Part 16

The Kalahari was first crossed to Lake Ngami by David Livingstone, accompanied by William C. Oswell, in 1849. In 1878-1879 a party of Boers, with about three hundred wagons, trekked from the Transvaal across the Kalahari to Ngami and thence to the hinterland of Angola. Many of the party, men, women and children, perished of thirst during the journey. Survivors stated that in all some 250 people and 9000 cattle died.

See BECHUANALAND. _Die Kalahari_, by Dr Siegfried Passarge (Berlin, 1904), is a valuable treatise on the geology, topography, hydrography, climate and flora of the desert, with maps and bibliography. The author spent two years (1896-1898) in the Kalahari. See also _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_, &c., by David Livingstone (London, 1857).

KALAMATA (officially [Greek: Kalamai], from an ancient town near the site), chief town of the modern Greek nomarchy of Messenia in the Morea, situated on the left bank of the Nedon, about 1 m. from the sea. Pop. (1907), 13,123. There is a suburb on the right bank of the stream. On a hill behind the town are the ruins of a medieval castle, but no ancient Greek remains have been discovered, although some travellers have identified the site with that of the classical Pharae or Pherae. It is the seat of a court of justice and of an archbishop. During the middle ages it was for a time a fief of the Villehardouins. In 1685 Kalamata was captured by the Venetians; in 1770, and again in 1821, it was the revolutionary headquarters in the Morea. In 1825 it was sacked by Ibrahim Pasha. Kalamata is situated in a very fruitful district, of which it is the emporium. The harbour, though recently improved, offers little shelter to shipping. Vessels load and discharge by means of lighters, the outer harbour having a depth at entrance of 24 ft. and inside of 14 ft. The inner harbour has a depth of 15 ft. and is sheltered by a breakwater 1640 ft. in length; in the winter months the fishing craft take shelter in the haven of Armyro. The silk industry, formerly important, still employs about 300 women and girls in four spinning establishments. Olive oil and silk are the chief exports.

KALAMAZOO, a city and the county-seat of Kalamazoo county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kalamazoo River, about 49 m. S. of Grand Rapids and 144 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 24,404, of whom 4710 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 39,437. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Kalamazoo, Lake Shore & Chicago, and the Chicago, Kalamazoo & Saginaw railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city has a public library, and is the seat of Kalamazoo college (Baptist), which grew out of the Kalamazoo literary institute (1833) and was chartered under its present name in 1855; the Michigan female seminary (Presbyterian), established in 1866; the Western State normal school (1904); Nazareth Academy (1897), for girls; Barbour Hall (1899), a school for boys; two private schools for the feeble-minded; and the Michigan asylum for the insane, opened in 1859. The surrounding country is famous for its celery, and the city is an important manufacturing centre, ranking third among the cities of the state in the value of its factory products in 1904. The value of the factory product in 1904 was $13,141,767, an increase of 82.9% since 1900. The waterworks and electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. Kalamazoo was settled in 1829, was known as Bronson (in honour of Titus Bronson, an early settler) until 1836, was incorporated as the village of Kalamazoo in 1838, and in 1884 became a city under a charter granted in the preceding year.

KALAPUYA, or CALLAPOOYA, a tribe and stock of North-American Indians, whose former range was the valley of the Willamette River, Oregon. They now number little more than a hundred, on a reservation on Grande Ronde reservation, Oregon.

