ii. 11, 12) which have so much of the form and character of later

Oriental hymnody as to have been supposed by Michaelis and others to be extracts from original hymns of the Apostolic age. Two of them are apparently introduced as quotations, though not found elsewhere in the Scriptures. A third has not only rhythm, but rhyme. The thanksgiving prayer of the assembled disciples, recorded in Acts iv., is both in substance and in manner poetical; and in the canticles, "Magnificat," "Benedictus," &c., which manifestly followed the form and style of Hebrew poetry, hymns or songs, proper for liturgical use, have always been recognized by the church.

3. _Eastern Church Hymnody._--The hymn of our Lord, the precepts of the apostles, the angelic song at the nativity, and "Benedicite omnia opera" are referred to in a curious metrical prologue to the hymnary of the Mozarabic Breviary as precedents for the practice of the Western Church. In this respect, however, the Western Church followed the Eastern, in which hymnody prevailed from the earliest times.

Therapeutae.

Philo describes the Theraputae (q.v.) of the neighbourhood of Alexandria as composers of original hymns, which (as well as old) were sung at their great religious festivals--the people listening in silence till they came to the closing strains, or refrains, at the end of a hymn or stanza (the "acroteleutia" and "ephymnia"), in which all, women as well as men, heartily joined. These songs, he says, were in various metres (for which he uses a number of technical terms); some were choral, some not; and they were divided into variously constructed strophes or stanzas. Eusebius, who thought that the Theraputae were communities of Christians, says that the Christian practice of his own day was in exact accordance with this description.

Antiphonal singing.

The practice, not only of singing hymns, but of singing them antiphonally, appears, from the well-known letter of Pliny to Trajan, to have been established in the Bithynian churches at the beginning of the 2nd century. They were accustomed "stato die ante lucem convenire, carmenque Christo, quasi Deo, dicere _secum invicem_." This agrees well, in point of time, with the tradition recorded by the historian Socrates, that Ignatius (who suffered martyrdom about A.D. 107) was led by a vision or dream of angels singing hymns in that manner to the Holy Trinity to introduce antiphonal singing into the church of Antioch, from which it quickly spread to other churches. There seems to be an allusion to choral singing in the epistle of Ignatius himself to the Romans, where he exhorts them, "[Greek: choros genomenoi]" ("having formed themselves into a choir"), to "sing praise to the Father in Christ Jesus." A statement of Theodoret has sometimes been supposed to refer the origin of antiphonal singing to a much later date; but this seems to relate only to the singing of Old Testament Psalms ([Greek: tên Dauidikên melôdian]), the alternate chanting of which, by a choir divided into two parts, was (according to that statement) first introduced into the church of Antioch by two monks famous in the history of their time, Flavianus and Diodorus, under the emperor Constantius II.

2nd century.

3rd century.

Other evidence of the use of hymns in the 2nd century is contained in a fragment of Caius, preserved by Eusebius, which refers to "all the psalms and odes written by faithful brethren from the beginning," as "hymning Christ, the Word of God, as God." Tertullian also, in his description of the "Agapae," or love-feasts, of his day, says that, after washing hands and bringing in lights, each man was invited to come forward and sing to God's praise something either taken from the Scriptures or of his own composition ("ut quisque de Sacris Scripturis vel proprio ingenio potest"). George Bull, bishop of St David's, believed one of those primitive compositions to be the hymn appended by Clement of Alexandria to his _Paedagogus_; and Archbishop Ussher considered the ancient morning and evening hymns, of which the use was enjoined by the _Apostolical Constitutions_, and which are also mentioned in the "Tract on Virginity" printed with the works of St Athanasius, and in St Basil's treatise upon the Holy Spirit, to belong to the same family. Clement's hymn, in a short anapaestic metre, beginning [Greek: stomion pôlôn adaôn] (or, according to some editions, [Greek: basileu hagiôn, loge pandamatôr]--translated by the Rev. A. Chatfield, "O Thou, the King of Saints, all-conquering Word"), is rapid, spirited and well-adapted for singing. The Greek "Morning Hymn" (which, as divided into verses by Archbishop Ussher in his treatise _De Symbolis_, has a majestic rhythm, resembling a choric or dithyrambic strophe) is the original form of "Gloria in Excelsis," still said or sung, with some variations, in all branches of the church which have not relinquished the use of liturgies. The Latin form of this hymn (of which that in the English communion office is an exact translation) is said, by Bede and other ancient writers, to have been brought into use at Rome by Pope Telesphorus, as early as the time of the emperor Hadrian. A third, the Vesper or "Lamp-lighting" hymn ("[Greek: phôs hilaron hagias doxês]"--translated by Canon Bright "Light of Gladness, Beam Divine"), holds its place to this day in the services of the Greek rite. In the 3rd century Origen seems to have had in his mind the words of some other hymns or hymn of like character, when he says (in his treatise _Against Celsus_): "We glorify in hymns God and His only begotten Son; as do also the Sun, the Moon, the Stars and all the host of heaven. All these, in one Divine chorus, with the just among men, glorify in hymns God who is over all, and His only begotten Son." So highly were these compositions esteemed in the Syrian churches that the council which deposed Paul of Samosata from the see of Antioch in the time of Aurelian justified that act, in its synodical letter to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, on this ground (among others) that he had prohibited the use of hymns of that kind, by uninspired writers, addressed to Christ.

After the conversion of Constantine, the progress of hymnody became closely connected with church controversies. There had been in Edessa, at the end of the 2nd or early in the 3rd century, a Gnostic writer of conspicuous ability, named Bardesanes, who was succeeded, as the head of his sect or school, by his son Harmonius. Both father and son wrote hymns, and set them to agreeable melodies, which acquired, and in the 4th century still retained, much local popularity. Ephraem Syrus, the first voluminous hymn-writer whose works remain to us, thinking that the same melodies might be made useful to the faith, if adapted to more orthodox words, composed to them a large number of hymns in the Syriac language, principally in tetrasyllabic, pentasyllable and heptasyllabic metres, divided into strophes of from 4 to 12, 16 and even 20 lines each. When a strophe contained five lines, the fifth was generally an "ephymnium," detached in sense, and consisting of a prayer, invocation, doxology or the like, to be sung antiphonally, either in full chorus or by a separate part of the choir. The _Syriac Chrestomathy_ of August Hahn (Leipzig, 1825), and the third volume of H. A. Daniel's _Thesaurus Hymnologicus_ (Leipzig, 1841-1856), contain specimens of these hymns. Some of them have been translated into (unmetrical) English by the Rev. Henry Burgess (_Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus_, &c., 1853). A considerable number of those so translated are on subjects connected with death, resurrection, judgment, &c., and display not only Christian faith and hope, but much simplicity and tenderness of natural feeling. Theodoret speaks of the spiritual songs of Ephraem as very sweet and profitable, and as adding much, in his (Theodoret's) time, to the brightness of the commemorations of martyrs in the Syrian Church.

The Greek hymnody contemporary with Ephraem followed, with some licence, classical models. One of its favourite metres was the Anacreontic; but it also made use of the short anapaestic, Ionic, iambic and other lyrical measures, as well as the hexameter and pentameter. Its principal authors were Methodius, bishop of Olympus, who died about A.D. 311, Synesius, who became bishop of Ptolemais in Cyrenaica in 410, and Gregory Nazianzen, for a short time (380-381) patriarch of Constantinople. The merits of these writers have been perhaps too much depreciated by the admirers of the later Greek "Melodists." They have found an able English translator in the Rev. Allen Chatfield (_Songs and Hymns of Earliest Greek Christian Poets_, London, 1876). Among the most striking of their works are [Greek: mnôeo Christe] ("Lord Jesus, think of me"), by Synesius; [Greek: se ton aphthiton monarchên] ("O Thou, the One Supreme") and [Greek: ti soi theleis genesthai] ("O soul of mine, repining"), by Gregory; also [Greek: anôthen parthenoi] ("The Bridegroom cometh"), by Methodius. There continued to be Greek metrical hymn-writers, in a similar style, till a much later date. Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem in the 7th century, wrote seven Anacreontic hymns; and St John Damascene, one of the most copious of the second school of "Melodists," was also the author of some long compositions in trimeter iambics.

Period of Arian controversy.

An important development of hymnody at Constantinople arose out of the Arian controversy. Early in the 4th century Athanasius had rebuked, not only the doctrine of Arius, but the light character of certain hymns by which he endeavoured to make that doctrine popular. When, towards the close of that century (398), St John Chrysostom was raised to the metropolitan see, the Arians, who were still numerous at Constantinople, had no places of worship within the walls; but they were in the habit of coming into the city at sunset on Saturdays, Sundays and the greater festivals, and congregating in the porticoes and other places of public resort, where they sung, all night through, antiphonal songs, with "acroteleutia" (closing strains, or refrains), expressive of Arian doctrine, often accompanied by taunts and insults to the orthodox. Chrysostom was apprehensive that this music might draw some of the simpler church people to the Arian side; he therefore organized, in opposition to it, under the patronage and at the cost of Eudoxia, the empress of Arcadius (then his friend), a system of nightly processional hymn-singing, with silver crosses, wax-lights and other circumstances of ceremonial pomp. Riots followed, with bloodshed on both sides, and with some personal injury to the empress's chief eunuch, who seems to have officiated as conductor or director of the church musicians. This led to the suppression, by an imperial edict, of all public Arian singing; while in the church the practice of nocturnal hymn-singing on certain solemn occasions, thus first introduced, remained an established institution.

Greek system of hymnody.

It is not improbable that some rudiments of the peculiar system of hymnody which now prevails throughout the Greek communion, and whose affinities are rather to the Hebrew and Syriac than to the classical forms, may have existed in the church of Constantinople, even at that time. Anatolius, patriarch of Constantinople in the middle of the 5th century, was the precursor of that system; but the reputation of being its proper founder belongs to Romanos, of whom little more is known than that he wrote hymns still extant, and lived towards the end of that century. The importance of that system in the services of the Greek church may be understood from the fact that Dr J. M. Neale computed four-fifths of the whole space (about 5000 pages) contained in the different service-books of that church to be occupied by hymnody, all in a language or dialect which has ceased to be anywhere spoken.

The system has a peculiar technical terminology, in which the words "troparion," "ode," "canon" and "hirmus" ([Greek: eirmos]) chiefly require explanation.

The _troparion_ is the unit of the system, being a strophe or stanza, seen, when analysed, to be divisible into verses or clauses, with regulated caesuras, but printed in the books as a single prose sentence, without marking any divisions. The following (turned into English, from a "canon" by John Mauropus) may be taken as an example: "The never-sleeping Guardian, | the patron of my soul, | the guide of my life, | allotted me by God, | I hymn thee, Divine Angel | of Almighty God." Dr Neale and most other writers regard all these "troparia" as rhythmical or modulated prose. Cardinal J. B. Pitra, on the other hand, who in 1867 and 1876 published two learned works on this subject, maintains that they are really metrical, and governed by definite rules of prosody, of which he lays down sixteen. According to him, each "troparion" contains from three to thirty-three verses; each verse varies from two to thirteen syllables, often in a continuous series, uniform, alternate or reciprocal, the metre being always syllabic, and depending, not on the quantity of vowels or the position of consonants, but on an harmonic series of accents.

In various parts of the services solitary troparia are sung, under various names, "contacion," "oecos," "cathisma," &c., which mark distinctions either in their character or in their use.

An _ode_ is a song or hymn compounded of several similar "troparia,"--usually three, four or five. To these is always prefixed a typical or standard "troparion," called the _hirmus_, by which the syllabic measure, the periodic series of accents, and in fact the whole structure and rhythm of the stanzas which follow it are regulated. Each succeeding "troparion" in the same "ode" contains the same number of verses, and of syllables in each verse, and similar accents on the same or equivalent syllables. The "hirmus" may either form the first stanza of the "ode" itself, or (as is more frequently the case) may be taken from some other piece; and, when so taken, it is often indicated by initial words only, without being printed at length. It is generally printed within commas, after the proper rubric of the "ode." A hymn in irregular "stichera" or stanzas, without a "hirmus," is called "idiomelon." A system of three or four odes is "triodion" or "tetraodion."

A _canon_ is a system of eight (theoretically nine) connected odes, the second being always suppressed. Various pauses, relieved by the interposition of other short chants or readings, occur during the singing of a whole "canon." The final "troparion" in each ode of the series is not unfrequently detached in sense (like the "ephymnia" of Ephraem Syrus), particularly when it is in the (very common) form of a "theotokion," or ascription of praise to the mother of our Lord, and when it is a recurring refrain or burden.

There were two principal periods of Greek hymnography constructed on these principles--the first that of Romanos and his followers, extending over the 6th and 7th centuries, the second that of the schools which arose during the Iconoclastic controversy in the 8th century, and which continued for some centuries afterwards, until the art itself died out.

School of Romanos.

The works of the writers of the former period were collected in _Tropologia_, or church hymn-books, which were held in high esteem till the 10th century, when they ceased to be regarded as church-books, and so fell into neglect. They are now preserved only in a very small number of manuscripts. From three of these, belonging to public libraries at Moscow, Turin and Rome, Cardinal Pitra has printed, in his _Analecta_, a number of interesting examples, the existence of which appears to have been unknown to Dr Neale, and which, in the cardinal's estimation, are in many respects superior to the "canons," &c., of the modern Greek service-books, from which all Neale's translations (except some from Anatolius) are taken. Cardinal Pitra's selections include twenty-nine works by Romanos, and some by Sergius, and nine other known, as well as some unknown, authors. He describes them as having generally a more dramatic character than the "melodies" of the later period, and a much more animated style; and he supposes that they may have been originally sung with dramatic accompaniments, by way of substitution for the theatrical performances of Pagan times. As an instance of their peculiar character, he mentions a Christmas or Epiphany hymn by Romanos, in twenty-five long strophes, in which there is, first, an account of the Nativity and its accompanying wonders, and then a dialogue between the wise men, the Virgin mother and Joseph. The magi arrive, are admitted, describe the moral and religious condition of Persia and the East, and the cause and adventures of their journey, and then offer their gifts. The Virgin intercedes for them with her Son, instructs them in some parts of Jewish history, and ends with a prayer for the salvation of the world.

Melodists.

The controversies and persecutions of the 8th and succeeding centuries turned the thoughts of the "melodists" of the great monasteries of the Studium at Constantinople and St Saba in Palestine and their followers, and those of the adherents of the Greek rite in Sicily and South Italy (who suffered much from the Saracens and the Normans), into a less picturesque but more strictly theological course; and the influence of those controversies, in which the final success of the cause of "Icons" was largely due to the hymns, as well as to the courage and sufferings, of these confessors, was probably the cause of their supplanting, as they did, the works of the older school. Cardinal Pitra gives them the praise of having discovered a graver and more solemn style of chant, and of having done much to fix the dogmatic theology of their church upon its present lines of near approach to the Roman.

Among the "melodists" of this latter Greek school there were many saints of the Greek church, several patriarchs and two emperors--Leo the Philosopher, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, his son. Their greatest poets were Theodore and Joseph of the Studium, and Cosmas and John (called Damascene) of St Saba. Neale translated into English verse several selected portions, or centoes, from the works of these and others, together with four selections from earlier works by Anatolius. Some of his translations--particularly "The day is past and over," from Anatolius, and "Christian, dost thou see them," from Andrew of Crete--have been adopted into hymn-books used in many English churches; and the hymn "Art thou weary," which is rather founded upon than translated from one by Stephen the Sabaite, has obtained still more general popularity.

4. _Western Church Hymnody._--It was not till the 4th century that Greek hymnody was imitated in the West, where its introduction was due to two great lights of the Latin Church--St Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose of Milan.

Hilary was banished from his see of Poitiers in 356, and was absent from it for about four years, which he spent in Asia Minor, taking part during that time in one of the councils of the Eastern Church. He thus had full opportunity of becoming acquainted with the Greek church music of that day; and he wrote (as St Jerome, who was thirty years old when Hilary died, and who was well acquainted with his acts and writings, and spent some time in or near his diocese, informs us) a "book of hymns," to one of which Jerome particularly refers, in the preface to the second book of his own commentary on the epistle to the Galatians. Isidore, archbishop of Seville, who presided over the fourth council of Toledo, in his book on the offices of the church, speaks of Hilary as the first Latin hymn-writer; that council itself, in its 13th canon, and the prologue to the Mozarabic hymnary (which is little more than a versification of the canon), associate his name, in this respect, with that of Ambrose. A tradition, ancient and widely spread, ascribed to him the authorship of the remarkable "Hymnum dicat turba fratrum, hymnum cantus personet" ("Band of brethren, raise the hymn, let your song the hymn resound"), which is a succinct narrative, in hymnal form, of the whole gospel history; and is perhaps the earliest example of a strictly didactic hymn. Both Bede and Hincmar much admired this composition, though the former does not mention, in connexion with it, the name of Hilary. The private use of hymns of such a character by Christians in the West may probably have preceded their ecclesiastical use; for Jerome says that in his day those who went into the fields might hear "the ploughman at his hallelujahs, the mower at his hymns, and the vine-dresser singing David's psalms." Besides this, seven shorter metrical hymns attributed to Hilary are still extant.

Ambrose.

Of the part taken by Ambrose, not long after Hilary's death, in bringing the use of hymns into the church of Milan, we have a contemporary account from his convert, St Augustine. Justina, mother of the emperor Valentinian, favoured the Arians, and desired to remove Ambrose from his see. The "devout people," of whom Augustine's mother, Monica, was one, combined to protect him, and kept guard in the church. "Then," says Augustine, "it was first appointed that, after the manner of the Eastern churches, hymns and psalms should be sung, lest the people should grow weary and faint through sorrow; which custom has ever since been retained, and has been followed by almost all congregations in other parts of the world." He describes himself as moved to tears by the sweetness of these "hymns and canticles":--"The voices flowed into my ears; the truth distilled into my heart; I overflowed with devout affections, and was happy." To this time, according to an uncertain but not improbable tradition which ascribed the composition of the "Te Deum" to Ambrose, and connected it with the conversion of Augustine, is to be referred the commencement of the use in the church of that sublime unmetrical hymn.

It is not, however, to be assumed that the hymnody thus introduced by Ambrose was from the first used according to the precise order and method of the later Western ritual. To bring it into (substantially) that order and method appears to have been the work of St Benedict. Walafrid Strabo, the earliest ecclesiastical writer on this subject (who lived at the beginning of the 9th century), says that Benedict, on the constitution of the religious order known by his name (about 530), appointed the Ambrosian hymns to be regularly sung in his offices for the canonical hours. Hence probably originated the practice of the Italian churches, and of others which followed their example, to sing certain hymns (Ambrosian, or by the early successors of the Ambrosian school) daily throughout the week, at "Vespers," "Lauds" and "Nocturns," and on some days at "Compline" also--varying them with the different ecclesiastical seasons and festivals, commemorations of saints and martyrs and other special offices. Different dioceses and religious houses had their own peculiarities of ritual, including such hymns as were approved by their several bishops or ecclesiastical superiors, varying in detail, but all following the same general method. The national rituals, which were first reduced into a form substantially like that which has since prevailed, were probably those of Lombardy and of Spain, now known as the "Ambrosian" and the "Mozarabic." The age and origin of the Spanish ritual are uncertain, but it is mentioned in the 7th century by Isidore, bishop of Seville. It contained a copious hymnary, the original form of which may be regarded as canonically approved by the fourth council of Toledo (633). By the 13th canon of that council, an opinion (which even then found advocates) against the use in churches of any hymns not taken from the Scriptures--apparently the same opinion which had been held by Paul of Samosata--was censured; and it was ordered that such hymns should be used in the Spanish as well as in the Gallican churches, the penalty of excommunication being denounced against all who might presume to reject them.

The hymns of which the use was thus established and authorized were those which entered into the daily and other offices of the church, afterwards collected in the "Breviaries"; in which the hymns "proper" for "the week," and for "the season," continued for many centuries, with very few exceptions, to be derived from the earliest epoch of Latin Church poetry--reckoning that epoch as extending from Hilary and Ambrose to the end of the pontificate of Gregory the Great. The "Ambrosian" music, to which those hymns were generally sung down to the time of Gregory, was more popular and congregational than the "Gregorian," which then came into use, and afterwards prevailed. In the service of the mass it was not the general practice, before the invention of sequences in the 9th century, to sing any hymns, except some from the Scriptures esteemed canonical, such as the "Song of the Three Children" ("Benedicite omnia opera"). But to this rule there were, according to Walafrid Strabo, some occasional exceptions; particularly in the case of Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia under Charlemagne, himself a hymn-writer, who frequently used hymns, composed by himself or others, in the eucharistic office, especially in private masses.

