Part 17

KALI (black), or _Kali Ma_ (the Black Mother), in Hindu mythology, the goddess of destruction and death, the wife of Siva. According to one theory, Calcutta owes its name to her, being originally Kalighat, "Kali's landing-place." Siva's consort has many names (e.g. Durga, Bhawani, Parvati, &c.). Her idol is black, with four arms, and red palms to the hands. Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared with blood. Her hair is matted, and she has projecting fang-like teeth, between which protrudes a tongue dripping with blood. She wears a necklace of skulls, her earrings are dead bodies, and she is girded with serpents. She stands on the body of Siva, to account for which attitude there is an elaborate legend. She is more worshipped in Gondwana and the forest tracts to the east and south of it than in any other part of India. Formerly human sacrifice was the essential of her ritual. The victim, always a male, was taken to her temple after sunset and imprisoned there. When morning came he was dead: the priests told the people that Kali had sucked his blood in the night. At Dantewara in Bastar there is a famous shrine of Kali under the name of Danteswari. Here many a human head has been presented on her altar. About 1830 it is said that upwards of twenty-five full-grown men were immolated at once by the raja. Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their body were among the acts of devotion of her worshippers. Kali is goddess of small-pox and cholera. The Thugs murdered their victims in her honour, and to her the sacred pickaxe, wherewith their graves were dug, was consecrated.

The _Hook-swinging Festival_ (_Churruk_ or _Churuck Puja_), one of the most notable celebrations in honour of the goddess Kali, has now been prohibited in British territory. Those who had vowed themselves to self-torture submitted to be swung in the air supported only by hooks passed through the muscles over the blade-bones. These hooks were hung from a long crossbeam, which see-sawed upon a huge upright pole. Hoisted into the air by men pulling down the other end of the see-saw beam, the victim was then whirled round in a circle. The torture usually lasted fifteen or twenty minutes.

See A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).

KALIDASA, the most illustrious name among the writers of the second epoch of Sanskrit literature, which, as contrasted with the age of the Vedic hymns, may be characterized as the period of artificial poetry. Owing to the absence of the historical sense in the Hindu race, it is impossible to fix with chronological exactness the lifetime of either Kalidasa or any other Sanskrit author. Native tradition places him in the 1st century B.C.; but the evidence on which this belief rests is worthless. The works of the poet contain no allusions by which their date can be directly determined; yet the extremely corrupt form of the Prakrit or popular dialects spoken by the women and the subordinate characters in his plays, as compared with the Prakrit in inscriptions of ascertained age, led such authorities as Weber and Lassen to agree in fixing on the 3rd century A.D. as the approximate period to which the writings of Kalidasa should be referred.

He was one of the "nine gems" at the court of King Vikramaditya or Vikrama, at Ujjain, and the tendency is now to regard the latter as having flourished about A.D. 375; others, however, place him as late as the 6th century. The richness of his creative fancy, his delicacy of sentiment, and his keen appreciation of the beauties of nature, combined with remarkable powers of description, place Kalidasa in the first rank of Oriental poets. The effect, however, of his productions as a whole is greatly marred by extreme artificiality of diction, which, though to a less extent than in other Hindu poets, not unfrequently takes the form of puerile conceits and plays on words. In this respect his writings contrast very unfavourably with the more genuine poetry of the Vedas. Though a true poet, he is wanting in that artistic sense of proportion so characteristic of the Greek mind, which exactly adjusts the parts to the whole, and combines form and matter into an inseparable poetic unity. Kalidasa's fame rests chiefly on his dramas, but he is also distinguished as an epic and a lyric poet.

He wrote three plays, the plots of which all bear a general resemblance, inasmuch as they consist of love intrigues, which, after numerous and seemingly insurmountable impediments of a similar nature, are ultimately brought to a successful conclusion.

Of these, _Sakuntala_ is that which has always justly enjoyed the greatest fame and popularity. The unqualified praise bestowed upon it by Goethe sufficiently guarantees its poetic merit. There are two recensions of the text in India, the Bengali and the Devanagari, the latter being generally considered older and purer. _Sakuntala_ was first translated into English by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, 1789), who used the Bengali recension. It was soon after translated into German by G. Forster (1791; new ed. Leipzig, 1879). An edition of the Sanskrit original, with French translation, was published by A. L. Chezy at Paris in 1830. This formed the basis of a translation by B. Hirzel (Zurich, 1830); later trans. by L. Fritze (Chemnitz, 1876). Other editions of the Bengali recension were published by Prema Chandra (Calcutta, 1860) for the use of European students and by R. Pischel (2nd ed., Kiel, 1886). The Devanagari recension was first edited by O. Bohtlingk (Bonn, 1842), with a German translation. On this were based the successive German translations of E. Meier (Tubingen, 1851) and E. Lobedanz (8th ed., Leipzig, 1892). The same recension has been edited by Dr C. Burkhard with a Sanskrit-Latin vocabulary and short Prakrit grammar (Breslau, 1872), and by Professor Monier Williams (Oxford, 2nd ed. 1876), who also translated the drama (5th ed., 1887). There is another translation by P. N. Patankar (Poona, 1888- ). There are also a South Indian and a Cashmir recension.

