iii. 1772), the solemn formula of the dedicatory inscriptions of the

later period, _v. s. l. m._ or _v. s. l. l. m._, arose. To the same effect, and of equally ancient origin with the solemn words _dare_ and _donum dare_, the word _sacrum_ (or other forms of it, as _sacra [ara]_), conjoined with the name of a divinity in the dative, indicates a gift to it (e.g. _C.I.L._ i. 814; Wil. 32; _C.I.L._ i. 1200-1201; Wil. 33 _a_ _b_); the same form is to be found also in the later period (e.g. _C.I.L._ i. 1124; Henz. 5624-5637), and gave the model for the numerous sepulchral inscriptions with _dis Manibus sacrum_ mentioned before. _Sacrum_ combined with a genitive very seldom occurs (Orel. 1824; Wil. 34); _ara_ is found more frequently (as _ara Neptuni_ and _ara Ventorum_, Orel. 1340). Dedications were frequently the results of vows; so victorious soldiers (such as L. Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth--_C.I.L._ i. 541 seq.; Orel. 563; Wil. 27), and prosperous merchants (e.g. the brothers Vertuleii--_C.I.L._ i. 1175; Henz. 5733; Wil. 142) vow a tenth part of their booty (_de praedad_, as is said on the basis erected by one of the Fourii of Tusculum--_C.I.L._ i. 63, 64; Henz. 5674; Wil. 18) or gain, and out of this dedicate a gift to Hercules or other divinities (see also _C.I.L._ i. 1503; Wil. 24; _C.I.L._ 1113; Wil. 43). Again, what one man had vowed, and had begun to erect, is, by his will, executed after his death by others (as the _propylum Cereris et Proserpinae_ on the Eleusinian temple, which Appius Claudius Pulcher, Cicero's well-known predecessor in the Cilician proconsulate, began--_C.I.L._ i. 619 = iii. 347; Wil. 31); or the statue that an _aedilis_ vowed is erected by himself as _duovir_ (_C.I.L._ iii. 500; Henz. 5684); what slaves had promised they fulfil as freedmen (_C.I.L._ 1233, _servos vovit liber solvit_; _C.I.L._ 816, Wil. 51, "_ser(vos) vov(it) leibert(us) solv(it)_"), and so on. The different acts into which an offering, according to the circumstantially detailed Roman ritual, is to be divided (the _consecratio_ being fulfilled only by the solemn _dedicatio_) are also specified on dedicatory inscriptions (see for instance, _consacrare_ or _consecrare_, Orel. 2503, and Henz. 6124, 6128; for _dedicare_, _C.I.L._ i. 1159, Henz. 7024, Wil. 1782, and compare Catullus's _hunc lucum tibi dedico consecroque Priape_; for _dicare_ see the _aara leege Albana dicata_ to Vediovis by the _genteiles Iuliei_, _C.I.L._ i. 807, Orel. 1287, Wil. 101). Not exactly dedicatory, but only mentioning the origin of the gift, are the inscriptions on the pedestals of offerings ([Greek: anathemata], _donaria_) out of the booty, like those of M. Claudius Marcellus from Enna (_C.I.L._ i. 530; Wil. 25, "_Hinnad cepit_") or of M. Fulvius Nobilior, the friend of the poet Ennius, from Aetolia (_C.I.L._ i. 534; Orel. 562; Wil. 26 a, and _Bullettino dell' Instituto_, 1869, p. 8; _C.I.L._ vi. 1307; Wil. 26 b, "_Aetolia cepit_" and "_Ambracia cepit_"); they contain only the name of the dedicator, not that of the divinity. Of the similar offerings of L. Mummius, already mentioned, two only are preserved in their original poetical form, the Roman in Saturnian verses of a _carmen triumphale_ (_C.I.L._ i. 541; Orel. 563; Wil. 27 _a_) and that found at Reate in dactylic hexameters (_C.I.L._ i. 542; Wil. 27 _b_); the rest of them contain only the name of the dedicant and the dative of the community to which they were destined (_C.I.L._ i. and Wil. _l.c._). Of a peculiar form is the very ancient inscription on a bronze tablet, now at Munich, probably from Rome, where two _aidiles_, whose names are given at the beginning as in the other _donaria_, "_vicesma(m) parti(m)_ or _[ex] vicesma_ _parti Apalones_ (that is, _Apollinis_) _dederi_ (that is, _dedere_)" (_C.I.L._ i. 187; Orel. 1433). Many, but not substantial, varieties arise, when old offerings are restored (e.g. _C.I.L._ i. 638, 632 = Orel. 2135, and Wil. 48; _C.I.L._ i. 803; Henz. 5669, 6122); or the source of the offering (e.g. _de stipe_, _C.I.L._ i. 1105; Henz. 5633 a; _ex reditu pecuniae_, _ex patrimonio suo_, _ex ludis_, _de munere gladiatorio_, and so on); or the motive (_ex jusso_, _ex imperio_, _ex visu_, _ex oraculo_, _monitu_, _viso moniti_, _somnio admonitus_ and the like), or the person or object, for which the offering was made (_C.I.L._ i. 188, _pro poplod_; _Ephem. epigr._ ii. 208, _pro trebibos_, in the British Museum; _pro se_, _pro salute_, _in honorem domus divinae_, &c.), are indicated; or, as in the _tituli operum publicorum_, the order of a magistrate (_de senati sententia_, _C.I.L._ i. 560 = vi. 1306; Orel. 5351; i. 632 = vi. 110; Orel. 2135; Wil. 48; _decurionum decreto_, &c.), and the magistrates or private persons executing or controlling the work, the place where and the time when it was erected, are added. On all these details the indexes, especially that of Wil. (ii. 675), give further information. The objects themselves which are offered or erected begin to be named only in the later period just as in the _tituli operum publicorum_ ("_basim donum dant_," _C.I.L._ i. 1167; "_signum basim_," _C.I.L._ i. 1154; "_aram_," _C.I.L._ i. 1468; Orel. 1466; Wil. 52; _C.I.L._ i. 1109; Wil. 54); in the later period this custom becomes more frequent. It is hardly necessary to observe that all kinds of offerings have very frequently also been adorned with poetry; these _carmina dedicatoria_ are given by Buecheler, _Anthologia Latina_, ii.; cf. Wil. 142-151.

