xi. 381-393) and of Neu-Hengstett and Pinache-Serres in Wurttemberg

(ib. xi. 393-398). The Vaudois literary language, in which is written the _Nobla Leyczon_, has, however, no direct connexion with any of the spoken dialects; it is a literary language, and is connected with literary Provencal, the language of the _troubadours_; see W. Foerster, _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_ (1888) Nos. 20-21.]

2. _Ladin Dialects_ (Ascoli, _Arch. glott._ i., iv. 342 sqq., vii. 406 sqq.; Gartner, _Ratoromanische Grammatik_ (Heilbronn, 1883), and in _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_, 2nd ed., i. 608 sqq.; Salvioni, _Arch. glott._ xvi. 219 sqq.).--The purest of the Ladin dialects occur on the northern versant of the Alps in the Grisons (Switzerland), and they form the western section of the system. To this section also belongs both politically and in the matter of dialect the valley of Munster (Monastero); it sends its waters to the Adige, and might indeed consequently be geographically considered Italian, but it slopes towards the north. In the central section of the Ladin zone there are two other valleys which likewise drain into tributaries of the Adige, but are also turned towards the north,--the valleys of the Gardena and Gadera, in which occurs the purest Ladin now extant in the central section. The valleys of Munster, the Gardena and the Gadera may thus be regarded as inter-Alpine, and the question may be left open whether or not they should be included even geographically in Italy. There remain, however, within what are strictly Italian limits, the valleys of the Noce, the Avisio, the Cordevole, and the Boite, and the upper basin of the Piave (Comelico), in which are preserved Ladin dialects, more or less pure, belonging to the central section of the Ladin zone or belt. To Italy belongs, further, the whole eastern section of the zone composed of the Friulian territories. It is by far the most populous, containing about 500,000 inhabitants. The Friulian region is bounded on the north by the Carnic Alps, south by the Adriatic, and west by the eastern rim of the upper basin of the Piave and the Livenza; while on the east it stretches into the eastern versant of the basin of the Isonzo, and, further the ancient dialect of Trieste was itself Ladin (_Arch. glott._ x. 447 et seq.). The Ladin element is further found in greater or less degree throughout an altogether Cis-Alpine "amphizone," which begins at the western slopes of Monte Rosa, and is to be noticed more particularly in the upper valley of the Ticino and the upper valley of the Liro and of the Mera on the Lombardy versant, and in the Val Fiorentina and central Cadore on the Venetian versant. The Ladin element is clearly observable in the most ancient examples of the dialects of the Venetian estuary (_Arch._ i. 448-473). The main characteristics by which the Ladin type is determined may be summarized as follows: (1) the guttural of the formulae _c_ + _a_ and _g_ + _a_ passes into a palatal; (2) the _l_ of the formulae _pl_, _cl_, &c., is preserved; (3) the _s_ of the ancient terminations is preserved; (4) the accented _e_ in position breaks into a diphthong; (5) the accented _o_ in position breaks into a diphthong; (6) the form of the diphthong which comes from short accented _o_ or from the _o_ of position is _ue_ (whence _ue_, _o_); (7) long accented _e_ and short accented _i_ break into a diphthong, the purest form of which is sounded _ei_; (8) the accented _a_ tends, within certain limits, to change into _e_, especially if preceded by a palatal sound; (9) the long accented _u_ is represented by _u_. These characteristics are all foreign to true and genuine Italian. _Carn_, carne; _spelunca_, spelunca; _clefs_, claves; _fuormas_, formae; _infiern_, infernu; _ordi_, hordeu; _mod_, modu; _plain_, plenu; _pail_, pilu; _quael_, quale; _pur_, puru--may be taken as examples from the Upper Engadine (western section of the zone). The following are examples from the central and eastern sections on the Italian versant:--

a. _Central Section_.--BASIN OF THE NOCE: examples of the dialect of Fondo: _cavel_, capillu; _pescador_, piscatore; _pluevia_, pluvia (plovia); _pluma_ (dial. of Val de Rumo: _plovia_, _plumo_); _vecla_, vetula; _cantes_, cantas. The dialects of this basin are disappearing.--BASIN OF THE AVISIO: examples of the dialect of the Val di Fassa: _carn_, carne; _cezer_, cadere (cad-jere); _vaca_, vacca; _forca_, furca; _glezia_ (_gezia_), ecclesia; _oeglje_ (_oeje_), oculi; _cans_, canes; _rames_, rami; _teila_, tela; _neif_, nive; _coessa_, coxa. The dialects of this basin which are farther west than Fassa are gradually being merged in the Veneto-Tridentine dialects.--BASIN OF THE CORDEVOLE: here the district of Livinal-Lungo (Buchenstein) is Austrian politically, and that of Rocca d' Agordo and Laste is Italian. Examples of the dialect of Livinal-Lungo: _carie_, Ital. caricare; _cante_, cantatus; _ogle_, oculu; _cans_, canes; _caveis_, capilli; _vierm_, verme; _fuoc_, focu; _avei_, habere; _nei_, nive.--BASIN OF THE BOITE: here the district of Ampezzo (Heiden) is politically Austrian, that of Oltrechiusa Italian. Examples of the dialect of Ampezzo are _casa_, casa; _candera_, candela; _forces_, furcae, pl.; _sentes_, sentis. It is a decadent form.--UPPER BASIN OF THE PIAVE: dialect of the Comelico: _cesa_, casa; _cen_ (can), cane; _calje_, caligariu; _bos_, boves; _noevo_, novu; _loego_, locu.

