rd ed., 1905); E. Kuhnemann, _Kants und Schillers Begrundung der Aesthetik_ (1895) and _Die Kantischen Studien Schillers und die Komposition des Wallenstein_ (1889); H. Levy, _Kants Lehre vom Schematismus der reinen Verstandesbegriffe_ (1901); Arthur O. Lovejoy, _Kant and the English Platonists_ (1908); J. P. Mahaffy, _Kant's Critical Philosophy for English Readers_ (1872-1874); W. Mengel, _Kants Begrundung der Religion_ (1900); A. Messer, _Kants Ethik_ (1904); H. Meyer-Benfey, _Herder und Kant_ (1904); Morris, _Kant's Critique of Pure Reason_ (Chicago, 1882); C. Oesterreich, _Kant und die Metaphysik_ (1906); F. Paulsen, _Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (1898; 4th ed., 1904; Eng. 1902); Harold H. Prichard, _Kant's Theory of Knowledge_ (1909); A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, _The Development from Kant to Hegel_ (1882); and, on Kant's philosophy of religion, in _The Philosophic Radicals_ (1907); F. Rademaker, _Kants Lehren vom innern Sinn in der Kritik der reinen Vernunft_ (1908); R. Reininger, _Kants Lehre vom inneren Sinn und seine Theorie der Erfahrung_ (1900); C. B. Renouvier, _Critique de la doctrine de Kant_ (1906); H. Romundt, _Kants philosophische Religionslehre eine Frucht der gesammten Vernunftkritik_ (1902); T. Ruyssen, _Kant_ (1900); E. Saenger, _Kants Lehre vom Glauben_ (1903); O. Schapp, _Kants Lehre vom Genie und die Entstehung der "Kritik der Urteilskraft"_ (1901); Carl Schmidt, _Beitrage zur Entwickelung der Kant'schen Ethik_ (1900); A. Schweitzer, _Die Religionsphilosophie Kants_ (1899); H. Sidgwick, _Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant_ (1905); J. H. Stirling, _Text Book to Kant_ (1881); G. Simmel, _Kant und Goethe_ (1906); L. Staehlin, _Kant, Lotze und Ritschl_ (1889); O. Thon, _Die Grundprinzipien der Kantischen Moralphilosophie_ (1895); T. Valentiner, _Kant und die platonische Philosophie_ (1904); C. Vorlander, _Kant, Schiller, Goethe_ (1907); G. C. Uphues, _Kant und sein Vorganger_ (1906); W. Wallace, _Kant_ (1905); M. Wartenberg, _Kants Theorie der Kausalitat_ (1899); John Watson, _Philosophy of Kant Explained_ (1908), _Kant and his English Critics_ (1881); A. Weir, _A Student's Introduction to Critical Philosophy_ (1906); G. A. Wyneken, _Hegel's Kritik Kants_ (1898); W. Windelband, _Kuno Fischer und sein Kant_ (1897).

On Kant's theory of education, see E. F. Buchner, _The Educational Theory of Immanuel Kant_ (trans., ed., intro., 1904); trans. of _Ueber Padagogik_ by Annette Churton (1899); J. Geluk, _Kant_ (1883). (R. Ad.; X.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See further IDEALISM; METAPHYSICS; LOGIC, &c., where Kant's relation to subsequent thought is discussed.

KANURI, or BERIBERI, an African tribe of mixed origin, the dominant race of Bornu. They are large-boned and coarse-featured, but contain nevertheless a distinct strain of Fula blood. Beriberi (or Berberi) is the name given them by the Hausa (see BORNU).

KAOLIN, a pure white clay, know also as china-clay, since it is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of china, or porcelain. The word kaolin, formerly written by some authors caulin, is said to be a corruption of the Chinese _Kau-ling_, meaning "High Ridge," the name of a hill east of King-te-chen, whence the earliest samples of the clay sent to Europe were obtained by the Pere d'Entrecolles, a French Jesuit missionary in China in the early part of the 18th century. His specimens, examined in Paris by R. A. Reaumur, showed that true porcelain, the composition of which had not previously been known in Europe, contained two essential ingredients, which came to be known--though it now appears incorrectly--as kaolin and petuntse, corresponding respectively to our china-clay and china-stone. The kaolin confers plasticity on the paste and secures retention of form for the ware when exposed to the heat of the kiln, whilst the petuntse gives the translucency so characteristic of porcelain. Some of the earliest discoveries of kaolin in Europe were at Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony, and at St Yrieix, near Limoges in France. In England it was discovered in Cornwall about the year 1750 by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth; and in 1768 he took out his patent for making porcelain from moorstone or growan (china-stone) and growan clay (kaolin), the latter imparting "whiteness and infusibility" to the china. These raw materials were found first at Tregonning Hill, near Breage, and afterwards at St Stephen's in Brannel, near St Austell; and their discovery led to the manufacture of hard paste, or true porcelain, at Plymouth and subsequently at Bristol.