Some of the hymns called "Ambrosian" (nearly 100 in number) are beyond all question by Ambrose himself, and the rest probably belong to his time or to the following century. Four, those beginning "Aeterne rerum conditor" ("Dread Framer of the earth and sky"), "Deus Creator omnium" ("Maker of all things, glorious God"), "Veni Redemptor Gentium" ("Redeemer of the nations, come") and "Jam surgit hora tertia" ("Christ at this hour was crucified"), are quoted as works of Ambrose by Augustine. These, and others by the hand of the same master, have the qualities most valuable in hymns intended for congregational use. They are short and complete in themselves; easy, and at the same time elevated in their expression and rhythm; terse and masculine in thought and language; and (though sometimes criticized as deficient in theological precision) simple, pure and not technical in their rendering of the great facts and doctrines of Christianity, which they present in an objective and not a subjective manner. They have exercised a powerful influence, direct or indirect, upon many of the best works of the same kind in all succeeding generations. With the Ambrosian hymns are properly classed those of Hilary, and the contemporary works of Pope Damasus I. (who wrote two hymns in commemoration of saints), and of Prudentius, from whose _Cathemerina_ ("Daily Devotions") and _Peristephana_ ("Crown-songs for Martyrs"), all poems of considerable, some of great length--about twenty-eight hymns, found in various Breviaries, were derived. Prudentius was a layman, a native of Saragossa, and it was in the Spanish ritual that his hymns were most largely used. In the Mozarabic Breviary almost the whole of one of his finest poems (from which most churches took one part only, beginning "Corde natus ex parentis") was appointed to be sung between Easter and Ascension-Day, being divided into eight or nine hymns; and on some of the commemorations of Spanish saints long poems from his _Peristephana_ were recited or sung at large. He is entitled to a high rank among Christian poets, many of the hymns taken from his works being full of fervour and sweetness, and by no means deficient in dignity or strength.

5th and 6th centuries.

These writers were followed in the 5th and early in the 6th century by the priest Sedulius, whose reputation perhaps exceeded his merit; Elpis, a noble Roman lady (considered, by an erroneous tradition, to have been the wife of the philosophic statesman Boetius); Pope Gelasius I.; and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia. Sedulius and Elpis wrote very little from which hymns could be extracted; but the small number taken from their compositions obtained wide popularity, and have since held their ground. Gelasius was of no great account as a hymn-writer; and the works of Ennodius appear to have been known only in Italy and Spain. The latter part of the 6th century produced Pope Gregory the Great and Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian poet, the friend of Gregory, and the favourite of Radegunda, queen of the Franks, who died (609) bishop of Poitiers. Eleven hymns of Gregory, and twelve or thirteen (mostly taken from longer poems) by Fortunatus, came into general use in the Italian, Gallican and British churches. Those of Gregory are in a style hardly distinguishable from the Ambrosian; those of Fortunatus are graceful, and sometimes vigorous. He does not, however, deserve the praise given to him by Dr Neale, of having struck out a new path in Latin hymnody. On the contrary, he may more justly be described as a disciple of the school of Prudentius, and as having affected the classical style, at least as much as any of his predecessors.

The poets of this primitive epoch, which closed with the 6th century, wrote in the old classical metres, and made use of a considerable variety of them--anapaestic, anacreontic, hendecasyllabic, asclepiad, hexameters and pentameters and others. Gregory and some of the Ambrosian authors occasionally wrote in sapphics; but the most frequent measure was the iambic dimeter, and, next to that, the trochaic. The full alcaic stanza does not appear to have been used for church purposes before the 16th century, though some of its elements were. In the greater number of these works, a general intention to conform to the rules of Roman prosody is manifest; but even those writers (like Prudentius) in whom that conformity was most decided allowed themselves much liberty of deviation from it. Other works, including some of the very earliest, and some of conspicuous merit, were of the kind described by Bede as not metrical but "rhythmical"--i.e. (as he explains the term "rhythm"), "modulated to the ear in imitation of different metres." It would be more correct to call them metrical--(e.g. still trochaic or iambic, &c., but, according to new laws of syllabic quantity, depending entirely on accent, and not on the power of vowels or the position of consonants)--laws by which the future prosody of all modern European nations was to be governed. There are also, in the hymns of the primitive period (even in those of Ambrose), anticipations--irregular indeed and inconstant, but certainly not accidental--of another great innovation, destined to receive important developments, that of assonance or rhyme, in the final letters or syllables of verses. Archbishop Trench, in the introduction to his _Sacred Latin Poetry_, has traced the whole course of the transition from the ancient to the modern forms of versification, ascribing it to natural and necessary causes, which made such changes needful for the due development of the new forms of spiritual and intellectual life, consequent upon the conversion of the Latin-speaking nations to Christianity.

6th century downwards.

From the 6th century downwards we see this transformation making continual progress, each nation of Western Christendom adding, from time to time, to the earlier hymns in its service-books others of more recent and frequently of local origin. For these additions, the commemorations of saints, &c., as to which the devotion of one place often differed from that of another, offered especial opportunities. This process, while it promoted the development of a medieval as distinct from the primitive style, led also to much deterioration in the quality of hymns, of which, perhaps, some of the strongest examples may be found in a volume published in 1865 by the Irish Archaeological Society from a manuscript in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. It contains a number of hymns by Irish saints of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries--in several instances fully rhymed, and in one mixing Erse and Latin barbarously together, as was not uncommon, at a much later date, in semi-vernacular hymns of other countries. The Mozarabic Breviary, and the collection of hymns used in the Anglo-Saxon churches, published in 1851 by the Surtees Society (chiefly from a Benedictine MS. In the college library of Durham, supplemented by other MSS. in the British Museum), supply many further illustrations of the same decline of taste:--such Sapphics, e.g., as the "Festum insigne prodiit coruscum" of Isidore, and the "O veneranda Trinitas laudanda" of the Anglo-Saxon books. The early medieval period, however, from the time of Gregory the Great to that of Hildebrand, was far from deficient in the production of good hymns, wherever learning flourished. Bede in England, and Paul "the Deacon"--the author of a fairly classical sapphic ode on St John the Baptist--in Italy, were successful followers of the Ambrosian and Gregorian styles. Eleven metrical hymns are attributed to Bede by Cassander; and there are also in one of Bede's works (_Collectanea et flores_) two rhythmical hymns of considerable length on the Day of Judgment, with the refrains "In tremendo die" and "Attende homo," both irregularly rhymed, and, in parts, not unworthy of comparison with the "Dies Irae." Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia, contemporary with Paul, wrote rhythmical trimeter iambics in a manner peculiar to himself. Theodulph, bishop of Orleans (793-835), author of the famous processional hymn for Palm Sunday in hexameters and pentameters, "Gloria, laus, et honor tibi sit, Rex Christe Redemptor" ("Glory and honour and laud be to Thee, King Christ the Redeemer"), and Hrabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mainz, the pupil of Alcuin, and the most learned theologian of his day, enriched the church with some excellent works. Among the anonymous hymns of the same period there are three of great beauty, of which the influence may be traced in most, if not all, of the "New Jerusalem" hymns of later generations, including those of Germany and Great Britain:--"Urbs beata Hierusalem" ("Blessed city, heavenly Salem"); "Alleluia piis edite laudibus" ("Alleluias sound ye in strains of holy praise"--called, from its burden, "Alleluia perenne"); and "Alleluia dulce carmen" ("Alleluia, song of sweetness"), which, being found in Anglo-Saxon hymnaries certainly older than the Conquest, cannot be of the late date assigned to it, in his _Mediaeval Hymns and Sequences_, by Neale. These were followed by the "Chorus novae Hierusalem" ("Ye Choirs of New Jerusalem") of Fulbert, bishop of Chartres. This group of hymns is remarkable for an attractive union of melody, imagination, poetical colouring and faith. It represents, perhaps, the best and highest type of the middle school, between the severe Ambrosian simplicity and the florid luxuriance of later times.

Veni Creator.

Notker.

Another celebrated hymn, which belongs to the first medieval period, is the "Veni Creator Spiritus" ("Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire"). The earliest recorded occasion of its use is that of a translation (898) of the relics of St Marcellus, mentioned in the _Annals_ of the Benedictine order. It has since been constantly sung throughout Western Christendom (as versions of it still are in the Church of England), as part of the appointed offices for the coronation of kings, the consecration and ordination of bishops and priests, the assembling of synods and other great ecclesiastical solemnities. It has been attributed--probably in consequence of certain corruptions in the text of Ekkehard's _Life of Notker_ (a work of the 13th century)--to Charlemagne. Ekkehard wrote in the Benedictine monastery of St Gall, to which Notker belonged, with full access to its records; and an ignorant interpolator, regardless of chronology, added, at some later date, the word "Great" to the name of "the emperor Charles," wherever it was mentioned in that work. The biographer relates that Notker--a man of a gentle, contemplative nature, observant of all around him, and accustomed to find spiritual and poetical suggestions in common sights and sounds--was moved by the sound of a mill-wheel to compose his "sequence" on the Holy Spirit, "Sancti Spiritus adsit nobis gratia" ("Present with us ever be the Holy Spirit's grace"); and that, when finished, he sent it as a present to "the emperor Charles," who in return sent him back, "by the same messenger," the hymn "Veni Creator," which (says Ekkehard) the same "Spirit had inspired him to write" ("Sibi idem Spiritus inspiraverat"). If this story is to be credited--and, from its circumstantial and almost dramatic character, it has an air of truth--the author of "Veni Creator" was not Charlemagne, but his grandson the emperor Charles the Bald. Notker himself long survived that emperor, and died in 912.

Sequences.

The invention of "sequences" by Notker may be regarded as the beginning of the later medieval epoch of Latin hymnody. In the eucharistic service, in which (as has been stated) hymns were not generally used, it had been the practice, except at certain seasons, to sing "laud," or "Alleluia," between the epistle and the gospel, and to fill up what would otherwise have been a long pause, by extending the cadence upon the two final vowels of the "Alleluia" into a protracted strain of music. It occurred to Notker that, while preserving the spirit of that part of the service, the monotony of the interval might be relieved by introducing at that point a chant of praise specially composed for the purpose. With that view he produced the peculiar species of rhythmical composition which obtained the name of "sequentia" (probably from following after the close of the "Alleluia"), and also that of "prosa," because its structure was originally irregular and unmetrical, resembling in this respect the Greek "troparia," and the "Te Deum," "Benedicite" and canticles. That it was in some measure suggested by the forms of the later Greek hymnody seems probable, both from the intercourse (at that time frequent) between the Eastern and Western churches, and from the application by Ekkehard, in his biography and elsewhere (e.g. in Lyndwood's _Provinciale_), of some technical terms, borrowed from the Greek terminology, to works of Notker and his school and to books containing them.

Dr Neale, in a learned dissertation prefixed to his collection of sequences from medieval Missals, and enlarged in a Latin letter to H. A. Daniel (printed in the fifth volume of Daniel's _Thesaurus hymnologicus_), investigated the laws of caesura and modulation which are discoverable in these works. Those first brought into use were sent by their author to Pope Nicholas I., who authorized their use, and that of others composed after the same model by other brethren of St Gall, in all churches of the West.

Although the sequences of Notker and his school, which then rapidly passed into most German, French and British Missals, were not metrical, the art of "assonance" was much practised in them. Many of those in the Sarum and French Missals have every verse, and even every clause or division of a verse, ending with the same vowel "a"--perhaps with some reference to the terminal letter of "Alleluia." Artifices such as these naturally led the way to the adaptation of the same kind of composition to regular metre and fully developed rhyme. Neale's full and large collection, and the second volume of Daniel's _Thesaurus_, contain numerous examples, both of the "proses," properly so called, of the Notkerian type, and of those of the later school, which (from the religious house to which its chief writer belonged) has been called "Victorine." Most Missals appear to have contained some of both kinds. In the majority of those from which Neale's specimens are taken, the metrical kind largely prevailed; but in some (e.g. those of Sarum and Liége) the greater number were Notkerian.

Of the sequence on the Holy Ghost, sent by Notker (according to Ekkehard) to Charles the Bald, Neale says that it "was in use all over Europe, even in those countries, like Italy and Spain, which usually rejected sequences"; and that, "in the Missal of Palencia, the priest was ordered to hold a white dove in his hands, while intoning the first syllables, and then to let it go." Another of the most remarkable of Notker's sequences, beginning "Media in vita" ("In the midst of life we are in death"), is said to have been suggested to him while observing some workmen engaged in the construction of a bridge over a torrent near his monastery. Catherine Winkworth (_Christian Singers of Germany_, 1869) states that this was long used as a battle-song, until the custom was forbidden, on account of its being supposed to exercise a magical influence. A translation of it ("Mitten wir im Leben sind") is one of Luther's funeral hymns; and all but the opening sentence of that part of the burial service of the Church of England which is directed to be "said or sung" at the grave, "while the corpse is made ready to be laid into the earth," is taken from it.

The "Golden Sequence," "Veni, sancte Spiritus" ("Holy Spirit, Lord of Light"), is an early example of the transition of sequences from a simply rhythmical to a metrical form. Archbishop Trench, who esteemed it "the loveliest of all the hymns in the whole circle of Latin sacred poetry," inclined to give credit to a tradition which ascribes its authorship to Robert II., king of France, son of Hugh Capet. Others have assigned to it a later date--some attributing it to Pope Innocent III., and some to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Many translations, in German, English and other languages, attest its merit. Berengarius of Tours, St Bernard of Clairvaux and Abelard, in the 11th century and early in the 12th, followed in the same track; and the art of the Victorine school was carried to its greatest perfection by Adam of St Victor (who died between 1173 and 1194)--"the most fertile, and" (in the concurrent judgment of Archbishop Trench and Neale) "the greatest of the Latin hymnographers of the Middle Ages." The archbishop's selection contains many excellent specimens of his works.

Dies Irae.

Stabat Mater.

Aquinas.

But the two most widely celebrated of all this class of compositions--works which have exercised the talents of the greatest musical composers, and of innumerable translators in almost all languages--are the "Dies Irae" ("That day of wrath, that dreadful day"), by Thomas of Celano, the companion and biographer of St Francis of Assisi, and the "Stabat Mater dolorosa" ("By the cross sad vigil keeping") of Jacopone, or Jacobus de Benedictis, a Franciscan humorist and reformer, who was persecuted by Pope Boniface VIII. for his satires on the prelacy of the time, and died in 1306. Besides these, the 13th century produced the famous sequence "Lauda Sion salvatorem" ("Sion, lift thy voice and sing"), and the four other well-known sacramental hymns of St Thomas Aquinas, viz. "Pange lingua gloriosi corporis mysterium" ("Sing, my tongue, the Saviour's glory"), "Verbum supernum prodiens" ("The Word, descending from above"--not to be confounded with the Ambrosian hymn from which it borrowed the first line), "Sacris solemniis juncta sint gaudia" ("Let us with hearts renewed our grateful homage pay"), and "Adoro Te devote, latens Deitas" ("O Godhead hid, devoutly I adore Thee")--a group of remarkable compositions, written by him for the then new festival of Corpus Christi, of which he induced Pope Urban IV. (1261-1265) to decree the observance. In these (of which all but "Adoro Te devote" passed rapidly into breviaries and missals) the doctrine of transubstantiation is set forth with a wonderful degree of scholastic precision; and they exercised, probably, a not unimportant influence upon the general reception of that dogma. They are undoubtedly works of genius, powerful in thought, feeling and expression.

Medieval hymns.

These and other medieval hymn-writers of the 12th and 13th centuries may be described, generally, as poet-schoolmen. Their tone is contemplative, didactic, theological; they are especially fertile and ingenious in the field of mystical interpretation. Two great monasteries in the East had, in the 8th and 9th centuries, been the principal centres of Greek hymnology; and, in the West, three monasteries--St Gall, near Constance (which was long the especial seat of German religious literature), Cluny in Burgundy and St Victor, near Paris--obtained a similar distinction. St Gall produced, besides Notker, several distinguished sequence writers, probably his pupils--Hartmann, Hermann and Gottschalk--to the last of whom Neale ascribes the "Alleluiatic Sequence" ("Cantemus cuncti melodum nunc Alleluia"), well known in England through his translation, "The strain upraise of joy and praise." The chief poets of Cluny were two of its abbots, Odo and Peter the Venerable (1122-1156), and one of Peter's monks, Bernard of Morlaix, who wrote the remarkable poem on "Contempt of the World" in about 3000 long rolling "leonine-dactylic" verses, from parts of which Neale's popular hymns, "Jerusalem the golden," &c., are taken. The abbey of St Victor, besides Adam and his follower Pistor, was destined afterwards to produce the most popular church poet of the 17th century.

Bernard of Clairvaux.

There were other distinguished Latin hymn-writers of the later medieval period besides those already mentioned. The name of St Bernard of Clairvaux cannot be passed over with the mere mention of the fact that he was the author of some metrical sequences. He was, in truth, the father, in Latin hymnody, of that warm and passionate form of devotion which some may consider to apply too freely to Divine Objects the language of human affection, but which has, nevertheless, been popular with many devout persons, in Protestant as well as Roman Catholic churches. F. von Spee, "Angelus Silesius," Madame Guyon, Bishop Ken, Count Zinzendorf and Frederick William Faber may be regarded as disciples in this school. Many hymns, in various languages, have been founded upon St Bernard's "Jesu dulcis memoria" ("Jesu, the very thought of Thee"), "Jesu dulcedo cordium" ("Jesu, Thou joy of loving hearts") and "Jesu Rex admirabilis" ("O Jesu, King most wonderful")--three portions of one poem, nearly 200 lines long. Pietro Damiani, the friend of Pope Gregory VII, Marbode, bishop of Rennes, in the 11th, Hildebert, archbishop of Tours, in the 12th, and St Bonaventura in the 13th centuries, are other eminent men who added poetical fame as hymnographers to high public distinction.

Before the time of the Reformation, the multiplication of sequences (often as unedifying in matter as unpoetical in style) had done much to degrade the common conception of hymnody. In some parts of France, Portugal, Sardinia and Bohemia, their use in the vernacular language had been allowed. In Germany also there were vernacular sequences as early as the 12th century, specimens of which may be seen in the third chapter of C. Winkworth's _Christian Singers of Germany_. Scoffing parodies upon sequences are said to have been among the means used in Scotland to discredit the old church services. After the 15th century they were discouraged at Rome. They retained for a time some of their old popularity among German Protestants, and were only gradually relinquished in France. A new "prose," in honour of St Maxentia, is among the compositions of Jean Baptiste Santeul; and Dr Daniel's second volume closes with one written in 1855 upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.

Roman revision of hymns.

The taste of the Renaissance was offended by all deviations from classical prosody and Latinity. Pope Leo X. directed the whole body of the hymns in use at Rome to be reformed; and the _Hymni novi ecclesiastici juxta veram metri et Latinitatis normam_, prepared by Zacharie Ferreri (1479-1530), a Benedictine of Monte Cassino, afterwards a Carthusian and bishop of Guardia, to whom Leo had committed that task, appeared at Rome in 1525, with the sanction of a later pope, Clement VII. The next step was to revise the whole Roman Breviary. That undertaking, after passing through several stages under different popes (particularly Pius V. and Clement VIII.), was at last brought to a conclusion by Urban VIII., in 1631. From this revised Breviary a large number of medieval hymns, both of the earlier and the later periods, were excluded; and in their places many new hymns, including some by Pope Urban himself, and some by Cardinal Bellarmine and another cardinal (Silvius Antonianus) were introduced. The hymns of the primitive epoch, from Hilary to Gregory the Great, for the most part retained their places (especially in the offices for every day of the week); and there remained altogether from seventy to eighty of earlier date than the 11th century. Those, however, which were so retained were freely altered, and by no means generally improved. The revisers appointed by Pope Urban (three learned Jesuits--Strada, Gallucci and Petrucci) professed to have made "as few changes as possible" in the works of Ambrose, Gregory, Prudentius, Sedulius, Fortunatus and other "poets of great name." But some changes, even in those works, were made with considerable boldness; and the pope, in the "constitution" by which his new book was promulgated, boasted that, "with the exception of a very small number ('perpaucis'), which were either prose or merely rhythmical, all the hymns had been made conformable to the laws of prosody and Latinity, those which could not be corrected by any milder method being entirely rewritten." The latter fate befel, among others, the beautiful "Urbs beata Hierusalem," which now assumed the form (to many, perhaps, better known), of "Caelestis urbs Jerusalem." Of the "very few" which were spared, the chief were "Ave maris stella" ("Gentle star of ocean"), "Dies Irae," "Stabat Mater dolorosa," the hymns of Thomas Aquinas, two of St Bernard and one Ambrosian hymn, "Jesu nostra Redemptio" ("O Jesu, our Redemption"), which approaches nearer than others to the tone of St Bernard. A then recent hymn of St Francis Xavier, with scarcely enough merit of any kind to atone for its neglect of prosody, "O Deus, ego amo Te" ("O God, I love Thee, not because"), was at the same time introduced without change. This hymnary of Pope Urban VIII. is now in general use throughout the Roman Communion.

