Part 1

Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE JUTE: "The use of C. olitorius for the latter purpose dates from very ancient times, if it may be identified ..." 'if it' amended from 'it if'.

ARTICLE KASHI: "Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that 'the art of glazing earthenware has, in Persia ..." 'earthenware' amended from 'eathenware'.

ARTICLE KASHMIRI: "... a poem on Saiva philosophy by a woman named Lalladevi, is said to be the oldest work in the language which has survived." 'philosophy' amended from 'philosopy'.

ARTICLE KAZAN: "Kazan lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail and 253 m. E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga." 'm.' missing.

ARTICLE KAZERUN: "... of the city on a huge mound are ruins of buildings with underground chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i Gabr ..." 'huge' amended from 'hugh'.

ARTICLE KEARNEY: "... where the city was planned. Kearney became a town in 1873, a city of the second class and the county seat in 1874, and a city of the first class in 1901." 'where' amended from 'or' and 'planned' amended from 'platted'.

ARTICLE KEENE: "and as responsible for the commercial treaty between England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the time; it was chartered as a city in 1874." 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.

ARTICLE KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK: "Of his minor poems written before that date the most important are the charming spring-song Vinterns valde lyktar, and the satirical Mina lojen and Man eger ej snille for det man ar galen." 'satirical' amended from 'satrical'.

ARTICLE KELLS: "The most notable is St Columbkille's house, originally an oratory, but afterwards converted into a church, the chancel of which was in existence in 1752." 'originally' amended from 'orginally'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XV, SLICE VI

Justinian II. to Kells

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

JUSTINIAN II. KARAMAN JUSTIN MARTYR KARAMANIA JUTE KARAMNASA JUTERBOG KARA MUSTAFA JUTES KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH JUTIGALPA KARA SEA JUTLAND KARASU-BAZAR JUTURNA KARATEGHIN JUVENAL KARAULI JUVENCUS, GAIUS AQUILINUS KAREN JUVENILE OFFENDERS KAREN-NI JUVENTAS KARIKAL JUXON, WILLIAM KARLI K KARLOWITZ K2 KARLSKRONA KA'BA, KAABA KARLSRUHE KABARDIA KARLSTAD KABBA KARLSTADT KABBABISH KARMA KABBALAH KARMAN, JOZSEF KABINDA KARNAK KABIR KARNAL KABUL KAROLYI, ALOYS KABUL RIVER KAROSS KABYLES KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE KACH GANDAVA KARRER, FELIX KACHIN HILLS KARROO KADUR KARS (province of Russia) KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT KARS (town of Russia) KAFFA KARSHI KAFFIR BREAD KARST KAFFIRS KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD KAFFRARIA KARTIKEYA KAFIRISTAN KARUN KAGERA KARWAR KAHLUR KARWI KAHN, GUSTAVE KARYOGAMY KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST KASAI K'AI-FENG FU KASBEK KAILAS KASHAN KAIN KASHGAR KAIRA KASHI KAIRAWAN KASHMIR KAISERSLAUTERN KASHMIRI KAISERSWERTH KASHUBES KAITHAL KASIMOV KAKAPO KASSA KAKAR KASSALA KALA-AZAR KASSASSIN KALABAGH KASSITES KALACH KASTAMUNI KALAHANDI KASTORIA KALAHARI DESERT KASUR KALAMATA KATAGUM KALAMAZOO KATANGA KALAPUYA KATER, HENRY KALAT KATHA KALAT-I-GHILZAI KATHIAWAR KALB, JOHANN KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH KALCKREUTH, FRIEDRICH ADOLF KATMANDU KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD KATO, TAKA-AKIRA KALEIDOSCOPE KATRINE, LOCH KALERGIS, DIMITRI KATSENA KALEWALA KATSURA, TARO KALGAN KATTERFELTO, GUSTAVUS KALGOORLIE KATTOWITZ KALI KATWA KALIDASA KATYDID KALIMPONG KAUFBEUREN KALINGA KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA KALINJAR KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER KAUKAUNA KALISCH, ISIDOR KAULBACH, WILHELM VON KALISCH, MARCUS KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON KALISPEL KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB KALISZ (government of Poland) KAURI PINE KALISZ (town of Poland) KAVA KALK KAVADH KALKAS KAVALA KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON KAVANAGH, JULIA KALMAR KAVASS KALMUCK KAVIRONDO KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND KAW KALOCSA KAWARDHA KALPI KAY, JOHN KALUGA (government of Russia) KAY, JOSEPH KALUGA (town of Russia) KAYAK KALYAN KAYASTH KAMA KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM KAMALA KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL KAMCHATKA KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS KAME KAZALA KAMENETS PODOLSKIY KAZAN (government of Russia) KAMENZ KAZAN (town of Russia) KAMES, HENRY HOME KAZERUN KAMMIN KAZINCZY, FERENCZ KAMPEN KAZVIN KAMPTEE KEAN, EDMUND KAMRUP KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH KAMYSHIN KEARNEY KANAKA KEARNY, PHILIP KANARA KEARNY KANARESE KEARY, ANNIE KANARIS, CONSTANTINE KEATE, JOHN KANAUJ KEATS, JOHN KANDAHAR KEBLE, JOHN KANDI KECSKEMET KANDY KEDDAH KANE, ELISHA KENT KEDGEREE KANE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) KEEL KANGAROO KEELEY, MARY ANNE KANGAROO-RAT KEELING ISLANDS KANGAVAR KEEL-MOULDING KANGRA KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL KANISHKA KEENE, LAURA KANKAKEE KEENE (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) KANKER KEEP, ROBERT PORTER KANO KEEP KANSAS KEEWATIN KANSAS CITY (Kansas, U.S.A.) KEF KANSAS CITY (Missouri, U.S.A.) KEHL KANSK KEIGHLEY KAN-SUH KEI ISLANDS KANT, IMMANUEL KEIM, KARL THEODOR KANURI KEITH (old Scottish family) KAOLIN KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES KAPUNDA KEITH, GEORGE KAPURTHALA KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE KARACHI KEITH (burgh of Scotland) KARAGEORGE KEJ KARA-HISSAR KEKULE, FRIEDRICH AUGUST KARA-HISSAR SHARKI KELLER, ALBERT KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES KELLER, GOTTFRIED KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH KELLER, HELEN ADAMS KARA-KALPAKS KELLERMANN, FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE DE KARAKORUM KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK KARA-KUL KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE KARA-KUM KELLS

JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669-711), East Roman emperor 685-695 and 704-711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000 Christian Maronites from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus, he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his surname), banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled, however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 15,000 horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans, and once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson, where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius, was assassinated in Asia Minor, December 711.

See E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, 1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii. 320-330, 358-367.

JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian apologists, was born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. _Sichem_), now Nablus, in Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, according to his own account, were Pagans (_Dial. c. Tryph._ 28). He describes the course of his religious development in the introduction to the dialogue with the Jew Trypho, in which he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, Stoics and Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other hand, he came to look upon the Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us in another place (_Apol._ ii. 12), must be added the deep impression produced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places his decisive interview with the old man, and there he had those discussions with Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later years set down in his _Dialogue_. After his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak (Euseb., _Hist. Eccl._ iv. 11. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering professional teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to place discussing the truths of Christianity in the hope of bringing educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, giving lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without opposition from his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius (_Apol._ ii. 13). Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his disciple Tatian (_Orat. ad Graec._ 19), that the accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from the undoubtedly genuine _Acta SS Justini et sociorum_, that Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus between 163 and 167.

To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn to his _Apology_ and to the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant works attributed to him is disputed with good reason. The _Apology_--it is more correct to speak of one _Apology_ than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it--was written in Rome about 150. In the first part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the charge of atheism and hostility to the state. He then draws a positive demonstration of the truth of his religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially from the excellence of its moral teaching, and concludes with a comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which the latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons. As the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity appears his detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the old dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their fulfilment in Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of their religious worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to God. The whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with a reference to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In the so-called _Second Apology_, Justin takes occasion from the trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions.

Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a preparation for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most distinguished in the long list of those who have endeavoured to reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the Logos in the person of Christ, of God, righteousness and immortality, truths which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic religious philosophies. In this process the conviction of the reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world and the individual through Christ, fell into the background before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not having given it its full value as a religion of salvation. It must not, however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christianity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view of life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an intimate comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to deal with the Judaism that believed in a Messiah, he was far better able to do justice to Christianity as a revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more completely in harmony with primitive Christian theology than those of the _Apology_. He also displays in this work a considerable knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish writers.

Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have elsewhere no connected account of this, Justin's _Apology_ contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.), which give a vivid description of the public worship of the Church and its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). And from this it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament writings. He knows of no canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the teachings of Jesus are the "Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are probably to be understood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along with the prophetic writings at the public services. From his writings we derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at pains to arrive at an understanding with his opponents. As a theologian, he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat dull. There are not many traces of any particular literary influence of his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us. The Church as a whole took but little interest in apologetics and polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these controversies that which she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus Justin's writings were not much read, and at the present time both the _Apology_ and the _Dialogue_ are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. Paris, 450, A.D. 1364).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The editions of Robert Etienne (Stephanus) (1551); H. Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis (1742) are superseded by J. C. T. Otto, _Justini philosophi et martyris opera quae feruntur omnia_ (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition contains besides the _Apologies_ (vol. i.) and the _Dialogue_ (vol. ii.) the following writings: _Speech to the Greeks_ (_Oratio_); _Address to the Greeks_ (_Cohortatio_): _On the Monarchy of God_; _Epistle to Diognetus_; _Fragments on the Resurrection and other Fragments_; _Exposition of the True Faith_; _Epistle to Zenas and Serenus_; _Refutation of certain Doctrines of Aristotle_; _Questions and Answers to the Orthodox_; _Questions of Christians to Pagans_; _Questions of Pagans to Christians_. None of these writings, not even the _Cohortatio_, which former critics ascribed to Justin, can be attributed to him. The authenticity of the _Dialogue_ has occasionally been disputed, but without reason. For a handy edition of the _Apology_ see G. Kruger, _Die Apologien Justins des Martyrers_ (3rd ed. Tubingen, 1904). There is a good German translation with a comprehensive commentary by H. Veil (1894). For English translations consult the "Oxford Library of the Fathers" and the "Ante-Nicene Library." Full information about Justin's history and views may be had from the following monographs: C. Semisch, _Justin der Martyrer_ (2 vols., 1840-1842); J. Donaldson, _A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine_, vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, _St Justin_ (3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von Engelhardt, _Das Christentum Justins des Martyrers_ (1878); T. M. Wehofer, _Die Apologie Justins des Philosophen und Martyrers in litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten Male untersucht_ (1897); Alfred Leonhard Feder, _Justins des Martyrers Lehre von Jesus Christus_ (1906). On the critical questions raised by the spurious writings consult W. Gaul, _Die Abfassungsverhaltnisse der pseudo-justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos_ (1902); Adolf Harnack, _Diodor von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum Diodors nachgewiesen_ (1901). (G. K.)

JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manufacturing scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute appears to have been first used in 1746, when the captain of the "Wake" noted in his log that he had sent on shore "60 bales of gunney with all the jute rope" (_New Eng. Dict. s.v._). In 1795 W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of the East India Company a bale of the fibre which he described as "the jute of the natives." Importations of the substance had been made at earlier times under the name of _pat_, an East Indian native term by which the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early years of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now bears. This modern name appears to be derived from _jhot_ or _jhout_ (Sansk. _jhat_), the vernacular name by which the substance is known in the Cuttack district, where the East India Company had extensive roperies when Roxburgh first used the term.

The fibre is obtained from two species of _Corchorus_ (nat. ord. _Tiliaceae_), _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_, the products of both being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agriculture is any distinction made between them. These and various other species of _Corchorus_ are natives of Bengal, where they have been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes, although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not originate in the northern parts of India. The two species cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater size attained by _C. capsularis_. They are annual plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 1(1/2) in. broad above the base, and taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated; the two lower teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow flowers are produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves.

The capsules or seed-pods in the case of _C. capsularis_ are globular, rough and wrinkled, while in _C. olitorius_ they are slender, quill-like cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_ respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of _C. olitorius_.