ii. 4-7), giving liquid time to accumulate in them, or when the

vacuole is acting sluggishly or imperfectly, as in the approach of asphyxia (fig. ii. 3). Besides this function, since the system passes a large quantity of water from without through the substance of the cell, it must needs act as a means of respiration and excretion. In all Peritrichaceae it opens to the vestibule, and in some of them it discharges through an intervening reservoir, curiously recalling the arrangements in the Flagellate Euglenaceae.

The nuclear apparatus consists of two parts, the meganucleus, and the micronucleus or micronuclei (fig. iii. 17d, iv. 1). The meganucleus alone regarded and described as "the nucleus" by older observers is always single, subject to a few reservations. It is most frequently oval, and then is indented by the micronucleus; but it may be lobed, the lobes lying far apart and connected by a slender bridge or moniliform, or horseshoe-shaped (Peritrichaceae). It often contains darker inclusions, like nucleoles.

It has been shown, more especially by Gruber, that many Ciliata are multinucleate, and do not possess merely a single meganucleus and a micronucleus. In _Oxytricha_ the nuclei are large and numerous (about forty), scattered through the protoplasm, whilst in other cases the nucleus is so finely divided as to appear like a powder diffused uniformly through the medullary protoplasm (_Trachelocerca_). Carmine staining, after treatment with absolute alcohol, has led to this remarkable discovery. The condition described by Foettinger in his _Opalinopsis_ (fig. i. 1, 2) is an example of this pulverization of the nucleus. The condition of pulverization had led in some cases to a total failure to detect any nucleus in the living animal, and it was only by the use of reagents that the actual state of the case was revealed. Before fission, whatever be its habitual character, it condenses, becomes oval, and divides by constriction; and though it usually is then fibrillated, only in a few cases does it approach the typical mitotic condition. The micronucleus described by older writers as the "nucleolus" or "paranucleus" ("endoplastule" of Huxley), may be single or multiple. When the meganucleus is bilobed there are always two micronuclei, and at least one is found next to every enlargement of the moniliform meganucleus. In the fission of the Infusoria, every micronucleus divides by a true mitotic process, during which, however, its wall remains intact. From their relative sizes the meganucleus would appear to discharge during cell-life, exclusively, the functions of the nucleus in ordinary cells. Since in conjugation, however, the meganucleus degenerates and is in great part either digested or excreted as waste matter, while the new nuclear apparatus in both exconjugates arises, as we shall see, from a conjugation-nucleus of exclusively micronuclear origin, we infer that the micronucleus has for its function the carrying on of the nuclear functions of the race from one fission cycle to the next from which the meganucleus is excluded.

Fission is the ordinary mode of reproduction in the Infusoria, and is usually transverse, but oblique in _Stentor_, &., as in Flagellata, longitudinal in Peritrichaceae; in some cases it is always more or less unequal owing to the differentiation of the body, and consequently it must be followed by a regeneration of the missing organs in either daughter-cell. In some cases it becomes very uneven, affording every transition to budding, which process assumes especial importance in the Suctoria. Multiple fission (brood-formation or sporulation) is exceptional in Infusoria, and when it occurs the broods rarely exceed four or eight--another difference from Flagellata. The nuclear processes during conjugation suggest the phylogenetic loss of a process of multiple fission into active gametes. As noted, in fission the meganucleus divides by direct constriction; each micronucleus by a mode of mitosis. The process of fission is subject in its activity to the influences of nutrition and temperature, slackening as the food supply becomes inadequate or as the temperature recedes from the optimum for the process. Moreover, if the descendants of a single animal be raised, it is found that the rapidity of fission, other conditions being the same, varies periodically, undergoing periods of depression, which may be followed by either (1) spontaneous recovery, (2) recovery under stimulating food, (3) recovery through conjugation, or (4) the death of the cycle, which would have ensued if 2 or 3 had been omitted at an earlier stage, but which ultimately seems inevitable, even the induction of conjugation failing to restore it. These physiological conditions were first studied by E. Maupas, librarian to the city of Algiers, in his pioneering work in the later 'eighties, and have been confirmed and extended by later observers, among whom we may especially cite G. N. Calkins.

Syngamy, usually termed conjugation or "karyogamy," is of exceptional character in the majority of this group--the Peritrichaceae alone evincing an approximation to the usual typical process of the permanent fusion of two cells (pairing-cells or gametes), cytoplasm to cytoplasm, nucleus to nucleus, to form a new cell (coupled cell, zygote).

This process was elucidated by E. Maupas in 1889, and his results, eagerly questioned and repeatedly tested, have been confirmed in every fact and in every generalization of importance.

Previously all that had been definitely made out was that under certain undetermined conditions a fit of pairing two and two occurred among the animals of the same species in a culture or in a locality in the open; that after a union prolonged over hours, and sometimes even days, the mates separated; that during the union the meganucleus underwent changes of a degenerative character; and that the micronucleus underwent repeated divisions, and that from the offspring of the micronuclei the new nuclear apparatus was evolved for each mate. Maupas discovered the biological conditions leading to conjugation: (1) the presence of individuals belonging to distinct stocks; (2) their belonging to a generation sufficiently removed from previous conjugation, but not too far removed therefrom; (3) a deficiency of food. He also showed that during conjugation a "migratory" nucleus, the offspring of the divisions of the micronucleus, passes from either mate to the other, while its sister nucleus remains "stationary"; and that reciprocal fusion of the migratory nucleus of the one mate with the stationary nucleus of the other takes place to form a zygote nucleus in either mate; and that from these zygote nuclei in each by division, at least two nuclei are formed, the one of which enlarges to form a meganucleus, while the other remains small as the first micronucleus of the new reorganized animal, which now separates as an "exconjugate" (fig. iv). Moreover, if pairing be prevented, or be not induced, the individuals produced by successive fissions become gradually weaker, their nuclear apparatus degenerates, and finally they cannot be induced under suitable conditions to pair normally, so that the cycle becomes extinct by senile decay. In Peritrichaceae the gametes are of unequal sizes (fig. iii. 11, 12), the smaller being formed by brood fissions (4 or 8); syngamy is here permanent, not temporary, the smaller (male) being absorbed into the body of the larger (female); and there are only two nuclei that pair. Thus we have a derived binary sexual process, comparable to that of ordinary bisexual organisms.

CILIATA.--The _Ciliate_ Infusoria represent the highest type of Protozoa. They are distinctly animal in function, and the Gymnostomaceae are active predaceous beings preying on other Infusoria or Flagellates. Some possess shells (fig. iii. 3, 5, 21, 22, 25, 26), most have a distinct swallowing apparatus, and in _Dysteria_ there is a complex jaw--or tooth-apparatus, which needs new investigation. In the active Ciliata we find locomotive organs of most varied kinds: tail-springs, cirrhi for crawling and darting, cilia and membranellae for continuous swimming in the open or gliding over surfaces or waltzing on the substratum (_Trichodina_, fig. iii. 8) or for eddying in wild turns through the water (_Strombidium_, _Tintinnus_, _Halteria_). Their forms offer a most interesting variety, and the flexibility of many adds to their easy grace of movement, especially where the front of the body is produced and elongated like the neck of a swan (_Amphileptus_, fig. iii. 5; _Lacrymaria_).

The cytoplasm is very highly differentiated: especially the ectoplasm or ectosarc. This has always a distinct elastic "pellicle" or limiting layer, in a few cases hard, or even with local hardenings that affect the disposition of a coat of mail (_Coleps_) or a pair of valves (_Dysteria_); but is usually only marked into a rhomboidal network by intersecting depressions, with the cilia occupying the centres of the areas or meshes defined. The cytoplasm within is distinctly alveolated, and frequently contains tubular alveoli running along the length of the animal. Between these are dense fibrous thickenings, which from their double refraction, from their arrangement, and from their shortening in contracted animals are regarded as of muscular function and termed "myonemes." Other threads running alongside of these, and not shortening but becoming wavy in the general contraction have been described in a few species as "neuronemes" and as possessing a _nervous_, conducting character. On this level, too, lie the dot-like granules at the bases of the cilia, which form definite groups in the case of such organs as are composed of fused cilia; in the deeper part of the ectoplasm the vacuoles or alveoli are more numerous, and reserve granules are also found; here too exist the canals, sometimes developed into a complex network, which open into the contractile vacuole.

The cilia themselves have a stiffer basal part, probably strengthened by an axial rod, and a distal flexible lash; when cilia are united by the outer plasmatic layer, they form (1) "Cirrhi," stiff and either hook-like and pointed at the end, or brush-like, with a frayed apex; (2) membranelles, flattened organs composed of a number of cilia fused side by side, sometimes on a single row, sometimes on two rows approximated at either end so as to form a narrow oval, the membranelle thus being hollow; (3) the oral "undulating membrane," merely a very elongated membranelle whose base may extend over a length nearly equal to the length of the animal; such membranes are present in the mouth oral depression and pharynx of all but Gymnostomaceae, and aid in ingestion; a second or third may be present, and behave like active lips; (4) in Peritrichaceae the cilia of the peristomial wreath are united below into a continuous undulating membrane, forming a spiral of more than one turn, and fray out distally into a fringe; (5) the dorsal cilia of Hypotrichaceae are slender and motionless, probably sensory.

Embedded in the ectosarc of many Ciliates are trichocysts, little elongated sacs at right angles to the surface, with a fine hair-like process projecting. On irritation these elongate into strong prominent threads, often with a more or less barb-like head, and may be ejected altogether from the body. Those over the surface of the body appear to be protective; but in the Gymnostomaceae specially strong ones surround the mouth. They can be injected into the prey pursued, and appear to have a distinctly poisonous effect on it. They are combined also into defensive batteries in the Gymnostome _Loxophyllum_. They are absent from most Heterotrichaceae and Hypotrichaceae, and from Peritrichaceae, except for a zone round the collar of the peristome.