Parisian revisions.

The Parisian hymnary underwent three revisions--the first in 1527, when a new "Psaltery with hymns" was issued. In this such changes only were made as the revisers thought justifiable upon the principle of correcting supposed corruptions of the original text. Of these, the transposition, "Urbs Jerusalem beata," instead of "Urbs beata Hierusalem," may be taken as a typical example. The next revision was in 1670-1680, under Cardinal Péréfixe, preceptor of Louis XIV., and Francis Harlay, successively archbishops of Paris, who employed for this purpose Claude Santeul, of the monastery of St Magloire, and, through him, obtained the assistance of other French scholars, including his more celebrated brother, Jean Baptiste Santeul, of the abbey of St Victor--better known as "Santolius Victorinus." The third and final revision was completed in 1735, under the primacy of Cardinal Archbishop de Vintimille, who engaged for it the services of Charles Coffin, then rector of the university of Paris. Many old hymns were omitted in Archbishop Harlay's Breviary, and a large number of new compositions, by the Santeuls and others, was introduced. It still, however, retained in their old places (without further changes than had been made in 1527) about seventy of earlier date than the 11th century--including thirty-one Ambrosian, one by Hilary, eight by Prudentius, seven by Fortunatus, three by Paul the Deacon, two each by Sedulius, Elpis, Gregory and Hrabanus Maurus, "Veni Creator" and "Urbs Jerusalem beata." Most of these disappeared in 1735, although Cardinal Vintimille, in his preface, professed to have still admitted the old hymns, except when the new were better--("veteribus hymnis locus datus est, nisi quibus, ob sententiarum vim, elegantiam verborum, et teneriores pietatis sensus, recentiores anteponi satius visum est"). The number of the new was, at the same time, very largely increased. Only twenty-one more ancient than the 16th century remained, of which those belonging to the primitive epoch were but eight, viz. four Ambrosian, two by Fortunatus and one each by Prudentius and Gregory. The number of Jean Baptiste Santeul's hymns rose to eighty-nine; those by Coffin--including some old hymns, e.g. "Jam lucis orto sidere" ("Once more the sun is beaming bright"), which he substantially re-wrote--were eighty-three; those of other modern French writers, ninety-seven. Whatever opinion may be entertained of the principles on which these Roman and Parisian revisions proceeded, it would be unjust to deny very high praise as hymn-writers to several of their poets, especially to Coffin and Jean Baptiste Santeul. The noble hymn by Coffin, beginning--

"O luce qui mortalibus "O Thou who in the light dost dwell, Lates inaccessa, Deus, To mortals unapproachable, Praesente quo sancti tremunt Where angels veil them from Thy rays, Nubuntque vultus angeli," And tremble as they gaze,"

and several others of his works, breathe the true Ambrosian spirit; and though Santeul (generally esteemed the better poet of the two) delighted in alcaics, and did not greatly affect the primitive manner, there can be no question as to the excellence of such hymns as his "Fumant Sabaeis templa vaporibus" ("Sweet incense breathes around"), "Stupete gentes, fit Deus hostia" ("Tremble, ye Gentile lands"), "Hymnis dum resonat curia caelitum" ("Ye in the house of heavenly morn"), and "Templi sacratas pande, Sion, fores" ("O Sion, open wide thy gates"). It is a striking testimony to the merits of those writers that such accomplished translators as the Rev. Isaac Williams and the Rev. John Chandler appear (from the title-page of the latter, and the prefaces of both) to have supposed their hymns to be "ancient" and "primitive." Among the other authors associated with them, perhaps the first place is due to the Abbé Besnault, of Sens, who contributed to the book of 1735 the "Urbs beata vera pacis Visio Jerusalem," in the opinion of Neale "much superior" to the "Caelestis urbs Jerusalem" of the Roman Breviary. This stood side by side with the "Urbs Jerusalem beata" of 1527 (in the office for the dedication of churches) till 1822, when the older form was at last finally excluded by Archbishop de Quelen.

The Parisian Breviary of 1735 remained in use till the national French service-books were superseded (as they have lately been, generally, if not universally) by the Roman. Almost all French dioceses followed, not indeed the Breviary, but the example, of Paris; and before the end of the 18th century the ancient Latin hymnody was all but banished from France.

Modern Latin hymns.

In some parts of Germany, after the Reformation, Latin hymns continued to be used even by Protestants. This was the case at Halberstadt until quite a recent date. In England, a few are still occasionally used in the older universities and colleges. Some, also, have been composed in both countries since the Reformation. The "Carmina lyrica" of Johann Jakob Balde, a native of Alsace, and a Jesuit priest in Bavaria, have received high commendation from very eminent German critics, particularly Herder and Augustus Schlegel. Some of the Latin hymns of William Alard (1572-1645), a Protestant refugee from Belgium, and pastor in Holstein, have been thought worthy of a place in Archbishop Trench's selection. Two by W. Petersen (printed at the end of Haberkorn's supplement to Jacobi's _Psalmodia Germanica_) are good in different ways--one, "Jesu dulcis amor meus" ("Jesus, Thee my soul doth love"), being a gentle melody of spiritual devotion, and the other, entitled _Spes Sionis_, violently controversial against Rome. An English hymn of the 17th century, in the Ambrosian style, "Te Deum Patrem colimus" ("Almighty Father, just and good"), is sung on every May-Day morning by the choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford, from the top of the tower of their chapel; and another in the style of the Renaissance, of about the same date, "Te de profundis, summe Rex" ("Thee from the depths, Almighty King"), long formed part of a grace formerly sung by the scholars of Winchester College.

Luther.

5. _German Hymnody._--Luther was a proficient in and a lover of music. He desired (as he says in the preface to his hymn-book of 1545) that this "beautiful ornament" might "in a right manner serve the great Creator and His Christian people." The persecuted Bohemian or Hussite Church, then settled on the borders of Moravia under the name of "United Brethren," had sent to him, on a mission in 1522, Michael Weiss, who not long afterwards published a number of German translations from old Bohemian hymns (known as those of the "Bohemian Brethren"), with some of his own. These Luther highly approved and recommended. He himself, in 1522, published a small volume of eight hymns, which was enlarged to 63 in 1527, and to 125 in 1545. He had formed what he called a "house choir" of musical friends, to select such old and popular tunes (whether secular or ecclesiastical) as might be found suitable, and to compose new melodies, for church use. His fellow labourers in this field (besides Weiss) were Justus Jonas, his own especial colleague; Paul Eber, the disciple and friend of Melanchthon; John Walther, choirmaster successively to several German princes, and professor of arts, &c., at Wittenberg; Nicholas Decius, who from a monk became a Protestant teacher in Brunswick, and translated the "Gloria in Excelsis," &c.; and Paul Speratus, chaplain to Duke Albert of Prussia in 1525. Some of their works are still popular in Germany. Weiss's "Funeral Hymn," "Nun lasst uns den Leib begraben" ("Now lay we calmly in the grave"); Eber's "Herr Jesu Christ, wahr Mensch und Gott" ("Lord Jesus Christ, true Man and God"), and "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöthen sein" ("When in the hour of utmost need"); Walther's "New Heavens and new Earth" ("Now fain my joyous heart would sing"); Decius's "To God on high be thanks and praise"; and Speratus's "Salvation now has come for all," are among those which at the time produced the greatest effect, and are still best remembered.

Luther's own hymns, thirty-seven in number (of which about twelve are translations or adaptations from Latin originals), are for the principal Christian seasons; on the sacraments, the church, grace, death, &c.; and paraphrases of seven psalms, of a passage in Isaiah, and of the Lord's Prayer, Ten Commandments, Creed, Litany and "Te Deum." There is also a very touching and stirring song on the martyrdom of two youths by fire at Brussels, in 1523-1524. Homely and sometimes rugged in form, and for the most part objective in tone, they are full of fire, manly simplicity and strong faith. Three rise above the rest. One for Christmas, "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her" ("From Heaven above to earth I come"), has a reverent tenderness, the influence of which may be traced in many later productions on the same subject. That on salvation through Christ, of a didactic character, "Nun freuet euch, lieben Christen g'mein" ("Dear Christian people, now rejoice"), is said to have made many conversions, and to have been once taken up by a large congregation to silence a Roman Catholic preacher in the cathedral of Frankfort. Pre-eminent above all is the celebrated paraphrase of the 46th Psalm: "Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A sure stronghold our God is He")--"the production" (as Ranke says) "of the moment in which Luther, engaged in a conflict with a world of foes, sought strength in the consciousness that he was defending a divine cause which could never perish." Carlyle compares it to "a sound of Alpine avalanches, or the first murmur of earthquakes." Heine called it "the Marseillaise of the Reformation."

Luther spent several years in teaching his people at Wittenberg to sing these hymns, which soon spread over Germany. Without adopting the hyperbolical saying of Coleridge, that "Luther did as much for the Reformation by his hymns as by his translation of the Bible," it may truly be affirmed, that, among the secondary means by which the success of the Reformation was promoted, none was more powerful. They were sung everywhere--in the streets and fields as well as the churches, in the workshop and the palace, "by children in the cottage and by martyrs on the scaffold." It was by them that a congregational character was given to the new Protestant worship. This success they owed partly to their metrical structure, which, though sometimes complex, was recommended to the people by its ease and variety; and partly to the tunes and melodies (many of them already well known and popular) to which they were set. They were used as direct instruments of teaching, and were therefore, in a large measure, didactic and theological; and it may be partly owing to this cause that German hymnody came to deviate, so soon and so generally as it did, from the simple idea expressed in the ancient Augustinian definition, and to comprehend large classes of compositions which, in most other countries, would be thought hardly suitable for church use.

Followers of Luther

The principal hymn-writers of the Lutheran school, in the latter part of the 16th century, were Nikolaus Selnecker, Herman and Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of Nuremberg, also known in other branches of literature. All these wrote some good hymns. They were succeeded by men of another sort, to whom F. A. Cunz gives the name of "master-singers," as having raised both the poetical and the musical standard of German hymnody:--Bartholomäus Ringwaldt, Ludwig Helmbold, Johannes Pappus, Martin Schalling, Rutilius and Sigismund Weingartner. The principal topics of their hymns (as if with some foretaste of the calamities which were soon to follow) were the vanity of earthly things, resignation to the Divine will, and preparation for death and judgment. The well-known English hymn, "Great God, what do I see and hear," is founded upon one by Ringwaldt. Of a quite different character were two of great beauty and universal popularity, composed by Philip Nicolai, a Westphalian pastor, during a pestilence in 1597, and published by him, with fine chorales, two years afterwards. One of these (the "Sleepers wake! a voice is calling," of Mendelssohn's oratorio, _St Paul_) belongs to the family of Advent or New Jerusalem hymns. The other, a "Song of the believing soul concerning the Heavenly Bridegroom" ("Wie schön leucht't uns der Morgenstern"--"O morning Star, how fair and bright"), became the favourite marriage hymn of Germany.

Period of Thirty Years' War.

The hymns produced during the Thirty Years' War are characteristic of that unhappy time, which (as Miss Winkworth says) "caused religious men to look away from this world," and made their songs more and more expressive of personal feelings. In point of refinement and graces of style, the hymn-writers of this period excelled their predecessors. Their taste was chiefly formed by the influence of Martin Opitz, the founder of what has been called the "first Silesian school" of German poetry, who died comparatively young in 1639, and who, though not of any great original genius, exercised much power as a critic. Some of the best of these works were by men who wrote little. In the famous battle-song of Gustavus Adolphus, published (1631) after the victory of Breitenfeld, for the use of his army, "Verzage nicht du Häuflein klein" ("Fear not, O little flock, the foe"), we have almost certainly a composition of the hero-king himself, the versification corrected by his chaplain Jakob Fabricius (1593-1654) and the music composed by Michael Altenburg, whose name has been given to the hymn. This, with Luther's paraphrase of the 67th Psalm, was sung by Gustavus and his soldiers before the battle of Lützen in 1632. Two very fine hymns, one of prayer for deliverance and peace, the other of trust in God under calamities, were written about the same time by Matthäus Löwenstern, a saddler's son, poet, musician and statesman, who was ennobled after the peace by the emperor Ferdinand III. Martin Rinckhart, in 1636, wrote the "Chorus of God's faithful children" ("Nun danket alle Gott"--"Now thank we all our God"), introduced by Mendelssohn in his "Lobgesang," which has been called the "Te Deum" of Germany, being usually sung on occasions of public thanksgiving. Weissel, in 1635, composed a beautiful Advent hymn ("Lift up your heads, ye mighty gates"), and J. M. Meyfart, professor of theology at Erfurt, in 1642, a fine adaptation of the ancient "Urbs beata Hierusalem." The hymn of trust in Providence by George Neumark, librarian to that duke of Weimar ("Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten"--"Leave God to order all thy ways"), is scarcely, if at all, inferior to that of Paul Gerhardt on the same theme. Paul Flemming, a great traveller and lover of nature, who died in 1639, also wrote excellent compositions, coloured by the same tone of feeling; and some, of great merit, were composed, soon after the close of the war, by Louisa Henrietta, electress of Brandenburg, granddaughter of the famous admiral Coligny, and mother of the first king of Prussia. With these may be classed (though of later date) a few striking hymns of faith and prayer under mental anxiety, by Anton Ulrich, duke of Brunswick.

Rist.

Dach.

The most copious, and in their day most esteemed, hymn-writers of the first half of the 17th century, were Johann Heermann and Johann Rist. Heermann, a pastor in Silesia, the theatre (in a peculiar degree) of war and persecution, experienced in his own person a very large share of the miseries of the time, and several times narrowly escaped a violent death. His _Devoti musica cordis_, published in 1630, reflects the feelings natural under such circumstances. With a correct style and good versification, his tone is subjective, and the burden of his hymns is not praise, but prayer. Among his works (which enter largely into most German hymn-books), two of the best are the "Song of Tears" and the "Song of Comfort," translated by Miss Winkworth in her _Christian Singers of Germany_. Rist published about 600 hymns, "pressed out of him," as he said, "by the cross." He was a pastor, and son of a pastor, in Holstein, and lived after the peace to enjoy many years of prosperity, being appointed poet-laureate to the emperor and finally ennobled. The bulk of his hymns, like those of other copious writers, are of inferior quality; but some, particularly those for Advent, Epiphany, Easter Eve and on Angels, are very good. They are more objective than those of Heermann, and written, upon the whole, in a more manly spirit. Next to Heermann and Rist in fertility of production, and above them in poetical genius, was Simon Dach, professor of poetry at Königsberg, who died in 1659. Miss Winkworth ranks him high among German poets, "for the sweetness of form and depth of tender contemplative emotion to be found in his verses."

Gerhardt.

Franck.

Scheffler.

The fame of all these writers was eclipsed in the latter part of the same century by three of the greatest hymnographers whom Germany has produced--Paul Gerhardt (1604-1676), Johann Franck (1618-1677) and Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), the founder of the "second Silesian school," who assumed the name of "Angelus Silesius." Gerhardt is by universal consent the prince of Lutheran poets. His compositions, which may be compared, in many respects, to those of the _Christian Year_, are lyric poems, of considerable length, rather than hymns, though many hymns have been taken from them. They are, with few exceptions, subjective, and speak the language of individual experience. They occupy a middle ground between the masculine simplicity of the old Lutheran style and the highly wrought religious emotion of the later pietists, towards whom they on the whole incline. Being nearly all excellent, it is not easy to distinguish among the 123 those which are entitled to the highest praise. Two, which were written one during the war and the other after the conclusion of peace, "Zeuch ein zu deinen Thoren" ("Come to Thy temple here on earth"), and "Gottlob, nun ist erschollen" ("Thank God, it hath resounded"), are historically interesting. Of the rest, one is well known and highly appreciated in English through Wesley's translation, "Commit thou all thy ways"; and the evening and spring-tide hymns ("Now all the woods are sleeping" and "Go forth, my heart, and seek delight") show an exquisite feeling for nature; while nothing can be more tender and pathetic than "Du bist zwar mein und bleibest mein" ("Thou'rt mine, yes, still thou art mine own"), on the death of his son. Franck, who was burgomaster of Guben in Lusatia, has been considered by some second only to Gerhardt. If so, it is with a great distance between them. His approach to the later pietists is closer than that of Gerhardt. His hymns were published, under the title of _Geistliche und weltliche Gedichte_, in 1674, some of them being founded on Ambrosian and other Latin originals. Miss Winkworth gives them the praise of a condensed and polished style and fervid and impassioned thought. It was after his conversion to Roman Catholicism that Scheffler adopted the name of "Angelus Silesius," and published in 1657 his hymns, under a fantastic title, and with a still more fantastic preface. Their keynote is divine love; they are enthusiastic, intense, exuberant in their sweetness, like those of St Bernard among medieval poets. An adaptation of one of them, by Wesley, "Thee will I love, my Strength, my Tower," is familiar to English readers. Those for the first Sunday after Epiphany, for Sexagesima Sunday and for Trinity Sunday, in _Lyra Germanica_, are good examples of his excellences, with few of his defects. His hymns are generally so free from the expression, or even the indirect suggestion, of Roman Catholic doctrine, that it has been supposed they were written before his conversion, though published afterwards. The evangelical churches of Germany found no difficulty in admitting them to that prominent place in their services which they have ever since retained.

Pietists.

Towards the end of the 17th century, a new religious school arose, to which the name of "Pietists" was given, and of which Philipp Jakob Spener was esteemed the founder. He and his pupils and successors, August Hermann Francke and Anastasius Freylinghausen, all wrote hymns. Spener's hymns are not remarkable, and Francke's are not numerous. Freylinghausen was their chief singer; his rhythm is lively, his music florid; but, though his book attained extraordinary popularity, he was surpassed in solid merit by other less fertile writers of the same school. The "Auf hinauf zu deiner Freude" ("Up, yes, upward to thy gladness") of Schade may recall to an English reader a hymn by Seagrave, and more than one by Lyte; the "Malabarian hymn" (as it was called by Jacobi) of Johann Schütz, "All glory to the Sovereign Good," has been popular in England as well as Germany; and one of the most exquisite strains of pious resignation ever written is "Whate'er my God ordains is right," by Samuel Rodigast.

Neander.

Joachim Neander, a schoolmaster at Düsseldorf, and a friend of Spener and Schütz (who died before the full development of the "Pietistic" school), was the first man of eminence in the "Reformed" or Calvinistic Church who imitated Lutheran hymnody. This he did, while suffering persecution from the elders of his own church for some other religious practices, which he had also learnt from Spener's example. As a poet, he is sometimes deficient in art; but there is feeling, warmth and sweetness in many of his "Bundeslieder" or "Songs of the Covenant," and they obtained general favour, both in the Reformed and in Lutheran congregations. The Summer Hymn ("O Thou true God alone") and that on the glory of God in creation ("Lo, heaven and earth and sea and air") are instances of his best style.

Schmolke.

Dessler.

Hiller.

Arnold.

Tersteegen.

Zinzendorf.