The _Vikramorvasi_, or _Urvasi won by Valour_, abounds with fine lyrical passages, and is of all Indian dramas second only to _Sakuntala_ in poetic beauty. It was edited by R. Lenz (Berlin, 1833) and translated into German by C. G. A. Hofer (Berlin, 1837), by B. Hirzel (1838), by E. Lobedanz (Leipzig, 1861) and F. Bollensen (Petersburg, 1845). There is also an English edition by Monier Williams, a metrical and prose version by Professor H. H. Wilson, and a literal prose translation by Professor E. B. Cowell (1851). The latest editions are by S. P. Pandit (Bombay, 1879) and K. B. Paranjpe (ibid. 1898).

The third play, entitled _Malavikagnimitra_, has considerable poetical and dramatic merit, but is confessedly inferior to the other two. It possesses the advantage, however, that its hero Agnimitra and its heroine Malavika are more ordinary and human characters than those of the other plays. It is edited by O. F. Tullberg (Bonn, 1840), by Shankar P. Pandit, with English notes (1869), and S. S. Ayyar (Poona, 1896); translated into German by A. Weber (1856), and into English by C. H. Tawney (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1898).

Two epic poems are also attributed to Kalidasa. The longer of these is entitled _Raghuvamsa_, the subject of which is the same as that of the _Ramayana_, viz. the history of Rama, but beginning with a long account of his ancestors, the ancient rulers of Ayodhya (ed. by A. F. Stenzler, London, 1832; and with Eng. trans. and notes by Gopal Raghunath Nandargikar, Poona, 1897; verse trans. by P. de Lacy Johnstone, 1902). The other epic is the _Kumarasambhava_, the theme of which is the birth of Kumara, otherwise called Karttikeya or Skanda, god of war (ed. by Stenzler, London, 1838; K. M. Banerjea, 3rd ed. Calcutta, 1872; Parvanikara and Parab, Bombay, 1893; and M. R. Kale and S. R. Dharadhara, ibid. 1907; Eng. trans. by R. T. Griffith, 1879). Though containing many fine passages, it is tame as a whole.

His lyrical poems are the _Meghaduta_ and the _Ritusamhara_. The _Meghaduta_, or the Cloud-Messenger, describes the complaint of an exiled lover, and the message he sends to his wife by a cloud. It is full of deep feeling, and abounds with fine descriptions of the beauties of nature. It was edited with free English translation by H. H. Wilson (Calcutta, 1813), and by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1841); a German adaptation by M. Muller appeared at Konigsberg (1847), and one by C. Schutz at Bielefeld (1859). It was edited by F. Johnson, with vocabulary and Wilson's metrical translation (London, 1867); later editions by K. P. Parab (Bombay, 1891) and K. B. Pathak (Poona, 1894). The _Ritusamhara_, or Collection of the Seasons, is a short poem, of less importance, on the six seasons of the year. There is an edition by P. von Bohlen, with prose Latin and metrical German translation (Leipzig, 1840); Eng. trans. by C. S. Sitaram Ayyar (Bombay, 1897).

Another poem, entitled the _Nalodaya_, or Rise of Nala, edited by F. Benary (Berlin, 1830), W. Yates (Calcutta, 1844) and Vidyasagara (Calcutta, 1873), is a treatment of the story of Nala and Damayanti, but describes especially the restoration of Nala to prosperity and power. It has been ascribed to the celebrated Kalidasa, but was probably written by another poet of the same name. It is full of most absurd verbal conceits and metrical extravagances.

So many poems, partly of a very different stamp, are attributed to Kalidasa that it is scarcely possible to avoid the necessity of assuming the existence of more authors than one of that name. It is by no means improbable that there were three poets thus named; indeed modern native astronomers are so convinced of the existence of a triad of authors of this name that they apply the term Kalidasa to designate the number three.

On Kalidasa generally, see A. A. Macdonell's _History of Sanskrit Literature_ (1900), and on his date G. Huth, _Die Zeit des K._ (Berlin, 1890). (A. A. M.)

KALIMPONG, a village of British India, in the Darjeeling district of Bengal, 4000 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1069. It is a frontier market for the purchase of wool and mules from Tibet, and an important agricultural fair is held in November. In 1900 Kalimpong was chosen by the Church of Scotland as the site of cottage homes, known as St Andrew's Colonial Homes, for the education and training of poor European and Eurasian children.