The openings of the body are the _mouth_, absent in a few parasital species (_Opalinopsis_, fig. i. 1, 2), the _anus_ and the _pore_ of the contractile vacuole. The _mouth_ is easily recognizable; in the most primitive forms of the Gymnostomaceae and some other groups, it is terminal, but it passes further and further back in more modified species, thereby defining a ventral, and correspondingly a dorsal surface; it usually lies on the left side. The anus is usually only visible during excretion, though its position is permanent; in a few genera it is always visible (e.g. _Nyctotherus_, fig. i. 16). The pore of the contractile vacuole might be described in the same terms.

The endoplasm has also an alveolar structure, and contains besides large food-vacuoles or digestive vacuoles, and shows movements of rotation within the ectoplasm, from which, however, it is not usually distinctly bounded. In _Ophryoscolex_ and _Didinium_ (fig. i. 13) a permanent cavity traverses it from mouth to anus.

Ingestion of food is of the same character in all the Hymenostomata. The ciliary current drives a powerful stream into the mouth, which impinges against the endosarc, carrying with it the food particles; these adhere and accumulate to form a pellet, which ultimately is pushed by an apparently sudden action into the substance of the endosarc which closes behind it (fig. ii. 2). In some of the Aspirotrichaceae accessory undulating membranes play the part of lips, and there is a closer approximation to true deglutition. The mouth is rarely terminal, more frequently at the bottom of a depression, the "vestibule," which may be prolonged into a slender canal, sometimes called the "pharynx" or "oral tube," ciliated as well as provided with a membrane, and extending deep down into the body in many Peritrichaceae.

In Spirostomaceae the "adoral wreath" of membranelles encloses more or less completely an anterior part of the body, the "peristome," within which lies the vestibule. This area may be depressed, truncate, convex or produced into a short obconical disk or into one or more lobes, or finally form a funnel, or a twisted spiral like a paper cone. In most Peritrichaceae a collar-like rim surrounds the peristome, and marks out a gutter from which the vestibule opens; the peristome can be retracted, and the collar close over it. This rim forms a deep permanent spiral funnel in _Spirochona_ (fig. iii. 10).

_Movements of Ciliata._--H. S. Jennings has made a very detailed study of these movements, which resemble those of most minute free-swimming organisms. The following account applies practically to all active "Infusoria" in the widest sense.

The position of the free-swimming Infusoria, like that of Rotifers and other small swimming animals, is with the front end of the body inclined outward to the axis of advance, constantly changing its azimuth while preserving its angle constant or nearly so; if advance were ignored the body would thus rotate so as to trace out a cone, with the hinder end at the apex, and the front describing the base. On any irritation, (1) the motion is arrested, (2) the animal reverses its cilia and swims backwards, (3) it swerves outwards away from the axis so as to make a larger angle with it, and (4) then swims forwards along a new axis of progression, to which it is inclined at the same angle as to the previous axis (figs. vi., vii.). In this way it alters its axis of progression when it finds itself under conditions of stimulation. Thus a _Paramecium_ coming into a region relatively too cold, too hot, or too poor in CO2 or in nutriment, alters its direction of swimming; in this way individuals come to assemble in crowds where food is abundant, or even where there is a slight excess of CO2. This reaction may lead to fatal results; if a solution of corrosive sublimate (Mercuric chloride) diffuses towards the hinder end of the animal faster than it progresses, the stimulus affecting the hinder end first, the axis of progression is altered so as to bring the animal after a few changes into a region where the solution is strong enough to kill it. This "motile reaction," first noted by H. S. Jennings, is the explanation of the general reactions of minute swimming animals to most stimuli of whatever character, including light; the practical working out is, as he terms it, a method of "trial and error." The action, however, of a current of electricity is distinctly and immediately directive; but such a stimulus is not to be found in nature. The motile reaction in the Hypotrichaceae which crawl or dart in a straight line is somewhat different, the swerve being a simple turn to the right hand--i.e. away from the mouth.

Parasitism in the Infusoria is by no means so important as among Flagellates. _Ichthyophthirius_ alone causes epidemics among Fishes, and _Balantidium coli_ has been observed in intestinal disease in Man. The Isotricheae, among Aspirotrichaceae and the Ophryoscolecidae among Heterotrichaceae are found in abundance in the stomachs of Ruminants, and are believed to play a part in the digestion of cellulose, and thus to be rather commensals than parasites. A large number of attached species are epizoic commensals, some very indifferent in choice of their host, others particular not only in the species they infest, but also in the special organs to which they adhere. This is notably the case with the shelled Peritrichaceae. _Lichnophora_ and _Trichodina_ (fig. iii. 8, 9) among Peritrichaceae are capable of locomotion by their permanent posterior wreath or of attaching themselves by the sucker which surrounds it; _Kerona polyporum_ glides habitually over the body of Hydra, as does _Trichodina pediculus_.

Several Suctoria are endoparasitic in Ciliata, and their occurrence led to the view that they represented stages in the life-history of these. Again, we find in the endosarc of certain Ciliates green nucleated cells, which have a cellulose envelope and multiply by fission inside or outside the animal. They are symbiotic Algae, or possibly the resting state of a Chlamydomonadine Flagellate (_Carteria_?), and have received the name _Zoochlorella_. They are of constant occurrence in _Paramecium bursaria_, frequent in _Stentor polymorphus_ and _S. igneus_, and _Ophrydium versatile_, and a few other species, which become infected by swallowing them.

_Classification._

Order I.--Section A.--Gymnostomaceae. Mouth habitually closed; swallowing an active process; cilia (or membranelles) uniform, usually distributed evenly over the body; form variable, sometimes of circular transverse section.

Section B.--Trichostomata. Mouth permanently open against the endosarc, provided with 1 or 2 undulating membranes often prolonged into an inturned pharynx; ingestion by action of oral ciliary apparatus.

Order 2.--Subsection (a).--Aspirotrichaceae. Cilia nearly uniform, not associated with cirrhi or membranelles, nor forming a peristomial wreath. Form usually flattened, mouth unilateral. (N.B.--Orders 1, 2 are sometimes united into the single order Holotrichaceae.)

Subsection (b).--Spirotricha. Wreath of distinct membranelles--or of cilia fused at the base--enclosing a peristomial area and leading into the mouth.

§§ i.--Wreath of separate membranelles.

Order 3.--Heterotrichaceae; body covered with fine uniform cilia, usually circular in transverse section.

Order 4.--Oligotrichaceae; body covering partial or wholly absent; transverse section usually circular.

Order 5.--Hypotrichaceae; body flattened; body cilia represented chiefly by stiff cirrhi in ventral rows, and fine motionless dorsal sensory hairs.

Order 6.--§§ ii.--Peritrichaceae. Peristomial ciliary wreath, spiral, of cilia united at the base; posterior wreath circular of long membranelles; body circular in section, cylindrical, taper, or bell-shaped.

_Illustrative Genera (selected)._

1. Gymnostomaceae. (a) Ciliation general or not confined to one surface. _Coleps_ Ehr., with pellicle locally hardened into mailed plates; _Trachelocerca_ Ehr.; _Prorodon_ Ehr. (fig. i. 6, 7); _Trachelius_ Ehr., with branching endosarc (fig. i. 8); _Lacrymaria_ Ehr. (fig. i. 5), body produced into a long neck with terminal mouth surrounded by offensive trichocysts; _Dileptus_ Duj., of similar form, but anterior process, blind, preoral; _Ichthyophthirius_ Fouquet (fig. i. 9-12), cilia represented by two girdles of membranellae; _Didinium_ St. (fig. i. 13), cilia in tufts, surface with numerous tentacles each with a strong terminal trichocyst; _Actinobolus_ Stein, body with one adoral tentacle; Ileonema Stokes. (b) Cilia confined to dorsal surface. _Chilodon_ Ehr.; _Loxodes_ Ehr., body flattened, ciliated on one side only, endosarc as in _Trachelius_; _Dysteria_ Huxley, with the dorsal surface hardened and hinged along the median line into a bivalve shell, ciliated only on ventral surface, with a protrusible foot-like process, and a complex pharyngeal armature. (c) Cilia restricted to a single equatorial girdle, strong (probably membranelles); _Mesodinium_, mouth 4-lobed.

2. Aspirotrichaceae. _Paramecium_ Hill (fig. ii. 1-3); _Ophryoglena_ Ehr.; _Colpoda_ O. F. Müller; _Colpidium_ St.; _Lembus_ Cohn, with posterior strong cilium for springing; _Leucophrys_ St.; _Urocentrum_ Nitsch, bare, with polar and equatorial zones and a posterior tuft of long cilia; _Opalinopsis_ Foetlinger (fig. i. 1, 2); _Anoplophyra_ St. (fig. i. 3, 4). (The last two parasitic mouthless genera are placed here doubtfully.)

3. Heterotrichaceae. (a) Wreath spiral; _Stentor_ Oken. (fig. iii. 2), oval when free, trumpet-shaped when attached by pseudopods at apex, and then often secreting a gelatinous tube; _Blepharisma_ Perty, sometimes parasitic in Heliozoa; _Spirostomum_ Ehr., cylindrical, up to 1´´ in length; (b) Wreath straight, often oblique; _Nyctotherus_ Leidy, parasitic anus always visible; _Balantidium_ Cl. and L., parasitic (_B. coli_ in man); _Bursaria_, O.F.M., hollowed into an oval pouch, with the wreath inside.

4. Oligotrichaeceae. _Tintinnus_ Schranck (fig. iii. 3); _Trichodinopsis_ Cl. and L.; _Codonella_ Haeck. (fig. iii. 5); _Strombidium_ Cl. and L. (fig. iii. 4), including _Torquatella_ Lank. (fig. iii. 6, 7), according to Bütschli; _Halteria_ Duj., with an equatorial girdle of stiff bristle-like cilia; _Caenomorpha_ Perty (fig. iii. 23, 24); _Ophryoscolex_ St., with straight digestive cavity, and visible anus, parasitic in Ruminants.