With the "Pietists" may be classed Benjamin Schmolke and Dessler, representatives of the "Orthodox" division of Spener's school; Philipp Friedrich Hiller, their leading poet in South Germany; Gottfried Arnold and Gerhard Tersteegen, who were practically independent of ecclesiastical organization, though connected, one with the "Orthodox" and the other with the "Reformed" churches; and Nikolaus Ludwig, Graf von Zinzendorf. Schmolke, a pastor in Silesia, called the Silesian Rist (1672-1737), was perhaps the most voluminous of all German hymn-writers. He wrote 1188 religious poems and hymns, a large proportion of which do not rise above mediocrity. His style, if less refined, is also less subjective and more simple than that of most of his contemporaries. Among his best and most attractive works, which indeed, it would be difficult to praise too highly, are the "Hosianna David's Sohn," for Palm Sunday--much resembling a shorter hymn by Jeremy Taylor; and the Ascension, Whitsuntide and Sabbath hymns--"Heavenward doth our journey tend," "Come deck our feast to-day," and "Light of light, enlighten me." Dessler was a greater poet than Schmolke. Few hymns, of the subjective kind, are better than his "I will not let Thee go, Thou Help in time of need," "O Friend of souls, how well is me," and "Now, the pearly gates unfold." Hiller (1699-1769), was a pastor in Württemberg who, falling into ill-health during the latter part of his ministry, published a _Geistliche Liederhöstlein_ in a didactic vein, with more taste than power, but (as Miss Winkworth says) in a tone of "deep, thoughtful, practical piety." They were so well adapted to the wants of his people that to this day Hiller's Casket is prized, next to their Bibles, by the peasantry of Württemberg; and the numerous emigrants from that part of Germany to America and other foreign countries generally take it with them wherever they go. Arnold, a professor at Giessen, and afterwards a pastor in Brandenburg, was a man of strong will, uncompromising character and austere views of life, intolerant and controversial towards those whose doctrine or practice he disapproved, and more indifferent to separatism and sectarianism than the "orthodox" generally thought right. His hymns, like those of Augustus M. Toplady, whom in these respects he resembled, unite with considerable strength more gentleness and breadth of sympathy than might be expected from a man of such a character. Tersteegen (1697-1769), who never formally separated himself from the "Reformed" communion, in which he was brought up, but whose sympathies were with the Moravians and with Zinzendorf, was, of all the more copious German hymn-writers after Luther, perhaps the most remarkable man. Pietist, mystic and missionary, he was also a great religious poet. His 111 hymns were published In 1731, in a volume called _Geistlicher Blumengärtlein inniger_ Seelen. They are intensely individual, meditative and subjective. Wesley's adaptations of two--"Lo! God is here; let us adore," and "Thou hidden Love of God, whose source"--are well known. Among those translated by Miss Winkworth, "O God, O Spirit, Light of all that live," and "Come, brethren, let us go," are specimens which exhibit favourably his manner and power. Miss Cox speaks of him as "a gentle heaven-inspired soul, whose hymns are the reflection of a heavenly, happy life, his mind being full of a child-like simplicity"; and his own poem on the child-character, which Miss Winkworth has appropriately connected with Innocents' day ("Dear Soul, couldst thou become a child")--one of his best compositions, exquisitely conceived and expressed--shows that this was in truth the ideal which he sought to realize. The hymns of Zinzendorf are often disfigured by excess in the application of the language and imagery of human affections to divine objects; and this blemish is also found in many later Moravian hymns. But one hymn, at least, of Zinzendorf may be mentioned with unqualified praise, as uniting the merits of force, simplicity and brevity--"Jesu, geh voran" ("Jesus, lead the way"), which is taught to most children of religious parents in Germany. Wesley's "Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness" is a translation from Zinzendorf.

Gellert.

The transition from Tersteegen and Zinzendorf to Gellert and Klopstock marks strongly the reaction against Pietism which took place towards the middle of the 18th century. The _Geistlichen Oden und Lieder_ of Christian F. Gellert were published in 1757, and are said to have been received with an enthusiasm almost like that which "greeted Luther's hymns on their first appearance." It is a proof of the moderation both of the author and of his times that they were largely used, not only by Protestant congregations, but in those German Roman Catholic churches in which vernacular services had been established through the influence of the emperor Joseph II. They became the model which was followed by most succeeding hymn-writers, and exceeded all others in popularity till the close of the century, when a new wave of thought was generated by the movement which produced the French Revolution. Since that time they have been, perhaps, too much depreciated. They are, indeed, cold and didactic, as compared with Scheffler or Tersteegen; but there is nevertheless in them a spirit of genuine practical piety; and, if not marked by genius, they are pure in taste, and often terse, vigorous and graceful.

Klopstock.

Klopstock, the author of the _Messiah_, cannot be considered great as a hymn-writer, though his "Sabbath Hymn" (of which there is a version in _Hymns from the Land of Luther_) is simple and good. Generally his hymns (ten of which are translated in Sheppard's _Foreign Sacred Lyre_) are artificial and much too elaborate.

Fouqué.

Of the "romantic" school, which came in with the French Revolution, the two leading writers are Friedrich Leopold von Hardenberg, called "Novalis," and Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, the celebrated author of _Undine_ and _Sintram_--both romance-writers, as well as poets. The genius of Novalis was early lost to the world; he died in 1801, not thirty years old. Some of his hymns are very beautiful; but even in such works as "Though all to Thee were faithless," and "If only He is mine," there is a feeling of insulation and of despondency as to good in the actual world, which was perhaps inseparable from his ecclesiastical idealism. Fouqué survived till 1843. In his hymns there is the same deep flow of feeling, richness of imagery and charm of expression which distinguishes his prose works. The two missionary hymns--"Thou, solemn Ocean, rollest to the strand," and "In our sails all soft and sweetly"--and the exquisite composition which finds its motive in the gospel narrative of blind Bartimeus, "Was du vor tausend Jahren" (finely translated both by Miss Winkworth and by Miss Cox), are among the best examples.

Spitta.

The later German hymn-writers of the 19th century belong, generally, to the revived "Pietistic" school. Some of the best, Johann Baptist von Albertini, Friedrich Adolf Krummacher, and especially Karl Johann Philipp Spitta (1801-1859) have produced works not unworthy of the fame of their nation. Mr Massie, the able translator of Spitta's _Psalter und Harfe_ (Leipzig, 1833), speaks of it as having "obtained for him in Germany a popularity only second to that of Paul Gerhardt." In Spitta's poems (for such they generally are, rather than hymns) the subjective and meditative tone is tempered, not ungracefully, with a didactic element; and they are not disfigured by exaggerated sentiment, or by a too florid and rhetorical style.

6. _British Hymnody._--After the Reformation, the development of hymnody was retarded, in both parts of Great Britain, by the example and influence of Geneva. Archbishop Cranmer appears at one time to have been disposed to follow Luther's course, and to present to the people, in an English dress, some at least of the hymns of the ancient church. In a letter to King Henry VIII. (October 7, 1544), among some new "processions" which he had himself translated, into English, he mentions the Easter hymn, "Salve, festa dies, toto memorabilis aevo" ("Hail, glad day, to be joyfully kept through all generations"), of Fortunatus. In the "Primer" of 1535 (by Marshall) and the one of 1539 (by Bishop Hilsey of Rochester, published by order of the vicar-general Cromwell) there had been several rude English hymns, none of them taken from ancient sources. King Henry's "Primer" of 1545 (commanded by his injunction of the 6th of May 1545 to be used throughout his dominions) was formed on the model of the daily offices of the Breviary; and it contains English metrical translations from some of the best-known Ambrosian and other early hymns. But in the succeeding reign different views prevailed. A new direction had been given to the taste of the "Reformed" congregations in France and Switzerland by the French metrical translation of the Old Testament Psalms, which appeared about 1540. This was the joint work of Clement Marot, valet or groom of the chamber to Francis I., and Theodore Beza, then a mere youth, fresh from his studies at Orleans.

Marot's Psalms.

Marot's psalms were dedicated to the French king and the ladies of France, and, being set to popular airs, became fashionable. They were sung by Francis himself, the queen, the princesses and the courtiers, upon all sorts of secular occasions, and also, more seriously and religiously, by the citizens and the common people. They were soon perceived to be a power on the side of the Reformation. Calvin, who had settled at Geneva in the year of Marot's return to Paris, was then organizing his ecclesiastical system. He rejected the hymnody of the breviaries and missals, and fell back upon the idea, anciently held by Paul of Samosata, and condemned by the fourth council of Toledo, that whatever was sung in churches ought to be taken out of the Scriptures. Marot's Psalter, appearing thus opportunely, was introduced into his new system of worship, and appended to his catechism. On the other hand, it was interdicted by the Roman Catholic priesthood. Thus it became a badge to the one party of the "reformed" profession, and to the other of heresy.

Sternhold and Hopkins.

The example thus set produced in England the translation commonly known as the "Old Version" of the Psalms. It was begun by Thomas Sternhold, whose position in the household of Henry VIII., and afterwards of Edward VI., was similar to that of Marot with Francis I., and whose services to the former of those kings were rewarded by a substantial legacy under his will. Sternhold published versions of nineteen Psalms, with a dedication to King Edward, and died soon afterwards. A second edition appeared in 1551, with eighteen more Psalms added, of Sternhold's translating, and seven others by John Hopkins, a Suffolk clergyman. The work was continued during Queen Mary's reign by British refugees at Geneva, the chief of whom were William Whittingham, afterwards dean of Durham, who succeeded John Knox as minister of the English congregation there, and William Kethe or Keith, said by Strype to have been a Scotsman. They published at Geneva in 1556 a service-book, containing fifty-one English metrical psalms, which number was increased, in later editions, to eighty-seven. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth, this Genevan Psalmody was at once brought into use in England--first (according to a letter of Bishop Jewell to Peter Martyr, dated 5th March 1560) in one London church, from which it quickly spread to others both in London and in other cities. Jewell describes the effect produced by large congregations, of as many as 6000 persons, young and old, women and children, singing it after the sermons at St Paul's Cross--adding, "Id sacrificos et diabolum aegre habet; vident enim sacras conciones hoc pacto profundius descendere in hominum animos." The first edition of the completed "Old Version" (containing forty Psalms by Sternhold, sixty-seven by Hopkins, fifteen by Whittingham, six by Kethe and the rest by Thomas Norton the dramatist, Robert Wisdom, John Marckant and Thomas Churchyard) appeared in 1562.

In the meantime, the Books of Common Prayer, of 1549, 1552 and 1559, had been successively established as law by the acts of uniformity of Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth. In these no provision was made for the use of any metrical psalm or hymn on any occasion whatever, except at the consecration of bishops and the ordination of priests, in which offices (first added in 1552) an English version of "Veni Creator" (the longer of the two now in use) was appointed to be "said or sung." The canticles, "Te Deum," "Benedicite," the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds, the "Gloria in Excelsis," and some other parts of the communion and other special offices were also directed to be "said or sung"; and, by general rubrics, the chanting of the whole service was allowed.

The silence, however, of the rubrics in these books as to any other singing was not meant to exclude the use of psalms not expressly appointed, when they could be used without interfering with the prescribed order of any service. It was expressly provided by King Edward's first act of uniformity (by later acts made applicable to the later books) that it should be lawful "for all men, as well in churches, chapels, oratories or other places, to use openly any psalms or prayers taken out of the Bible, at any due time, not letting or omitting thereby the service, or any part thereof, mentioned in the book." And Queen Elizabeth, by one of the injunctions issued in the first year of her reign, declared her desire that the provision made, "in divers collegiate and also some parish churches, for singing in the church, so as to promote the laudable service of music," should continue. After allowing the use of "a modest and distinct song in all parts of the common prayers of the church, so that the same may be as plainly understanded as if it were read without singing," the injunction proceeded thus--"And yet, nevertheless, for the comforting of such that delight in music, it may be permitted that in the beginning or in the end of the Common Prayer, either at morning or evening, there may be sung an hymn, or such like song to the praise of Almighty God, in the best sort of melody and music that may be conveniently devised, having respect that the sentence" (i.e. sense) "of hymn may be understanded and perceived."

The "Old Version," when published (by John Daye, for the Stationers' Company, "cum gratia et privilegio Regiae Majestatis"), bore upon the face of it that it was "newly set forth, and allowed to be sung of the people in churches, before and after morning and evening prayer, as also before and after the sermon." The question of its authority has been at different times much debated, chiefly by Peter Heylyn and Thomas Warton on one side (both of whom disliked and disparaged it), and by William Beveridge, bishop of St Asaph, and the Rev. H. J. Todd on the other. Heylyn says, it was "permitted rather than allowed," which seems to be a distinction without much difference. "Allowance," which is all that the book claimed for itself, is authorization by way of permission, not of commandment. Its publication in that form could hardly have been licensed, nor could it have passed into use as it did without question, throughout the churches of England, unless it had been "allowed" by some authority then esteemed to be sufficient. Whether that authority was royal or ecclesiastical does not appear, nor (considering the proviso in King Edward's act of uniformity, and Queen Elizabeth's injunctions) is it very important. No inference can justly be drawn from the inability of inquirers, in Heylyn's time or since, to discover any public record bearing upon this subject, many public documents of that period having been lost.

In this book, as published in 1562, and for many years afterwards, there were (besides the versified Psalms) eleven metrical versions of the "Te Deum," canticles, Lord's Prayer (the best of which is that of the "Benedicite"); and also "Da pacem, Domine," a hymn suitable to the times, rendered into English from Luther; two original hymns of praise, to be sung before morning and evening prayer; two penitential hymns (one of them the "humble lamentation of a sinner"); and a hymn of faith, beginning, "Lord, in Thee is all my trust." In these respects, and also in the tunes which accompanied the words (stated by Dr Charles Burney, in his _History of Music_, to be German, and not French), there was a departure from the Genevan platform. Some of these hymns, and some of the psalms also (e.g. those by Robert Wisdom, being alternative versions), were omitted at a later period; and many alterations and supposed amendments were from time to time made by unknown hands in the psalms which remained, so that the text, as now printed, is in many places different from that of 1562.

Scotch Psalms.

In Scotland, the General Assembly of the kirk caused to be printed at Edinburgh in 1564, and enjoined the use of, a book entitled _The Form of Prayers and Ministry of the Sacraments used in the English Church at Geneva, approved and received by the Church of Scotland; whereto, besides that was in the former books, are also added sundry other prayers, with the whole Psalms of David in English metre_. This contained, from the "Old Version," translations of forty Psalms by Sternhold, fifteen by Whittingham, twenty-six by Kethe and thirty-five by Hopkins. Of the remainder two were by John Pulleyn (one of the Genevan refugees, who became archdeacon of Colchester); six by Robert Pont, Knox's son-in-law, who was a minister of the kirk, and also a lord of session; and fourteen signed with the initials I. C., supposed to be John Craig; one was anonymous, eight were attributed to N., two to M. and one to T. N. respectively.

So matters continued in both churches until the Civil War. During the interval, King James I. conceived the project of himself making a new version of the Psalms, and appears to have translated thirty-one of them--the correction of which, together with the translation of the rest, he entrusted to Sir William Alexander, afterwards earl of Stirling. Sir William having completed his task, King Charles I. had it examined and approved by several archbishops and bishops of England, Scotland and Ireland, and caused it to be printed in 1631 at the Oxford University Press, as the work of King James; and, by an order under the royal sign manual, recommended its use in all churches of his dominions. In 1634 he enjoined the Privy Council of Scotland not to suffer any other psalms, "of any edition whatever," to be printed in or imported into that kingdom. In 1636 it was republished, and was attached to the famous Scottish service-book, with which the troubles began in 1637. It need hardly be added that the king did not succeed in bringing this Psalter into use in either kingdom.

When the Long Parliament undertook, in 1642, the task of altering the liturgy, its attention was at the same time directed to psalmody. It had to judge between two rival translations of the Psalms--one by Francis Rouse, a member of the House of Commons, afterwards one of Cromwell's councillors and finally provost of Eton; the other by William Barton, a clergyman of Leicester. The House of Lords favoured Barton, the House of Commons Rouse, who had made much use of the labours of Sir William Alexander. Both versions were printed by order of parliament, and were referred for consideration to the Westminster Assembly. They decided in favour of Rouse. His version, as finally amended, was published in 1646, under an order of the House of Commons dated 14th November 1645. In the following year it was recommended by the parliament to the General Assembly at Edinburgh, who appointed a committee, with large powers, to prepare a revised Psalter, recommending to their consideration not only Rouse's book but that of 1564, and two other versions (by Zachary Boyd and Sir William Mure of Rowallan), then lately executed in Scotland. The result of the labours of this committee was the "Paraphrase" of the Psalms, which, in 1649-1650, by the concurrent authority of the General Assembly and the committee of estates, was ordered to be exclusively used throughout the church of Scotland. Some use was made in the preparation of this book of the versions to which the attention of the revisers had been directed, and also of Barton's; but its basis was that of Rouse. It was received in Scotland with great favour, which it has ever since retained; and it is fairly entitled to the praise of striking a tolerable medium between the rude homeliness of the "Old," and the artificial modernism of the "New" English versions--perhaps as great a success as was possible for such an undertaking. Sir Walter Scott is said to have dissuaded any attempt to alter it, and to have pronounced it, "with all its acknowledged occasional harshness, so beautiful, that any alterations must eventually prove only so many blemishes." No further step towards any authorized hymnody was taken by the kirk of Scotland till the following century.

In England, two changes bearing on church hymnody were made upon the revision of the prayer-book after the Restoration, in 1661-1662. One was the addition, in the offices for consecrating bishops and ordaining priests, of the shorter version of "Veni Creator" ("Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire"), as an alternative form. The other, and more important, was the insertion of the rubric after the third collect, at morning and evening prayer: "In quires and places where they sing, here followeth the anthem." By this rubric synodical and parliamentary authority was given for the interruption, at that point, of the prescribed order of the service by singing an anthem, the choice of which was left to the discretion of the minister. Those actually used, under this authority, were for some time only unmetrical passages of scripture, set to music by Blow, Purcell and other composers, of the same kind with the anthems still generally sung in cathedral and collegiate churches. But the word "anthem" had no technical signification which could be an obstacle to the use under this rubric of metrical hymns.

Tate and Brady.

The "New Version" of the Psalms, by Dr Nicholas Brady and the poet-laureate Nahum Tate (both Irishmen), appeared in 1696, under the sanction of an order in council of William III., "allowing and permitting" its use "in all such churches, chapels and congregations as should think fit to receive it." Dr Compton, bishop of London, recommended it to his diocese. No hymns were then appended to it; but the authors added a "supplement" in 1703, which received an exactly similar sanction from an order in council of Queen Anne. In that supplement there were several new versions of the canticles, and of the "Veni Creator"; a variation of the old "humble lamentation of a sinner"; six hymns for Christmas, Easter and Holy Communion (all versions or paraphrases of scripture), which are still usually printed at the end of the prayer-books containing the new version; and a hymn "on the divine use of music"--all accompanied by tunes. The authors also reprinted, with very good taste, the excellent version of the "Benedicite" which appeared in the book of 1562. Of the hymns in this "supplement," one ("While shepherds watched their flocks by night") greatly exceeded the rest in merit. It has been ascribed to Tate, but it has a character of simplicity unlike the rest of his works.

Old and new versions compared.

The relative merits of the "Old" and "New" versions have been very variously estimated. Competent judges have given the old the praise, which certainly cannot be accorded to the new, of fidelity to the Hebrew. In both, it must be admitted, that those parts which have poetical merit are few and far between; but a reverent taste is likely to be more offended by the frequent sacrifice, in the new, of depth of tone and accuracy of sense to a fluent commonplace correctness of versification and diction, than by any excessive homeliness in the old. In both, however, some psalms, or portions of psalms, are well enough rendered to entitle them to a permanent place in the hymn-books--especially the 8th, and parts of the 18th Psalm, by Sternhold; the 57th, 84th and 100th, by Hopkins; the 23rd, 34th and 36th, and part of the 148th, by Tate and Brady.

The judgment which a fastidious critic might be disposed to pass upon both these books may perhaps be considerably mitigated by comparing them with the works of other labourers in the same field, of whom Holland, in his interesting volumes entitled _Psalmists of Great Britain_, enumerates above 150. Some of them have been real poets--the celebrated earl of Surrey, Sir Philip Sidney and his sister the countess of Pembroke, George Sandys, George Wither, John Milton and John Keble. In their versions, as might be expected, there are occasional gleams of power and beauty, exceeding anything to be found in Sternhold and Hopkins, or Tate and Brady; but even in the best these are rare, and chiefly occur where the strict idea of translation has been most widely departed from. In all of them, as a rule, the life and spirit, which in prose versions of the psalms are so wonderfully preserved, have disappeared. The conclusion practically suggested by so many failures is that the difficulties of metrical translation, always great, are in this case insuperable; and that, while the psalms like other parts of scripture are abundantly suggestive of motive and material for hymnographers, it is by assimilation and adaptation, and not by any attempt to transform their exact sense into modern poetry, that they may be best used for this purpose.