3. Statues to mortals, whether living or after their death (but not on their tombs), with _honorary inscriptions_ (_tituli honorarii_), were introduced into the Roman republic after the Greek model and only at a comparatively late date. One of the oldest inscriptions of this class comes from Greek soil and is itself Greek in form, with the name in the accusative governed by some (suppressed) verb like "honoured" (_C.I.L._ i. 533; Wil. 649), "_Italicei L. Cornelium Scipionem_ (i.e. _Asiagenum_) _honoris caussa_," lost and of not quite certain reading, belonging to 561 A.U.C. (193 B.C.); the same form (in the accusative) appears in other (Latin or Latin and Greek) inscriptions from Greece (_C.I.L._ i. 596 = iii. 532; Wil. 1103; _C.I.L._ iii. 365, 7240; compare also _C.I.L._ i. 587, 588; Orel. 3036). The noble house of the Scipios introduced the use of poetical _elogia_ in the ancient form of the _carmina triumphalia_ in Saturnian verses (from the 6th century in elegiac distichs). They were added to the short _tituli_, painted only with _minium_ on the sarcophagi, giving the name of the deceased (in the nominative) and his curulian offices (exclusively), which were copied perhaps from the well-known _imagines_ preserved in the _atrium_ of the house (_C.I.L._ i. 29 sq; Orel. 550 sq.; Wil. 537 sq., and elsewhere). They hold, by their contents, an intermediate place between the sepulchral inscriptions, to which they belong properly, and the honorary ones, and therefore are rightly styled _elogia_. What the Scipios did thus privately for themselves was in other cases done publicly at a period nearly as early. The first instance preserved of such a usage, of which Pliny the elder speaks (_Hist. nat._ xxxiv. S 17 sq.), is the celebrated _columna rostrata_ of C. Duilius, of which only a copy exists, made in or before the time of the emperor Claudius (_C.I.L._ i. 195 = vi. 1300; Orel. 549; Wil. 609). Then follow the _elogia_ inscribed at the base of public works like the _Arcus Fabianus_ (_C.I.L._ i. 606, 607 and 278, elog. i.-iii. = vi. 1303, 1304; Wil. 610), or of statues by their descendants, as those belonging to a _sacrarium domus Augustae_ (_C.I.L._ i. elog. iv.-vi. = _C.I.L._ vi. 1310, 1311) and others belonging to men celebrated in politics or in letters, as Scipio, Hortensius, Cicero, &c., and found in Rome either on marble tablets (_C.I.L._ i. vii.-xii. = _C.I.L._ vi. 1312, 1279, 1283, 1271, 1273; Wil. 611-613) or on busts (_C.I.L._ i. xv.-xix. = _C.I.L._ vi. 1327, 1295, 1320, 1309, 1325, 1326; Wil. 618-621; see also _C.I.L._ i. 40 = vi. 1280; Wil. 1101; and _C.I.L._ i. 631 = vi. 1278; i. 640 = vi. 1323, vi. 1321, 1322, where _T. Quincti_ seems to be the nominative), and in divers other places (_C.I.L._ i. xiii., xiv.; Wil. 614, 615). This custom seems to have been resumed by Augustus (Suet. _Aug._ 31) with a political and patriotic aim, praised by the poet Horace (_Od._ iv. 8. 13, "_incisa notis marmora publicis, per quae spiritus et vita redit bonis post mortem ducibus_"); for he adorned his _forum_ with the statues of celebrated men from Aeneas and Romulus downwards (_C.I.L._ i. xxiv., xxv., xxvii., xxxii. = _C.I.L._ vi. 1272, 1308, 1315, 1318; Wil. 625, 626, 627, 632), and other towns followed his example (so Pompeii, _C.I.L._ i. xx., xxii. = Wil. 622, 623; Lavinium, _C.I.L._ i. xxi.; Wil. 617; Arretium, _C.I.L._ i. xxiii., xxviii., xxix., xxx., xxxi., xxxiii., xxxiv. = Wil. 624, 625, 629-633). All these _elogia_ are written in the nominative. In the same way in the colonies statues seem to have been erected to their founders or other eminent men, as in Aquileia (_C.I.L._ i. 538 = v. 873; Wil. 650; compare also _C.I.L._ v. 862; Orel. 3827) and Luna (_C.I.L._ i. 539 = Wil. 651).