5. Hypotrichaceae. _Stylonychia_ Ehr.; _Oxytricha_ Ehr.; _Euplotes_ Ehr. (fig. i. 14, 15); _Kerona_ Ehr. (epizoic on _Hydra_).

6. Peritrichaceae. 1. Peristomial wreath projecting when expanded above a circular contractile collar-like rim.

(a) Fam. Urceolaridae: posterior wreath permanently present around sucker-like base. _Trichodina_ Ehr. (fig. iii. 8, 9), epizoic on Hydra; _Lichnophora_ Cl. and L.; _Cyclochaeta_ Hatchett Jackson; _Gerda_ Cl. and L.; _Scyphidia_ Duj.

(b) Fam. Vorticellidae = Bell Animalcules: posterior wreath temporarily present, shed after fixation.

Subfam. 1. Vorticellinae animals naked. (i.) Solitary; _Vorticella_ Linn. (fig. iii. 11-17), stalk hollow with spiral muscle; _Pyxidium_ S. Kent, stalk non-contractile. (ii.) Forming colonies by budding on a branched stalk: _Carchesium_ Ehr., hollow branches and muscles discontinuous; _Zoothamnium_. Ehr., branched hollow stem and muscle continuous through colony; _Epistylis_ Ehr., stalk rigid--(the animal body in these three genera has the same characters as _Vorticella_)--_Campanella_ Goldf., stalked like _Epistylis_, wreath of many turns (nematocysts sometimes present) (fig. iii. 19); _Opercularia_, stalk of _Epistylis_, disk supporting wreath obconical, collar very high (fig. iii. 20).

Subfam. 2. Vaginicolinae; body enclosed in a firm theca: _Vaginicola_ Lam., shell simple, sessile; _Thuricola_ St. Wright, shell sessile, with a valve opening inwards (fig. iii. 25-26); _Cothurnia_ Ehr., shell stalked, simple; _Pyxicola_ S. Kent, shell stalked, closed by an infraperistomial opercular thickening on the body (fig. iii. 21-22).

Subfam. 3. Shells gelatinous; those of the colony aggregated into a floating spheroidal mass several inches in diameter _Ophrydium_ Bory, _O. versatile_ contains _Zoochlorella_, which secretes oxygen, and the gas-bubbles float the colonies like green lumps of jelly.

2. Peristomial wreath, not protrusible, surrounded by a very high usually spiral collar.

Fam. Spirochonina. _Spirochona_ St. (fig. iii. 10); _Kentrochona_ Rompel; both genera epizoic on gills, &c., of small Crustacea.

SUCTORIA.--These are distinguished from Ciliata by their possession of hollow tentacles (one only in _Rhyncheta_, fig. viii. 1, and _Urnula_) through which they ingest food, and by not possessing cilia, except in the young stage. Fission approximately equal is very rare. Usually it is unequal, or if nearly equal one of the halves remains attached, and the other, as an embryo or gemmule, develops cilia and swims off to attach itself elsewhere; _Sphaerophrya_ (fig. viii. 2-6) alone, often occurring as an endoparasite in Ciliata, may be free, tentaculate and unattached.

The ectosarc is usually provided with a firm pellicle which shows a peculiar radiate "milling" in optical section, so fine that its true nature is difficult to make out; it may be due to radial rods, regularly imbedded, or may be the expression of radial vacuoles. The tentacles vary in many respects, but are always retractile. They are tubes covered by an extension of the pellicle; this is invaginated into the body round the base of the tentacle as a sheath, and then evaginated to form the outer layer of the tentacle itself, over which it is frequently raised into a spiral ridge, which may be traced down into the part sunk and ensheathed within the body: in _Choanophrya_, where the tentacles are largest, the pellicle is further continued into the interior of the tentacle. The tentacles are always pierced by a central canal opening at the apex, which may be (1) enlarged into a terminal capitate sucker, (2) slightly flared, (3) truncate and closed in the resting state to become widely opened into a funnel, or (4) pointed. The tentacles are always capable of being waved from side to side, or turned in a definite direction for the reception or prehension of food; in _Rhyncheta_, the movements of the long single tentacle recall those of an elephant's trunk, only they are more extensive and more varied. In the majority of cases the food consists of Ciliata; and the contents of the prey may be seen passing down the canal of the sucker beyond where it becomes free from the general surface. In _Choanophrya_ the food appears to consist of the débris of the prey of the carnivorous host (_Cyclops_), which is sucked into the wide funnel-shaped mouths of the tentacles--by what mechanism is unknown. The endosarc is full of food-granules and reserve-granules (oil, colouring matter and proteid).

The meganucleus and the micronucleus are both usually single, but in _Dendrosoma_ (fig. viii. 20), of which the body is branched, and the meganucleus with it, there are numerous micronuclei. In most cases the micronucleus has not been recorded, though from the similarity of conjugation, and its presence in most cases of fission and budding that have been accurately described, we may infer that it is always present. In unequal fission the meganucleus sends a process into the bud, while the micronucleus divides as in Ciliata. The bud may be nearly equal to the remains of the original animal, or much smaller, and in that case a depression surrounds it which may deepen so as to form a brood-cavity, either communicating by a mere "birth-pore" with the outside or entirely closed. In some cases the budding is multiple (fig. viii. 8), and a large number of buds are formed and liberated at the same time. In all cases the bud escapes without tentacles, and possesses a characteristic supply of cilia, whose arrangement is constant for the species.

In some cases an adult may withdraw its tentacles, moult its pellicle and develop an equipment of cilia and swim away: this is the case with _Dendrocometes_, parasitic on _Gammarus_, when its host moults.

The numerous species of Suctoria, often so abundant on various species of _Cyclops_, are not found on the other freshwater Copepoda, _Diaptomus_ and _Canthocamptus_, belonging indeed to other families. Again, these Suctoria affect different positions, those found on the antennae not being present on the mouth parts; the ventral part of the thorax has another set; and the inside of the pleural fold another. _Rhyncheta_ occupies the front of the "couplers" or median downgrowths uniting the coxopodites of the swimming legs, and _Choanophrya_ settles in the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth, preferably on the epistoma, labrum and metastomatic region, but also on the adoral appendages and in rare cases extends, when the settlement is extensive, to the bases of the two pairs of antennae; while distinct species of _Podophrya_ settle on the antennae, the front of the thorax and the inside of the pleural folds. _Dendrocometes_ is common on the gills of the freshwater shrimp (Amphipod) _Gammarus_ and _Stylocometes_ on the gills and gill-covers of the Isopod Asellus, the water-slater. The independence of the Acinetaria was threatened by the erroneous view of Stein that they were phases in the life-history of Vorticellidae. Small parasitic forms (_Sphaerophrya_) were also regarded erroneously as the "acinetiform young" of Ciliata. They now must be regarded as an extreme modification of the Protozoon series, in which the differentiation of organs in a unicellular animal reaches its highest point.

_Principal Genera._

1. Unstalked simple forms. _Urnula_ Cl. and L., permanently ciliate; _Rhyncheta_ Zenker (fig. viii. 1), on the limb couplers of _Cyclops_; _Sphaerophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 2-6, 12), endoparasitic in Ciliata and formerly taken for embryos thereof, never attached; _Trichophrya_ Cl. and L. (fig. viii. 7), of similar habits, but temporarily attached, sessile.

2. Stalked simple forms; _Podophrya_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 10, 13, 16), tentacles all knobbed or flared; _Ephelota_ Strethill Wright, tentacles all pointed; _Hemiophrya_ S. Kent (fig. viii. 8, 9, 14), tentacles of both kinds; _Choanophrya_ Hartog, tentacles thick, truncate, very retractile, when expanded opening into funnels for aspiration of floating prey, never for attachment--epizoic on antero-ventral parts of _Cyclops_.

3. Cupped forms; _Solenophrya_ Cl. and L., cup sessile; _Acineta_ Ehr., cup stalked; _Acinetopsis_ Bütschli, like _Acineta_, but the cup flattened, closed distally with only slit-like apertures ("pylomes") for the bundles of tentacles; _Podocyathus_, like _Acineta_, but with pointed as well as knobbed tentacles.

4. Tentacles in bundles at the tips of one or more processes or branches of the body. _Ophryodendron_ Cl. and L., tentaculiferous process single (fig. viii. 21); _Dendrocometes_ Stein (fig. viii. 15), body rounded, processes repeatedly branched, epizoic on gills of _Gammarus pulex_; _Dendrosoma_ Ehr. (fig. viii. 17-20), body freely branched from a basal attached stolon, meganucleus branching with the body.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) Infusoria in the widest sense: C. E. Ehrenberg. _Die Infusionstierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (1838); F. Dujardin, _Zoophytes infusoires_ (1841). (b) Infusoria, including Mastigophora: M. Perty, _Zur Kenntniss Kleinster Lebensformen_ (1852); E. Claparède and J. Lachmann, _Études sur les infusoires_ _et les Rhizopodes_ (1858-1861); F. von Stein, _Der Organismus der Infusionstiere_ (1859-1883); W. Saville Kent, _A Manual of the Infusoria_, including a description of all known Flagellate, Ciliate and Tentaculiferous Protozoa (1880-1882). (c) Infusoria, as limited by Bütschli. O. Bütschli, _Bronn's Tierreich_, vol. i. _Protozoa_, pt. 3 _Infusoria_ (1887-1889), the most complete work existing, but without specific diagnoses; S. J. Hickson, "The Infusoria" in Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 2 (1903), a general account, well illustrated, with a diagnosis of all genera. See also Delage and Hérouard, _Traité de Zoologie concrète_, vol. i. "La Cellule et les Protozoaires" (1896), with an illustrated conspectus of the genera; E. Maupas, "Recherches expérimentales sur la multiplication des Infusoires ciliés," _Arch. zool. exp._ vi. (1888); and "Le Rajeunissement karyogomique chez les Ciliés," _ib._ vii. (1889); R. Sand, _Étude monographique sur le groupe des Infusoires tentaculifères_ (Suctoria), (1899), with diagnoses of species; A. Lang, _Lehrb. der vergleich, Anatomie der wirbellosen Tiere_, vol. i. "Protozoa" (1901) (a view of comparative anatomy, physiology and bionomics); Marcus Hartog, "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_, i. (1906); H. S. Jennings, _Contributions to the Study of the Behaviour of Lower Organisms_ (1904); G. N. Calkins, "Studies on the Life History of Protozoa" (Life cycle of Paramecium), I. _Arch. Entw._ xv. (1902), II. _Arch. Prot._ i. (1902), III. _Biol. Bull._ iii. (1902), IV. _J. Exp. Zool._ i. (1904). Numerous papers dealing especially with advances in structural knowledge have appeared in the _Archiv für Protistenkunde_, founded by F. Schaudinn in 1902. (M. Ha.)