The order in council of 1703 is the latest act of any public authority by which an express sanction has been given to the use of psalms or hymns in the Church of England. At the end, indeed, of many Prayer-books, till about the middle of the 19th century, there were commonly found, besides some of the hymns sanctioned by that order in council, or of those contained in the book of 1562, a sacramental and a Christmas hymn by Doddridge; a Christmas hymn (varied by Martin Madan) from Charles Wesley; an Easter hymn of the 18th century, beginning "Jesus Christ has risen to-day"; and abridgments Bishop Ken's Morning and Evening Hymns. These additions first began to be made in or about 1791, in London editions of the Prayer-book and Psalter, at the mere will and pleasure (so far as appears) of the printers. They had no sort of authority.

English congregational hymnody.

In the state of authority, opinion and practice disclosed by the preceding narrative may be found the true explanation of the fact that, in the country of Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton, and notwithstanding the example of Germany, no native congregational hymnody worthy of the name arose till after the commencement of the 18th century. Yet there was no want of appreciation of the power and value of congregational church music. Milton could write, before 1645:--

"There let the pealing organ blow To the full-voiced quire below In service high, and anthems clear, As may with sweetness through mine ear Dissolve me into ecstasies, And bring all Heaven before mine eyes."

Thomas Mace, in his _Music's Monument_ (1676), thus described the effect of psalm-singing before sermons by the congregation in York Minster on Sundays, during the siege of 1644: "When that vast concording unity of the whole congregational chorus came thundering in, even so as it made the very ground shake under us, oh, the unutterable ravishing soul's delight! in the which I was so transported and wrapt up in high contemplations that there was no room left in my whole man, body, soul and spirit, for anything below divine and heavenly raptures; nor could there possibly be anything to which that very singing might be truly compared, except the right apprehension or conceiving of that glorious and miraculous quire, recorded in the scriptures at the dedication of the temple." Nor was there any want of men well qualified, and by the turn of their minds predisposed, to shine in this branch of literature. Some (like Sandys, Boyd and Barton) devoted themselves altogether to paraphrases of other scriptures as well as the psalms. Others (like George Herbert, and Francis and John Quarles) moralized, meditated, soliloquized and allegorized in verse. Without reckoning these, there were a few, even before the Restoration, who came very near to the ideal of hymnody.

Wedderburn.

First in time is the Scottish poet John Wedderburn, who translated several of Luther's hymns, and in his _Compendious Book of Godly and Spiritual Songs_ added others of his own (or his brothers') composition. Some of these poems, published before 1560, are of uncommon excellence, uniting ease and melody of rhythm, and structural skill, with grace of expression, and simplicity, warmth and reality of religious feeling. Those entitled "Give me thy heart," "Go, heart," and "Leave me not," which will be found in a collection of 1860 called _Sacred Songs of Scotland_, require little, beyond the change of some archaisms of language, to adapt them for church or domestic use at the present day.

Dickson.

Next come the two hymns of "The new Jerusalem," by an English Roman Catholic priest signing himself F. B. P. (supposed to be "Francis Baker, Presbyter"), and by another Scottish poet, David Dickson, of which the history is given by Dr Bonar in his edition of Dickson's work. This (Dickson's), which begins "O mother dear, Jerusalem," and has long been popular in Scotland, is a variation and amplification by the addition of a large number of new stanzas of the English original, beginning "Jerusalem, my happy home," written in Queen Elizabeth's time, and printed (as appears by a copy in the British Museum) about 1616, when Dickson was still young. Both have an easy natural flow, and a simple happy rendering of the beautiful scriptural imagery upon the subject, with a spirit of primitive devotion uncorrupted by medieval peculiarities. The English hymn of which some stanzas are now often sung in churches is the true parent of the several shorter forms,--all of more than common merit,--which, in modern hymn-books, begin with the same first line, but afterwards deviate from the original. Kindred to these is the very fine and faithful translation, by Dickson's contemporary Drummond of Hawthornden of the ancient "Urbs beata Hierusalem" ("Jerusalem, that place divine"). Other ancient hymns (two of Thomas Aquinas, and the "Dies Irae") were also well translated, in 1646, by Richard Crashaw, after he had become a Roman Catholic and had been deprived by the parliament of his fellowship at Cambridge.

Wither.

Conspicuous among the sacred poets of the first two Stuart reigns in England was George Wither. His _Hymnes and Songs of the Church_ appeared in 1622-1623, under a patent of King James I., by which they were declared "worthy and profitable to be inserted, in convenient manner and due place, into every English Psalm-book to metre." His _Hallelujah_ (in which some of the former _Hymnes and Songs_ were repeated) followed in 1641. Some of the _Hymnes and Songs_ were set to music by Orlando Gibbons, and those in both books were written to be sung, though there is no evidence that the author contemplated the use of any of them in churches. They included hymns for every day in the week (founded, as those contributed nearly a century afterwards by Charles Coffin to the Parisian Breviary also were, upon the successive works of the days of creation); hymns for all the church seasons and festivals, including saints' days; hymns for various public occasions; and hymns of prayer, meditation and instruction, for all sorts and conditions of men, under a great variety of circumstances--being at once a "Christian Year" and a manual of practical piety. Many of them rise to a very high point of excellence,--particularly the "general invitation to praise God" ("Come, O come, in pious lays"), with which _Hallelujah_ opens; the thanksgivings for peace and for victory, the Coronation Hymn, a Christmas, an Epiphany, and an Easter Hymn, and one for St Bartholomew's day (Hymns 1, 74, 75, and 84 in part i., and 26, 29, 36 and 54 in part ii. of _Hallelujah_).

Cosin.

John Cosin, afterwards bishop of Durham, published in 1627 a volume of "Private Devotions," for the canonical hours and other occasions. In this there are seven or eight hymns of considerable merit,--among them a very good version of the Ambrosian "Jam lucis orto sidere," and the shorter version of the "Veni Creator," which was introduced after the Restoration into the consecration and ordination services of the Church of England.

Milton.

The hymns of Milton (on the Nativity, Passion, Circumcision and "at a Solemn Music"), written about 1629, in his early manhood, were probably not intended for singing; but they are odes full of characteristic beauty and power.

Jeremy Taylor.

During the Commonwealth, in 1654, Jeremy Taylor published at the end of his _Golden Grove_, twenty-one hymns, described by himself as "celebrating the mysteries and chief festivals of the year, according to the manner of the ancient church, fitted to the fancy and devotion of the younger and pious persons, apt for memory, and to be joined, to their other prayers." Of these, his accomplished editor, Bishop Heber, justly says:--

"They are in themselves, and on their own account, very interesting compositions. Their metre, indeed, which is that species of spurious Pindaric which was fashionable with his contemporaries, is an obstacle, and must always have been one, to their introduction into public or private psalmody; and the mixture of that alloy of conceits and quibbles which was an equally frequent and still greater defilement of some of the finest poetry of the 17th century will materially diminish their effect as devotional or descriptive odes. Yet, with all these faults, they are powerful, affecting, and often harmonious; there are many passages of which Cowley need not have been ashamed, and some which remind us, not disadvantageously, of the corresponding productions of Milton."

He mentions particularly the advent hymn ("Lord, come away"), part of the hymn "On heaven," and (as "more regular in metre, and in words more applicable to public devotion") the "Prayer for Charity" ("Full of mercy, full of love").

Restoration period.

The epoch of the Restoration produced in 1664 Samuel Crossman's _Young Man's Calling_, with a few "Divine Meditations" in verse attached to it; in 1668 John Austin's _Devotions in the ancient way of offices, with psalms, hymns and prayers for every day in the week and every holyday in the year_; and in 1681 Richard Baxter's _Poetical Fragments_. In these books there are altogether seven or eight hymns, the whole or parts of which are extremely good: Crossman's "New Jerusalem" ("Sweet place, sweet place alone"), one of the best of that class, and "My life's a shade, my days"; Austin's "Hark, my soul, how everything," "Fain would my thoughts fly up to Thee," "Lord, now the time returns," "Wake all my hopes, lift up your eyes"; and Baxter's "My whole, though broken heart, O Lord," and "Ye holy angels bright." Austin's _Offices_ (he was a Roman Catholic) seem to have attracted much attention. Theophilus Dorrington, in 1686, published variations of them under the title of _Reformed_ _Devotions_; George Hickes, the non-juror, wrote one of his numerous recommendatory prefaces to S. Hopton's edition; and the Wesleys, in their earliest hymn-book, adopted hymns from them, with little alteration. These writers were followed by John Mason in 1683, and Thomas Shepherd in 1692,--the former, a country clergyman, much esteemed by Baxter and other Nonconformists; the latter himself a Nonconformist, who finally emigrated to America. Between these two men there was a close alliance, Shepherd's _Penitential Cries_ being published as an addition to the _Spiritual Songs_ of Mason. Their hymns came into early use in several Nonconformist congregations; but, with the exception of one by Mason ("There is a stream which issues forth"), they are not suitable for public singing. In those of Mason there is often a very fine vein of poetry; and later authors have, by extracts or centoes from different parts of his works (where they were not disfigured by his general quaintness), constructed several hymns of more than average excellence.

Three other eminent names of the 17th century remain to be mentioned, John Dryden, Bishop Ken and Bishop Simon Patrick; with which may be associated that of Addison, though he wrote in the 18th century.

Dryden, Ken.

Patrick

Addison.

Dryden's translation of "Veni Creator" a cold and laboured performance, is to be met with in many hymn-books. Abridgments of Ken's morning and evening hymns are in all. These, with the midnight hymn, which is not inferior to them, first appeared In 1697, appended to the third edition of the author's _Manual of Prayers for Winchester Scholars_. Between these and a large number of other hymns (on the attributes of God, and for the festivals of the church) published by Bishop Ken after 1703 the contrast is remarkable. The universal acceptance of the morning and evening hymns is due to their transparent simplicity, warm but not overstrained devotion, and extremely popular style. Those afterwards published have no such qualities. They are mystical, florid, stiff, didactic and seldom poetical, and deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. Bishop Patrick's hymns were chiefly translations from the Latin, most of them from Prudentius. The best is a version of "Alleluia dulce carmen." Of the five attributed to Addison, not more than three are adapted to public singing; one ("The spacious firmament on high") is a very perfect and finished composition, taking rank among the best hymns in the English language.[3]

From the preface to Simon Browne's hymns, published in 1720, we learn that down to the time of Dr Watts the only hymns known to be "in common use, either in private families or in Christian assemblies," were those of Barton, Mason and Shepherd, together with "an attempt to turn some of George Herbert's poems into common metre," and a few sacramental hymns by authors now forgotten, named Joseph Boyse (1660-1728) and Joseph Stennett. Of the 1410 authors of original British hymns enumerated in Daniel Sedgwick's catalogue, published in 1863, 1213 are of later date than 1707; and, if any correct enumeration could be made of the total number of hymns of all kinds published in Great Britain before and after that date, the proportion subsequent to 1707 would be very much larger.

The English Independents, as represented by Dr Isaac Watts, have a just claim to be considered the real founders of modern English hymnody. Watts was the first to understand the nature of the want, and, by the publication of his _Hymns_ in 1707-1709, and _Psalms_ (not translations, but hymns founded on psalms) in 1709, he led the way in providing for it. His immediate followers were Simon Browne and Philip Doddridge. Later in the 18th century, Joseph Hart, Thomas Gibbons, Miss Anne Steele, Samuel Medley, Samuel Stennett, John Ryland, Benjamin Beddome and Joseph Swain succeeded to them.

Watts.

Among these writers, most of whom produced some hymns of merit, and several are extremely voluminous, Isaac Watts and Philip Doddridge are pre-eminent. It has been the fashion with some to disparage Watts, as if he had never risen above the level of his _Hymns for Little Children_. No doubt his taste is often faulty, and his style very unequal, but, looking to the good, and disregarding the large quantity of inferior matter, it is probable that more hymns which approach to a very high standard of excellence, and are at the same time suitable for congregational use, may be found in his works than in those of any other English writer. Such are "When I survey the wondrous cross," "Jesus shall reign where'er the sun" (and also another adaptation of the same 72nd Psalm), "Before Jehovah's awful throne" (first line of which, however, is not his, but Wesley's), "Joy to the world, the Lord is come," "My soul, repeat His praise," "Why do we mourn departing friends," "There is a land of pure delight," "Our God, our help in ages past," "Up to the hills I lift mine eyes," and many more. It is true that in some of these cases dross is found in the original poems mixed with gold; but the process of separation, by selection without change, is not difficult. As long as pure nervous English, unaffected fervour, strong simplicity and liquid yet manly sweetness are admitted to be characteristics of a good hymn, works such as these must command admiration.

Doddridge.

Doddridge is, generally, much more laboured and artificial; but his place also as a hymn-writer ought to be determined, not by his failures, but by his successes, of which the number is not inconsiderable. In his better works he is distinguished by a graceful and pointed, sometimes even a noble style. His "Hark, the glad sound, the Saviour comes" (which is, indeed, his masterpiece), is as sweet, vigorous and perfect a composition as can anywhere be found. Two other hymns, "How gentle God's commands," and that which, in a form slightly varied, became the "O God of Bethel, by whose hand," of the Scottish "Paraphrases," well represent his softer manner.

Of the other followers in the school of Watts, Miss Anne Steele (1717-1778) is the most popular and perhaps the best. Her hymn beginning "Far from these narrow scenes of night" deserves high praise, even by the side of other good performances on the same subject.

The influence of Watts was felt in Scotland, and among the first whom it reached there was Ralph Erskine. This seems to have been after the publication of Erskine's _Gospel Sonnets_, which appeared in 1732, five years before he joined his brother Ebenezer in the Secession Church. The _Gospel Sonnets_ became, as some have said, a "people's classic"; but there is in them very little which belongs to the category of hymnody. More than nineteen-twentieths of this very curious book are occupied with what are, in fact, theological treatises and catechisms, mystical meditations on Christ as a bridegroom or husband, and spiritual enigmas, paradoxes, and antithetical conceits, versified, it is true, but of a quality of which such lines as--

"Faith's certain by fiducial arts, Sense by its evidential facts,"

may be taken as a sample. The grains of poetry scattered through this large mass of Calvinistic divinity are very few; yet in one short passage of seven stanzas ("O send me down a draught of love"), the fire burns with a brightness so remarkable as to justify a strong feeling of regret that the gift which this writer evidently had in him was not more often cultivated. Another passage, not so well sustained, but of considerable beauty (part of the last piece under the title "The believer's soliloquy"), became afterwards, in the hands of John Berridge, the foundation of a very striking hymn ("O happy saints, who walk in light").

After his secession, Ralph Erskine published two paraphrases of the "Song of Solomon," and a number of other "Scripture songs," paraphrased, in like manner, from the Old and New Testaments. In these the influence of Watts became very apparent, not only by a change in the writer's general style, but by the direct appropriation of no small quantity of matter from Dr Watts's hymns, with variations which were not always improvements. His paraphrases of I Cor. i. 24; Gal. vi. 14; Heb. vi. 17-19; Rev. v. 11, 12, vii. 10-17, and xii. 7-12 are little else than Watts transformed. One of these (Rev. vii. 10-17) is interesting as a variation and improvement, intermediate between the original and the form which it ultimately assumed as the 66th "Paraphrase" of the Church of Scotland, of Watts's "What happy men or angels these," and "These glorious minds, how bright they shine." No one can compare it with its ultimate product, "How bright these glorious spirits shine," without perceiving that William Cameron followed Erskine, and only added finish and grace to his work,--both excelling Watts, in this instance, in simplicity as well as in conciseness.

Scottish paraphrases.

Of the contributions to the authorized "Paraphrases" (with the settlement of which committees of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland were occupied from 1745, or earlier, till 1781), the most noteworthy, besides the two already mentioned, were those of John Morrison and those claimed for Michael Bruce. The obligations of these "Paraphrases" to English hymnody, already traced in some instances (to which may be added the adoption from Addison of three out of the five "hymns" appended to them), are perceptible in the vividness and force with which these writers, while adhering with a severe simplicity to the sense of the passages of Scripture which they undertook to render, fulfilled the conception of a good original hymn. Morrison's "The race that long in darkness pined" and "Come, let us to the Lord our God," and Bruce's "Where high the heavenly temple stands" (if this was really his), are well entitled to that praise. The advocates of Bruce in the controversy, not yet closed, as to the poems said to have been entrusted by him to John Logan, and published by Logan in his own name, also claim for him the credit of having varied the paraphrase "Behold, the mountain of the Lord," from its original form, as printed by the committee of the General Assembly in 1745, by some excellent touches.

Methodist hymns.

Attention must now be directed to the hymns produced by the "Methodist" movement, which began about 1738, and which afterwards became divided, between those esteemed Arminian, under John Wesley, those who adhered to the Moravians, when the original alliance between that body and the founders of Methodism was dissolved, and the Calvinists, of whom Whitfield was the leader, and Selina, countess of Huntingdon, the patroness. Each of these sections had its own hymn-writers, some of whom did, and others did not, secede from the Church of England. The Wesleyans had Charles Wesley, Robert Seagrave and Thomas Olivers; the Moravians, John Cennick, with whom, perhaps, may be classed John Byrom, who imbibed the mystical ideas of some of the German schools; the Calvinists, Augustus Montague Toplady, John Berridge, William Williams, Martin Madan, Thomas Haweis, Rowland Hill, John Newton and William Cowper.

Charles Wesley.

Among all these writers, the palm undoubtedly belongs to Charles Wesley. In the first volume of hymns published by the two brothers are several good translations from the German, believed to be by John Wesley, who, although he translated and adapted, is not supposed to have written any original hymns; and the influence of German hymnody, particularly of the works of Paul Gerhardt, Scheffler, Tersteegen and Zinzendorf, may be traced in a large proportion of Charles Wesley's works. He is more subjective and meditative than Watts and his school; there is a didactic turn, even in his most objective pieces, as, for example, in his Christmas and Easter hymns; most of his works are supplicatory, and his faults are connected with the same habit of mind. He is apt to repeat the same thoughts, and to lose force by redundancy--he runs sometimes even to a tedious length; his hymns are not always symmetrically constructed, or well balanced and finished off. But he has great truth, depth and variety of feeling; his diction is manly and always to the point; never florid, though sometimes passionate and not free from exaggeration; often vivid and picturesque. Of his spirited style there are few better examples than "O for a thousand tongues to sing," "Blow ye the trumpet, blow," "Rejoice, the Lord is King" and "Come, let us join our friends above"; of his more tender vein, "Happy soul, thy days are ended"; and of his fervid contemplative style (without going beyond hymns fit for general use), "O Thou who earnest from above," "Forth in Thy name, O Lord, I go" and "Eternal beam of light divine." With those whose taste is for hymns in which warm religious feelings are warmly and demonstratively expressed, "Jesus, lover of my soul," is as popular as any of these.

Olivers.

Of the other Wesleyan hymn-writers, Olivers, originally a Welsh shoemaker and afterwards a preacher, is the most remarkable. He is the author of only two works, both odes, in a stately metre, and from their length unfit for congregational singing, but one of them, "The God of Abraham praise," an ode of singular power and beauty.

Cennick, Hammond, Byrom.

The Moravian Methodists produced few hymns now available for general use. The best are Cennick's "Children of the heavenly King" and Hammond's "Awake and sing the song of Moses and the Lamb," the former of which (abridged), and the latter as varied by Madan, are found in many hymn-books, and are deservedly esteemed. John Byrom, whose name we have thought it convenient to connect with these, though he did not belong to the Moravian community, was the author of a Christmas hymn ("Christians awake, salute the happy morn") which enjoys great popularity; and also of a short subjective hymn, very fine both in feeling and in expression, "My spirit longeth for Thee within my troubled breast."

Toplady.