But along with this primitive and genuine form of the _titulus honorarius_ another form of it, equivalent to the dedicatory inscription, with the name of the person honoured in the dative, begins to prevail from the age of Sulla onwards. For the oldest examples of this form seem to be the inscriptions on statues dedicated to the dictator at Rome (_C.I.L._ i. 584 = vi. 1297; Orel. 567; Wil. 1102_a_) and at other places (Caieta and Clusium, _C.I.L._ i. 585, 586; Wil. 1102_b_, _c_), in which the whole set of honours and offices is not enumerated as in the _elogia_, but only the _honores praesentes_; compare also the inscription belonging to about the same date, of a _quaestor urbanus_ (_C.I.L._ i. 636). Within the Greek provinces also, at the same period, this form is adopted (_C.I.L._ i. 595 = iii. 531; Henz. 5294; Wil. 1104). Similar dedications were offered to Pompey the Great (at Auximum and Clusium, _C.I.L._ i. 615, 616; Orel. 574; Wil. 1107) and to his legate L. Afranius (at Bologna, but erected by the citizens of the Spanish colony Valentia, _C.I.L._ i. 601; Henz. 5127; Wil. 1106). They are succeeded by the statues raised to Caesar (at Bovianum, _C.I.L._ i. 620; Orel. 582; Wil. 1108), and, after his death, _iussu populi Romani_, in virtue of a special law, at Rome (_C.I.L._ i. 626 = vi. 872; Orel. 586; Wil. 877). With him, as is well known, divine honours begin to be paid to the _princeps_, even during life. In this same form other historical persons of high merit also begin to be honoured by posterity, as, for example, Scipio the elder at Saguntum (_C.I.L._ ii. 3836; Wil. 653), Marius at Cereatae Marianae, the place which bears his name (_C.I.L._ x. 5782; Wil. 654). Of statues erected by the community of a municipium to a private person, that of L. Popillius Flaccus at Ferentinum seems to be the oldest example (_C.I.L._ i. 1164; Wil. 655, and his note). In Rome, Augustus and his successors in this way permitted the erection of statues, especially to _triumphatores_, in the new _fora_, including that of Augustus (_C.I.L._ vi. 1386; Orel. 3187; Wil. 634; _C.I.L._ vi. 1444; Henz. 5448; Wil. 635) and that of Trajan (_C.I.L._ vi. 1377; Henz. 5478; Wil. 636; vi. 1549; Henz. 5477; Wil. 639; iv. 1549; Orel. 1386; Wil. 637; _C.I.L._ 1565, 1566; Wil. 640); and this custom lasted to a late period (_C.I.L._ vi. 1599; Henz. 3574; Wil. 638), as is shown by the statues of Symmachus the orator (_C.I.L._ vi. 1698, 1699; Orel. 1186, 1187; Wil. 641), Claudian the poet (_C.I.L._ vi. 1710; Orel. 1182; Wil. 642), Nicomachus Flavianus (_C.I.L._ vi. 1782, 1783; Orel. 1188; Henz. 5593; Wil. 645, 645a), and many other eminent men down to Stilicho (_C.I.L._ vi. 1730, 1731; Orel. 1133, 1134; Wil. 648, 648a), who died in the year 408. In similar forms are conceived the exceedingly numerous dedications to the emperors and their families, in which the names and titles, according to the different historical periods, are exhibited, in the main with the greatest regularity. They are specified in detailed indexes by Henzen and Wilmanns, as well as in each volume of the _Corpus_. In the provinces, of course, the usages of the capital were speedily imitated. Perhaps the oldest example of a _titulus honorarius_ in the form of an _elogium_ (but in the dative), with the full _cursus honorum_ of the person honoured, is a _bilinguis_ from Athens, of the Augustan age (_C.I.L._ iii. 551; Henz. 6456a; Wil. 1122); the honours are here enumerated in chronological order, beginning with the lowest; in other instances the highest is placed first, and the others follow in order.[41] In the older examples the formula "_honoris causa_," or _virtutis ergo_ (_Hermes_, vi., 1871, p. 6), is added at the end, as in an inscription of Mytilene belonging to the consul of the year 723 A.U.C., i.e. 31 B.C. (_C.I.L._ iii. 455; Orel. 4111; Wil. 1104b); the same, abbreviated (h.c.), occurs on an inscription of about the same age from Cirta in Africa (_C.I.L._ viii. 7099; Wil. 2384). Shortly afterwards the honour of a statue became as common in the Roman _municipia_ as it was in Athens and other Greek cities in the later period. Each province furnishes numerous examples, partly with peculiar formulae, on which the indexes of Wilmanns (pp. 673, 696 sq.) may be consulted. Special mention may be made of the numerous honorary inscriptions belonging to _aurigae_, _histriones_ and _gladiatores_; for those found in Rome see _C.I.L._ vi. 10,044-10,210.