INGEBORG [INGEBURGE, INGELBURGE, INGELBORG, ISEMBURGE, Dan. INGIBJÖRG] (c. 1176-1237 or 1238), queen of France, was the daughter of Valdemar I., king of Denmark. She married in 1193 Philip II. Augustus, king of France, but on the day after his marriage the king took a sudden aversion to her, and wished to obtain a separation. During almost twenty years he strained every effort to obtain from the church the declaration of nullity of his marriage. The council of Compiègne acceded to his wish on the 5th of November 1193, but the popes Celestine III. and Innocent III. successively took up the defence of the unfortunate queen. Philip, having married Agnes of Meran in June 1196, was excommunicated, and as he remained obdurate, the kingdom was placed under an interdict. Agnes was finally sent away, but Ingeborg, shut up in the château of Étampes, had to undergo all sorts of privations and vexations. The king attempted to induce her to solicit a divorce herself, or to enter a convent. At last, however (1213), hoping perhaps to justify by his wife's claims his pretensions to England, Philip was reconciled with Ingeborg, whose life from henceforth was devoted to religion. She survived him more than fourteen years, passing the greater part of the time in the priory of St Jean at Corbeil, which she had founded.

See Robert Davidson, _Philip II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg_ (Stuttgart, 1888); and E. Michael, "Zur Geschichte der Königin Ingelborg" in the _Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie_ (1890).

INGELHEIM (Ober-Ingelheim and Nieder-Ingelheim), the name of two contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Selz, near its confluence with the Rhine, 9 m. W.N.W. of Mainz on the railway to Coblenz. Ober-Ingelheim, formerly an imperial town, is still surrounded by walls. It has an Evangelical church with painted windows representing scenes in the life of Charlemagne, a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue. Its chief industry is the manufacture of red wine. Pop. (1900) 3402. Nieder-Ingelheim has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and, in addition to wine, manufactories of paper, chemicals, cement and malt. Pop. 3435.

Nieder-Ingelheim is, according to one tradition, the birthplace of Charlemagne, and it possesses the ruins of an old palace built by that emperor between 768 and 774. The building contained one hundred marble pillars, and was also adorned with sculptures and mosaics sent from Ravenna by Pope Adrian I. It was extended by Frederick Barbarossa, and was burned down in 1270, being restored by the emperor Charles IV. in 1354. Having passed into the possession of the elector palatine of the Rhine, the building suffered much damage during a war in 1462, the Thirty Years' War, and the French invasion in 1689. Only few remains of it are now standing; but of the pillars, several are in Paris, one is in the museum at Wiesbaden and another on the Schillerplatz in Mainz. Inside its boundaries there is the restored Remigius Kirche, apparently dating from the time of Frederick I.

See Hilz, _Der Reichspalast zu Ingelheim_ (Ober-Ingelheim, 1868); and Clemen, "Der Karolingische Kaiserpalast zu Ingelheim," in _Westdeutsche Zeitschrift_, Band ix. (Trier, 1890).

INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897), English poet and novelist, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 17th of March 1820. She was the daughter of William Ingelow, a banker of that town. As a girl she contributed verses and tales to the magazines under the pseudonym of "Orris," but her first (anonymous) volume, _A Rhyming Chronicle of Incidents and Feelings_, did not appear until her thirtieth year. This Tennyson said had "very charming things" in it, and he declared he should "like to know" the author, who was later admitted to his friendship. Miss Ingelow followed this book of verse in 1851 with a story, _Allerton and Dreux_, but it was the publication of her _Poems_ in 1863 which suddenly raised her to the rank of a popular writer. They ran rapidly through numerous editions, were set to music, and sung in every drawing-room, and in America obtained an even greater hold upon public estimation. In 1867 she published _The Story of Doom and other Poems_, and then gave up verse for a while and became industrious as a novelist. _Off the Skelligs_ appeared in 1872, _Fated to be Free_ in 1873, _Sarah de Berenger_ in 1880, and _John Jerome_ in 1886. She also wrote _Studies for Stories_ (1864), _Stories told to a Child_ (1865), _Mopsa the Fairy_ (1869), and other excellent stories for children. Her third series of _Poems_ was published in 1885. She resided for the last years of her life in Kensington, and somewhat outlived her popularity as a poet. She died on the 20th of July 1897. Her poems, which were collected in one volume in 1898, have often the genuine ballad note, and as a writer of songs she was exceedingly successful. "Sailing beyond Seas" and "When Sparrows build" in _Supper at the Mill_ were deservedly among the most popular songs of the day; but they share, with the rest of her work, the faults of affectation and stilted phraseology. Her best-known poem was the "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," which reached the highest level of excellence. The blemishes of her style were cleverly indicated in a well-known parody of Calverley's; a false archaism and a deliberate assumption of unfamiliar and unnecessary synonyms for simple objects were among the most vicious of her mannerisms. She wrote, however, in verse with a sweetness which her sentiment and her heart inspired, and in prose she displayed feeling for character and the gift of narrative; while a delicate underlying tenderness is never wanting in either medium to her sometimes tortured expression. Miss Ingelow was a woman of frank and hospitable manners, with a look of the Lady Bountiful of a country parish. She had nothing of the professional authoress or the "literary lady" about her, and, as with characteristic simplicity she was accustomed to say, was no great reader. Her temperament was rather that of the improvisatore than of the professional author or artist.

INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), Danish poet and novelist, was born at Torkildstrup, in the island of Falster, on the 28th of May 1789. He was educated at the grammar school at Slagelse, and entered the university of Copenhagen in 1806. His studies were interrupted by the English invasion, and on the first night of the bombardment of the city Ingemann stood with the young poet Blicher on the walls, while the shells whistled past them, and comrades were killed on either side. All his early and unpublished writings were destroyed when the English burned the town. In 1811 he published his first volume of poems, and in 1812 his second, followed in 1813 by a book of lyrics entitled _Procne_ and in 1814 the verse romance, _The Black Knights_. In 1815 he published two tragedies, _Masaniello and Blanca_, followed by _The Voice in the Desert_, _The Shepherd of Tolosa_, and other romantic plays. After a variety of publications, all very successful, he travelled in 1818 to Italy. At Rome he wrote _The Liberation of Tasso_, and returned in 1819 to Copenhagen. In 1820 he began to display his real power in a volume of delightful tales. In 1821 his dramatic career closed with the production of an unsuccessful comedy, _Magnetism in a Barber's Shop_. In 1822 the poet was nominated lector in Danish language and literature at Sorö College, and he now married. _Valdemar the Great and his Men_, an historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years were occupied with his best and most durable work, his four great national and historical novels of _Valdemar Seier_, 1826; _Erik Menved's Childhood_, 1828; _King Erik_, 1833; and _Prince Otto of Denmark_, 1835. He then returned to epic poetry in _Queen Margaret_, 1836, and in a cycle of romances, _Holger Danske_, 1837. His later writings consist of religious and sentimental lyrics, epic poems, novels, short stories in prose, and fairy tales. His last publication was _The Apple of Gold_, 1856. In 1846 Ingemann was nominated director of Sorö College, a post from which he retired in 1849. He died on the 24th of February 1862. Ingemann enjoyed during his lifetime a popularity unapproached even by that of Öhlenschläger. His boundless facility and fecundity, his sentimentality, his religious melancholy, his direct appeal to the domestic affections, gave him instant access to the ear of the public. His novels are better than his poems; of the former the best are those which are directly modelled on the manner of Sir Walter Scott. As a dramatist he outlived his reputation, and his unwieldy epics are now little read.

Ingemann's works were collected in 41 vols. at Copenhagen (1843-1865). His autobiography was edited by Galskjöt in 1862; his correspondence by V. Heise (1879-1881); and his letters to Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig (1882). See also H. Schwanenflügel, _Ingemanns Liv og Digtning_ (1886); and Georg Brandes, _Essays_ (1889).

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN (1833-1899), American lawyer and lecturer, was born in Dresden, New York, on the 11th of August 1833. His father was a Congregational minister, who removed to Wisconsin in 1843 and to Illinois in 1845. Robert, who had received a good common-school education, was admitted to the bar in 1854, and practised law with success in Illinois. Late in 1861, during the Civil War, he organized a cavalry regiment, of which he was colonel, until captured at Lexington, Tennessee, on the 18th of December 1862, by the Confederate cavalry under General N. B. Forrest. He was paroled, waited in vain to be exchanged, and in June 1863 resigned from the service. He was attorney-general of Illinois in 1867-1869, and in 1876 his speech in the Republican National Convention, naming James G. Blaine for the Presidential candidate, won him a national reputation as a public speaker. As a lawyer he distinguished himself particularly as counsel for the defendants in the "Star-Route Fraud" trials. He was most widely known, however, for his public lectures attacking the Bible, and his anti-Christian views were an obstacle to his political advancement. Ingersoll was an eloquent rhetorician rather than a logical reasoner. He died at Dobbs Ferry, N.Y., on the 21st of July 1899.