b. _Eastern Section or Friulian Region_.--Here there still exists a flourishing "Ladinity," but at the same time it tends towards Italian, particularly in the want both of the _e_ from _a_ and of the _u_ (and consequently of the _o_). Examples of the Udine variety: _carr_, carro; _caval_, caballu; _castiel_, castellu; _force_, furca; _clar_, claru; _glac_, glacie; _plan_, planu; _colors_, colores; _lungs_, longi, pl.; _devis_, debes; _vidiel_, vitello; _fieste_, festa; _puess_, possum; _cuett_, coctu; _uardi_, hordeu.--The most ancient specimens of the Friulian dialect belong to the 14th century (see _Arch._ iv. 188 sqq.).

B. _Dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian system, but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin system. _

1. Here first of all is the extensive system of the dialects usually called _Gallo-Italian_, although that designation cannot be considered sufficiently distinctive, since it would be equally applicable to the Franco-Provencal (A. 1) and the Ladin (A. 2). The system is subdivided into four great groups--(a) the _Ligurian_, (b) the _Piedmontese_, (c) the _Lombard_ and (d) the _Emilian_--the name furnishing on the whole sufficient indication of the localization and limits.--These groups, considered more particularly in their more pronounced varieties, differ greatly from each other; and, in regard to the Ligurian, it was even denied that it belongs to this system at all (see _Arch._ ii. III sqq.).--Characteristic of the Piedmontese, the Lombard and the Emilian is the continual elision of the unaccented final vowels except _a_ (e.g. Turinese _oj_, oculu; Milanese _voc_, voce; Bolognese _vid_, Ital. vite), but the Ligurian does not keep them company (e.g. Genoese _oggu_, oculu; _voze_, voce). In the Piedmontese and Emilian there is further a tendency to eliminate the protonic vowels--a tendency much more pronounced in the second of these groups than in the first (e.g. Pied, _dne_, danaro; _vsin_, vicino; _fnoc_, finocchio; Bolognese _cpra_, disperato). This phenomenon involves in large measure that of the prothesis of _a_; as, e.g. in Piedmontese and Emilian _armor_, rumore; Emilian _alvar_, levare, &c. U for the long accented Latin _u_ and _o_ for the short accented Latin _o_ (and even within certain limits the short Latin _o_ of position) are common to the Piedmontese, the Ligurian, the Lombard and the northernmost section of the Emilian: e.g., Turinese, Milanese and Piacentine _dur_, and Genoese _duu_, duro; Turinese and Genoese _move_, Parmigiane _mover_, and Milanese _mof_, muovere; Piedmontese _dorm_, dorme; Milanese _volta_, volta. _Ei_ for the long accented Latin _e_ and for the short accented Latin _i_ is common to the Piedmontese and the Ligurian, and even extends over a large part of Emilia: e.g. Turinese and Genoese _avei_, habere, Bolognese _aveir_; Turinese and Genoese _beive_, bibere, Bolognese _neiv_, neve. In Emilia and part of Piedmont _ei_ occurs also in the formulae _en_, _ent_, _emp_; e.g. Bolognese and Modenese _bein_, _solameint_. In connexion with these examples, there is also the Bolognese _fein_, Ital. fine, representing the series in which _e_ is derived from an _i_ followed by _n_, a phenomenon which occurs, to a greater or less extent throughout the Emilian dialects; in them also is found, parallel with the _ei_ from _e_, the _ou_ from _o_: Bolognese _udour_, Ital. odore; _famous_, Ital. famoso; _louv_, lupu. The system shows a repugnance throughout to _ie_ for the short accented Latin _e_ (as it occurs in Italian _piede_, &c.); in other words, this diphthong has died out, but in various fashions; Piedmontese and Lombard _dec_, dieci; Genoese _deze_ (in some corners of Liguria, however, occurs _dieze_); Bolognese _dic_, old Bolognese, _diese_. The greater part of the phenomena indicated above have "Gallic" counterparts too evident to require to be specially pointed out. One of the most important traces of Gallic or Celtic reaction is the reduction of the Latin accented _a_ into _e_ (_a_, &c.), of which phenomenon, however, no certain indications have as yet been found in the Ligurian group. On the other hand it remains, in the case of very many of the Piedmontese dialects, in the _e_ of the infinitives of the first conjugation: _porte_, portare, &c.; and numerous vestiges of it are still found in Lombardy (e.g. in Bassa Brianza: _andae_, andato; _guardae_, guardato; _sae_, sale; see _Arch._ i. 296-298, 536). Emilia also preserves it in very extensive use: Modenese _ander_, andare; _ariveda_, arrivata; _pec_, pace; Faenzan _parle_, parlare and parlato; _parleda_, parlata; _ches_, caso; &c. The phenomenon, in company with other Gallo-Italian and more specially Emilian characteristics extends to the valley of the Metauro, and even passes to the opposite side of the Apennines, spreading on both banks of the head stream of the Tiber and through the valley of the Chiane: hence the types _artrover_, ritrovare, _porteto_, portato, &c., of the Perugian and Aretine dialects (see _infra_ C. 3, b). In the phenomenon of _a_ passing into _e_ (as indeed, the Gallo-Italic evolution of other Latin vowels) special distinctions would require to be drawn between bases in which a (not standing in position) precedes a non-nasal consonant (e.g. _amato_), and those which have a before a nasal: and in the latter case there would be a non-positional subdivision (e.g. _fame_, _pane_) and a positional one (e.g. _quanto_, _amando_, _campo_); see _Arch._ i. 293 sqq. This leads us to the nasals, a category of sounds comprising other Gallo-Italic characteristics. There occurs more or less widely, throughout all the sections of the system, and in different gradations, that "velar" nasal in the end of a syllable (_pan, man_; _canta, mont_)[4] which may be weakened into a simple nasalizing of a vowel (_pa_, &c.) or even grow completely inaudible (Bergamese _pa_, pane; _padru_, padrone; _tep_, tempo; _met_, mente; _mut_, monte; _put_, ponte; _puca_, punta, i.e. "puncta"), where Celtic and especially Irish analogies and even the frequent use of _t_ for _nt_, &c., in ancient Umbrian orthography occur to the mind. Then we have the faucal n by which the Ligurian and the Piedmontese (_lana luna_, &c.) are connected with the group which we call Franco-Provencal (A. 1).--We pass on to the "Gallic" resolution of the nexus ct (e.g. _facto_, fajto, fajtjo. _fait, fac_; _tecto_, tejto, tejtjo, _teit_, _tec_) which invariably occurs in the Piedmontese, the Ligurian and the Lombard: Pied, _fait_, Lig. _fajtu_, _faetu_, Lombard _fac_; Pied. _teit_, Lig. _teitu_, Lom. _tec_; &c. Here it is to be observed that besides the Celtic analogy the Umbrian also helps us (_adveitu_ = ad-vecto; &c.). The Piedmontese and Ligurian come close to each other, more especially by a curious resolution of the secondary hiatus (Gen. _reize_, Piedm. _rejs_ = _*ra-ice_, Ital. radice) by the regular dropping of the d both primary and secondary, a phenomenon common in French (as Piedmontese and Ligurian _rie_, ridere; Piedmontese _pue_, potare; Genoese _naeghe_ = naighe. natiche, &c.). The Lombard type, or more correctly the type which has become the dominant one in Lombardy (_Arch._ i. 305-306, 310-311), is more sparing in this respect; and still more so is the Emilian. In the Piedmontese and in the Alpine dialects of Lombardy is also found that other purely Gallic resolution of the guttural between two vowels by which we have the types _braja_, _mania_, over against the Ligurian _braga_, _manega_, braca, manica. Among the phonetic phenomena peculiar to the Ligurian is a continual reduction (as also in Lombardy and part of Piedmont) of _l_ between vowels into _r_ and the subsequent dropping of this _r_ at the end of words in the modern Genoese; just as happens also with the primary _r_: thus _du_ = durur = dolore, &c. Characteristic of the Ligurian, but not without analogies in Upper Italy even (_Arch._, ii. 157-158, ix. 209, 255), is the resolution of _pj_, _bj_, _fj_ into _c, g, s_: _cu_, piu, plus; _ragga_, rabbia, rabies; _su_, fiore. Finally, the sounds _s_ and _z_ have a very wide range in Ligurian (_Arch._ ii. 158-159), but are, however, etymologically, of different origin from the sounds _s_ and _z_ in Lombard. The reduction of _s_ into _h_ occurs in the Bergamo dialects: _hira_, sera; _groh_, grosso; _cahtel_, castello (see also B.2).