He who erects a temple or a public building, or constructs a road, a bridge, an aqueduct or the like, by inscribing his name on the work, honours himself, and, as permission to do so has to be given by the public authorities, is also honoured by the community. Therefore the _tituli operum publicorum_, though in form only short official statements (at least in the older period) of the origin of the work, without any further indications as to its character and purpose, partake of the style of the older honorary inscriptions. Of the ancient and almost universally employed method of erecting public buildings by means of the _locatio censoria_ one monument has preserved some traces (_Ephem. epigr._ ii. 199). The oldest instance of this class is that commemorating the restoration of the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, begun, after its destruction by fire in the year 671 (83 B.C.), by Sulla and continued five years later by the well-known orator and poet Q. Lutatius Catulus, but completed only about twenty years afterwards. Here, after the name of Catulus in the nominative and the indication of the single parts of the building (as, for example, _substructionem et tabularium_), follows the solemn formula _de s(enati) s(ententia) faciundum coeravit eidemque probavit_ (_C.I.L._ i. 592 = vi. 1314; Orel. 31, 3267; Wil. 700). With the same formula the praetor Calpurnius Piso Frugi (of about the same period) dedicated an unknown building (_C.I.L._ i. 594 = vi. 1275), restored afterwards by Trajan. On a work executed by the _collegium tribunorum plebis_ (_C.I.L._ i. 593 = vi. 1299; Wil. 787), perhaps the public streets within the town, the sum employed for it is also inscribed. Precisely similar is the oldest inscription of one of the bridges of Rome, the _ponte dei quattro capi_, still preserved, though partly restored, on its original site, which commemorates its builder, the tribune of the year 692 (62 B.C.), L. Fabricius (_C.I.L._ i. 600 = vi. 1305; Orel. 50; Wil. 788); it was restored by the consuls of the year 733 (21 B.C.).[42] On privately erected buildings the founder after his name puts a simple _fecit_ (as also on sepulchral inscriptions); so, possibly, did Pompey, when he dedicated his theatre as a temple of Venus Victrix and, on Cicero's clever advice, as Varro and Tiro had it from Cicero himself, inscribed on it COS. TERT (not _tertium_ or _tertio_) (see Gellius, _Noct. Att._ x. 1). So Agrippa, when he dedicated his Pantheon in the year 727 (27 B.C.), inscribed on it only the words _M. Agrippa, L. f. cos. tertium fecit_ (_C.I.L._ vi. 896; Orel. 34; Wil. 731), as all who visit the Eternal City know. Of municipal examples it will be sufficient to name those of the majestic temple of Cora (_C.I.L._ i. 1149-1150; Wil. 722, 723), of Ferentinum, with the measurements of the foundation (_C.I.L._ i. 1161-1163; Wil. 708), of the walls and towers at Aeclanum (_C.I.L._ i. 1230; Orel. 566; Henz. 6583; Wil. 699), of the theatre, amphitheatre, baths and other structures at Pompeii (_C.I.L._ i. 1246, 1247, 1251, 1252; Orel. 2416, 3294; Henz. 6153; Will. 730, 1899-1901). At Aletrium a munificent citizen gives an enumeration of a number of works executed by him in the period of the Gracchi, in his native town ("_haec quae infera scripta sunt de senatu sententia facienda coiravit_," _C.I.L._ i. 1166; Orel. 3892; Wil. 706); and, more than a century later, the same is done at Cartima, a small Spanish town near Malaga, by a rich woman (_C.I.L._ ii. 1956; Wil. 746). Military works, executed by soldiers, especially frequent in the Danubian provinces, Africa, Germany and Britain, give, in this way, manifold and circumstantial information as to the military administration of the Romans. On a column found near the bridge over the Minho at Aquae Flaviae, the modern Chaves in northern Portugal, ten communities inscribed their names, probably as contributors to the work, with those of the emperors (Vespasian and his sons), the imperial legate of the province, the legate of the legion stationed in Spain, the imperial _procurator_, and the name of the legion itself (_C.I.L._ ii. 2477; Wil. 803); and similarly, with the name of Trajan, on the famous bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, in Spanish Estremadura, the names of the _municipia provinciae Lusitaniae stipe conlata quae opus pontis perfecerunt_ are inscribed (_C.I.L._ ii. 759-762; Orel. 161, 162; Wil. 804).

As in some of the already-mentioned inscriptions of public works the measurements of the work to which they refer (especially, as may be supposed, in the case of works of great extent, such as walls of towns or lines of fortification, like the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius in Britain) are indicated, so it early became a custom in the Roman republic to note on _milestones_ the name of the founder of the road and, especially at the extremities of it and near large towns, the distances. So in the _val di Diana_ in Lucania P. Popillius Laenas, the consul of the year 622 (132 B.C.), at the end of a road built by him, set up the _miliarium Popilianum_ (_C.I.L._ i. 551; Orel. 3308; Wil. 797), which is a general elogium to himself, in which he speaks in the first person (_viam fecei ab Regio ad Capuam_, &c.). One of the single _miliaria_ set up by him is also preserved (_C.I.L._ i. 550; Henz. 7174 _d_; Wil. 808), which contains only his name and the number of miles. In the same brief style are conceived the other not very frequent republican miliaria found in Italy (_C.I.L._ i. 535-537; Henz. 5348; Wil. 567; _C.I.L._ i. 540; Henz. 5350, 6226; Wil. 807; _C.I.L._ i. 558, 559; Henz. 5353; Wil. 808; _C.I.L._ i. 561; Henz. 5180; Wil. 811; _C.I.L._ i. 633; Wil. 812) down to the time of Augustus (_C.I.L._ x. 6895, 6897, 6899; Wil. 813), and also the even more rare specimens from the provinces (from Asia--_C.I.L._ i. 557 = iii. 479, Wil. 826, _C.I.L._ i. 622 = iii. 462, Wil. 827; from Spain--_C.I.L._ i. 1484-1486 = ii. 4920-4925, 4956, Wil. 828, 829). Augustus inscribed on each milestone on his road across Spain "_a Baete et Jano Augusto ad Oceanum_" (e.g. _C.I.L._ ii. 4701; Wil. 832), Claudius on those of a road in Upper Italy founded by his father Drusus "_viam Claudiam Augustam quam Drusus pater Alpibus bello patefactis derexserat munit ab Altino (or a flumine Pado) ad flumen Danuvium_" (_C.I.L._ v. 8002, 8003; Orel. 648, 708; Henz, 5400; Wil. 818). The later milestones vary greatly in form, but all contain most precious materials for ancient geography and topography; in the volumes of the _Corpus_ they are taken together under the special head _viae publicae_ (and here and there _privatae_) at the end of each chapter.