KALAT, the capital of Baluchistan, situated in 29 deg. 2' N. and 66 deg. 35' E., about 6780 ft. above sea-level, 88 m. from Quetta. The town gives its name also to a native state with an area, including Makran and Kharan, of 71,593 m. and a population (1901) of 470,336. The word Kalat is derived from _kala_--a fortress; and Kalat is the most picturesque fortress in the Baluch highlands. It crowns a low hill, round the base of which clusters the closely built mass of flat-roofed mud houses which form the insignificant town. A _miri_ or citadel, having an imposing appearance, dominates the town, and contains within its walls the palace of the khan. It was in an upper room of this residence that Mehrab Khan, ruler of Baluchistan, was killed during the storming of the town and citadel by the British troops at the close of the first Afghan War in 1839. In 1901 it had a population of only 2000. The valleys immediately surrounding the fortress are well cultivated and thickly inhabited, in spite of their elevation and the extremes of temperature to which they are exposed. Recent surveys of Baluchistan have determined the position of Hozdar or Khozdar (27 deg. 48' N., 66 deg. 38' E.) to be about 50 m. S. of Kalat. Khozdar was the former capital of Baluchistan, and is as directly connected with the southern branches of the Mulla Pass as Kalat is with the northern, the Mulla being the ancient trade route to Gandava (Kandabe) and Sind. In spite of the rugged and barren nature of the mountain districts of the Kalat highlands, the main routes through them (concentrating on Khozdar rather than on Kalat) are comparatively easy. The old "Pathan vat," the trade highway between Kalat and Karachi by the Hab valley, passes through Khozdar. From Khozdar another route strikes a little west of south to Wad, and then passes easily into Las Bela. This is the "Kohan vat." A third route runs to Nal, and leads to the head of the Kolwa valley (meeting with no great physical obstruction), and then strikes into the open high road to Persia. Some of the valleys about Kalat (Mastang, for instance) are wide and fertile, full of thriving villages and strikingly picturesque; and in spite of the great preponderance of mountain wilderness (a wilderness which is, however, in many parts well adapted for the pasturage of sheep) existing in the Sarawan lowlands almost equally with the Jalawan highlands, it is not difficult to understand the importance which the province of Kalat, anciently called Turan (or Tubaran), maintained in the eyes of medieval Arab geographers (see BALUCHISTAN). New light has been thrown on the history of Kalat by the translation of an unpublished manuscript obtained at Tatta by Mr Tate, of the Indian Survey Department, who has added thereto notes from the Tufhat-ul-Kiram, for the use of which he was indebted to Khan Sahib Rasul Baksh, mukhtiardar of Tatta. According to these authorities, the family of the khans of Kalat is of Arabic origin, and not, as is usually stated, of Brahuic extraction. They belong to the Ahmadzai branch of the Mirwari clan, which originally emigrated from Oman to the Kolwa valley of Mekran. The khan of Kalat, Mir Mahmud Khan, who succeeded his father in 1893, is the leading chieftain in the Baluch Confederacy. The revenue of the khan is estimated at nearly L60,000, including subsidies from the British government; and an accrued surplus of L240,000 has been invested in Indian securities.

See G. P. Tate, _Kalat_ (Calcutta, 1896); _Baluchistan District Gazetteer_, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). (T. H. H.*)

KALAT-I-GHILZAI, a fort in Afghanistan. It is situated on an isolated rocky eminence 5543 ft. above sea-level and 200 ft. above the plain, on the right bank of the river Tarnak, on the road between Kabul and Kandahar, 87 m. from Kandahar and 229 m. from Kabul. It is celebrated for its gallant defence by Captain Craigie and a sepoy garrison against the Afghans in the first Afghan War of 1842. In memory of this feat of arms, the 12th Pioneers still bear the name of "The Kalat-i-Ghilzai Regiment," and carry a special colour with the motto "Invicta."

KALB, JOHANN ("BARON DE KALB") (1721-1780), German soldier in the American War of Independence, was born in Huttendorf, near Bayreuth, on the 29th of June 1721. He was of peasant parentage, and left home when he was sixteen to become a butler; in 1743 he was a lieutenant in a German regiment in the French service, calling himself at this time Jean de Kalb. He served with the French in the War of the Austrian Succession, becoming captain in 1747 and major in 1756; in the Seven Years' War he was in the corps of the comte de Broglie, rendering great assistance to the French after Rossbach (November 1757) and showing great bravery at Bergen (April 1759); and in 1763 he resigned his commission. As secret agent, appointed by Choiseul, he visited America in 1768-1769 to inquire into the feeling of the colonists toward Great Britain. From his retirement at Milon la Chapelle, Kalb went to Metz for garrison duty under de Broglie in 1775. Soon afterwards he received permission to volunteer in the army of the American colonies, in which the rank of major-general was promised to him by Silas Deane. After many delays he sailed with eleven other officers on the ship fitted out by Lafayette and arrived at Philadelphia in July 1777. His commission from Deane was disallowed, but the Continental Congress granted him the rank of major-general (dating from the 15th of September 1777), and in October he joined the army, where his growing admiration for Washington soon led him to view with disfavour de Broglie's scheme for putting a European officer in chief command. Early in 1778, as second in command to Lafayette for the proposed expedition against Canada, he accompanied Lafayette to Albany; but no adequate preparations had been made, and the expedition was abandoned. In April 1780, he was sent from Morristown, New Jersey, with his division of Maryland men, his Delaware regiment and the 1st artillery, to relieve Charleston, but on arriving at Petersburg, Virginia, he learned that Charleston had already fallen. In his camp at Buffalo Ford and Deep River, General Horatio Gates joined him on the 25th of July; and next day Gates led the army by the short and desolate road directly towards Camden. On the 11th-13th of August, when Kalb advised an immediate attack on Rawdon, Gates hesitated and then marched to a position on the Salisbury-Charlotte road which he had previously refused to take. On the 14th Cornwallis had occupied Camden, and a battle took place there on the 16th when, the other American troops having broken and fled, Kalb, unhorsed and fighting fiercely at the head of his right wing, was wounded eleven times. He was taken prisoner and died on the 19th of August 1780 in Camden. Here in 1825 Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument to him. In 1887 a statue of him by Ephraim Keyser was dedicated in Annapolis, Maryland.

