Part 18

KALMUCK, or KALMYK STEPPE, a territory or reservation belonging to the Kalmuck or Kalmyk Tatars, in the Russian government of Astrakhan, bounded by the Volga on the N.E., the Manych on the S.W., the Caspian Sea on the E., and the territory of the Don Cossacks on the N.W. Its area is 36,900 sq. m., to which has to be added a second reservation of 3045 sq. m. on the left bank of the lower Volga. According to I. V. Mushketov, the Kalmuck Steppe must be divided into two parts, western and eastern. The former, occupied by the Ergeni hills, is deeply trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally 630 ft. above the sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits, belonging to the Sarmatian division of the Miocene period and covered with loess and black earth, and its escarpments represent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No Caspian deposits are found on or within the Ergeni hills. These hills exhibit the usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population. The eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part 30 to 40 ft. below the level of the sea, and sloping gently towards the Volga. Post-Pliocene "Aral-Caspian deposits," containing the usual fossils (_Hydrobia_, _Neritina_, eight species of _Cardium_, two of _Dreissena_, three of _Adacna_ and _Lithoglyphus caspius_), attain thicknesses varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 ft., and disappear in places. Lacustrine and fluviatile deposits occur intermingled with the above. Large areas of moving sands exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or _barkhans_ have been formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian, known as the "hillocks of Baer," is covered with hillocks elongated from west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line, the spaces between them being filled with water or overgrown with thickets of reed, _Salix_, _Ulmus campestris_, almond trees, &c. An archipelago of little islands is thus formed close to the shore by these mounds, which are backed on the N. and N.W. by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small streams originate in the Ergenis, but are lost as soon as they reach the lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The scanty vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia and that of the deserts of central Asia. The steppe has an estimated population of 130,000 persons, living in over 27,700 _kibitkas_, or felt tents. There are over 60 Buddhist monasteries. Part of the Kalmucks are settled (chiefly in the hilly parts), the remainder being nomads. They breed horses, cattle and sheep, but suffer heavy losses from murrain. Some attempts at agriculture and tree-planting are being made. The breeding of livestock, fishing, and some domestic trades, chiefly carried on by the women, are the principal sources of maintenance.

See I. V. Mushketov, _Geol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in 1884-1885_ (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov's works (1868-1870); and other works quoted in Semenov's _Geogr. Dict._ and _Russ. Encycl. Dict._ (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND, COUNT (1832-1898), Austro-Hungarian statesman, was born at Lettowitz, in Moravia, on the 29th of December 1832, of an old Transylvanian family which had held countly rank in Hungary from the 17th century. After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 he entered the diplomatic service without giving up his connexion with the army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was for the ten years 1860 to 1870 secretary of embassy at London, and then, after serving at Rome and Copenhagen, was in 1880 appointed ambassador at St Petersburg. His success in Russia procured for him, on the death of Baron v. Haymerle in 1881, the appointment of minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary, a post which he held for fourteen years. Essentially a diplomatist, he took little or no part in the vexed internal affairs of the Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the public except at the annual statement on foreign affairs before the Delegations. His management of the affairs of his department was, however, very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co-operated with Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy joined the alliance. Kalnoky's special influence was seen in the improvement of Austrian relations with Russia, following on the meeting of the three emperors in September 1884 at Skiernevice, at which he was present. His Russophile policy caused some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for Russia did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position of Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the establishment of a closer political and commercial understanding with Servia and Rumania. In 1885 he interfered after the battle of Slivnitza to arrest the advance of the Bulgarians on Belgrade, but he lost influence in Servia after the abdication of King Milan. Though he kept aloof from the Clerical party, Kalnoky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy, when, in 1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that the question of the position of the pope was still unsettled. He subsequently explained that by this he did not refer to the Roman question, which was permanently settled, but to the possibility of the pope leaving Rome. The jealousy felt in Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall. In 1895 a case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of Hungary by the nuncio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian parliament, and consequent differences between Banffy, the Hungarian minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to Kalnoky's resignation. He died on the 13th of February 1898 at Prodlitz in Moravia.

KALOCSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kis-Kun, 88 m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,372. It is situated in a marshy but highly productive district, near the left bank of the Danube, and was once of far greater importance than at present. Kalocsa is the see of one of the four Roman Catholic archbishops in Hungary. Amongst its buildings are a fine cathedral, the archiepiscopal palace, an astronomical observatory, a seminary for priests, and colleges for training of male and female teachers. The inhabitants of Kalocsa and its wide-spreading communal lands are chiefly employed in the cultivation of the vine, fruit, flax, hemp and cereals, in the capture of water-fowl and in fishing. Kalocsa is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. The present archbishopric, founded about 1135, is a development of a bishopric said to have been founded in the year 1000 by King Stephen the Saint. It suffered much during the 16th century from the hordes of Ottomans who then ravaged the country. A large part of the town was destroyed by a fire in 1875.

KALPI, or CALPEE, a town of British India, in the Jalaun district of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 45 m. S.W. of Cawnpore. Pop. (1901), 10,139. It was founded, according to tradition, by Vasudeva, at the end of the 4th century A.D. In 1196 it fell to Kutab-ud-din, the viceroy of Mahommed Ghori, and during the subsequent Mahommedan period it played a large part in the annals of this part of India. About the middle of the 18th century it passed into the hands of the Mahrattas. It was captured by the British in 1803, and since 1806 has remained in British possession. In May 1858 Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn) defeated here a force of about 10,000 rebels under the rani of Jhansi. Kalpi had a mint for copper coinage in the reign of Akbar; and the East India Company made it one of their principal stations for providing the "commercial investment." The old town, which is beside the river, has ruins of a fort, and several temples of interest, while in the neighbourhood are many ancient tombs. There is a lofty modern tower ornamented with representations of the battles of the _Ramayana_. The new town lies away from the river to the south-east. Kalpi is still a centre of local trade (principally in grain, _ghi_ and cotton), with a station on the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore, which here crosses the Jumna. There are manufactures of sugar and paper.

KALUGA, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by those of Moscow, Smolensk, Orel and Tula, with an area of 11,942 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain, reaching 800 to 900 ft. in its highest parts, which lie in the S.W., and deeply trenched by watercourses, especially in the N.E. The Oka, a main tributary of the Volga, and its confluents (the Zhizdra and Ugra) drain all but a strip of country in the west, which is traversed by the Bolva, an affluent of the Dnieper. The government is built up mainly of carboniferous deposits (coal-bearing), with patches of the soft Jurassic clays and limestones which formerly covered them. Cretaceous deposits occur in the S.W., and Devonian limestones and shales crop out in the S.E. The government is covered with a thick layer of boulder clay in the north, with vast ridges and fields of boulders brought during the Glacial Period from Finland and the government of Olonets; large areas in the middle are strewn with flint boulders and patches of loess are seen farther south. The mean annual temperature is 41 deg. F. Iron ores are the chief mineral wealth, nearly 40,000 persons being engaged in mining. Beds of coal occur in several places, and some of them are worked. Fireclay, china-clay, chalk, grindstone, pure quartz sand, phosphorite and copper are also extracted. Forests cover 20% of the surface, and occur chiefly in the south. The soil is not very suitable for agriculture, and owing to a rather dense population, considerable numbers of the inhabitants find occupation in industry, or as carriers and carpenters for one-half of the year at the Black Sea ports.

The population (1,025,705 in 1860) was 1,176,353 in 1897, nearly all Great Russians. There were 116 women to 100 men, and out of the total population 94,853 lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,287,300. Of the total area over 4,000,000 acres are owned by the peasant communities, nearly 3,000,000 acres by private owners and some 250,000 by the Crown. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, and potatoes. Hemp is grown for local use and export. Bees are kept. The chief non-agricultural industries are distilleries, iron-works, factories for cloth, cottons, paper, matches, leather and china, flour-mills and oil works. Large quantities of wooden wares are fabricated in the villages of the south. A considerable trade is carried on in hemp, hempseed and hempseed oil, corn and hides; and iron, machinery, leather, glass, chemicals and linen are exported. The government is divided into 11 districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are: Kaluga (49,728), Borovsk (8407), Kozelsk (5908), Likhvin (1776), Maloyaroslavets (2500), Medyn (4392), Meshchovsk (3667), Mosalsk (2652), Peremyshl (3956), Tarusa (1989) and Zhizdra (5996). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