A similar character, resulting from the combination of a mere authentic record with the peculiar form of the honorary inscription, belongs to the kindred classes of _inscriptions of the aqueducts_ and of the different _boundary-stones_. The large dedicatory inscriptions of the celebrated aqueducts[43] of Rome (as the Aquae Marcia, Tepula and Julia, _C.I.L._ vi. 1244-1246, Orel. 51-53, Wil. 765; the Virgo, _C.I.L._ vi. 1252, Orel. 703, Wil. 763; the Claudia, &c., _C.I.L._ vi. 1256-1258. Orel. 54-56, Wil. 764) have quite the character of honorary inscriptions, while the various _cippi terminales_, which mark the ground belonging to the aqueduct, show the greatest analogy to the milestones (e.g. _C.I.L._ vi. 1243 a-g; Henz. 6635, 6636; Wil. 775-779). The other Italian and provincial varieties cannot be specified here. Of boundary-stones, or _cippi terminales_, some very ancient specimens have been preserved. To the age preceding the Second Punic War belong two, found at Venusia and erected by municipal magistrates (_C.I.L._ i. 185, 186; Orel. 3527, 3528; Wil. 863); they give a short relation of a decree, by which certain localities were declared to be sacred or public ("_aut sacrom aut poublicom locom ese_"). Then follow the _cippi Gracchani_, by which Gaius Gracchus and his two colleagues, as _tres viri agris iudicandis adsignandis_, measured the _ager Campanus_, for its division among the plebs. They contain the names of the _tres viri_ in the nominative, and in addition, on the top, the lines and angles of the _cardo_ and _decumanus_, according to the rules of the _agrimensores_, or the boundary lines between the _ager publicus_ and _privatus_ (_C.I.L._ i. 552-556; Henz. 6464; Wil. 859-861). From the age of Sulla we still have various boundary-stones giving the line of demarcation between different communities (between Fanum and Pisaurum--_C.I.L._ i. 583, Orel. 570, Wil. 861; between Ateste, Vicetia and Patavium--_C.I.L._ i. 547-549, Orel. 3110, Henz. 5114, 5115, Wil. 865, 866). To the town of Rome belong the _termini ripae Tiberis_ (_C.I.L._ i. 608-614 = vi. 1234 _a-l_), beginning in the Augustan age, and the _termini of the pomoerium_ of Claudius and Vespasian as censors, and of the _collegium augurum_ under Hadrian (_C.I.L._ vi. 1231-1233; Orel. 710, 811; Wil. 843, 844), while others, of the consuls of the year A.D. 4 (_C.I.L._ vi. 1263; Orel. 3260; Wil. 856), of Augustus (_C.I.L._ vi. 1265; Henz. 6455; Wil. 852), &c., show the boundary between the _ager publicus_ and _privatus_. With similar objects boundary-stones were erected by the emperors, or, under their authority, by magistrates, mostly military, in the rest of Italy also (as in Capua--_C.I.L._ x. 3825, Orel. 3683, Wil. 858; at Pompeii--_C.I.L._ x. 1018, Wil. 864) and in the provinces (as in Syria--_C.I.L._ iii. 183; and Macedonia--_C.I.L._ iii. 594; in Dalmatia--_C.I.L._ iii. 2883; in Africa-- _C.I.L._ viii. 7084-7090, 8211, 8268, 10,803, 10,838, Wil. 869, 870; in Spain--_C.I.L._ ii. 2349, 2916, Wil. 871--where the _pratum_ of a legion is divided from the territory of a _municipium_; in Gaul--Wil. 867; in Germany, in the column found at Miltenberg on the Main, _Bonner Jahrbucher_, vol. lxiv., 1878, p. 46, &c.). Private grounds (_pedaturae_) were unfrequently marked off by terminal _cippi_. To this class of _tituli_ must be added also the curious inscriptions incised upon the steps of Roman circuses, theatres and amphitheatres (see Hubner, _Annali dell' Instituto archeologico_, vol. xxviii., 1856, p. 52 sq., and vol. xxxi., 1859, p. 122 sq.), as, for instance, upon those of the Coliseo at Rome (_C.I.L._ vi., 1796, 1-37; compare R. Lanciani, _Bullettino archeologico municipale_, 1881).