Kaolin is a hydrous aluminium silicate, having the formula H4Al2Si2O9, or Al2Si2O7.2H2O, but in common clay this silicate is largely mixed with impurities. Certain clays contain pearly white hexagonal scales, usually microscopic, referable to the monoclinic system, and having the chemical composition of kaolin. This crystalline substance was termed kaolinite by S. W. Johnson and J. M. Blake in 1867, and it is now regarded as the basis of pure clay. The kaolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey has been studied by Allan Dick. The origin of kaolin may be traced to the alteration of certain aluminous silicates like feldspar, scapolite, beryl and topaz; but all large deposits of china-clay are due to the decomposition of feldspar, generally in granite, but sometimes in gneiss, pitchstone, &c. The turbidity of many feldspars is the result of partial "kaolinization," or alteration to kaolin. The china-clay rocks of Cornwall and Devon are granites in which the orthoclase has become kaolinized. These rocks are sometimes known as carclazite, a name proposed by J. H. Collins from a typical locality, the Carclaze mine, near St Austell. It has often been supposed that the alteration of the granite has been effected mainly by meteoric agencies, the carbonic acid having decomposed the alkaline silicate of the feldspar, whilst the aluminous silicate assumes a hydrated condition and forms kaolin. In many cases, however, it seems likely that the change has been effected by subterranean agencies, probably by heated vapours carrying fluorine and boron, since minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline, often occur in association with the china-clay. According to F. H. Butler the kaolinization of the west of England granite may have been effected by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature, acting from below.

The china-stone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still retains much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility depends. In order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china-clay rock is broken up, and the clay washed out by means of water. The liquid containing the clay in mechanical suspension is run into channels called "drags" where the coarser impurities subside, and whence it passes to another set of channels known as "micas," where the finer materials settle down. Thus purified, the clay-water is led into a series of pits or tanks, in which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after acquiring sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying-house, or "dry," heated by flues, where the moisture is expelled, and the kaolin obtained as a soft white earthy substance. The clay has extensive application in the arts, being used not only in ceramic manufacture but in paper-making, bleaching and various chemical industries.

Under the species "kaolinite" may be included several minerals which have received distinctive names, such as the Saxon mineral called from its pearly lustre nacrite, a name originally given by A. Brongniart to a nacreous mica; pholerite found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named by J. Guillemin from the Greek [Greek: pholis], a scale; and lithomarge, the old German _Steinmark_, a compact clay-like body of white, yellow or red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word pholerite should properly be written pholidite ([Greek: pholis, pholidos]). Closely related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysite, a name given to it by P. Berthier after his uncle Omalius d'Halloy, the Belgian geologist. (F. W. R.*)

KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Australia, 48 m. by rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1805. It is the centre of a large wheat-growing district. The celebrated copper mines discovered in 1843 were closed in 1879. There are quarries near the town, in which is found fine marble of every colour from dark blue to white. This marble was largely used in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide.

KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, 652 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 314,341, showing an increase of 5% in the decade; estimated gross revenue, L178,000; tribute, L8700. The Kapurthala family is descended from Jassa Singh, a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah, who by his intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh of his day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej, and also in the Bari Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered tracts in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility of the chief in the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards restored in recognition of the loyalty of Raja Randhir Singh during the mutiny of 1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh which did good service. He also received a grant of land in Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross rental of L89,000. In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers, occupying only the status of a large landholder, with the title of Raja-i-Rajagan. Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K.C.S.I., was born in 1872, succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1890. During the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Kapurthala imperial service infantry took a prominent part. The territory is crossed by the railway from Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a large export trade in wheat, sugar, tobacco and cotton. The hand-painted cloths and metal-work of Phagwara are well known. The town of Kapurthala is 11 miles from Jullundur; pop. (1901), 18,519.