KALUGA, the chief town of the above government, situated on the left bank of the Oka, 117 m. S.W. of Moscow by rail, in 54 deg. 31' N. and 36 deg. 6' E. Pop. (1870), 36,880; (1897) 49,728. It is the see of a Greek Orthodox bishop. The public buildings include the cathedral of the Trinity (rebuilt in the 19th century in place of an older edifice dating from 1687), two monastic establishments, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a lunatic asylum. The principal articles of industrial production are leather, oil, bast mats, wax candles, starch and Kaluga cakes. The first historical mention of Kaluga occurs in 1389; its incorporation with the principality of Moscow took place in 1518. In 1607 it was held by the second false Demetrius and vainly besieged for four months by the forces of Shuisky, who had ascended the Russian throne as Basil IV. on the death of the first false Demetrius. In 1619 Kaluga fell into the hands of the hetman or chief of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Later two-thirds of its inhabitants were carried off by a plague; and in 1622 the whole place was laid waste by a conflagration. It recovered, however, in spite of several other conflagrations (especially in 1742 and 1754). On several occasions Kaluga was the residence of political prisoners; among others Shamyl, the Lesghian chief, spent his exile there (1859-1870).

KALYAN, a town of British India, in the Thana district of Bombay, situated 33 m. N.E. of Bombay city, where the two main lines of the Great Indian Peninsula railway diverge. Pop. (1901), 10,749. There is a considerable industry of rice-husking. Kalyan is known to have been the capital of a kingdom and a centre of sea-borne commerce in the early centuries of the Christian era. The oldest remains now existing are of Mahommedan times.

KAMA, or KAMADEVA, in Hindu mythology, the god of love. He is variously stated to have been the child of Brahma or Dharma (virtue). In the _Rig Veda_, Kama (desire) is described as the first movement that arose in the One after it had come into life through the power of fervour or abstraction. In the Atharva-Veda Kama does not mean sexual desire, but rather the yearning after the good of all created things. Later Kama is simply the Hindu Cupid. While attempting to lure Siva to sin, he was destroyed by a fiery glance of the goddess' third eye. Thus in Hindu poetry Kama is known as Ananga, the "bodiless god." Kama's wife Rati (voluptuousness) mourned him so greatly that Siva relented, and he was reborn as the child of Krishna and Rukmini. The babe was called Pradyumna (Cupid). He is represented armed with a bow of sugar-cane; it is strung with bees, and its five arrows are tipped with flowers which overcome the five senses. A fish adorns his flag, and he rides a parrot or sparrow, emblematic of lubricity.

KAMALA, a red powder formerly used in medicine as an anthelmintic and employed in India as a yellow dye. It is obtained from _Mallotus philippinensis_, Mull., a small euphorbiaceous tree from 20 to 45 ft. in height, distributed from southern Arabia in the west to north Australia and the Philippines in the east. In India kamala has several ancient Sanskrit names, one of which, kapila, signifies dusky or tawny red. Under the name of wars, kanbil, or qinbil, kamala appears to have been known to the Arabian physicians as a remedy for tapeworm and skin diseases as early as the 10th century, and indeed is mentioned by Paulus Aegineta still earlier. The drug was formerly in the British Pharmacopoeia, but is inferior to many other anthelmintics and is not now employed.

KAMCHATKA, a peninsula of N.-E. Siberia, stretching from the land of the Chukchis S.S.W. for 750 m., with a width of from 80 to 300 m. (51 deg. to 62 deg. N., and 156 deg. to 163 deg. E.), between the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea. It forms part of the Russian Maritime Province. Area, 104,260 sq. m.

The isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland is a flat _tundra_, sloping gently both ways. The mountain chain, which Ditmar calls central, seems to be interrupted under 57 deg. N. by a deep indentation corresponding to the valley of the Tighil. There too the hydrographical network, as well as the south-west to north-east strike of the clay-slates and metamorphic schists on Ditmar's map, seem to indicate the existence of two chains running south-west to north-east, parallel to the volcanic chain of S.E. Kamchatka. Glaciers were not known till the year 1899, when they were discovered on the Byelaya and Ushkinskaya (15,400 ft.) mountains. Thick Tertiary deposits, probably Miocene, overlie the middle portions of the west coast. The southern parts of the central range are composed of granites, syenites, porphyries and crystalline slates, while in the north of Ichinskaya volcano, which is the highest summit of the peninsula (16,920 ft.), the mountains consist chiefly of Tertiary sandstones and old volcanic rocks. Coal-bearing clays containing fresh-water molluscs and dicotyledonous plants, as also conglomerates, alternate with the sandstones in these Tertiary deposits. Amber is found in them. Very extensive layers of melaphyre and andesite, as also of conglomerates and volcanic tuffs, cover the middle portions of the peninsula. The south-eastern portion is occupied by a chain of volcanoes, running along the indented coast, from Cape Lopatka to Cape Kronotskiy (54 deg. 25' N.), and separated from the rest of the peninsula by the valleys of the Bystraya (an affluent of the Bolstraya, on the west coast) and Kamchatka rivers. Another chain of volcanoes runs from Ichinskaya (which burst into activity several times in the 18th and 19th centuries) to Shiveluch, seemingly parallel to the above but farther north. The two chains contain twelve active and twenty-six extinct volcanoes, from 7000 to more than 15,000 ft. high. The highest volcanoes are grouped under 56 deg. N., and the highest of them, Kluchevskaya (16,990 ft.), is in a state of almost incessant activity (notable outbreaks in 1729, 1737, 1841, 1853-1854, and 1896-1897), a flow of its lava having reached to Kamchatka river in 1853. The active Shiveluch (9900 ft.) is the last volcano of this chain. Several lakes and probably Avacha Bay are old craters. Copper, mercury, and iron ores, as also pure copper, ochre and sulphur, are found in the peninsula. The principal river is the Kamchatka (325 m. long), which flows first north-eastwards in a fertile longitudinal valley, and then, bending suddenly to the east, pierces the above-mentioned volcanic chain. The other rivers are the Tighil (135 m.) and the Bolstraya (120 m.), both flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Avacha, flowing into the Pacific.

The floating ice which accumulates in the northern parts of the Sea of Okhotsk and the cold current which flows along the east coast of the peninsula render its summers chilly, but the winter is relatively warm, and temperatures below -40 deg. F. are experienced only in the highlands of the interior and on the Okhotsk littoral. The average temperatures at Petropavlovsk (53 deg. N.) are: year 37 deg. F., January 17 deg., July 58 deg.; while in the valley of the Kamchatka the average temperature of the winter is 16 deg., and of the summer as high as 58 deg. and 64 deg. Rain and snow are copious, and dense fogs enshroud the coast in summer; consequently the mountains are well clothed with timber and the meadows with grass, except in the _tundras_ of the north. The natives eat extensively the bulbs of the Martagon lily, and weave cloth out of the fibres of the Kamchatka nettle. _Delphinopterus leucus_, the sea-lion (_Otaria Stelleri_), and walrus abound off the coasts. The sea-otter (_Enhydris marina_) has been destroyed.