--A general phenomenon in Gallo-Italic phonetics which also comes to have an inflexional importance is that by which the unaccented final _i_ has an influence on the accented vowel. This enters into a series of phenomena which even extends into southern Italy; but in the Gallo-Italic there are particular resolutions which agree well with the general connexions of this system. [We may briefly recall the following forms in the plural and 2nd person singular: old Piedmontese _drayp_ pl. of _drap_, Ital. drappo; _man_, _meyn_, Ital. mano, -i; _long_, _loyng_, Ital. lungo, -ghi; Genoese, _kan_, _ken_, Ital. cane, -i; _bun_, _buin_, Ital. buono, -i; Bolognese, _far_, _fir_, Ital. ferro, -i; _peir_, _pir_, Ital. pero, -i. _zop_, _zup_, Ital. zoppo, -i; _louv_, _luv_, Ital. lupo, -i; _vedd_, _vi_, Ital. io vedo, tu vedi; _vojj_, _vu_, Ital. io voglio, tu vuoi; Milanese _quest_, _quist_, Ital. questo, -i, and, in the Alps of Lombardy, _pal_, _pel_, Ital. palo, -i; _red_, _rid_, Ital. rete, -i; _cor_, _cor_, Ital. cuore, -i; _ors_, _urs_, Ital. orso, -i; _law_, _lew_, Ital. io lavo, tu lavi; _met_, _mit_, Ital. io metto, tu metti; _mow mow_, Ital. io muovo, tu muovi; _cor_, _cur_, Ital. io corro, tu corri. [Vicentine _pomo_, _pumi_, Ital. pomo, -i; _pero_, _pieri = *piri_, Ital. pero, -i; v. _Arch._ i. 540-541; ix. 235 et seq., xiv. 329-330].--Among morphological peculiarities the first place may be given to the Bolognese _sipa (seppa)_, because, thanks to Dante and others, it has acquired great literary celebrity. It really signifies "sia" (sim, sit), and is an analogical form fashioned on _aepa_, a legitimate continuation of the corresponding forms of the other auxiliary (habeam, habeat), which is still heard in _ch'me aepa purtae, ch'lu aepa purtae_, ch'io abbia portato, ch'egli abbia portato. Next may be noted the 3rd person singular in _-p_ of the perfect of _esse_ and of the first conjugation in the Forli dialect (_fop_, fu; _mandep_, mando; &c.). This also must be analogical, and due to a legitimate _ep_, ebbe (see _Arch._ ii. 401; and compare _fobbe_, fu, in the dialect of Camerino, in the province of Macerata, as well as the Spanish analogy of _tuve estuve_ formed after _hube_). Characteristic of the Lombard dialect is the ending _-i_ in the 1st person sing. pres. indic. (_mi a porti_, Ital. io porto); and of Piedmontese, the _-ejca_, as indicating the subjunctive imperfect (_portejca_, Ital. portassi) the origin of which is to be sought in imperfects of the type _staesse_, _faesse_ reduced normally to _stejc_-, _fejc_-. Lastly, in the domain of syntax, may be added the tendency to repeat the pronoun (e.g. _ti te cantet_ of the Milanese, which really is _tu tu cantas-tu_, equivalent merely to "cantas"), a tendency at work in the Emilian and Lombard, but more particularly pronounced in the Piedmontese. With this the corresponding tendency of the Celtic languages has been more than once and with justice compared; here it may be added that the Milanese _nun_, apparently a single form for "noi," is really a compound or reduplication in the manner of the _ni-ni_, its exact counterpart in the Celtic tongues. [From Lombardy, or more precisely, from the Lombardo-Alpine region extending from the western slopes of Monte Rosa to the St Gotthard, are derived the Gallo-Italian dialects, now largely, though not all to the same extent, Sicilianized, from the Sicilian communes of Sanfratello, Piazza-Armerina, Nicosia, Aidone, Novara and Sperlinga (v. _Arch. glott._ viii. 304-316, 406-422, xiv. 436-452; _Romania_, xxviii. 409-420; _Memorie dell' Istituto lombardo_, xxi. 255 et seq.). The dialects of Gombitelli and Sillano in the Tuscan Apennines are connected with Emilia (_Arch. glott._ xii. 309-354). And from Liguria come those of Carloforte in Sardinia, as also those of Monaco, and of Mons, Escragnolles and Biot in the French departments of Var and Alpes Maritimes (_Revue de linguistique_, xiii. 308)]. The literary records for this group go back as far as the 12th century, if we are right in considering as Piedmontese the Gallo-Italian Sermons published and annotated by Foerster (_Romanische Studien_, iv. 1-92). But the documents published by A. Gaudenzi (_Dial. di Bologna_, 168-172) are certainly Piedmontese, or more precisely Canavese, and seem to belong to the 13th century. The Chieri texts date from 1321 (_Miscellanea di filol. e linguistica_, 345-355), and to the 14th century also belongs the _Grisostomo_ (_Arch. glott._