KARACHI, or KURRACHEE, a seaport and district of British India, in the Sind province of Bombay. The city is situated at the extreme western end of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from Bombay and 820 m. by rail from Lahore, being the maritime terminus of the North-Western railway, and the main gateway for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia. It is also the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500; (1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears to have existed here; but about that time some little trade began to centre upon the convenient harbour, and the silting up of Shahbandar, the ancient port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove much of its former trade and population to the rising village. Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of Kalat obtained a grant of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the Talpur Mirs, who built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the harbour. They also made considerable efforts to increase the trade of the port and at the time of the British acquisition of the province the town and suburbs contained a population of 14,000. This was in 1843, from which time the importance of the place practically dates.

The harbour of Karachi has an extreme length and breadth of about 5 m. It is protected by the promontory of Manora Head; and the entrance is partially closed by rocks and by the peninsula (formerly an island) of Kiamari. On Manora Head, which is fortified, are the buildings of the port establishment, a cantonment, &c. Kiamari is the landing-place for passengers and goods, and has three piers and railway connexions. The harbour improvements were begun in 1854 with the building of the Napier Mole or causeway connecting Kiamari with the mainland. The entrance has a minimum depth of 25 ft.; and a large number of improvements and extensions have been carried out by the harbour board, which was created in 1880, and transformed in 1886 into the port trust.

The great extension of the canal colonies in the Punjab, entirely devoted to the cultivation of wheat, has immensely increased the export trade of Karachi. It now ranks as the third port of India, being surpassed only by Calcutta and Bombay. The principal articles of export, besides wheat, are oil-seeds, cotton, wool, hides and bones. The annual value of exports, including specie, amounts to about nine millions sterling. There are iron works and manufactures of cotton cloth, silk scarves and carpets. The fisheries and oyster beds are important.

Among the principal public buildings are government house, the Frere municipal hall, and the Napier barracks. The military cantonments, stretching north-east of the city, form the headquarters of a brigade in the 4th division of the southern army. An excellent water supply is provided by an underground aqueduct 18 m. in length. The chief educational institutions are the Dayaram Jethmal Arts College, with a law class; five high schools, of which two are for Europeans and one for Mahommedans; a convent school for girls; and an engineering class. The average rainfall for the year is about 5 in. The rainy months are July and August, but one or two heavy showers usually fall about Christmas. The end of May, beginning of June, and first fortnight in October are hot. November, December, January, February and March are delightfully cool and dry; the remaining months are damp with a constant cool sea breeze.

The DISTRICT OF KARACHI has an area of 11,970 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 607,439, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. It consists of an immense tract of land stretching from the mouth of the Indus to the Baluch boundary. It differs in general appearance from the rest of Sind, having a rugged, mountainous region along its western border. The country gradually slopes away to the south-east, till in the extreme south the Indus delta presents a broad expanse of low, flat and unpicturesque alluvium. Besides the Indus and its mouths, the only river in the district is the Hab, forming the boundary between Sind and Baluchistan. The Manchhar lake in Sehwan sub-division forms the only considerable sheet of water in Sind. The hot springs at Pir Mangho are 6 m. N. of Karachi town. The principal crops are rice, millets, oil-seeds and wheat. In addition to Karachi, there are seaports at Sirgonda and Keti Bandar, which conduct a considerable coasting trade. Tatta was the old capital of Sind. Kotri is an important railway station on the Indus. The main line of the North-Western railway runs through the district. From Kotri downwards the line has been doubled to Karachi, and at Kotri a bridge has been constructed across the Indus opposite Hyderabad, to connect with the Rajputana railway system.

See A. F. Baillie, _Kurrachee: Past, Present and Future_ (1890).

KARAGEORGE (in Servian, _Karadyordye_) (c. 1766-1817), the leader of the Servians during their first revolution against the Turks (1804-13), and founder of the Servian dynasty Karageorgevich. His Christian name was George (Dyordye), but being not only of dark complexion but of gloomy, taciturn and easily excitable temper, he was nicknamed by the Servians "Tsrni Dyordye" and by the Turks "Karageorge," both meaning "Black George," the Turkish name becoming soon the generally adopted one. He was born in 1766 (according to some in 1768), the son of an extremely poor Servian peasant, Petroniye Petrovich. When quite a young man, he entered the service of a renowned Turkish brigand, Fazli-Bey by name, and accompanied his master on his adventurous expeditions. When twenty he married and started a small farm. But having killed a Turk, he left Servia for Syrmia, in Croatia-Slavonia, where the monks of the monastery Krushedol engaged him as one of their forest guards. He remained in the service of the monks nearly two years, then enlisted into an Austrian regiment, and as sergeant took part in the Austrian war against Turkey (1788-91). He deserted his regiment, returned to Servia, and settled in the village of Topola, living sometimes as a peaceful farmer and sometimes again as the leader of a small band of "hayduks"--men who attacked, robbed and in most cases killed the travelling Turks in revenge for the oppression of their country.