His principal lectures and speeches were published under the titles: _The Gods and Other Lectures_ (1876); _Some Mistakes of Moses_ (1879); _Prose Poems_ (1884); _Great Speeches_ (1887). His lectures, entitled "The Bible," "Ghosts," and "Foundations of Faith," attracted particular attention. His complete works were published in 12 vols. in New York in 1900.

INGERSOLL, a town and port of entry of Oxford county, Ontario, Canada, 19 m. E. of London, on the river Thames and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901) 4572. The principal manufactures are agricultural implements, furniture, pianos and screws. There is a large export trade in cheese and farm produce.

INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL (1796-1863), American artist, was born in Dublin, Ireland. He was a pupil of the Dublin Academy, emigrated to the United States at the age of twenty-one, and immediately became identified with the art life of that country, being one of the founders of the National Academy of New York in 1826 and its vice-president from 1845 to 1850. He painted portraits of the reigning beauties of New York and acquired considerable reputation, continuing to practise his profession until his death, in New York, on the 10th of December 1863.

INGHIRAMI, the name of an Italian noble family of Volterra. The following are its most important members:

TOMMASO INGHIRAMI (1470-1516), a humanist, is best known for his Latin orations, seven of which were published in 1777. His success in the part of Phaedra in a presentation of Seneca's _Hippolytus_ (or _Phaedra_) led to his being generally known as _Fedra_. He received high honours from Alexander VI., Leo X. and Maximilian I.

FRANCESCO INGHIRAMI (1772-1846), a distinguished archaeologist, fought in the French wars (1799), and afterwards devoted himself especially to the study of Etruscan antiquities. He founded a college at Fiesole and collected, though without critical insight, a mass of valuable material in his _Monumenti etruschi_ (10 vols., 1820-1827), _Galleria omerica_ (3 vols., 1829-1851), _Pitture di vasi fittili_ (1831-1837), _Museo etrusco chiusino_ (2 vols., 1833), and the incomplete _Storia della Toscana_ (1841-1845): these works were elaborately illustrated.

His brother, GIOVANNI INGHIRAMI (1779-1851), was an astronomer of repute. He was professor of astronomy at the Institute founded by Ximenes in Florence and published beside a number of text-books _Effemeridi dell' occultazione delle piccole stelle sotto la luna_ (1809-1830); _Effemeridi di Venese e Giove all' uso de' naviganti_ (1821-1824); _Tavole astronomichi universali portatili_ (1811); _Base trigonometrica misurata in Toscana_ (1818); _Carta topografica e geometrica della Toscana_ (1830).

INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD (1823-1886), English Shakespearian scholar, was born at Edgbaston, Birmingham, on the 29th of October 1823, the son of a solicitor. After taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge, he entered his father's office, eventually becoming a partner. In 1859 he abandoned the law and left Birmingham to live near London. He contributed articles on literary, scientific and other subjects to various magazines, but from 1874 devoted himself almost entirely to Shakespearian literature. His first work in this field had been an exposure of the manipulations of John Payne Collier, entitled _The Shakespeare Fabrications_ (1859); his work as a commentator began with _The Still Lion_ (1874), enlarged in the following year into _Shakespeare Hermeneutics_. In this book many of the then existing difficulties of Shakespeare's text were explained. In the same year (1875) he published the _Centurie of Prayse_, a collection of references to Shakespeare and his works between 1592 and 1692. His _Shakespeare: the Man and the Book_ was published in 1877-1881; he also wrote _Shakespeare's Bones_ (1882), in which he suggested the disinterment of Shakespeare's bones and an examination of his skull. This suggestion, though not due to vulgar curiosity, was regarded, however, by public opinion as sacrilegious. He died on the 26th of September 1886, at Ilford, Essex. Although Ingleby's reputation now rests solely on his works on Shakespeare, he wrote on many other subjects. He was the author of hand-books on metaphysic and logic, and made some contributions to the study of natural science. He was at one time vice-president of the New Shakspere Society, and one of the original trustees of the "Birthplace."

INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1820-1894), British admiral and explorer, was born at Cheltenham, on the 27th of March 1820, and educated at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth. His father was Rear-Admiral Samuel Hood Inglefield (1783-1848), and his grandfather Captain John Nicholson Inglefield (1748-1828), who served with Lord Hood against the French. The boy went to sea when fourteen, took part in the naval operations on the Syrian Coast in 1840, and in 1845 was promoted to the rank of commander for gallant conduct at Obligado. In 1852 he commanded Lady Franklin's yacht "Isabel" on her cruise to Smith Sound, and his narrative of the expedition was published under the title of _A Summer Search for Sir John Franklin_ (1853). He received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society on his return and was given command of the "Phoenix," in which he made three trips to the Arctic, bringing home part of the Belcher Arctic expedition in 1854. In that year he was again sent out on the last attempt made by the Admirally to find Sir John Franklin.

In the Crimean War Captain Inglefield took part in the siege of Sevastopol. He was knighted in 1877, and nominated a Knight Commander of the Bath ten years later. He was promoted admiral in 1879. Besides being an excellent marine artist, he was the inventor of the hydraulic steering gear and the Inglefield anchor. He died on the 5th of September 1894. His son, Captain Edward Fitzmaurice Inglefield (b. 1861), became secretary of Lloyds in 1906. Sir Edward Inglefield's brother, Rear-Admiral V. O. Inglefield, was the father of Rear-Admiral Frederick Samuel Inglefield (b. 1854), director of naval intelligence in 1902-1904, and of two other sons distinguished as soldiers.

INGLE-NOOK (from Lat. _igniculus_, dim. of _ignis_, fire), a corner or seat by the fireside, within the chimney-breast. The open Tudor or Jacobean fire-place was often wide enough to admit of a wooden settle being placed at each end of the embrasure of which it occupied the centre, and yet far enough away not to be inconveniently hot. This was one of the means by which the builder sought to avoid the draughts which must have been extremely frequent in old houses. English literature is full of references, appreciatory or regretful, to the cosy ingle-nook that was killed by the adoption of small grates. Modern English and American architects are, however, fond of devising them in houses designed on ancient models, and owners of old buildings frequently remove the modern grates and restore the original arrangement.

INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT (1814-1862), British major-general, was born in Nova Scotia on the 15th of November 1814. His father was the third, and his grandfather the first, bishop of that colony. In 1833 he joined the 32nd Foot, in which all his regimental service was passed. In 1837 he saw active service in Canada, and in 1848-1849 in the Punjab, being in command at the storming of Mooltan and at the battle of Gujrat. In 1857, on the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny, he was in command of his regiment at Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence being mortally wounded during the siege of the residency, Inglis took command of the garrison, and maintained a successful defence for 87 days against an overwhelming force. He was promoted to major-general and made K.C.B. After further active service in India, he was, in 1860, given command of the British troops in the Ionian Islands. He died at Hamburg on the 27th of September 1862.

INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1764-1835), British soldier, was born in 1764, a member of an old Roxburghshire family. He entered the army in 1781. After ten years in America he served in Flanders, and in 1796 took part in the capture of St Lucia. In 1809 he commanded a brigade in the Peninsula, taking part in the battle of Busaco (1810) and the first siege of Badajoz. At Albuera his regiment, the 57th, occupied a most important position, and was exposed to a deadly fire. "Die hard! Fifty-Seventh," cried Inglis, "Die hard!" The regiment's answer has gone down to history. Out of a total strength of 579, 23 officers and 415 rank and file were killed and wounded. Inglis himself was wounded. On recovering, he saw further Peninsular service. In two engagements his horse was shot under him. His services were rewarded by the thanks of parliament and in 1825 he became lieutenant-general, and was made a K.C.B. After holding the governorships of Kinsale and Cork, he was, in 1830, appointed colonel of the 57th. He died at Ramsgate on the 29th of November 1835.

INGOLSTADT, a fortified town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the left bank of the Danube at its confluence with the Schutter, 52 m. north of Munich, at the junction of the main lines of railway, Munich, Bamberg and Regensburg-Augsburg. Pop. (1900) 22,207. The principal buildings are the old palace of the dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, now used as an arsenal; the new palace on the Danube; the remains of the earliest Jesuits' college in Germany, founded in 1555; the former university buildings, now a school; the theatre; the large Gothic Frauenkirche, founded in 1425, with two massive towers, containing several interesting monuments, among them the tomb of Dr Eck, Luther's opponent; the Franciscan convent and nunnery; and several other churches and hospitals. Ingolstadt possesses several technical and other schools. In 1472 a university was founded in the town by the Bavarian duke, Louis the Rich, which at the end of the 16th century was attended by 4000 students. In 1800 it was removed to Landshut, whence it was transferred to Munich in 1826. Its newer public buildings include an Evangelical church, a civil hospital, an arsenal and an orphanage. The industries are cannon-founding, manufacture of gunpowder and cloth, and brewing.

Ingolstadt, known as _Aureatum_ or _Chrysopolis_, was a royal villa in the beginning of the 9th century, and received its charter of civic incorporation before 1255. After that date it grew in importance, and became the capital of a dukedom which merged in that of Bavaria-Munich. The fortifications, erected in 1539, were put to the test during the contests of the Reformation period and in the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus vainly besieged Ingolstadt in 1632, when Tilly, to whom there is a monument in the Frauenkirche, lay mortally wounded within the walls. In the War of the Spanish Succession it was besieged by the margrave of Baden in 1704. In 1743 it was surrendered by the French to the Austrians, and in 1800, after three months' siege, the French, under General Moreau, took the town, and dismantled the fortifications. They were rebuilt on a much larger scale under King Louis I., and since 1870 Ingolstadt has ranked as a fortress of the first class. In 1872 even more important fortifications were constructed, which include têtes-de-pont with round towers of massive masonry, and the redoubt Tilly on the right bank of the river.

See Gerstner, _Geschichte der Stadt Ingolstadt_ (Munich, 1853); and Prantl, _Geschichte der Ludwig Maximilians Universität_ (Munich, 1872).