4. We now come to the last class of _tituli_, viz. those which in the _Corpus_ are arranged, at the end of each volume, under the head of _Instrumentum_. By this very comprehensive term are designated objects which vary greatly among themselves, but which are of such a character as not to fall within any of the classes of _tituli_ described before, or the class of the _instrumenta_ in the proper sense of that word,--the laws, &c. The _tituli_ of the _instrumentum_ embrace movable objects, destined for public and private use, and illustrate almost every side of the life of the ancient Romans. As systematic treatment of them is hardly possible, a simple enumeration only of their different classes can be given, without citing special examples. The first species of them is metrological, comprehending the inscriptions on measures and weights. The gold and silver plate used in the best Roman houses was also always marked with a note of its weight,--as is seen, for instance, on the different objects belonging to the Hildesheim find (see _Hermes_, iii., 1868, p. 469 sq.; _Philologus_, xxviii., 1869, p. 369), the Corbridge _lanx_ in Northumberland House (_C.I.L._ vii. 1268) and many others. A second species is formed by the _tesserae_, tokens or marks, mostly in bronze, bone and ivory, but also earthen, of which the most interesting are the so-called _tesserae gladiatoriae_, little staves of bone with holes at the top, and with names of slaves or freedmen and consular dates upon them, the relation of which to the _munera gladiatoria_ is by no means certain (see _C.I.L._ i. 717 sq., and _Hermes_, xxi. p. 266; _Rhein. Mus._ xli. p. 517; xlii. p. 122; _Berl. phil. Woch._, 1888, p. 24). The other circular _tesserae_ (the so-called _tesserae theatrales_) of ivory or bone, with emblems and short inscriptions, partly Greek and Latin, used to be attributed to the _ludi scaenici_ (see Henzen, _Annali dell' Instituto archeologico_, vol. xx., 1848, p. 273 sq., and vol. xxii., 1850, p. 357 sq.) and to other _ludi_; but this account has been questioned (Huelsen, _Bullett. dell' Instituto_, 1896, p. 227). A third species is that of inscriptions carved, inscribed, painted or stamped upon various materials, raw or manufactured, for trade or household use. Such are, to begin with, the most solid and heavy, the inscriptions carved or painted on masses of stone, mostly columns, in the quarries, and preserved either on the rocks themselves in the quarries or on the roughly hewn blocks transported to the Roman _emporium_ on the Tiber bank. Curious specimens of the first kind are preserved in Lebanon, and in the north of England, near Hadrian's Wall and elsewhere; on the second may be consulted a learned treatise by Padre L. Bruzza ("Iscrizioni dei marmi grezzi," in the _Annali dell' Instituto archeologico_, vol. xlii., 1870, pp. 106-204). Of a kindred character are the inscriptions, mostly stamped or engraved in the mould, of pigs of silver, bronze and lead (and pewter), found in the Roman mines in Spain and England (see Hubner, "Romische Bleigruben in Britannien," in _Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie_, vol. xi., 1857, p. 347 sq., and _C.I.L._ vii. 220 sq.; A. Way, _Archaeological Journal_, vol. xvi., 1859, p. 23, and vol. xxiii., 1866, p. 63). A fourth species of _tituli_ of this class is strictly related to the military institutions of the Roman empire. Many of the weapons are marked with the names of the bearer and of the military corps to which he belonged,--so, for example, the buckles of their shields (see Hubner, "Romische Schildbuckel," in _Archaologisch-epigraphische Mitteilungen aus Osterreich_, vol. ii., 1878, p. 105 sq.; by far the best extant specimen is the umbo of a legionary soldier of the eighth legion found in the Tyne near South Shields, _C.I.L._ vii. 495), and sometimes the swords, as that of Tiberius from Mainz (now in the British Museum, see _Bonner Winckelmannsprogramm_ of 1848). The leaden _glandes_ used by the _funditores_, the slingers, in the Roman army bear curious historical inscriptions (see _C.I.L._ i. 642 sq., _Ephem. epigr._ vi. and, on the question of the authenticity of many of them, Zangemeister, _C.I.L._ ix., 35* sqq.). Special mention must be made also of the leaden seals or marks (_bullae_), evidently of military origin (perhaps to be borne by the soldiers as a countersign), which have been found in many parts of England (_C.I.L._ vii. 1269; _Ephem. epigr._ iii. 144, 318, iv. 209, vii. 346). Of the highest interest are the manifold productions of the Roman tile and brick kilns (_C.I.L._ xv. _Inscriptiones laterum_; cf. Descemet in the _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises_, vol. xv.). Next to the tiles with consular dates made at Veleia (_C.I.L._ i. 777 sqq.), those signed with the name of legions or other military corps, and employed in the various military buildings of these, are especially worthy of mention; they form an important chapter in every geographical part of the _Corpus_. But private persons, too, especially the rich landed proprietors, and afterwards the emperors and their kinsmen, kept large _figulinae_, and their manufactures--tiles of every description and other earthenware--were spread over the Roman empire (Dressel, _Untersuchungen uber die Chronologie der Ziegelstempel der Gens Domitia_, 1888; _C.I.L._ xv.). The different sorts of earthen vessels and lamps, the fragments of which are found in great quantities wherever Roman settlements occurred, are arranged at the end of each volume of the _Corpus_ and are collected in vol. xv part ii. p. i. On the maker's marks on earthenware, see Habert, _La Poterie antique parlante_ (1893); Dragendorf, "Terra Sigillata," in _Bonn. Jahrbuch._ xcvi. 18. On Roman lamps and their inscriptions the accurate catalogue of the Vienna collection by Kenner ("Dicantiken Thonlampen des K. K. Munz- und Antiken-Cabinetes und der K. K. Ambraser Sammlung," in the _Archiv fur Kunde osterreichischer Geschichtsquellen_, vol. xx., Vienna, 1858) may be consulted with advantage. The chief deposit of earthenware fragments, the _Monte testaccio_ in Rome, has been explored by Dressel ("Ricerche sul Monte testaccio," in the _Annali dell' Instituto archeologico_, vol. i., 1878, p. 118-192). Inscriptions are found on various classes of vessels, painted (as the consular dates on the large _dolia_ for wine, oil, &c., see Schone, _C.I.L._ iv. 171 sq., and _Ephem. epigr._ i. 160 sq.), stamped on the clay when still wet or in the mould, and scratched in the clay when dry, like those on the walls of ancient buildings in Pompeii, Rome and other places of antiquity. Like the corresponding Greek ware, they contain chiefly names of the makers or the merchants or the owners, and can be treated in a satisfactory manner only when brought together in one large collection (_C.I.L._ xv. part ii.), inasmuch as, besides being made in many local potteries, they were exported principally from some places in Italy (e.g. Arezzo) and Spain, in nearly every direction throughout northern and western Europe, the countries outside the Roman frontiers not excluded. Vessels and utensils of glass and of metal (gold, silver and especially bronze) were also exported from Italy on a large scale, as is being more and more readily recognized even by those antiquaries who formerly were wont to assume a local origin for all bronze finds made in the north of Europe. These utensils, ornaments and other objects made of precious metals (such as cups, spoons, mirrors, _fibulae_, rings, gems), not unfrequently bear Latin inscriptions. On the very ancient silver and bronze caskets, for holding valuable articles of the female toilet, which have been found at Praeneste, are inscribed, in addition to the names of the artist and of the donor, occurring once, the names of the persons in the mythical representations engraved upon them (_C.I.L._ i. 54-60, 1500, 1501; Jordan, _Kritische Beitrage zur Geschichte der lateinischen Sprache_, Berlin, 1879, p. 3 sq.). In the ancient well of the _Aquae Apollinares_, near Vicarello in Tuscany, three silver cups have been found with circumstantial itineraries "_a Gades_ (sic) _usque Romam_" engraved upon them, evidently gifts to the divinity of the bath for recovered health presented by travellers from the remote city named (Henzen 5210). Similar is the Rudge Cup, found in Wiltshire and preserved at Alnwick Castle, which contains, engraved in bronze, an itinerary along some Roman stations in the north of England (_C.I.L._ vii. 1291). The inscriptions of the Hildesheim silver find and others of a similar character have been already mentioned; and many examples might be enumerated besides. On the ancient glass ware and the inscriptions on it the splendid works of Deville (_Histoire de l'art de la verrerie dans l'antiquite_, Paris, 1873) and Froehner (_La Verrerie antique, description de la collection Charvet_, Paris, 1879) may be consulted; on the Christian glasses that of Garrucci (_Vetri ornati di figure in oro trovati_ _nei cimiteri dei cristiani primitivi di Roma_, Rome, 1858); on the makers' marks on bronze objects, Mowat, _Marques de bronziers sur objets trouves ou rapportes en France_ (1884) (extracted from _Bulletin epigraphique_, 1883-1884). The last species of _tituli_ is formed by the stamps themselves with which the inscriptions on many of the objects already named are produced. They are mostly of bronze, and contain names; but it is not easy to say what sort of objects were marked with them, as scarcely any article stamped with a still existing stamp has been found. Amongst the materials stamped leather also is to be mentioned. One class only of stamps differs widely from the rest,--the oculists' stamps, engraved mostly on steatite (or similar stones), and containing remedies against diseases of the eyes, to be stamped on the glass bowls in which such remedies were sold, or on the medicaments themselves (see Grotefend, _Die Stempel der romischen Augenarzte gesammelt und erklart_ (Gottingen, 1867); de Villefosse and Thedenat, _Cachets d'oculistes romains_ (1882); Esperandieu, _Recueil des cachets d'oculistes romains_ (1894).

IV. The other great class of inscriptions above referred to, the _instrumenta_ or _leges_, the laws, deeds, &c., preserved generally on metal and stone, from the nature of the case have to be considered chiefly with regard to their contents; their form is not regulated by such constant rules as that of the _tituli_, so far as may be inferred from the state of completeness in which they have been preserved. The rules for each special class therefore, though, generally speaking, maintained--as was to be expected of Roman institutions--with remarkable steadiness from the earliest times down to a late period, must be based upon a comprehensive view of all the examples, including those preserved by ancient writers, and not in the monumental form. These documents are, as a rule, incised on bronze plates (only some private acts are preserved on wood and lead), and therefore have their peculiar form of writing, abbreviation, interpunction, &c., as has been already explained. The older Roman laws are now collected, in trustworthy texts, in the _Corpus_, vol. i.; of the documents belonging to the later period a very comprehensive _sylloge_ is given in C. G. Bruns's _Fontes juris Romani antiqui_.