The population (5846 in 1870) was 7270 in 1900. The southern part of the peninsula is occupied by Kamchadales, who exhibit many attributes of the Mongolian race, but are more similar to the aborigines of N.E. Asia and N.W. America. Fishing (quantities of salmon enter the rivers) and hunting are their chief occupations. Dog-sledges are principally used as means of communication. The efforts of the government to introduce cattle-breeding have failed. The Kamchadale language cannot be assigned to any known group; its vocabulary is extremely poor. The purity of the tongue is best preserved by the people of the Penzhinsk district on the W. coast. North of 57 deg. N. the peninsula is peopled with Koryaks, settled and nomad, and Lamuts (Tunguses), who came from the W. coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. The principal Russian settlements are: Petropavlovsk, on the E. coast, on Avacha Bay, with an excellent roadstead; Verkhne-Kamchatsk and Nizhne-Kamchatsk in the valley of the Kamchatka river; Bolsheryetsk, on the Bolshaya; and Tighil, on the W. coast.

The Russians made their first settlements in Kamchatka in the end of the 17th century; in 1696 Atlasov founded Verkhne-Kamchatsk, and in 1704 Robelev founded Bolsheryetsk. In 1720 a survey of the peninsula was undertaken; in 1725-1730 it was visited by Bering's expedition; and in 1733-1745 it was the scene of the labours of the Krasheninnikov and Steller expedition.

See G. A. Erman, _Reise um die Erde_ iii., (Berlin, 1848); C. von Ditmar, _Reisen und Aufenthalt in Kamchatka in den Jahren 1851-1855_ (1890-1900); G. Kennan, _Tent Life in Siberia_ (1870), and paper in _Jour. of American Geog. Soc._ (1876); K. Diener, in _Petermann's Mitteilungen_ (1891, vol. xxxvii.); V. A. Obruchev, in _Izvestia_ of the East Siberian Geographical Society (xxiii. 4, 5; 1892); F. H. H. Guillemard, _Cruise of the "Marchesa"_ (2nd ed., London, 1889); and G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton in _Scott. Geog. Mag._ (May, 1899), with bibliography. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

KAME (a form of Scandinavian _comb_, hill), in physical geography, a short ridge or bunched mound of gravel or sand, "tumultuously stratified," occurring in connexion with glacial deposits, having been formed at the mouths of tunnels under the ice. When the ice-sheet melts, these features, formerly concealed by the glacier, are revealed. They are common in the glaciated portions of the lower Scottish valleys. By some authorities the term "kame," or specifically "serpentine kame," is taken as synonymous with "esker," which however is preferably to be applied to the long mound deposited within the ice-tunnel, not to the bunched mound at its mouth.

KAMENETS PODOLSKIY, or PODOLIAN KAMENETS (Polish Kamieniec), a town of S.W. Russia, chief town of the government of Podolia. It stands in 48 deg. 40' N. and 26 deg. 30' E., on a high, rocky bluff of the river Smotrich, a left-hand tributary of the Dniester, and near the Austrian frontier. Pop. (1863), 20,699; (1900) 39,113, of whom 50% were Jews and 30% Poles. Round the town lies a cluster of suburban villages, Polish Folwark, Russian Folwark, Zinkovtsui, Karvasarui, &c.; and on the opposite side of the river, accessible by a wooden bridge, stands the castle which long frowned defiance across the Dniester to Khotin in Bessarabia. Kamenets is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox bishop. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, built in 1361, is distinguished by a minaret, recalling the time when it was used as a mosque by the Turks (1672-1699). The Greek cathedral of John the Baptist dates from the 16th century, but up to 1798 belonged to the Basilian monastery. Other buildings are the Orthodox Greek monastery of the Trinity, and the Catholic Armenian church (founded in 1398), possessing a 14th-century missal and an image of the Virgin Mary that saw the Mongol invasion of 1239-1242. The town contains Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic seminaries, Jewish colleges, and an archaeological museum for church antiquities, founded in 1890. Kamenets was laid waste by the Mongol leader Batu in 1240. In 1434 it was made the chief town of the province of Podolia. In the 15th and 16th centuries it suffered frequently from the invasions of Tatars, Moldavians and Turks; and in 1672 the hetman of the Cossacks, Doroshenko, assisted by Sultan Mahommed IV. of Turkey, made himself master of the place. Restored to Poland by the peace of Karlowitz (1699), it passed with Podolia to Russia in 1795. Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1633, and here twenty years later peace was concluded between the same antagonists. The fortifications were demolished in 1813.