The contributions of the Calvinistic Methodists to English hymnody are of greater extent and value. Few writers of hymns had higher gifts than Toplady, author of "Rock of ages," by some esteemed the finest in the English language. He was a man of ardent temperament, enthusiastic zeal, strong convictions and great energy of character. "He had," says one of his biographers, "the courage of a lion, but his frame was brittle as glass." Between him and John Wesley there was a violent opposition of opinion, and much acrimonious controversy; but the same fervour and zeal which made him an intemperate theologian gave warmth, richness and spirituality to his hymns. In some of them, particularly those which, like "Deathless principle, arise," are meditations after the German manner, and not without direct obligation to German originals, the setting is somewhat too artificial; but his art is never inconsistent with a genuine flow of real feeling. Others (e.g. "When languor and disease invade" and "Your harps, ye trembling saints") fail to sustain to the end the beauty with which they began, and would have been better for abridgment. But in all these, and in most of his other works, there is great force and sweetness, both of thought and language, and an easy and harmonious versification.

Berridge, Williams and R. Hill.

Berridge, William Williams (1717-1791) and Rowland Hill, all men remarkable for eccentricity, activity and the devotion of their lives to the special work of missionary preaching, though not the authors of many good hymns, composed, or adapted from earlier compositions, some of great merit. One of Berridge, adapted from Erskine, has been already mentioned; another, adapted from Watts, is "Jesus, cast a look on me." Williams, a Welshman, who wrote "Guide me, O Thou great Jehovah," was especially an apostle of Calvinistic Methodism in his own country, and his hymns are still much used in the principality. Rowland Hill wrote the popular hymn beginning "Exalted high at God's right hand."

Cowper and Newton.

If, however, the number as well as the quality of good hymns available for general use is to be regarded, the authors of the _Olney Hymns_ are entitled to be placed at the head of all the writers of this Calvinistic school. The greater number of the _Olney Hymns_ are, no doubt, homely and didactic; but to the best of them, and they are no inconsiderable proportion, the tenderness of Cowper and the manliness of John Newton (1725-1807) give the interest of contrast, as well as that of sustained reality. If Newton carried to some excess the sound principle laid down by him, that "perspicuity, simplicity and ease should be chiefly attended to, and the imagery and colouring of poetry, if admitted at all, should be indulged very sparingly and with great judgment," if he is often dry and colloquial, he rises at other times into "soul-animating strains," such as "Glorious things of thee are spoken, Zion, city of our God"; and sometimes (as in "Approach, my soul, the mercy seat") rivals Cowper himself in depth of feeling. Cowper's hymns in this book are, almost without exception, worthy of his name. Among them are "Hark, my soul, it is the Lord," "There is a fountain filled with blood," "Far from the world, O Lord, I flee," "God moves in a mysterious way" and "Sometimes a light surprises." Some, perhaps, even of these, and others of equal excellence (such as "O for a closer walk with God"), speak the language of a special experience, which, in Cowper's case, was only too real, but which could not, without a degree of unreality not desirable in exercises of public worship, be applied to themselves by all ordinary Christians.

19th-century hymns.

R. Grant.

Bowdler.

During the first quarter of the 19th century there were not many indications of the tendency, which afterwards became manifest, to enlarge the boundaries of British hymnody. _The Remains of Henry Kirke White_, published by Southey in 1807, contained a series of hymns, some of which are still in use; and a few of Bishop Heber's hymns and those of Sir Robert Grant, which, though offending rather too much against John Newton's canon, are well known and popular, appeared between 1811 and 1816, in the _Christian Observer_. In John Bowdler's Remains, published soon after his death in 1815, there are a few more of the same, perhaps too scholarlike, character. But the chief hymn-writers of that period were two clergymen of the Established Church--one in Ireland, Thomas Kelly, and the other in England, William Hurn--who both became Nonconformists, and the Moravian poet, James Montgomery (1771-1854), a native of Scotland.

Kelly.

Kelly was the son of an Irish judge, and in 1804 published a small volume of ninety-six hymns, which grew in successive editions till, in the last before his death in 1854, they amounted to 765. There is, as might be expected, in this great number a large preponderance of the didactic and commonplace. But not a few very excellent hymns may be gathered from them. Simple and natural, without the vivacity and terseness of Watts or the severity of Newton, Kelly has some points in common with both those writers, and he is less subjective than most of the "Methodist" school. His hymns beginning "Lo! He comes, let all adore Him," and "Through the day Thy love hath spared us," have a rich, melodious movement; and another, "We sing the praise of Him who died," is distinguished by a calm, subdued power, rising gradually from a rather low to a very high key.

Hurn.

Hurn published in 1813 a volume of 370 hymns, which were afterwards increased to 420. There is little in them which deserves to be saved from oblivion; but one at least, "There is a river deep and broad," may bear comparison with the best of those which have been produced upon the same, and it is rather a favourite, theme.

Montgomery.

The _Psalms and Hymns_ of James Montgomery were published in 1822 and 1825, though written earlier. More cultivated and artistic than Kelly, he is less simple and natural. His "Hail to the Lord's Anointed," "Songs of praise the angels sang" and "Mercy alone can meet my case" are among his most successful efforts.

Collections of hymns.

During this period, the collections of miscellaneous hymns for congregational use, of which the example was set by the Wesleys, Whitfield, Toplady and Lady Huntingdon, had greatly multiplied; and with them the practice (for which, indeed, too many precedents existed in the history of Latin and German hymnody) of every collector altering the compositions of other men without scruple, to suit his own doctrine or taste; with the effect, too generally, of patching and disfiguring, spoiling and emasculating the works so altered, substituting neutral tints for natural colouring, and a dead for a living sense. In the Church of England the use of these collections had become frequent in churches and chapels, principally in cities and towns, where the sentiments of the clergy approximated to those of the Nonconformists. In rural parishes, when the clergy were not of the "Evangelical" school, they were generally held in disfavour; for which, even if doctrinal prepossessions had not entered into the question, the great want of taste and judgment often manifested in their compilation, and perhaps also the prevailing mediocrity of the bulk of the original compositions from which most of them were derived, would be enough to account. In addition to this, the idea that no hymns ought to be used in any services of the Church of England, except prose anthems after the third collect, without express royal or ecclesiastical authority, continued down to that time largely to prevail among high churchmen.

Heber, Milman, Keble.

Mant.

Newman.

Two publications, which appeared almost simultaneously in 1827--Bishop Heber's _Hymns_, with a few added by Dean Milman, and John Keble's _Christian Year_ (not a hymn-book, but one from which several admirable hymns have been taken, and the well-spring of many streams of thought and feeling by which good hymns have since been produced)--introduced a new epoch, breaking down the barrier as to hymnody which had till then existed between the different theological schools of the Church of England. In this movement Richard Mant, bishop of Down, was also one of the first to co-operate. It soon received a great additional impulse from the increased attention which, about the same time, began to be paid to ancient hymnody, and from the publication in 1833 of Bunsen's _Gesangbuch_. Among its earliest fruits was the _Lyra apostolica_, containing hymns, sonnets and other devotional poems, most of them originally contributed by some of the leading authors of the _Tracts for the Times_ to the _British Magazine_; the finest of which is the pathetic "Lead, kindly Light, amid th' encircling gloom," by Cardinal Newman--well known, and universally admired. From that time hymns and hymn-writers rapidly multiplied in the Church of England, and in Scotland also. Nearly 600 authors whose publications were later than 1827 are enumerated in Sedgwick's catalogue of 1863, and about half a million hymns are now in existence. Works, critical and historical, upon the subject of hymns, have also multiplied; and collections for church use have become innumerable--several of the various religious denominations, and many of the leading ecclesiastical and religious societies, having issued hymn-books of their own, in addition to those compiled for particular dioceses, churches and chapels, and to books (like _Hymns Ancient and Modern_, published 1861, supplemented 1889, revised edition, 1905) which have become popular without any sanction from authority. To mention all the authors of good hymns since the commencement of this new epoch would be impossible; but probably no names could be chosen more fairly representative of its characteristic merits, and perhaps also of some of its defects, than those of Josiah Conder and James Edmeston among English Nonconformists; Henry Francis Lyte and Charlotte Elliott among evangelicals in the Church of England; John Mason Neale and Christopher Wordsworth, bishop of Lincoln, among English churchmen of the higher school; Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Edward H. Plumptre, Frances Ridley Havergal; and in Scotland, Dr Horatius Bonar, Dr Norman Macleod and Dr George Matheson. American hymn-writers belong to the same schools, and have been affected by the same influences. Some of them have enjoyed a just reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. Among those best known are John Greenleaf Whittier, Bishop Doane, Dr W. A. Muhlenberg and Thomas Hastings; and it is difficult to praise too highly such works as the Christmas hymn, "It came upon the midnight clear," by Edmund H. Sears; the Ascension hymn, "Thou, who didst stoop below," by Mrs S. E. Miles; two by Dr Ray Palmer, "My faith looks up to Thee, Thou Lamb of Calvary," and "Jesus, Thou joy of loving hearts," the latter of which is the best among several good English versions of "Jesu, dulcedo, cordium"; and "Lord of all being, throned afar," by Oliver Wendell Holmes.

The more modern "Moody and Sankey" hymns (see Moody, D. L.) popularized a new Evangelical type, and the Salvation Army has carried this still farther.

7. _Conclusion._--The object aimed at in this article has been to trace the general history of the principal schools of ancient and modern hymnody, and especially the history of its use in the Christian church. For this purpose it has not been thought necessary to give any account of the hymns of Racine, Madame Guyon and others, who can hardly be classed with any school, nor of the works of Caesar Malan of Geneva (1787-1864) and other quite modern hymn-writers of the Reformed churches in Switzerland and France.

On a general view of the whole subject, hymnody is seen to have been a not inconsiderable factor in religious worship. It has been sometimes employed to disseminate and popularize particular views, but its spirit and influence has been, on the whole, catholic. It has embodied the faith, trust and hope, and no small part of the inward experience, of generation after generation of men, in many different countries and climates, of many different nations, and in many varieties of circumstances and condition. Coloured, indeed, by these differences, and also by the various modes in which the same truths have been apprehended by different minds and sometimes reflecting partial and imperfect conceptions of them, and errors with which they have been associated in particular churches, times and places, its testimony is, nevertheless, generally the same. It has upon it a stamp of genuineness which cannot be mistaken. It bears witness to the force of a central attraction more powerful than all causes of difference, which binds together times ancient and modern, nations of various race and language, churchmen and nonconformists, churches reformed and unreformed; to a true fundamental unity among good Christians; and to a substantial identity in their moral and spiritual experience. (S.)

The regular practice of hymnody in English musical history dates from the beginning of the 16th century. Luther's verses were adapted sometimes to ancient church melodies, sometimes to tunes of secular songs, and sometimes had music composed for them by himself and others. Many rhyming Latin hymns are of earlier date whose tunes are identified with them, some of which tunes, with the subject of their Latin text, are among the Reformer's appropriations; but it was he who put the words of praise and prayer into the popular mouth, associated with rhythmical music which aided to imprint the words upon the memory and to enforce their enunciation. In conjunction with his friend Johann Walther, Luther issued a collection of poems for choral singing in 1524, which was followed by many others in North Germany. The English versions of the Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins and their predecessors, and the French version by Clement Marot and Theodore Beza, were written with the same purpose of fitting sacred minstrelsy to the voice of the multitude. Goudimel in 1566 and Claudin le Jeune in 1607 printed harmonizations of tunes that had then become standard for the Psalms, and in England several such publications appeared, culminating in Thomas Ravenscroft's famous collection, _The Whole Book of Psalms_ (1621); in all of these the arrangements of the tunes were by various masters. The English practice of hymn-singing was much strengthened on the return of the exiled reformers from Frankfort and Geneva, when it became so general that, according to Bishop Jewell, thousands of the populace who assembled at Paul's Cross to hear the preaching would join in the singing of psalms before and after the sermon.

The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of the people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also its great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North German musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation, which abound in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought upon the tunes of established acceptance. Some of these are accompaniments to the tunes with interludes between the several strains, and some are compositions for the organ or for orchestral instruments that consist of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed in accompaniments to voices, but of far more complicated and extended character. A special art-form that was developed to a very high degree, but has passed into comparative disuse, was the structure of all varieties of counterpoint extemporaneously upon the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several masters acquired great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A. Reinken (1623-1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North Germany has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is unpossessed by that of England, in that for the most part the same verses are associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the text or the music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other, whereas in England tunes were always and are now often composed to metres and not to poems; any tune in a given metre is available for every poem in the same, and hence there are various tunes to one poem, and various poems to one tune.[4] In England a tune is named generally after some place--as "York," "Windsor," "Dundee,"--or by some other unsignifying word; in North Germany a tune is mostly named by the initial words of the verses to which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is heard, whether with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the hearer the whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical moiety undivorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are, knowledge of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of every Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the definition of "choral." Compositions grounded on the standard tune are then not merely school exercises, but works of art which link the sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at expressing the feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Ancient.--George Cassander, _Hymni ecclesiastici_ (Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius, _Poëtarum veterum ecclesiasticorum_ (Frankfort, 1578); Cardinal J. M. Thomasius, _Hymnarium in Opera_, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Rambach, _Anthologie christlicher Gesänge_ (Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel, _Thesaurus hymnologicus_ (Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M. Neale, _Hymni ecclesiae et sequentiae_ (London, 1851-1852); and _Hymns of the Eastern Church_ (1863). The dissertation prefixed to the second volume of the _Acta sanctorum_ of the Bollandists; Cardinal J. B. Pitra, _Hymnographie de l'église grecque_ (1867), _Analecta sacra_ (1876); W. Christ and M. Paranikas, _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_ (Leipzig, 1871); F. A. March, _Latin Hymns with English Notes_ (New York, 1875); R. C. Trench, _Sacred Latin Poetry_ (London, 4th ed., 1874); J. Pauly, _Hymni breviarii Romani_ (Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 vols., 1868-1870); Pimont, _Les Hymnes du bréviaire romain_ (vols. 1-3, 1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer, _Kirchenlieder-Lexicon_ (Gotha, 1878-1879); J. Kayser, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten Kirchenhymnen_ (1881); M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlichen lateinischen Poesie_ (Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian, _Dictionary of Hymnology_ (1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see also Huemer, _Untersuchungen über die ältesten christlichen Rhythmen_ (1879); E. Bouvy, _Poètes et mélodes_ (Nîmes, 1886); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.); J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel's _Thesaurus_, vol. 5; and D. J. Donahoe, _Early Christian Hymns_ (London, 1909).

II. Medieval.--Walafrid Strabo's treatise, ch. 25, _De hymnis, &c._; Radulph of Tongres, _De psaltario observando_ (14th century); Clichtavaens, _Elucidatorium ecclesiasticum_ (Paris, 1556); Faustinus Arevalus, _Hymnodia Hispanica_ (Rome, 1786); E. du Méril, _Poésies populaires latines antérieures au XIII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1843); J. Stevenson, _Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (Surtees Society, Durham, 1851); Norman, _Hymnarium Sarisburiense_ (London, 1851); J. D. Chambers, _Psalter, &c._, according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J. Mone, _Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 3 vols., 1853-1855); Ph. Wackernagel, _Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1864); E. Dümmler, _Poëtae latini aevi Carolini_ (1881-1890); the _Hymnologische Beiträge: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der lateinischen Hymnendichtung_, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves (Leipzig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike, _Hymnologische Forschungen_; Klemming, _Hymni et sequentiae in regno Sueciae_ (Stockholm, 4 vols., 1885-1887); _Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied_ (vol. i. by K. Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the "Hymnodia Hiberica," _Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters_, vol. xvi. (1894); the "Hymnodia Gotica," _Mozarabische Hymnen des altspanischen Ritus_, vol. xxvii. (1897); J. Dankó, _Vetus hymnarium ecclesiasticae Hungariae_ (Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R. Atkinson, _The Irish Liber Hymnorum_ (2 vols., London, 1898); C. A. J. Chevalier, _Poésie liturgique du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1893).

III. Modern.--J. C. Jacobi, _Psalmodia Germanica_ (1722-1725 and 1732, with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765); F. A. Cunz, _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes_ (Leipzig, 1855); Baron von Bunsen, _Versuch eines allgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches_ (1833) and _Allgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch_ (1846); Catherine Winkworth, _Christian Singers of Germany_ (1869) and _Lyra Germanica_ (1855); Catherine H. Dunn, _Hymns from the German_ (1857); Frances E. Cox, _Sacred Hymns from the German_ (London, 1841); Massie, _Lyra domestica_ (1860); _Appendix on Scottish Psalmody_ in D. Laing's edition of Baillie's _Letters and Journals_ (1841-1842); J. and C. Wesley, _Collection of Psalms and Hymns_ (1741); Josiah Miller, _Our Hymns, their Authors and Origin_ (1866); John Gadsby, _Memoirs of the Principal Hymn-writers_ (3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations to _Hymns Ancient and Modern_ (1867); Daniel Sedgwick, _Comprehensive Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns_ (2nd ed., 1863); R. E. Prothero, _The Psalms in Human Life_ (1907); C. J. Brandt and L. Helweg, _Den danske Psalmedigtning_ (Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N. Skaar, _Norsk Salmehistorie_ (Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schück, _Svensk Literaturhistoria_ (Stockholm, 1890); Rudolf Wolkan, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in Böhmen_, 246-256, and _Das deutsche Kirchenlied der böhm. Brüder_ (Prague, 1891); Zahn, _Die geistlichen Lieder der Brüder in Böhmen, Mähren u. Polen_ (Nuremberg, 1875); and J. Müller, "Bohemian Brethren's Hymnody," in J. Julian's _Dictionary of Hymnology_.

For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love, _Music of the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre_ (London, 1901); and Dickinson, _Music in the History of the Western Church_ (New York, 1902); S. Kümmerle, _Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik_ (4 vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer, _Evangelische Hymnologie_ (Stuttgart, 1865); and P. Urto Kornmüller, _Lexikon der kirchlichen Tonkunst_ (1891).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The history of the "hymn" naturally begins with Greece, but it may be found in some form much earlier; Assyria and Egypt have left specimens, while India has the Vedic hymns, and Confucius collected "praise songs" in China.

[2] See GREEK LITERATURE.

[3] The authorship of this and of one other, "When all thy mercies, O my God," has been made a subject of controversy,--being claimed for Andrew Marvell (who died in 1678), in the preface to Captain E. Thompson's edition (1776) of Marvell's _Works_. But this claim does not appear to be substantiated. The editor did not give his readers the means of judging as to the real age, character or value of a manuscript to which he referred; he did not say that these portions of it were in Marvell's handwriting; he did not even himself include them among Marvell's poems, as published in the body of his edition; and he advanced a like claim on like grounds to two other poems, in very different styles, which had been published as their own by Tickell and Mallet. It is certain that all the five hymns were first made public in 1712, in papers contributed by Addison to the _Spectator_ (Nos. 441, 453, 465, 489, 513), in which they were introduced in a way which might have been expected if they were by the hand which wrote those papers, but which would have been improbable, and unworthy of Addison, if they were unpublished works of a writer of so much genius, and such note in his day, as Marvell. They are all printed as Addison's in Dr Johnson's _British Poets_.

[4] The old tune for the 100th Psalm and Croft's tune for the 104th are almost the only exceptions, unless "God save the King" may be classed under "hymnody." In Scotland also the tune for the 124th Psalm is associated with its proper text.