1. Among the earliest occasions for committing to writing agreements, which may be supposed to have been originally verbal only, must certainly be reckoned international transactions (_leges foederis or foedera_). At the head of the prose records written in the Latin language we find the treaties of alliance of Tullus Hostilius with the Sabini (Dionysius Halic. iii. 33), of Servius Tullius with the Latini (Dionysius iv. 26; Festus p. 169; this was, partly, at the same time, as will afterwards appear, the oldest document of the sacred class), of the second Tarquinius with Gabii (Dionysius iv. 58; Festus, _Epit._ p. 56). They are followed, in the oldest republican period, by the celebrated _foedera_ with Carthage; by the pacts of Sp. Cassius Vecellinus with the Latini of the year 261 (493 B.C.), which Cicero seems to have seen still in the _forum_ behind the _rostra_, written on a bronze column (_Pro Balbo_, 23, 53; see also Livy ii. 33; Festus p. 166; and Mommsen's _Romische Forschungen_, ii. 153 sq.); and by the _foedus Ardeatinum_ of 310 (444 B.C.) mentioned by Livy (iv. 7). Of all these documents nothing has been preserved in an authentic form, save some few words quoted from them by the ancient grammarians. Of one _foedus_ only is there a fragment still in existence, relating to the Oscan _civitas libera_ Bantia (_C.I.L._ i. 197); it contains the _clausula_ of the _foedus_, which was written in Latin and in Oscan (see APULIA). On account of this peculiar circumstance, the document gave occasion to Klenze, and afterwards to Mommsen, to resume (for the sake of Roman jurisprudence, in the first instance) inquiry into the Oscan and other Italian dialects. Some other Roman _foedera_ are preserved only in Greek, e.g. that with the Jews of the year 594 (160 B.C.)(Josephus, _Ant._ xii. 6. 10). Some others, made with the same nation between 610 and 615 (144 and 139 B.C.) (Jos. _Ant._ xiii. 5. 6 and 7. 8), are mentioned in an abridged form only, or given in that of a _senatus consultum_, to which they must formally be ascribed. Amongst the _foedera_ may be reckoned also the curious oath, sworn, perhaps, according to a general rule obtaining for all _civitates foederatae_, by the citizens of a Lusitanian _oppidum_, Aritium, to Gaius Caesar on his accession to the throne in A.D. 37 (_C.I.L._ ii. 172; Wil. 2839).

Closely related to the _foedera_ are the pacts between communities and private individuals, respecting _patronatus_ or _hospitium_ (_tabulae patronatus et hospitii_), also, when in small portable form, _tesserae hospitales_; cf. Plautus, _Poen._ 1047, of which many specimens from the end of the republic down to a late period of the empire have been preserved (see Gazzera, _Memorie dell' Academia di Torino_, vol. xxxv., 1831, p. 1 sq., and Mommsen, _Romische Forschungen_, i. 341 sq.). Of the numerous examples scattered through the different volumes of the _Corpus_ may be quoted the _tessera Fundana_, containing the pact of hospitality between the community of Fundi and a certain Ti. Claudius (who cannot, with certainty, be identified), the oldest hitherto known, in the form of a bronze fish (_C.I.L._ i. 532; Henz. 7000; Wil. 2849); the _tabula_ of the _pagus Gurzensium_ in Africa, delivering the patronate to L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, Nero's grandfather, in 742 (12 B.C.), in the afterwards solemn form of a _tabella fastigata_, to be fixed in the _atrium_ of the person honoured (Orel. 3693; Wil. 2850); that of the _civitas Pallantina_ with a _peregrinus_ named _Acces Licirni_ of the year 752 (2 B.C.) (_Ephem. epigr._ i. 141; _Hermes_, v., 1871, p. 371 seq.); that of _Lacilbula_, in Spain, with one Q. Marius Balbus, of A.D. 5 (_C.I.L._ ii. 1393); that of the _Bocchoritani_ on the island of Majorca, of A.D. 6 (_C.I.L._ ii. 3695; Wil. 2851); the four relating to C. Silius Aviola, dating from A.D. 27 to 28, all found at Brescia (_C.I.L._ v. 4919-4922); that of the _colonia Julia Aug. legionis vii. Tupusuctu_, in Africa, with the imperial legate Q. Julius Secundus, of A.D. 55 (_C.I.L._ viii. 8837; Wil. 2851); that of two _gentilitates_, the _Desonci_ and _Tridiavi_, of the _gens_ of the _Zoelae_, in Spain, now in the museum of Berlin, which contains an older act of the year 27, and another more recent of the year A.D. 127 (_C.I.L._ ii. 2633; Orel. 156); that of the _respublica Pompelonensis_ (Pampeluna in Spain) of A.D. 185 (_C.I.L._ ii. 2960; Wil. 2854); that of the _Segisamonenses_, in Spain, of A.D. 239, now in the museum at Burgos (_Ephem. epigr._ ii. 322); that of the _fabri subidiani_ (i.e. subaediani, qui sub aede consistunt) of Cordova, of A.D. 348 (_C.I.L._ ii. 2211; Wil. 2861); and, in addition to many others, those found together at Rome, on the site of the palace of Q. Aradius Valerius Proculus, and belonging to him and other members of his family, from divers African cities and executed in A.D. 321 and 322 (_C.I.L._ vi. 1684-1688; Orel. 1079, 3058).

2. Hardly inferior in antiquity, and of superior value, are the remains of laws in the stricter sense of the word (_leges_ and _plebiscita_), preserved to us in the originals, although unfortunately only in fragments more or less extensive. Of those laws the oldest and most important are the _lex Acilia_ (for so it is in all probability to be styled) _repetundarum_ of the year 631 (_C.I.L._