See Friedrich Kapp, _Leben des amerikanischen Generals Johann Kalb_ (Stuttgart, 1862; English version, privately printed, New York, 1870), which is summarized in George W. Greene's _The German Element in the War of American Independence_ (New York, 1876).

KALCKREUTH (or KALKREUTH), FRIEDRICH ADOLF, COUNT VON (1737-1818), Prussian soldier, entered the regiment of Gardes du Corps in 1752, and in 1758 was adjutant or aide de camp to Frederick the Great's brother, Prince Henry, with whom he served throughout the later stages of the Seven Years' War. He won special distinction at the battle of Freiberg (Sept. 29, 1762), for which Frederick promoted him major. Personal differences with Prince Henry severed their connexion in 1766, and for many years Kalckreuth lived in comparative retirement. But he made the campaign of the War of the Bavarian Succession as a colonel, and on the accession of Frederick William II. was restored to favour. He greatly distinguished himself as a major-general in the invasion of Holland in 1787, and by 1792 had become count and lieutenant-general. Under Brunswick he took a conspicuous part in the campaign of Valmy in 1792, the siege and capture of Mainz in 1793, and the battle of Kaiserslautern in 1794. In the campaigns against Napoleon in 1806 he played a marked part for good or evil, both at Auerstadt and in the miserable retreat of the beaten Prussians. In 1807 he defended Danzig for 78 days against the French under Marshal Lefebvre, with far greater skill and energy than he had shown in the previous year. He was promoted field marshal soon afterwards, and conducted many of the negotiations at Tilsit. He died as governor of Berlin in 1818.

The _Dictees du Feldmarechal Kalckreuth_ were published by his son (Paris, 1844).

KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, COUNT VON (1855- ), German painter, a direct descendant of the famous field-marshal (see above), was born at Dusseldorf, received his first training at Weimar from his father, the landscape painter Count Stanislaus von Kalckreuth (1820-1894), and subsequently studied at the academies of Weimar and Munich. Although he painted some portraits remarkable for their power of expression, he devoted himself principally to depicting with relentless realism the monotonous life of the fishing folk on the sea-coast, and of the peasants in the fields. His palette is joyless, and almost melancholy, and in his technique he is strongly influenced by the impressionists. He was one of the founders of the secessionist movement. From 1885 to 1890 Count von Kalckreuth was professor at the Weimar art school. In 1890 he resigned his professorship and retired to his estate of Hockricht in Silesia, where he occupied himself in painting subjects drawn from the life of the country-folk. In 1895 he became a professor at the art school at Karlsruhe. The Munich Pinakothek has his "Rainbow" and the Dresden Gallery his "Old Age." Among his chief works are the "Funeral at Dachau," "Homewards," "Wedding Procession in the Carpathian Mountains," "The Gleaners," "Old Age," "Before the Fish Auction," "Summer," and "Going to School."

See A. Ph. W. v. Kalckreuth, _Gesch. der Herren, Freiherren und Grafen von Kalckreuth_ (Potsdam, 1904).

KALEIDOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: kalos], beautiful, [Greek: eidos], form, and [Greek: skopein], to view). The article REFLECTION explains the symmetrical arrangement of images formed by two mirrors inclined at an angle which is a sub-multiple of four right angles. This is the principle of the kaleidoscope, an optical toy which received its present form at the hands of Sir David Brewster about the year 1815, and which at once became exceedingly popular owing to the beauty and variety of the images and the sudden and unexpected changes from one graceful form to another. A hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar arrangement which seems to have passed into oblivion (_New Improvements of Planting and Gardening_, 1710). The instrument has been extensively used by designers. In its simplest form it consists of a tube about twelve inches long containing two glass plates, extending along its whole length and inclined at an angle of 60 deg. The eye-end of the tube is closed by a metal plate having a small hole at its centre near the intersection of the glass plates. The other end is closed by a plate of muffed glass at the distance of distinct vision, and parallel to this is fixed a plate of clear glass. In the intervening space (the _object-box_) are contained a number of fragments of brilliantly coloured glass, and as the tube is turned round its axis these fragments alter their positions and give rise to the various patterns. A third reflecting plate is sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three forming an equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his apparatus by moving the object-box and closing the end of the tube by a lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the coloured fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multiplied by the mirrors. In the _polyangular kaleidoscope_ the angle between the mirrors can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments are occasionally found in old collections of philosophical apparatus and they have been used in order to explain to students the formation of multiple images. (C. J. J.)