HYPAETHROS (Gr. [Greek: hypaithros], beneath the sky, in the open air, [Greek: hypo], beneath, and [Greek: aithêr], air), the Greek term quoted by Vitruvius (iii. 2) for the opening in the middle of the roof of decastyle temples, of which "there was no example in Rome, but one in Athens in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which is octastyle." But at the time he wrote (c. 25 B.C.) the cella of this temple was unroofed, because the columns which had been provided to carry, at all events, part of the ceiling and roof had been taken away by Sulla in 80 B.C. The decastyle temple of Apollo Didymaeus near Miletus was, according to Strabo (c. 50 B.C.), unroofed, on account of the vastness of its cella, in which precious groves of laurel bushes were planted. Apart from these two examples, the references in various writers to an opening of some kind in the roofs of temples dedicated to particular deities, and the statement of Vitruvius, which was doubtless based on the writings of Greek authors, that in decastyle or large temples the centre was open to the sky and without a roof (_medium autem sub divo est sine tecto_), render the existence of the hypaethros probable in some cases; and therefore C. R. Cockerell's discovery in the temple at Aegina of two fragments of a coping-stone, in which there were sinkings on one side to receive the tiles and covering tiles, has been of great importance in the discussion of this subject. In the conjectural restoration of the opaion or opening in the roof shown in Cockerell's drawing, it has been made needlessly large, having an area of about one quarter of the superficial area of the cella between the columns, and since in the Pantheon at Rome the relative proportions of the central opening in the dome and the area of the Rotunda are 1: 22, and the light there is ample, in the clearer atmosphere of Greece it might have been less. The larger the opening the more conspicuous would be the notch in the roof which is so greatly objected to; in this respect T. J. Hittorff would seem to be nearer the truth when, in his conjectural restoration of Temple R. at Selinus, he shows an opaion about half the relative size shown in Cockerell's of that at Aegina, the coping on the side elevation being much less noticeable. The problem was apparently solved in another way at Bassae, where, in the excavations of the temple of Apollo by Cockerell and Baron Haller von Hallerstein, three marble tiles were found with pierced openings in them about 18 in. by 10 in.; five of these pierced tiles on either side would have amply lighted the interior of the cella, and the amount of rain passing through (a serious element to be considered in a country where torrential rains occasionally fall) would not be very great or more than could be retained to dry up in the cella sunk pavement. In favour of both these methods of lighting the interior of the cella, the sarcophagus tomb at Cyrene, about 20 ft. long, carved in imitation of a temple, has been adduced, because, on the top of the roof and in its centre, there is a raised coping, and a similar feature is found on a tomb found near Delos; an example from Crete now in the British Museum shows a pierced tile on each side of the roof, and a large number of pierced tiles have been found in Pompeii, some of them surrounded with a rim identical with that of the marble tiles at Bassae. On the other hand, there are many authorities, among them Dr W. Dörpfeld, who have adhered to their original opinion that it was only through the open doorway that light was ever admitted into the cella, and with the clear atmosphere of Greece and the reflections from the marble pavement such lighting would be quite sufficient. There remains still another source of light to be considered, that passing through the Parian marble tiles of the roof; the superior translucency of Parian to any other marble may have suggested its employment for the roofs of temples, and if, in the framed ceilings carried over the cella, openings were left, some light from the Parian tile roof might have been obtained. It is possibly to this that Plutarch refers when describing the ceiling and roof of the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where the columns in the interior of the temple carried a ceiling, probably constructed of timbers crossing one another at right angles, and one or more of the spaces was left open, which Xenocles surmounted by a roof formed of tiles.

James Fergusson put forward many years ago a conjectural restoration in which he adopted a clerestory above the superimposed columns inside the cella; in order to provide the light for these windows he indicated two trenches in the roof, one on each side, and pointed out that the great Hall of Columns at Karnak was lighted in this way with clerestory windows; but in the first place the light in the latter was obtained over the flat roofs covering lower portions of the hall, and in the second place, as it rarely rains in Thebes, there could be no difficulty about the drainage, while in Greece, with the torrential rains and snow, these trenches would be deluged with water, and with all the appliances of the present day it would be impossible to keep these clerestory windows watertight. There is, however, still another objection to Fergusson's theory; the water collecting in these trenches on the roof would have to be discharged, for which Fergusson's suggestions are quite inadequate, and the gargoyles shown in the cella wall would make the peristyle insupportable just at the time when it was required for shelter. No drainage otherwise of any kind has ever been found in any Greek temple, which is fatal to Fergusson's view. Nor is it in accordance with the definition "open to the sky." English cathedrals and churches are all lighted by clerestory windows, but no one has described them as open to the sky, and although Vitruvius's statements are sometimes confusing, his description is far too clear to leave any misunderstanding as to the lighting of temples (where it was necessary on account of great length) through an opening in the roof.

There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which can only apply to non-peristylar temples,--that light and air was admitted through the metopes, the apertures between the beams crossing the cella,--and it has been assumed that because Orestes was advised in one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through the metopes of the temple, these were left open; but if Orestes could look in, so could the birds, and the statue of the god would be defiled. The metopes were probably filled in with shutters of some kind which Orestes knew how to open. (R. P. S.)

HYPALLAGE (Gr. [Greek: hypallagê], interchange or exchange), a rhetorical figure, in which the proper relation between two words according to the rules of syntax are inverted. The stock instance is that in Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 61, where _dare classibus austros_, to give winds to the fleet, is put for _dare classes austris_, to give the fleet to the winds. The term is also loosely applied to figures of speech properly known as "metonymy" and, generally, to any striking turn of expression.

HYPATIA ([Greek: Hypatia]) (c. A.D. 370-415) mathematician and philosopher, born in Alexandria, was the daughter of Theon, also a mathematician and philosopher, author of scholia on Euclid and a commentary on the _Almagest_, in which it is suggested that he was assisted by Hypatia (on the 3rd book). After lecturing in her native city, Hypatia ultimately became the recognized head of the Neoplatonic school there (c. 400). Her great eloquence and rare modesty and beauty, combined with her remarkable intellectual gifts, attracted to her class-room a large number of pupils. Among these was Synesius, afterwards (c. 410) bishop of Ptolemaïs, several of whose letters to her, full of chivalrous admiration and reverence, are still extant. Suidas, misled by an incomplete excerpt in Photius from the life of Isidorus (the Neoplatonist) by Damascius, states that Hypatia was the wife of Isidorus; but this is chronologically impossible, since Isidorus could not have been born before 434 (see Hoche in _Philologus_). Shortly after the accession of Cyril to the patriarchate of Alexandria in 412, owing to her intimacy with Orestes, the pagan prefect of the city, Hypatia was barbarously murdered by the Nitrian monks and the fanatical Christian mob (March 415). Socrates has related how she was torn from her chariot, dragged to the Caesareum (then a Christian church), stripped naked, done to death with oyster-shells ([Greek: ostrakois aneilon,] perhaps "cut her throat") and finally burnt piecemeal. Most prominent among the actual perpetrators of the crime was one Peter, a reader; but there seems little reason to doubt Cyril's complicity (see CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA).

Hypatia, according to Suidas, was the author of commentaries on the _Arithmetica_ of Diophantus of Alexandria, on the Conics of Apollonius of Perga and on the astronomical canon (of Ptolemy). These works are lost; but their titles, combined with expressions in the letters of Synesius, who consulted her about the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope, indicate that she devoted herself specially to astronomy and mathematics. Little is known of her philosophical opinions, but she appears to have embraced the intellectual rather than the mystical side of Neoplatonism, and to have been a follower of Plotinus rather than of Porphyry and Iamblichus. Zeller, however, in his _Outlines of Greek Philosophy_ (1886, Eng. trans. p. 347), states that "she appears to have taught the Neoplatonic doctrine in the form in which Iamblichus had stated it." A Latin letter to Cyril on behalf of Nestorius, printed in the _Collectio nova conciliorum_, i. (1623), by Stephanus Baluzius (Étienne Baluze, q.v.), and sometimes attributed to her, is undoubtedly spurious. The story of Hypatia appears in a considerably disguised yet still recognizable form in the legend of St Catherine as recorded in the Roman _Breviary_ (November 25), and still more fully in the _Martyrologies_ (see A. B. Jameson, _Sacred and Legendary Art_ (1867) ii. 467.)

The chief source for the little we know about Hypatia is the account given by Socrates (_Hist. ecclesiastica_, vii. 15). She is the subject of an epigram by Palladas in the Greek Anthology (ix. 400). See Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), ix. 187; John Toland, _Tetradymus_ (1720); R. Hoche in _Philologus_ (1860), xv. 435; monographs by Stephan Wolf (Czernowitz, 1879), H. Ligier (Dijon, 1880) and W. A. Meyer (Heidelberg, 1885), who devotes attention to the relation of Hypatia to the chief representatives of Neoplatonism; J. B. Bury, _Hist. of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889), i. 208,317; A. Güldenpenning, _Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches unter Arcadius und Theodosius II._ (Halle, 1885), p. 230; Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, vi. (1889), from a Catholic standpoint. The story of Hypatia also forms the basis of the well-known historical romance by Charles Kingsley (1853).

HYPERBATON (Gr. [Greek: huperbaton], a stepping over), the name of a figure of speech, consisting of a transposition of words from their natural order, such as the placing of the object before instead of after the verb. It is a common method of securing emphasis.

HYPERBOLA, a conic section, consisting of two open branches, each extending to infinity. It may be defined in several ways. The _in solido_ definition as the section of a cone by a plane at a less inclination to the axis than the generator brings out the existence of the two infinite branches if we imagine the cone to be double and to extend to infinity. The _in plano_ definition, i.e. as the conic having an eccentricity greater than unity, is a convenient starting-point for the Euclidian investigation. In projective geometry it may be defined as the conic which intersects the line at infinity in two real points, or to which it is possible to draw two real tangents from the centre. Analytically, it is defined by an equation of the second degree, of which the highest terms have real roots (see CONIC SECTION).

While resembling the parabola in extending to infinity, the curve has closest affinities to the ellipse. Thus it has a real centre, two foci, two directrices and two vertices; the transverse axis, joining the vertices, corresponds to the major axis of the ellipse, and the line through the centre and perpendicular to this axis is called the conjugate axis, and corresponds to the minor axis of the ellipse; about these axes the curve is symmetrical. The curve does not appear to intersect the conjugate axis, but the introduction of imaginaries permits us to regard it as cutting this axis in two unreal points. Calling the foci S, S´, the real vertices A, A´, the extremities of the conjugate axis B, B' and the centre C, the positions of B, B´ are given by AB = AB´ = CS. If a rectangle be constructed about AA´ and BB´, the diagonals of this figure are the "asymptotes" of the curve; they are the tangents from the centre, and hence touch the curve at infinity. These two lines may be pictured in the _in solido_ definition as the section of a cone by a plane through its vertex and parallel to the plane generating the hyperbola. If the asymptotes be perpendicular, or, in other words, the principal axes be equal, the curve is called the rectangular hyperbola. The hyperbola which has for its transverse and conjugate axes the transverse and conjugate axes of another hyperbola is said to be the conjugate hyperbola.

Some properties of the curve will be briefly stated: If PN be the ordinate of the point P on the curve, AA' the vertices, X the meet of the directrix and axis and C the centre, then PN²: AN·NA´: : SX²: AX·A´X, i.e. PN² is to AN·NA´ in a constant ratio. The circle on AA' as diameter is called the auxiliarly circle; obviously AN·NA' equals the square of the tangent to this circle from N, and hence the ratio of PN to the tangent to the auxiliarly circle from N equals the ratio of the conjugate axis to the transverse. We may observe that the asymptotes intersect this circle in the same points as the directrices. An important property is: the difference of the focal distances of any point on the curve equals the transverse axis. The tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of the point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal distances. Also the auxiliarly circle is the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent. Two tangents from any point are equally inclined to the focal distance of the point. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, and the transverse in N, then Ct. PN = BC²; similarly if g and G be the corresponding intersections of the normal, PG : Pg : : BC² : AC². A diameter is a line through the centre and terminated by the curve: it bisects all chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities; the diameter parallel to these chords is its conjugate diameter. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter. Any line cuts off equal distances between the curve and the asymptotes. If the tangent at P meets the asymptotes in R, R', then CR·CR´ = CS². The geometry of the rectangular hyperbola is simplified by the fact that its principal axes are equal.

Analytically the hyperbola is given by ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 wherein ab > h². Referred to the centre this becomes Ax² + 2Hxy + By² + C = 0; and if the axes of coordinates be the principal axes of the curve, the equation is further simplified to Ax² - By² = C, or if the semi-transverse axis be a, and the semi-conjugate b, x²/a² - y²/b² = 1. This is the most commonly used form. In the rectangular hyperbola a = b; hence its equation is x² - y² = 0. The equations to the asymptotes are x/a = ±y/b and x = ±y respectively. Referred to the asymptotes as axes the general equation becomes xy = k²; obviously the axes are oblique in the general hyperbola and rectangular in the rectangular hyperbola. The values of the constant k² are ½(a² + b²) and ½a² respectively. (See GEOMETRY: _Analytical_; _Projective_.)

HYPERBOLE (from Gr. [Greek: hyperballein], to throw beyond), a figure of rhetoric whereby the speaker expresses more than the truth, in order to produce a vivid impression; hence, an exaggeration.

HYPERBOREANS ([Greek: Hyperboreoi, Hyperboreioi]), a mythical people intimately connected with the worship of Apollo. Their name does not occur in the _Iliad_ or the _Odyssey_, but Herodotus (iv. 32) states that they were mentioned in Hesiod and in the _Epigoni_, an epic of the Theban cycle. According to Herodotus, two maidens, Opis and Arge, and later two others, Hyperoche and Laodice, escorted by five men, called by the Delians Perphereës, were sent by the Hyperboreans with certain offerings to Delos. Finding that their messengers did not return, the Hyperboreans adopted the plan of wrapping the offerings in wheat-straw and requested their neighbours to hand them on to the next nation, and so on, till they finally reached Delos. The theory of H. L. Ahrens, that Hyperboreans and Perphereës are identical, is now widely accepted. In some of the dialects of northern Greece (especially Macedonia and Delphi) [phi] had a tendency to become [beta]. The original form of [Greek: Perpherees] was [Greek: hyperpheretai] or [Greek: hyperphoroi] ("those who carry over"), which becoming [Greek: hyperboroi] gave rise to the popular derivation from [Greek: boreas] ("dwellers beyond the north wind"). The Hyperboreans were thus the bearers of the sacrificial gifts to Apollo over land and sea, irrespective of their home, the name being given to Delphians, Thessalians, Athenians and Delians. It is objected by O. Schröder that the form [Greek: Perpherees] requires a passive meaning, "those who are carried round the altar," perhaps dancers like the whirling dervishes; distinguishing them from the Hyperboreans, he explains the latter as those who live "above the mountains," that is, in heaven. Under the influence of the derivation from [Greek: boreas], the home of the Hyperboreans was placed in a region beyond the north wind, a paradise like the Elysian plains, inaccessible by land or sea, whither Apollo could remove those mortals who had lived a life of piety. It was a land of perpetual sunshine and great fertility; its inhabitants were free from disease and war. The duration of their life was 1000 years, but if any desired to shorten it, he decked himself with garlands and threw himself from a rock into the sea. The close connexion of the Hyperboreans with the cult of Apollo may be seen by comparing the Hyperborean myths, the characters of which by their names mostly recall Apollo or Artemis (Agyieus, Opis, Hecaergos, Loxo), with the ceremonial of the Apolline worship. No meat was eaten at the Pyanepsia; the Hyperboreans were vegetarians. At the festival of Apollo at Leucas a victim flung himself from a rock into the sea, like the Hyperborean who was tired of life. According to an Athenian decree (380 B.C.) asses were sacrificed to Apollo at Delphi, and Pindar (_Pythia_, x. 33) speaks of "hecatombs of asses" being offered to him by the Hyperboreans. As the latter conveyed sacrificial gifts to Delos hidden in wheat-straw, so at the Thargelia a sheaf of corn was carried round in procession, concealing a symbol of the god (for other resemblances see Crusius's article). Although the Hyperborean legends are mainly connected with Delphi and Delos, traces of them are found in Argos (the stories of Heracles, Perseus, Io), Attica, Macedonia, Thrace, Sicily and Italy (which Niebuhr indeed considers their original home). In modern times the name has been applied to a group of races, which includes the Chukchis, Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Ainus, Gilyaks and Kamchadales, inhabiting the arctic regions of Asia and America. But if ever ethnically one, the Asiatic and American branches are now as far apart from each other as they both are from the Mongolo-Tatar stock.

See O. Crusius in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; O. Schröder in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_ (1904), viii. 69; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1905); L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_ (1907), iv. 100.

HYPEREIDES (c. 390-322 B.C.), one of the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus. Having studied under Isocrates, he began life as a writer of speeches for the courts, and in 360 he prosecuted Autocles, a general charged with treason in Thrace (frags. 55-65, Blass). At the time of the so-called "Social War" (358-355) he accused Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices (frags. 40-44, Blass), and impeached Philocrates (343) for high treason. From the peace of 346 to 324 Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Macedon; but in the affair of Harpalus he was one of the ten public prosecutors of Demosthenes, and on the exile of his former leader he became the head of the patriotic party (324). After the death of Alexander, he was the chief promoter of the Lamian war against Antipater and Craterus. After the decisive defeat at Crannon (322), Hypereides and the other orators, whose surrender was demanded by Antipater, were condemned to death by the Athenian partisans of Macedonia. Hypereides fled to Aegina, but Antipater's emissaries dragged him from the temple of Aeacus, where he had taken refuge, and put him to death; according to others, he was taken before Antipater at Athens or Cleonae. His body was afterwards removed to Athens for burial.

Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of "the beautiful," which in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. His temper was easy-going and humorous; and hence, though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias, whom he surpassed, however, in the richness of his vocabulary and in the variety of his powers. His diction was plain and forcible, though he occasionally indulged in long compound words probably borrowed from the Middle Comedy, with which, and with the everyday life of his time, he was in full sympathy. His composition was simple. He was specially distinguished for subtlety of expression, grace and wit, as well as for tact in approaching his case and handling his subject matter. Sir R. C. Jebb sums up the criticism of pseudo-Longinus (_De sublimitate_, 34) in the phrase--"Hypereides was the Sheridan of Athens."

Seventy-seven speeches were attributed to Hypereides, of which twenty-five were regarded as spurious even by ancient critics. It is said that a MS. of most of the speeches was in existence in the 16th century in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, at Ofen, but was destroyed at the capture of the city by the Turks in 1526. Only a few fragments were known until comparatively recent times. In 1847 large fragments of his speeches Against _Demosthenes_ (see above) and _For Lycophron_ (incidentally interesting as elucidating the order of marriage processions and other details of Athenian life, and the Athenian government of Lemnos), and the whole of the _For Euxenippus_ (c. 330, a _locus classicus_ on [Greek: eisangeliai] or state prosecutions), were found in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt, and in 1856 a considerable portion of a [Greek: logos epitaphios], a _Funeral Oration_ over Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian war, the best extant specimen of epideictic oratory (see BABINGTON, CHURCHILL). Towards the end of the century further discoveries were made of the conclusion of the speech _Against Philippides_ (dealing with a [Greek: graphê paranomôn], or indictment for the proposal of an unconstitutional measure, arising out of the disputes of the Macedonian and anti-Macedonian parties at Athens), and of the whole of the _Against Athenogenes_ (a perfumer accused of fraud in the sale of his business). These have been edited by F. G. Kenyon (1893). An important speech that is lost is the _Deliacus_ (frags. 67-75, Blass) on the presidency of the Delian temple claimed by both Athens and Delos, which was adjudged by the Amphictyons to Athens.

On Hypereides generally see pseudo-Plutarch, _Decem oratorum vitae_; F. Blass, _Attische Beredsamkeit_, iii.; R. C. Jebb, _Attic Orators_, ii. 381. A full list of editions and articles is given in F. Blass, _Hyperidis orationes sex cum ceterarum fragmentis_ (1894, Teubner series), to which may be added I. Bassi, _Le Quattro Orazioni di Iperide_ (introduction and notes, 1888), and J. E. Sandys in _Classical Review_ (January 1895) (a review of the editions of Kenyon and Blass). For the discourse against Athenogenes see H. Weil, _Études sur l'antiquité grecque_ (1900).

HYPERION, in Greek mythology, one of the Titans, son of Uranus and Gaea and father of Helios, the sun-god (Hesiod, _Theog._ 134, 371; Apollodorus i. 1. 2). In the well-known passage in Shakespeare (_Hamlet_, i. 2: "Hyperion to a satyr," where as in other poets the vowel -_i_- though really long, is shortened for metrical reasons) Hyperion is used for Apollo as expressive of the idea of beauty. The name is often used as an epithet of Helios, who is himself sometimes called simply Hyperion. It is explained as (1) he who moves above ([Greek: hyper-iôn]), but the quantity of the vowel is against this; (2) he who is above ([Greek: hyperi-ôn]). Others take it to be a patronymic in form, like [Greek: Kroniôn, Moliôn].