KALINGA, or CALINGA, one of the nine kingdoms of southern India in ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included the eastern Madras coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running inland from the Bay of Bengal to the Eastern Ghats. The name at one time had a wider and vaguer meaning, comprehending Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges valley. The Kalinga of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it seems to have been confined to the Telugu-speaking country; and in the time of Hsuan Tsang (630 A.D.) it was distinguished on the south and west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa. Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one division of the country of Telinga. Hsuan Tsang speaks of Kalinga ("Kie-ling-kia") having its capital at what has been identified with the site either of Rajahmundry or Coringa. Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and Chicacole, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem to prove that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was at Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district.

KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 3015. The fort stands on an isolated rock, the termination of the Vindhya range, at an elevation of 1203 ft., overlooking the plains of Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most characteristic specimen of the hill-fortresses, originally hill-shrines, of central India. Its antiquity is proved by its mention in the _Mahabharata_. It was besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the Afghan emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played a prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in 1857, when it was held by a small British garrison. Both the fort and the town, which stands at the foot of the hill, are of interest to the antiquary on account of their remains of temples, sculptures, inscriptions and caves.

KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose hymns (_piyyutim_) are found in profusion in the festival prayers of the German synagogal rite. The age in which he lived is unknown. Some (basing the view on Saadiah's _Sefer ha-galuy_) place him as early as the 6th century, others regard him as belonging to the 10th century. Kalir's style is powerful but involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning.

Some beautiful renderings of Kalir's poems may be found in the volumes of Davis & Adler's edition of the German Festival Prayers entitled _Service of the Synagogue_.

KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816-1886), Jewish divine, was born at Krotoschin in Prussia on the 15th of November 1816, and was educated at Berlin, Breslau and Prague. In 1848 he came to London, but passed on in 1849 to America, where he ministered as rabbi in Cleveland, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark, New Jersey. At Newark from 1875 he gave himself entirely to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as leader of the radical and reforming Jewish party.

Among his works are _Wegweisen fur rationelle Forschungen in den biblischen Schriften_ (1853); and translations of _Nathan der Weise_ (1869); _Sepher Jezirah_ (1877); and Munz's _History of Philosophy among the Jews_ (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and Hebrew verse.

KALISCH, MARCUS (or MAURICE) (1828-1885), Jewish scholar, was born in Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885. He was one of the pioneers of the critical study of the Old Testament in England. At one time he was secretary to the Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the Rothschild family and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and other works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Pentateuch was _Exodus_ (1855); this was followed by _Genesis_ (1858) and _Leviticus_ in two parts (1867-1872). Kalisch wrote before the publication of Wellhausen's works, and anticipated him in some important points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in 1877-1878 two volumes of Bible studies (on _Balaam_ and _Jonah_). He was also author of a once popular Hebrew grammar in two volumes (1862-1863). In 1880 he published _Path and Goal_, a brilliant discussion of human destiny. His commentaries are of permanent value, not only because of the author's originality, but also because of his erudition. No other works in English contain such full citations of earlier literature. (I. A.)

KALISPEL, or PEND D'OREILLE, a tribe of North-American Indians of Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country around Pend d'Oreille Lake, Washington. They number some 600, and are settled on a reservation in Montana.

KALISZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia on the W., and the governments of Warsaw and Piotrkow on the E. Its area is 4390 sq. m. Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards the west, and is drained by the Prosna and the Warta and their tributaries, and also by the Bzura. It was formerly covered with countless small lakes and thick forests; the latter are now mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist still. Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,978 were women, and 113,609 lived in towns; estimated pop. (1906), 983,200. They are chiefly Poles. Roman Catholics number 83%; Jews and Protestants each amount to 7%. Agriculture is carried to perfection on a number of estates, as also livestock breeding. The crops principally raised are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. Various domestic trades, including the weaving of linen and wool, are carried on in the villages. There are some factories, producing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (9400), Konin (8530), Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019), Turek (8141) and Wielun (7442).

KALISZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in 51 deg. 46' N. and 18 deg. E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the banks of the Prosna, which there forms the boundary of Prussia. Pop. (1871), 18,088; (1897), 21,680, of whom 37% were Jews. It is one of the oldest and finest cities of Poland, is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and possesses a castle, a teachers' institute and a large public park. The industrial establishments comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons, cloth and sugar, and tanneries.

Kalisz is identified with the _Calisia_ of Ptolemy, and its antiquity is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of the decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes on the 29th of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and of the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835, in memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by Nicholas I. in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia was signed here.

KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905), 25,478. Kalk is an important junction of railway lines connecting Cologne with places on the right bank of the river. It has various iron and chemical industries, brickworks and breweries, and an electric tramway joins it with Cologne.