KALERGIS, DIMITRI (DEMETRIOS) (1803-1867), Greek statesman, was a Cretan by birth, studied medicine at Paris and on the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence went to the Morea and joined the insurgents. He fought under Karaiskakis, was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens and mulcted of an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French philhellene Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece. In 1832 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1843, as commander of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian ministers. He was appointed military commandant of Athens and aide de camp to the king, but after the fall of the Mavrocordato ministry in 1845 was forced to go into exile, and spent several years in London, where he became an intimate of Prince Louis Napoleon. In 1848 he made an abortive descent on the Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He was captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island of Zante, went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western Powers he was recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and appointed minister of war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato cabinet (1854). He was, however, disliked by King Otto and his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to resign. In 1861 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in which capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession of Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne.

KALEWALA, or KALEVALA, the name of the Finnish national epos. It takes its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or Finland), viz. the ancient Wainamoinen, the inventor of the sacred harp Kantele; the cunning art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the gallant Lemminkainen, who is a sort of Arctic Don Juan. The adventures of these three heroes are wound about a plot for securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to construct a magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt and gold, and as this has fallen into the hands of the folk of Pohjola, it is needful to recover it. The poem actually opens, however, with a very poetical theory of the origin of the world. The virgin daughter of the atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for seven hundred years in space, until she bethinks her to invoke Ukko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle to her; this bird makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in it seven eggs. Oat of the substance of these eggs the visible world is made. But it is empty and sterile until Wainamoinen descends upon it and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space, and it is to recover from his loss and to find another bride that Wainamoinen makes his series of epical adventures in the dismal country of Pohjola. Various episodes of great strangeness and beauty accompany the lengthy recital of the struggle to acquire the magical Sanpo, which gives prosperity to whoever possesses it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo is broken and falls into the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves, and, being stranded on the shores of Finland, secures eternal felicity for that country. At the very close of the poem a virgin, Mariatta, brings forth a king who drives Wainamoinen out of the country, and this is understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by Christianity.

The _Kalewala_ was probably composed at various times and by various bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions of the Finnish race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism exactly accordant with the instincts of that race. While in the other antique epics of the world bloodshed takes a predominant place, the _Kalewala_ is characteristically gentle, lyrical and even domestic, dwelling at great length on situations of moral beauty and romantic pathos. It is entirely concerned with the folk-lore and the traditions of the primeval Finnish race. The poem is written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea of its style may be obtained from Longfellow's _Hiawatha_, which is a pretty true imitation of the Finnish epic.

Until the 19th century the _Kalewala_ existed only in fragments in the memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few of these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius Topelius, but it was not until 1835 that anything like a complete and systematically arranged collection was given to the world by Dr Elias Lonnrot. For years Dr Lonnrot wandered from place to place in the most remote districts, living with the peasantry, and taking down from their lips all that they knew of their popular songs. Some of the most valuable were discovered in the governments of Archangel and Olonetz. After unwearied diligence Lonnrot was successful in collecting 12,000 lines. These he arranged as methodically as he could into thirty-two runes or cantos, which he published exactly as he heard them sung or chanted. Continuing his researches, Dr Lonnrot published in 1849 a new edition of 22,793 verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text was published by A. V. Forsman in 1887. The importance of this indigenous epic was at once recognized in Europe, and translations were made into Swedish, German and French. Several translations into English exist, the fullest being that by J. M. Crawford in 1888. The best foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Leouzon le Duc in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852). (E. G.)

KALGAN (CHANG-CHIA K'OW), a city of China, in the province of Chih-li, with a population estimated at from 70,000 to 100,000. It lies in the line of the Great Wall, 122 m. by rail N.W. of Peking, commanding an important pass between China and Mongolia. Its position is stated as in 40 deg. 50' N. and 114 deg. 54' E., and its height above the sea as 2810 ft. The valley amid the mountains in which it is situated is under excellent cultivation, and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan consists of a walled town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets are wide, and excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have an unusual appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed with earth and become covered with green-sward. Large quantities of soda are manufactured; and the town is the seat of a very extensive transit trade. In October 1909 it was connected by railway with Peking. In early autumn long lines of camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance of the tea-chests from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have permanent residences and warehouses just outside the gate. On the way to Peking the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven arches, ornamented with marble figures of animals. The name Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a barrier or "gate-beam."

KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 24 m. by rail E.N.E. of Coolgardie. Pop. (1901), 6652. It is a thriving town with an electric tramway service, and is the junction of four lines of railway. The gold-field, discovered in 1893, is very rich, supporting about 15,000 miners. The town is supplied with water, like Coolgardie, from a source near Perth 360 m. distant.