INGOT, originally a mould for the casting of metals, but now a mass of metal cast in a mould, and particularly the small bars of the precious metals, cast in the shape of an oblong brick or wedge with slightly sloping sides, in which form gold and silver are handled as bullion at the Bank of England and the Mint. Ingots of varying sizes and shapes are cast of other metals, and "ingot-steel" and "ingot-iron" are technical terms in the manufacture of iron and steel (see IRON AND STEEL). The word is obscure in origin. It occurs in Chaucer ("The Canon's Yeoman's Tale") as a term of alchemy, in the original sense of a mould for casting metal, and, as the _New English Dictionary_ points out, an English origin for such a term is unlikely. It may, however, be derived from _in_ and the O. Eng. _géotan_ to pour; cf. Ger. _giessen_ and _Einguss_, a mould. The Fr. _lingot_, with the second English meaning only, has been taken as the origin of "ingot" and derived from the Lat. _lingua_, tongue--with a supposed reference to the shape. This derivation is wrong, and French etymologists have now accepted the English origin for the word, _lingot_ having coalesced from _l'ingot_.

INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), English antiquarian and Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born near Salisbury on the 21st of December 1774. He was educated at Warminster and Winchester schools and at Trinity College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1803. From 1803 to 1808 he was Rawlinsonian professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, and in 1824 was made President of Trinity College and D.D. His time, however, was principally spent in antiquarian research, and especially in the study of Anglo-Saxon, in which field he was the pre-eminent scholar of his time. He published in 1823 an edition of the _Saxon Chronicle_. His other works include admirable _Memorials of Oxford_ (1832-1837), and _The Church in the Middle Centuries_ (1842). He died on the 5th of September 1850.

INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907), Irish scholar and economist, was born in Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the 7th of July 1823. Educated at Newry School and Trinity College, Dublin, he was elected a fellow of his college in 1846. He held the professorship of Oratory and English Literature in Dublin University from 1852 to 1866, when he became regius professor of Greek. In 1879 he was appointed librarian. Ingram was remarkable for his versatility. In his undergraduate days he had written the well-known poem "Who fears to speak of Ninety-eight?" and his _Sonnets and other Poems_ (1900) reveal the poetic sense. He contributed many important papers to mathematical societies on geometrical analysis, and did much useful work in advancing the science of classical etymology, notably in his _Greek and Latin Etymology in England_, _The Etymology of Liddell and Scott_. His philosophical works include _Outlines of the History of Religion_ (1900), _Human Nature and Morals according to A. Comte_ (1901), _Practical Morals_ (1904), and the _Final Transition_ (1905). He contributed to the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ an historical and biographical article on political economy, which was translated into nearly every European language. His _History of Slavery and Serfdom_ was also written for the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. He died in Dublin on the 18th of May 1907.

INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867), French painter, was born at Montauban, on the 29th of August 1780. His father, for whom he entertained the most tender and respectful affection, has described himself as _sculpteur en plâtre_; he was, however, equally ready to execute every other kind of decorative work, and now and again eked out his living by taking portraits or obtained an engagement as a violin-player. He brought up his son to command the same varied resources, but in consequence of certain early successes--the lad's performance of a concerto of Viotti's was applauded at the theatre of Toulouse--his attention was directed chiefly to the study of music. At Toulouse, to which place his father had removed from Montauban in 1792, Ingres had, however, received lessons from Joseph Roques, a painter whom he quitted at the end of a few months to become a pupil of M. Vigan, professor at the academy of fine arts in the same town. From Vigan, Ingres, whose vocation became day by day more distinctly evident, passed to M. Briant, a landscape-painter who insisted that his pupil was specially gifted by nature to follow the same line as himself. For a while Ingres obeyed, but he had been thoroughly aroused and enlightened as to his own objects and desires by the sight of a copy of Raphael's "Madonna della Sedia," and, having ended his connexion with Briant, he started for Paris, where he arrived about the close of 1796. He was then admitted to the studio of David, for whose lofty standard and severe principles he always retained a profound appreciation. Ingres, after four years of devoted study, during which (1800) he obtained the second place in the yearly competition, finally carried off the Grand Prix (1801). The work thus rewarded--the "Ambassadors of Agamemnon in the Tent of Achilles" (École des Beaux Arts)--was admired by Flaxman so much as to give umbrage to David, and was succeeded in the following year (1802) by the execution of a "Girl after Bathing," and a woman's portrait; in 1804 Ingres exhibited "Portrait of the First Consul" (Musée de Liége), and portraits of his father and himself; these were followed in 1806 by "Portrait of the Emperor" (Invalides), and portraits of M, Mme, and Mlle Rivière (the first two now in the Louvre). These and various minor works were executed in Paris (for it was not until 1809 that the state of public affairs admitted of the re-establishment of the Academy of France at Rome), and they produced a disturbing impression on the public. It was clear that the artist was some one who must be counted with; his talent, the purity of his line, and his power of literal rendering were generally acknowledged; but he was reproached with a desire to be singular and extraordinary. "Ingres," writes Frau v. Hastfer (_Leben und Kunst in Paris_, 1806) "wird nach Italien gehen, und dort wird er vielleicht vergessen dass er zu etwas Grossem geboren ist, und wird eben darum ein hohes Ziel erreichen." In this spirit, also, Chaussard violently attacked his "Portrait of the Emperor" (_Pausanias Français_, 1806), nor did the portraits of the Rivière family escape. The points on which Chaussard justly lays stress are the strange discordances of colour--such as the blue of the cushion against which Mme Rivière leans, and the want of the relief and warmth of life, but he omits to touch on that grasp of his subject as a whole, shown in the portraits of both husband and wife, which already evidences the strength and sincerity of the passionless point of view which marks all Ingres's best productions. The very year after his arrival in Rome (1808) Ingres produced "Oedipus and the Sphinx" (Louvre; lithographed by Sudre, engraved by Gaillard), a work which proved him in the full possession of his mature powers, and began the "Venus Anadyomene" (Collection Rieset; engraving by Pollet), completed forty years later, and exhibited in 1855. These works were followed by some of his best portraits, that of M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme la Comtesse de Tournon, mother of the prefect of the department of the Tiber; in 1811 he finished "Jupiter and Thetis," an immense canvas now in the Musée of Aix; in 1812 "Romulus and Acron" (École des Beaux Arts), and "Virgil reading the _Aeneid_"--a composition very different from the version of it which has become popular through the engraving executed by Pradier in 1832. The original work, executed for a bedchamber in the Villa Aldobrandini-Miollis, contained neither the figures of Maecenas and Agrippa nor the statue of Marcellus; and Ingres, who had obtained possession of it during his second stay in Rome, intended to complete it with the additions made for engraving. But he never got beyond the stage of preparation, and the picture left by him, together with various other studies and sketches, to the Musée of his native town, remains half destroyed by the process meant for its regeneration. The "Virgil" was followed by the "Betrothal of Raphael," a small painting, now lost, executed for Queen Caroline of Naples; "Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV." (Collection Deymié; Montauban), exhibited at the Salon of 1814, together with the "Chapelle Sistine" (Collection Legentil; lithographed by Sudre), and the "Grande Odalisque" (Collection Seillière; lithographed by Sudre). In 1815 Ingres executed "Raphael and the Fornarina" (Collection Mme N. de Rothschild; engraved by Pradier); in 1816 "Aretin" and the "Envoy of Charles V." (Collection Schroth), and "Aretin and Tintoret" (Collection Schroth); in 1817 the "Death of Leonardo" (engraved by Richomme) and "Henry IV. Playing with his Children" (engraved by Richomme), both of which works were commissions from M. le Comte de Blacas, then ambassador of France at the Vatican. "Roger and Angelique" (Louvre; lithographed by Sudre), and "Francesca di Rimini" (Musée of Angers; lithographed by Aubry Lecomte), were completed in 1819, and followed in 1820 by "Christ giving the Keys to Peter" (Louvre). In 1815, also, Ingres had made many projects for treating a subject from the life of the celebrated duke of Alva, a commission from the family, but a loathing for "cet horrible homme" grew upon him, and finally he abandoned the task and entered in his diary--"J'étais forcé par la nécessité de peindre un pareil tableau; Dieu a voulu qu'il restât en ébauche." During all these years Ingres's reputation in France did not increase. The interest which his "Chapelle Sistine" had aroused at the Salon of 1814 soon died away; not only was the public indifferent, but amongst his brother artists Ingres found scant recognition. The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade, and strangely enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guérin--the leaders of that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his long life, always expressed the deepest abhorrence--alone seem to have been sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty, too, was hard to bear. In 1813 Ingres had married; his marriage had been arranged for him with a young woman who came in a business-like way from Montauban, on the strength of the representations of her friends in Rome. Mme Ingres speedily acquired a faith in her husband which enabled her to combat with heroic courage and patience the difficulties which beset their common existence, and which were increased by their removal to Florence. There Bartolini, an old friend, had hoped that Ingres might have materially bettered his position, and that he might have aroused the Florentine school--a weak offshoot from that of David--to a sense of its own shortcomings. These expectations were disappointed. The good offices of Bartolini, and of one or two other persons, could only alleviate the miseries of this stay in a town where Ingres was all but deprived of the means of gaining daily bread by the making of those small portraits for the execution of which, in Rome, his pencil had been constantly in request. Before his departure he had, however, been commissioned to paint for M. de Pastoret the "Entry of Charles V. into Paris," and M. de Pastoret now obtained an order for Ingres from the Administration of Fine Arts; he was directed to treat the "Voeu de Louis XIII." for the cathedral of Montauban. This work, exhibited at the Salon of 1824, met with universal approbation: even those sworn to observe the unadulterated precepts of David found only admiration for the "Voeu de Louis XIII." On his return Ingres was received at Montauban with enthusiastic homage, and found himself celebrated throughout France. In the following year (1825) he was elected to the Institute, and his fame was further extended in 1826 by the publication of Sudre's lithograph of the "Grande Odalisque," which, having been scorned by artists and critics alike in 1819, now became widely popular. A second commission from the government called forth the "Apotheosis of Homer," which, replaced by a copy in the decoration of the ceiling for which it was designed, now hangs in the galleries of the second storey of the Louvre. From this date up till 1834 the studio of Ingres was thronged, as once had been thronged the studio of David, and he was a recognized _chef d'école_. Whilst he taught with despotic authority and admirable wisdom, he steadily worked; and when in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the "Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien" (cathedral of Autun; lithographed by Trichot-Garneri), it was with angry disgust and resentment that he found his work received with the same doubt and indifference, if not the same hostility, as had met his earlier ventures. The suffrages of his pupils, and of one or two men--like Decamps--of undoubted ability, could not soften the sense of injury. Ingres resolved to work no longer for the public, and gladly availed himself of the opportunity to return to Rome, as director of the École de France, in the room of Horace Vernet. There he executed "La Vierge à l'Hostie" (Imperial collections, St Petersburg), "Stratonice," "Portrait of Cherubini" (Louvre), and the "Petite Odalisque" for M. Marcotte, the faithful admirer for whom, in 1814, Ingres had painted the "Chapelle Sistine." The "Stratonice," executed for the duke of Orleans, had been exhibited at the Palais Royal for several days after its arrival in France, and the beauty of the composition produced so favourable an impression that, on his return to Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received with all the deference that he felt to be his due. A portrait of the purchaser of "Stratonice" was one of the first works executed after his return; and Ingres shortly afterwards began the decorations of the great hall in the Château de Dampierre, which, unfortunately for the reputation of the painter, were begun with an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres, having been further discouraged by the loss of his faithful and courageous wife, abandoned all hope of their completion, and the contract with the duc de Luynes was finally cancelled. A minor work, "Jupiter and Antiope," marks the year 1851, but Ingres's next considerable undertaking (1853) was the "Apotheosis of Napoleon I.," painted for the ceiling of a hall in the Hôtel de Ville; "Jeanne d'Arc" (Louvre) appeared in 1854; and in 1855 Ingres consented to rescind the resolution, more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the International Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works. Prince Napoleon, president of the jury, proposed an exceptional recompense for their author, and obtained from the emperor Ingres's nomination as grand officer of the Legion of Honour. With renewed confidence Ingres now took up and completed one of his most charming productions--"La Source" (Louvre), a figure of which he had painted the torso in 1823, and which seen with other works in London (1862) there renewed the general sentiment of admiration, and procured him, from the imperial government, the dignity of senator. After the completion of "La Source," the principal works produced by Ingres were with one or two exceptions ("Molière" and "Louis XIV.," presented to the Théâtre Français, 1858; "Le Bain Turc," 1859), of a religious character; "La Vierge de l'Adoption," 1858 (painted for Mlle Roland-Gosselin), was followed by "La Vierge Couronnée" (painted for Mme la Baronne de Larinthie) and "La Vierge aux Enfans" (Collection Blanc); in 1859 these were followed by repetitions of "La Vierge à l'Hostie"; and in 1862 Ingres completed "Christ and the Doctors" (Musée Montauban), a work commissioned many years before by Queen Marie Amélie for the chapel of Bizy.