KALKAS, or KHALKAS, a Mongoloid people mainly concentrated in the northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen, the Buriats. According to Sir H. Howorth they derive their name from the river Kalka, which runs into the Buir lake. Of all Mongolians they physically differ most from the true Mongol type (see MONGOLS). Their colour is a brown rather than a yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have, however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black hair of their race. They number some 250,000, and their territory is divided into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu), Tsetien (Setzen), Sai'noi'm (Sain Noyan) and Jesaktu (Jassaktu).

KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1849), German pianist and composer, son of Christian Kalkbrenner (1755-1806), a Jewish musician of Cassel, was educated at the Paris Conservatoire, and soon began to play in public. From 1814 to 1823 he was well known as a brilliant performer and a successful teacher in London, and then settled in Paris, dying at Enghien, near there, in 1849. He became a member of the Paris piano-manufacturing firm of Pleyel & Co., and made a fortune by his business and his art combined. His numerous compositions are less remembered now than his instruction-book, with "studies," which have had considerable vogue among pianists.

KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON (1839-1903), Austro-Hungarian statesman, was born at Budapest on the 22nd of December 1839. His family derived their name from their estates at Nagy Kallo, in Szabolcs, and claimed descent from the Balogh Semjen tribe, which colonized the counties of Borsod, Szabolcs, and Szatmar, at the close of the 9th century, when the Magyars conquered Hungary. They played a prominent part in Hungarian history as early as the reign of Koloman (1095-1114); and from King Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) they received their estates at Mezo Tur, near Kecskemet, granted to Michael Kallay for his heroic defence of Jajce in Bosnia, and still held by his descendants. The father of Benjamin von Kallay, a superior official of the Hungarian Government, died in 1845, and his widow, who survived until 1903, devoted herself to the education of her son. At an early age Kallay manifested a deep interest in politics, and especially in the Eastern Question. He travelled in Russia, European Turkey and Asia Minor, gaining a thorough knowledge of Greek, Turkish and several Slavonic languages. He became as proficient in Servian as in his native tongue. In 1867 he entered the Hungarian Diet as Conservative deputy for Muhlbach (Szasy-Szebes); in 1869 he was appointed consul-general at Belgrade; and in 1872 he visited Bosnia for the first time. His views on Balkan questions strongly influenced Count Andrassy, the Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. Leaving Belgrade in 1875, he resumed his seat in the Diet, and shortly afterwards founded the journal _Kelet Nepe_, or _Eastern Folk_, in which he defended the vigorous policy of Andrassy. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 he went to Philippopolis as Austro-Hungarian envoy extraordinary on the International Eastern Rumelian Commission. In 1879 he became second, and soon afterwards first, departmental chief at the foreign office in Vienna. On the 4th of June 1882 he was appointed Imperial minister of finance and administrator of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the distinction with which he filled this office, for a period of 21 years, is his chief title of fame (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA). Kallay was an honorary member of the Budapest and Vienna academies of science, and attained some eminence as a writer. He translated J. S. Mill's _Liberty_ into Hungarian, adding an introductory critique; while his version of _Galatea_, a play by the Greek dramatist S. N. Basiliades (1843-1874), proved successful on the Hungarian stage. His monographs on Servian history (_Geschichte der Serben_) and on the Oriental ambition of Russia (_Die Orientpolitik Russlands_) were translated into German by J. H. Schwicker, and published at Leipzig in 1878. But, in his own opinion, his masterpiece was an academic oration on the political and geographical position of Hungary as a link between East and West. In 1873 Kallay married the countess Vilma Bethlen, who bore him two daughters and a son. His popularity in Bosnia was partly due to the tact and personal charm of his wife. He died on the 13th of July 1903.

KALMAR (CALMAR), a seaport of Sweden on the Baltic coast, chief town of the district (_lan_) of Kalmar, 250 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,715. It lies opposite the island of Oland, mainly on two small islands, but partly on the mainland, where there is a pleasant park. The streets are regular, and most of the houses are of wood. The principal public edifices, however, are constructed of limestone from Oland, including the cathedral, built by Nicodemus Tessin and his son Nicodemus in the second half of the 17th century. Kalmar, a town of great antiquity, was formerly strongly fortified, and there remains the island-fortress of Kalmarnahus, dating partly from the 12th century, but mainly from the 16th and 17th. It contains the beautiful chamber of King Eric XIV. (d. 1577), an historical museum, and in the courtyard a fine ornate well-cover. This stronghold stood several sieges in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, and the town gives name to the treaty (Kalmar Union) by which Sweden, Norway and Denmark were united into one kingdom in 1397. Kalmar has an artificial harbour admitting vessels drawing 19 ft. There are a school of navigation, and tobacco and match factories, the produce of which, together with timber and oats, is exported. Ship-building is carried on.