The circumstances in which the Servians rose against the janissaries of the pashalik of Belgrade are related in the article on SERVIA. The leaders of the insurgents' bands and other men of influence met about the middle of February 1804 at the village of Orashatz, and there elected Karageorge as the supreme leader (Vrhovni Vozd) of the nation. Under his command the Servians speedily cleared their country not only of the janissaries disloyal to the Sultan, but of all other Turks, who withdrew from the open country to the fortified places. Karageorge and his armed Servians demanded from the Sultan the privileges of self-government. The Porte, confronted by the chances of a war with Russia, decided in the autumn of 1806 to grant to the Servians a fairly large measure of autonomy. Unfortunately Karageorge was comparatively poor in political gifts and diplomatic tact. While the _hattisherif_ granting the rights demanded by the Servians was on the way to Servia, Karageorge attacked the Turks in Belgrade and Shabats, captured the towns first and then also the citadels, and allowed the Turkish population of Belgrade to be massacred. At the same time the Russian headquarters in Bucharest informed Karageorge that Russia was at war with Turkey and that the Tsar counted on the co-operation of the Servians. Karageorge and his Servians then definitely rejected all the concessions which the Porte had granted them, and joined Russia, hoping thereby to secure the complete independence of Servia. The co-operation of the Servians with the Russians was of no great importance, and probably disappointing to both parties. But as the principal theatre of war was far away from Servia on the lower Danube, Karageorge was able to give more attention to the internal organization of Servia. The national assembly proclaimed Karageorge the hereditary chief and _gospodar_ of the Servians (Dec. 26, 1808), he on his part promising under oath to govern the country "through and by the national council" (senate).

Karageorge's hasty and uncompromising temper and imperious habits, as well as his want of political tact, soon made him many enemies amongst the more prominent Servians (voyvodes and senators). His difficulties were considerably increased by the intrigues of the Russian political agent to Servia, Rodophinikin. A crisis came during the summer months of the year 1813. The treaty of peace, concluded by the Russians somewhat hurriedly in Bucharest in 1812, did not secure efficiently the safety of the Servians. The Turks demanded from Karageorge, as a preliminary condition for peace, that the Servians should lay down their arms, and Karageorge refused to comply. Thereupon the entire Turkish army which fought against the Russians on the Danube, being disengaged, invaded Servia. After a few inefficient attempts to stem the invasion, Karageorge gave up the struggle, and with most of the voyvodes and chiefs of the nation left the country, and crossed to Hungary as a refugee (Sept. 20, 1813). From Hungary he went to Russia and settled in Khotin (Bessarabia), enjoying a pension from the Tsar's government. But in the summer of 1817 he suddenly and secretly left Russia and reappeared quite alone in Servia in the neighbourhood of Semendria (Smederevo) on the Danube. The motives and the object of his return are not clear. Some believe that he was sent by the Hetaerists to raise up Servia to a new war with Turkey and thereby facilitate the rising of the Greek people. It is generally assumed, however, that, having heard that Servia, under the guidance of Milosh Obrenovich, had obtained a certain measure of self-government, he desired to put himself again at the head of the nation. This impression seems to have been that of Milosh himself, who at once reported to the Pasha of Belgrade the arrival of Karageorge. The pasha demanded that Karageorge, alive or dead, should be delivered to him immediately, and made Milosh personally responsible for the execution of that order. Karageorge's removal could not unfortunately be separated from the personal interest of Milosh; already acknowledged as chief of the nation, Milosh did not like to be displaced by his old chief, who in a critical moment had left the country. Karageorge was killed (July 27, O.S., 1817) while he was asleep, and his head was sent to the pasha for transmission to Constantinople. It is impossible to exonerate Milosh Obrenovich from responsibility for the murder, which became the starting-point for a series of tragedies in the modern history of Servia.