On the 17th of January 1867 Ingres died in his eighty-eighth year, having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to the last. For a moment only--at the time of the execution of the "Bain Turc," which Prince Napoleon was fain to exchange for an early portrait of the master by himself--Ingres's powers had seemed to fail, but he recovered, and showed in his last years the vigour which marked his early maturity. It is, however, to be noted that the "Saint Symphorien" exhibited in 1834 closes the list of the works on which his reputation will chiefly rest; for "La Source," which at first sight seems to be an exception, was painted, all but the head and the extremities, in 1821; and from those who knew the work well in its incomplete state we learn that the after-painting, necessary to fuse new and old, lacked the vigour, the precision, and the something like touch which distinguished the original execution of the torso. Touch was not, indeed, at any time a means of expression on which Ingres seriously calculated; his constant employment of local tint, in mass but faintly modelled in light by half tones, forbade recourse to the shifting effects of colour and light on which the Romantic school depended in indicating those fleeting aspects of things which they rejoiced to put on canvas;--their methods would have disturbed the calculations of an art wholly based on form and line. Except in his "Sistine Chapel," and one or two slighter pieces, Ingres kept himself free from any preoccupation as to depth and force of colour and tone; driven, probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement into an attitude of stricter protest, "ce que l'on sait" he would repeat, "il faut le savoir l'épée à la main." Ingres left himself therefore, in dealing with crowded compositions, such as the "Apotheosis of Homer" and the "Martyrdom of Saint Symphorien," without the means of producing the necessary unity of effect which had been employed in due measure--as the Stanze of the Vatican bear witness--by the very master whom he most deeply reverenced. Thus it came to pass that in subjects of one or two figures Ingres showed to the greatest advantage: in "Oedipus," in the "Girl after Bathing," the "Odalisque" and "La Source"--subjects only animated by the consciousness of perfect physical well-being--we find Ingres at his best. One hesitates to put "Roger and Angelique" upon this list, for though the female figure shows the finest qualities of Ingres's work,--deep study of nature in her purest forms, perfect sincerity of intention and power of mastering an ideal conception--yet side by side with these the effigy of Roger on his hippogriff bears witness that from the passionless point of view, which was Ingres's birthright, the weird creatures of the fancy cannot be seen.

A graphic account of "Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux," and a complete catalogue of his works, were published by M. Delaborde in 1870, and dedicated to Mme Ingres, _née_ Ramel, Ingres's devoted second wife, whom he married in 1852. Allusions to the painter's early days will be found in Delécluze's _Louis David_; and amongst less important notices may be cited that by Théophile Silvestre in his series of living artists. Most of Ingres's important works are engraved in the collection brought out by Magimel. (E. F. S. D.)

INGRESS (Lat. _ingressus_, going in), entrance as opposed to exit or egress; in astronomy, the apparent entrance of a smaller body upon the disk of a larger one, as it passes between the latter and the observer; in this sense it is applied especially to the beginning of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of the planet.

INHAMBANE, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa in 23° 50´ S., 35° 25´ E. The town, which enjoys a reputation for healthiness, is finely situated on the bank of a river of the same name which empties into a bay also called Inhambane. Next to Mozambique Inhambane, which dates from the middle of the 16th century, is architecturally the most important town in Portuguese East Africa. The chief buildings are the fort, churches and mosque. The principal church is built with stone and marble brought from Portugal. The population, about 4000 in 1909, is of a motley character: Portuguese and other Europeans, Arabs, Banyans, half-castes and negroes. Its commerce was formerly mostly in ivory and slaves. In 1834 Inhambane was taken and all its inhabitants save ten killed by a Zulu horde under Manikusa (see GAZALAND). It was not until towards the close of the 19th century that the trade of the town revived. The value of exports and imports in 1907 was about £150,000. The chief exports are wax, rubber, mafureira and other nuts, mealies and sugar. Cotton goods and cheap wines (for consumption by natives) are the principal imports. The harbour, about 9 m. long by 5 wide, accommodates vessels drawing 10 to 12 ft. of water. The depth of water over the bar varies from 17 to 28 ft., and large vessels discharge into and load from lighters. Inhambane is the natural port for the extensive and fertile district between the Limpopo and Sabi rivers. This region is the best recruiting ground for labourers in the Rand gold mines. Mineral oils have been found within a short distance of the port.

INHERITANCE. In English law, inheritance, heir and other kindred words have a meaning very different from that of the Latin _haeres_, from which they are derived. In Roman law the heir or heirs represented the entire legal personality of the deceased--his _universum jus_. In English law the heir is simply the person on whom the real property of the deceased devolves by operation of law if he dies intestate. He has nothing to do as heir with the personal property; he is not appointed by will; and except in the case of coparceners he is a single individual. The Roman _haeres_ takes the whole estate; his appointment may or may not be by testament; and more persons than one may be associated together as heirs.

The devolution of an inheritance in England is now regulated by the rules of descent, as altered by the Inheritance Act 1833, amended by the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859.

1. The first rule is that inheritance shall descend to the issue of the last "purchaser." A purchaser in law means one who acquires an estate otherwise than by descent, e.g. by will, by gratuitous gift, or by purchase in the ordinary meaning of the word. This rule is one of the changes introduced by the Inheritance Act, which further provides that "the person last entitled to the land shall be considered the purchaser thereof unless it be proved that he inherited the same." Under the earlier law descent was traced from the last person who had "seisin" or feudal possession, and it was occasionally a troublesome question whether the heir or person entitled had ever, in fact, acquired such possession. Now the only inquiry is into title, and each person entitled is presumed to be in by purchase unless he is proved to be in by descent, so that the stock of descent is the last person entitled who cannot be shown to have inherited. 2. The male is admitted before the female. 3. Among males of equal degree in consanguinity to the purchaser, the elder excludes the younger; but females of the same degree take together as "coparceners." 4. Lineal descendants take the place of their ancestor. Thus an eldest son dying and leaving issue would be represented by such issue, who would exclude their father's brothers and sisters. 5. If there are no lineal descendants of the purchaser, the next to inherit is his nearest lineal ancestor. This is a rule introduced by the Inheritance Act. Under the former law inheritance never went to an ancestor--collaterals, however remote of the person last seized being preferred even to his father. Various explanations have been given of this seemingly anomalous rule--Bracton and Blackstone being content to say that it rests on the law of nature, by which heavy bodies gravitate downwards. Another explanation is that estates were granted to be descendible in the same way as an ancient inheritance, which having passed from father to son _ex necessitate_ went to collaterals on failure of issue of the person last seized. 6. The sixth rule is thus expressed by Joshua Williams in his treatise on _The Law of Real Property_:--

"The father and all the male paternal ancestors of the purchaser and their descendants shall be admitted before any of the female paternal ancestors or their heirs; all the female paternal ancestors and their heirs before the mother or any of the maternal ancestors or her or their descendants; and the mother and all the male maternal ancestors and her and their descendants before any of the female maternal ancestors or their heirs."

7. Kinsmen of the half-blood may be heirs; such kinsmen shall inherit next after a kinsman in the same degree of the whole blood, and after the issue of such kinsman where the common ancestor is a male and next after the common ancestor where such ancestor is a female. The admission of kinsmen of the half-blood into the chain of descent is an alteration made by the Inheritance Act. Formerly a relative, however nearly connected in blood with the purchaser through one only and not both parents, could never inherit--a half-brother for example. 8. In the admission of female paternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote male paternal ancestor and her heirs shall be preferred to the mother of the less remote male paternal and her heirs; and, in the case of female maternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote male maternal ancestor shall be preferred to the mother of a less remote male maternal ancestor. This rule, following the opinion of Blackstone, settles a point much disputed by text-writers, although its importance was little more than theoretical. 9. When there shall be a total failure of heirs of the purchaser, or when any lands shall be descendible as if an ancestor had been the purchaser thereof, and there shall be a total failure of the heirs of such ancestor, then and in every such case the descent shall be traced from the person last entitled to the land as if he had been the purchaser thereof. This rule is enacted by the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859. It would apply to such a case as the following: Purchaser dies intestate, leaving a son and no other relations, and the son in turn dies intestate; the son's relations through his mother are now admitted by this rule. If the purchaser is illegitimate, his only relations must necessarily be his own issue. Failing heirs of all kinds, the lands of an intestate purchaser, not alienated by him, would revert by "escheat" to the next immediate lord of the fee, who would generally be the crown. If an intermediate lordship could be proved to exist between the crown and the tenant in fee simple, such intermediate lord would have the escheat. But escheat is a matter of rare occurrence.

The above rules apply to all freehold land whether the estate therein of the intestate is legal or equitable. Before 1884, if a sole trustee had the legal estate in realty, and his _cestui que trust_ died intestate and without heirs, the land escheated to the trustee. This distinction was abolished by the Intestate Estates Act 1884.

The descent of an estate in tail would be ascertained by such of the foregoing rules as are not inapplicable to it. By the form of the entail the estate descends to the "issue" of the person to whom the estate was given in tail--in other words, the last purchaser. The preceding rules after the fourth, being intended for the ascertainment of heirs other than those by lineal descent, would therefore not apply; and a special limitation in the entail, such as to heirs male or female only, would render unnecessary some of the others. When the entail has been barred, the estate descends according to these rules. In copyhold estates descent, like other incidents thereof, is regulated by the custom of each particular manor; e.g. the youngest son may exclude the elder sons. How far the Inheritance Act applies to such estates has been seriously disputed. It has been held in one case (_Muggleton_ v. _Barnett_) that the Inheritance Act, which orders descent to be traced from the last purchaser, does not override a manorial custom to trace descent from the person last seized, but this position has been controverted on the ground that the act itself includes the case of customary holdings.

Husband and wife do not stand in the rank of heir to each other. Their interests in each other's real property are secured by courtesy and dower.

The personal property of a person dying intestate devolves according to an entirely different set of rules (see INTESTACY).

In Scotland the rules of descent differ from the above in several particulars. Descent is traced, as in England before the Inheritance Act, to the person last seized. The first to succeed are the lineal descendants of the deceased, and the rules of primogeniture, preference of males to females, equal succession of females (heirs-portioners), and representation of ancestors are generally the same as in English law. Next to the lineal descendants, and failing them, come the brothers and sisters, and their issue as collaterals. Failing collaterals, the inheritance ascends to the father and his relations, to the entire exclusion of the mother and her relations. Even when the estate has descended from mother to son, it can never revert to the maternal line. As to succession of brothers, a distinction must be taken between an estate of heritage and an estate of conquest. Conquest is where the deceased has acquired the land otherwise than as heir, and corresponds to the English term purchase in the technical sense explained. Heritage is land acquired by deceased as heir. The distinction is important only in the case when the heir of the deceased is to be sought among his brothers; when the descent is lineal, conquest and heritage go to the same person. And when the brothers are younger than the deceased, both conquest and heritage go to the brother (or his issue) next in order of age. But when the deceased leaves an elder and a younger brother (or their issues), the elder brother takes the conquest, the younger takes the heritage. Again, when there are several elder brothers, the one next in age to the deceased takes the conquest before the more remote, and when there are several younger brothers, the one next to the deceased takes the heritage before the more remote. When heritage of the deceased goes to an elder brother (as might happen in certain eventualities), the younger of the elder brothers is preferred. The position of the father, after the brothers and sisters of the deceased, will be noticed as an important point of difference from the English axioms; so also is the total exclusion of the mother and the maternal line. As between brothers and sisters the half-blood only succeeds after the full blood. Half-blood is either consanguinean, as between children by the same father, or uterine, as between children having the same mother. The half-blood uterine is excluded altogether. Half-blood consanguinean succeeds thus: if the issue is by a former marriage, the youngest brother (being nearest to the deceased of the consanguinean) succeeds first; if by a later marriage than that from which the deceased has sprung, the eldest succeeds first.

_United States._--American law has borrowed its rules of descent considerably more from the civil law than the common law. "The 118 novel of Justinian has a striking resemblance to American law in giving the succession of estates to all legitimate children without distinction and disregarding all considerations of primogeniture. There is one particular in which the American law differs from that of Justinian, that while generally in this country lineal descendants if they stand in an equal degree from the common ancestor share equally _per capita_, under the Roman law regard was had to the right of representation, each lineal branch of descendants taking only the portion which their parent would have taken had he been living, the division being _per stirpes_ and not _per capita_. But in some of the states the rule of the Roman law in this respect has been adopted and retained. Among these are Rhode Island, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana" (3 Washburn's _Real Property_, pp. 408, 409; 4 Kent's _Comm._ p. 375). When such lineal descendants stand in unequal degrees of consanguinity the inheritance is _per stirpes_ and not _per capita_ (_In re Prote_, 1907; 104, N.Y. Supplement 581). This is the rule in practically all the states. But as in no two states or territories are the rules of descent identical, the only safe guides are the statutes and decisions of the particular state in which the land to be inherited is situated. The law of primogeniture as understood in England is generally abolished throughout the United States, and male and female relatives inherit equally. In some states, as in Massachusetts, relatives of the half-blood inherit equally with chose of the whole-blood of the same degree; in others, like Maryland, they can inherit only in case none of whole-blood exist. In some of the states the English rule that natural children have no inheritable blood has been greatly modified. In Louisiana, if duly acknowledged, they may inherit from both father and mother in the absence of lawful issue. Degrees of kindred in the United States generally are computed according to the civil law, i.e. by adding together the number of degrees between each of the two persons whose relationship is to be ascertained and the common ancestor. Thus, relationship between two brothers is in the second degree; between uncle and nephew in the third degree; between cousins, in the fourth, &c.

In a few states such degrees are computed according to the common law, i.e. by counting from the common ancestor to the most remote descendant of the two from him--thus, brothers would be related in the first degree, uncle and nephew in the second, &c. In most states representation amongst collaterals is restricted--in some to the descendants of brothers and sisters, in others to their children only.

In some states, e.g. in California, Louisiana and Texas, the law of "community property" of husband and wife prevails. This is derived from the French and Spanish law existing in the territories out of which those states were formed, as the result of the conquest of Mexico by Spain and the colonizing of Louisiana by France. The foundation idea is an equal division at death of either party of all property acquired during their marriage except by gift, devise or descent. In general the husband has the control and management thereof during the marriage, and either survivor has the administration of the moiety of the one deceased. There is a conflict in the laws in such states as to the exact definition and as to whether or not the gains or profits of such property are to be deemed separate property or community property [Succession of Dielman (Louisiana, 1907), 43 Southern Rep. 972].

INHIBITION (from Lat. _inhibere_, to restrain, prevent), an act of restraint or prohibition, an English legal term, particularly used in ecclesiastical law, for a writ from a superior to an inferior court, suspending proceedings in a case under appeal, also for the suspension of a jurisdiction of a bishop's court on the visitation of an archbishop, and for that of an archdeacon on the visitation of a bishop. It is more particularly applied to a form of ecclesiastical _censure_, suspending an offending clergyman from the performance of any service of the Church, or other spiritual duty, for the purpose of enforcing obedience to a monition or order of the bishop or judge. Such inhibitions are at the discretion of the ordinary if he considers that scandal might arise from the performance of spiritual duties by the offender (Church Discipline Act 1860, re-enacted by the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, sect. 10). By the Sequestration Act 1871, sect. 5, similar powers of inhibition are given where a sequestration remains in force for more than six months, and also, by the Benefices Act 1898, in cases where a commission reports that the ecclesiastical duties of a benefice are inadequately performed through the negligence of the incumbent.

INISFAIL, a poetical name for Ireland. It is derived from _Faul_ or _Lia-fail_, the celebrated stone, identified in Irish legend with the stone on which the patriarch Jacob slept when he dreamed of the heavenly ladder. The Lia-fail was supposed to have been brought to Ireland by the Dedannans and set up at Tara as the "inauguration stone" of the Irish kings; it was subsequently removed to Scone where it became the coronation stone of the Scottish kings, until it was taken by James VI. of Scotland to Westminster and placed under the coronation chair in the Abbey, where it has since remained. Inisfail was thus the island of the Fail, the island whose monarchs were crowned at Tara on the sacred inauguration stone.

INITIALS (Lat. _initialis_, of or belonging to a beginning, _initium_), the first letters of names. In legal and formal documents it is usually the practice in appending a signature to write the name in full. But this is by no means necessary, even in cases where a signature is expressly required by statute. It has been held that it is sufficient if a person affixes to a document the usual form in which he signs his name, with the intent that it shall be treated as his signature. So, signature by initials is a good signature within the Statute of Frauds (_Phillimore_ v. _Barry_, 1818, I Camp. 513), and also under the Wills