HYPERSTHENE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. It differs from the other members (enstatite [q.v.] and bronzite) of this group in containing a considerable amount of iron replacing magnesium: the chemical formula is (Mg, Fe)SiO3. Distinctly developed crystals are rare, the mineral being usually found as foliated masses embedded in those igneous rocks--norite, hypersthene-andesite, &c.--of which it forms an essential constituent. The coarsely grained labradorite-hypersthene-rock (norite) of the island of St Paul off the coast of Labrador has furnished the most typical material; and for this reason the mineral has been known as "Labrador hornblende" or paulite. The colour is brownish-black, and the pleochrism strong; the hardness is 6, and the specific gravity 3.4-3.5. On certain surfaces it displays a brilliant copper-red metallic sheen or schiller, which has the same origin as the bronzy sheen of bronzite (q.v.), but is even more pronounced. Like bronzite, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)

HYPERTROPHY (Gr. [Greek: hyper], over, and [Greek: trophê], nourishment), a term in medicine employed to designate an abnormal increase in bulk of one or more of the organs or component tissues of the body (see PATHOLOGY). In its strict sense this term can only be applied where the increase affects the natural textures of a part, and is not applicable where the enlargement is due to the presence of some extraneous morbid formation. Hypertrophy of a part may manifest itself either by simply an increase in the size of its constituents, or by this combined with an increase in their number (hyperplasia). In many instances both are associated.

The conditions giving rise to hypertrophy are the reverse of those described as producing Atrophy (q.v.). They are concisely stated by Sir James Paget as being chiefly or only three, namely: (1) the increased exercise of a part in its healthy functions; (2) an increased accumulation in the blood of the particular materials which a part appropriates to its nutrition or in secretion; and (3) an increased afflux of healthy blood.

Illustrations are furnished of the first of these conditions by the high development of muscular tissue under habitual active exercise; of the second in the case of obesity, which is an hypertrophy of the fatty tissues, the elements of which are furnished by the blood; and of the third in the occasional overgrowth of hair in the neighbourhood of parts which are the seat of inflammation. Obviously therefore, in many instances, hypertrophy cannot be regarded as a deviation from health, but rather on the contrary as indicative of a high degree of nutrition and physical power. Even in those cases where it is found associated with disease, it is often produced as a salutary effort of nature to compensate for obstructions or other difficulties which have arisen in the system, and thus to ward off evil consequences. No better example of this can be seen than in the case of certain forms of heart disease, where from defect at some of the natural orifices of that organ the onward flow of the blood is interfered with, and would soon give rise to serious embarrassment to the circulation, were it not that behind the seat of obstruction the heart gradually becomes hypertrophied, and thus acquires greater propelling power to overcome the resistance in front. Again, it has been noticed, in the case of certain double organs such as the kidneys, that when one has been destroyed by disease the other has become hypertrophied to such a degree as enables it to discharge the functions of both.

Hypertrophy may, however, in certain circumstances constitute a disease, as in goitre and elephantiasis (q.v.), and also in the case of certain tumours and growths (such as cutaneous excrescences, fatty tumours, mucous polypi, &c.), which are simply enlargements of normal textures. Hypertrophy does not in all cases involve an increase in bulk; for, just as in atrophy there may be no diminution in the size of the affected organ, so in hypertrophy there may be no increase. This is apt to be the case where certain only of the elements of an organ undergo increase, while the others remain unaffected or are actually atrophied by the pressure of the hypertrophied tissue, as is seen in the disease known as cirrhosis of the liver.

A spurious hypertrophy is observed in the rare disease to which G. B. Duchenne applied the name of _pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis_. This ailment, which appears to be confined to children, consists essentially of a progressive loss of power accompanied with a remarkable enlargement of certain muscles or groups of muscles, more rarely of the whole muscular system. This increase of bulk is, however, not a true hypertrophy, but rather an excessive development of connective tissue in the substance of the muscles, the proper texture of which tends in consequence to undergo atrophy or degeneration. The appearance presented by a child suffering from this disease is striking. The attitude and gait are remarkably altered, the child standing with shoulders thrown back, small of the back deeply curved inwards, and legs wide apart, while walking is accompanied with a peculiar swinging or rocking movement. The calves of the legs, the buttocks, the muscles of the back, and occasionally other muscles, are seen to be unduly enlarged, and contrast strangely with the general feebleness. The progress of the disease is marked by increasing failure of locomotory power, and ultimately by complete paralysis of the limbs. The malady is little amenable to treatment, and, although often prolonged for years, generally proves fatal before the period of maturity.

HYPNOTISM, a term now in general use as covering all that pertains to the art of inducing the hypnotic state, or hypnosis, and to the study of that state, its conditions, peculiarities and effects. Hypnosis is a condition, allied to normal sleep (Gr. [Greek: hypnos]), which can be induced in a large majority of normal persons. Its most characteristic and constant symptom is the increased suggestibility of the subject (see SUGGESTION). Other symptoms are very varied and differ widely in different subjects and in the same subject at different times. There can be no doubt that the increased suggestibility and all the other symptoms of hypnosis imply some abnormal condition of the brain of a temporary and harmless nature. It would seem that in all ages and in almost all countries individuals have occasionally fallen into abnormal states of mind more or less closely resembling the hypnotic state, and have thereby excited the superstitious wonder of their fellows. In some cases the state has been deliberately induced, in others it has appeared spontaneously, generally under the influence of some emotional excitement. The most familiar of these allied states is the somnambulism or sleep-walking to which some persons seem to be hereditarily disposed. Of a rather different type are the states of ecstasy into which religious enthusiasts have occasionally fallen and which were especially frequent among the peoples of Europe during the middle ages. While in this condition individuals have appeared to be insensitive to all impressions made on their sense-organs, even to such as would excite acute pain in normal persons, have been capable of maintaining rigid postures for long periods of time, have experienced vivid hallucinations, and have produced, through the power of the imagination, extraordinary organic changes in the body, such as the bloody stigmata on the hands and feet in several well-attested instances. It has been proved in recent years that effects of all these kinds may be produced by hypnotic suggestion. Different again, but closely paralleled by some subjects in hypnosis, is the state of _latah_ into which a certain proportion of persons of the Malay race are liable to fall. These persons, if their attention is suddenly and forcibly drawn to any other person, will begin to imitate his every action and attitude, and may do so in spite of their best efforts to restrain their imitative movements. Among the half-bred French-Canadians of the forest regions of Canada occur individuals, known as "jumpers," who are liable to fall suddenly into a similar state of abject imitativeness, and the same peculiar behaviour has been observed among some of the remote tribes of Siberia.

The deliberate induction of states identical with, or closely allied to, hypnosis is practised by many barbarous and savage peoples, generally for ceremonial purposes. Thus, certain dervishes of Algiers are said to induce in themselves, by the aid of the sound of drums, monotonous songs and movements, a state in which they are insensitive to pain, and a similar practice of religious devotees is reported from Tibet. Perhaps the most marvellous achievement among well-attested cases of this sort is that of certain _yogis_ of Hindustan; by long training and practice they seem to acquire the power of arresting almost completely all their vital functions. An intense effort of abstraction from the impressions of the outer world, a prolonged fixation of the eyes upon the nose or in some other strained position and a power of greatly slowing the respiration, these seem to be important features of their procedure for the attainment of their abnormal states.

In spite of the wide distribution in time and space, and the not very infrequent occurrence, of these instances of states identical with or allied to hypnosis, some three centuries of enthusiastic investigation and of bitter controversy were required to establish the occurrence of the hypnotic state among the facts accepted by the world of European science. Scientific interest in them may be traced back at least as far as the end of the 16th century. Paracelsus had founded the "sympathetic system" of medicine, according to which the stars and other bodies, especially magnets, influence men by means of a subtle emanation or fluid that pervades all space. J. B. van Helmont, a distinguished man of science of the latter part of the 16th century, extended this doctrine by teaching that a similar magnetic fluid radiates from men, and that it can be guided by their wills to influence directly the minds and bodies of others. In the middle of the 17th century there appeared in England several persons who claimed to have the power of curing diseases by stroking with the hand. Notable amongst these was Valentine Greatrakes, of Affane, in the county of Waterford, Ireland, who was born in February 1628, and who attracted great attention in England by his supposed power of curing the king's evil, or scrofula. Many of the most distinguished scientific and theological men of the day, such as Robert Boyle and R. Cudworth, witnessed and attested the cures supposed to be effected by Greatrakes, and thousands of sufferers crowded to him from all parts of the kingdom. About the middle of the 18th century John Joseph Gassner, a Roman Catholic priest in Swabia, took up the notion that the majority of diseases arose from demoniacal possession, and could only be cured by exorcism. His method was undoubtedly similar to that afterwards followed by Mesmer and others, and he had an extraordinary influence over the nervous systems of his patients. Gassner, however, believed his power to be altogether supernatural.

But it was not until the latter part of the 18th century that the doctrine of a magnetic fluid excited great popular interest and became the subject of fierce controversy in the scientific world. F. A. Mesmer (q.v.), a physician of Vienna, was largely instrumental in bringing the doctrine into prominence. He developed it by postulating a specialized variety of magnetic fluid which he called _animal magnetism_; and he claimed to be able to cure many diseases by means of this animal magnetism, teaching, also, that it may be imparted to and stored up in inert objects, which are thereby rendered potent to cure disease.

It would seem that Mesmer himself was not acquainted with the artificial somnambulism which for nearly a century was called mesmeric or magnetic sleep, and which is now familiar as hypnosis of a well-marked degree. It was observed and described about the year 1780 by the marquis de Puységur, a disciple of Mesmer, who showed that, while subjects were in this state, not only could some of their diseases be cured, but also their movements could be controlled by the "magnetizer," and that they usually remembered nothing of the events of the period of sleep when restored to normal consciousness. These are three of the most important features of hypnosis, and the modern study of hypnotism may therefore be said to have been initiated at this date by Puységur. For, though it is probable that this state had often been induced by the earlier magnetists, they had not recognized that the peculiar behaviour of their patients resulted from their being plunged into this artificial sleep, but had attributed all the symptoms they observed to the direct physical action of external agents upon the patients.

The success of Mesmer and his disciples, especially great in the fashionable world, led to the appointment in Paris of a royal commission for the investigation of their claims. The commission, which included men of great eminence, notably A. L. Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin, reported in the year 1784 that it could not accept the evidence for the existence of the magnetic fluid; but it did not express an opinion as to the reality of the cures said to be effected by its means, nor as to the nature of the magnetic sleep. This report and the social upheavals of the following years seem to have abolished the public interest in "animal magnetism" for the space of one generation; after which Alexandre Bertrand, a Parisian physician, revived it by his acute investigations and interpretations of the phenomena. Bertrand was the first to give an explanation of the facts of the kind that is now generally accepted. He exhibited the affinity of the "magnetic sleep" to ordinary somnambulism, and he taught that the peculiar effects are to be regarded as due to the suggestions of the operator working themselves out in the mind and body of the "magnetized" subject, i.e. he regarded the influence of the magnetizer as exerted in the first instance on the mind of the subject and only indirectly through the mind upon the body. Shortly after this revival of public interest, namely in the year 1831, a committee of the Academy of Medicine of Paris reported favourably upon "magnetism" as a therapeutic agency, and before many years had elapsed it was extensively practised by the physicians of all European countries, with few exceptions, of which England was the most notable. Most of the practitioners of this period adhered to the doctrine of the magnetic fluid emanating from the operator to his patient, and the acceptance of this doctrine was commonly combined with belief in phrenology, astrology and the influence of metals and magnets, externally applied, in curing disease and in producing a variety of strange sensations and other affections of the mind. These beliefs, claiming to rest upon carefully observed facts, were given a new elaboration and a more imposing claim to be scientifically established by the doctrine of _odylic force_ propounded by Baron Karl von Reichenbach. In this mass of ill-based assertion and belief the valuable truths of "animal magnetism" and the psychological explanations of them given by Bertrand were swamped and well-nigh lost sight of. For it was this seemingly inseparable association between the facts of hypnotism and these bizarre practices and baseless beliefs that blinded the larger and more sober part of the scientific world, and led them persistently to assert that all this group of alleged phenomena was a mass of quackery, fraud and superstition. And the fact that magnetism was practised for pecuniary gain, often in a shameless manner, by exponents who claimed to cure by its means every conceivable ill, rendered this attitude on the part of the medical profession inevitable and perhaps excusable, though not justifiable. It was owing to this baleful association that John Elliotson, one of the leading London physicians of that time, who became an ardent advocate of "magnetism" and who founded and edited the _Zoist_ in the interests of the subject, was driven out of the profession. This association may perhaps be held, also, to excuse the hostile attitude of the medical profession towards James Esdaile, a surgeon, who, practising in a government hospital in Calcutta among the natives of India, performed many major operations, such as the amputation of limbs, painlessly and with the most excellent results by aid of the "magnetic" sleep. For both Elliotson and Esdaile, though honourable practitioners, accepted the doctrine of the "magnetic" fluid and many of the erroneous beliefs that commonly were bound up with it.

In 1841 James Braid, a surgeon of Manchester, rediscovered independently Bertrand's physiological and psychological explanations of the facts, carried them further, and placed "hypnotism," as he named the study, on a sound basis. Braid showed that subjects in "magnetic" sleep, far from being in a profoundly insensitive condition, are often abnormally susceptible to impressions on the senses, and showed that many of the peculiarities of their behaviour were due to suggestions, made verbally or otherwise, but unintentionally, by the operator or by onlookers.

It seems, on looking back on the history of hypnotism, that at this time it was in a fair way to secure general recognition as a most interesting subject of psychological study and a valuable addition to the resources of the physician. But it was destined once more to be denied its rights by official science and to fall back into disrepute. This was due to the coincidence about the year 1848 of two events of some importance, namely--the discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform and the sudden rise of modern spiritualism. The former afforded a very convenient substitute for the most obvious practical application of hypnotism, the production of anaesthesia during surgical operations; the latter involved it once more in a mass of fraud and superstition, and, for the popular mind, drove it back to the region of the marvellous, the supernatural and the dangerous, made it, in fact, once more a branch of the black art.

From this time onward there took place a gradual differentiation of the "animal magnetism" of the 18th century into two diverging branches, hypnotism and spiritualism, two branches which, however, are not yet entirely separated and, perhaps, never will be. At the same time the original system of "animal magnetism" has lived on in an enfeebled condition and is now very nearly, though not quite, extinct.

In the development of hypnotism since the time of Braid we may distinguish three lines, the physiological, the psychological and the pathological. The last may be dismissed in a few words. Its principal representative was J. M. Charcot, who taught at the Salpêtrière in Paris that hypnosis is essentially a symptom of a morbid condition of hysteria or hystero-epilepsy. This doctrine, which, owing to the great repute enjoyed by Charcot, has done much to retard the application of hypnotism, is now completely discredited. The workers of the physiological party attached special importance to the fixation of the eyes, or to other forms of long continued and monotonous, or violent, sensory stimulation in the induction of hypnosis. They believed that by acting on the senses in these ways they induced a peculiar condition of the nervous system, which consisted in the temporary abolition of the cerebral functions and the consequent reduction of the subject to machine-like unconscious automatism. The leading exponent of this view was R. Heidenhain, professor of physiology at Breslau, whose experimental investigations played a large part in convincing the scientific world of the genuineness of the leading symptoms of hypnosis. The purely psychological doctrine of hypnosis puts aside all physical and physiological influences and effects as of but little or no importance, and seeks a psychological explanation of the induction of hypnosis and of all the phenomena. This dates from 1884, when H. Bernheim, professor of medicine at Nancy, published his work _De la Suggestion_ (republished in 1887 with a second part on the therapeutics of hypnotism). Bernheim was led to the study of hypnotism by A. A. Liébeault, who for twenty years had used it very largely and successfully in his general practice among the poor of Nancy. Liébeault rediscovered independently, and Bernheim made known to the world the truths, twice previously discovered and twice lost sight of, that expectation is a most important factor in the induction of hypnosis, that increased suggestibility is its essential symptom, and that in general the operator works upon his patient by mental influences. Although they went too far in the direction of ignoring the peculiarity of the state of the brain in hypnosis and the predisposing effect of monotonous sensory stimulation, and in seeking to identify hypnosis with normal sleep, the views of the Nancy investigators have prevailed, and are now in the main generally accepted. Their methods of verbal suggestion have been adopted by leading physicians in almost all civilized countries and have been proved to be efficacious in the relief of many disorders; and as a method of psychological investigation hypnotism has proved, especially in the hands of the late Ed. Gurney, of Dr Pierre Janet and of other investigators, capable of throwing much light on the constitution of the mind, has opened up a number of problems of the deepest interest, and has done more than any other of the many branches of modern psychology to show the limitations and comparative barrenness of the old psychology that relied on introspection alone and figured as a department of general philosophy. In England, "always the last to enter into the general movement of the European mind," the prejudice, incredulity and ignorant misrepresentation with which hypnotism has everywhere been received have resisted its progress more stubbornly than elsewhere; but even in England its reality and its value as a therapeutic agent have at last been officially recognized. In 1892, just fifty years after Braid clearly demonstrated the facts and published explanations of them almost identical with those now accepted, a committee of the British Medical Association reported favourably upon hypnotism after a searching investigation; it is now regularly employed by a number of physicians of high standing, and the formation in 1907 of "The Medical Society for the Study of Suggestive Therapeutics" shows that the footing it has gained is likely to be made good.

_Induction of Hypnosis._--It has now been abundantly proved that hypnosis can be induced in the great majority of normal persons, provided that they willingly submit themselves to the process. Several of the most experienced operators have succeeded in hypnotizing more than 90% of the cases they have attempted, and most of them are agreed that failure to induce hypnosis in any case is due either to lack of skill and tact on the part of the operator, or to some unfavourable mental condition of the subject. It has often been said that some races or peoples are by nature more readily hypnotizable than others; of the French people especially this has been maintained. But there is no sufficient ground for this statement. The differences that undoubtedly obtain between populations of different regions in respect to the ease or difficulty with which a large proportion of all persons can be hypnotized are sufficiently explained by the differences of the attitude of the public towards hypnotism; in France, e.g., and especially in Nancy, hypnotism has been made known to the public chiefly as a recognized auxiliary to the better known methods of medical treatment, whereas in England the medical profession has allowed the public to make acquaintance with hypnotism through the medium of disgusting stage-performances whose only object was to raise a laugh, and has, with few exceptions, joined in the general chorus of condemnation and mistrust. Hence in France patients submit themselves with confidence and goodwill to hypnotic treatment, whereas in England it is still necessary in most cases to remove an ill-based prejudice before the treatment can be undertaken with hope of success. For the confidence and goodwill of the patient are almost essential to success, and even after hypnosis has been induced on several occasions a patient may be so influenced by injudicious friends that he cannot again be hypnotized or, if hypnotized, is much less amenable to the power of suggestion. Various methods of hypnotization are current, but most practitioners combine the methods of Braid and of Bernheim. After asking the patient to resign himself passively into their hands, and after seating him in a comfortable arm-chair, they direct him to fix his eyes upon some small object held generally in such a position that some slight muscular strain is involved in maintaining the fixation; they then suggest to him verbally the idea or expectation of sleep and the sensations that normally accompany the oncoming of sleep, the heaviness of the eyes, the slackness of the limbs and so forth; and when the eyes show signs of fatigue, they either close them by gentle pressure or tell the subject to close them. Many also pass their hands slowly and regularly over the face, with or without contact. The old magnetizers attached great importance to such "passes," believing that by them the "magnetic fluid" was imparted to the patient; but it seems clear that, in so far as they contribute to induce hypnosis, it is in their character merely of gentle, monotonous, sensory stimulations. A well-disposed subject soon falls into a drowsy state and tends to pass into natural sleep; but by speech, by passes, or by manipulating his limbs the operator keeps in touch with him, keeps his waning attention open to the impressions he himself makes. Most subjects then find it difficult or impossible to open their eyes or to make any other movement which is forbidden or said to be impossible by the operator, although they may be fully conscious of all that goes on about them and may have the conviction that if they did but make an effort they could break the spell. This is a light stage of hypnosis beyond which some subjects can hardly be induced to pass and beyond which few pass at the first attempt. But on successive occasions, or even on the first occasion, a favourable subject passes into deeper stages of hypnosis. Many attempts have been made to distinguish clearly marked and constantly occurring stages. But it seems now clear that the complex of symptoms displayed varies in all cases with the idiosyncrasies of the subject and with the methods adopted by the operator. In many subjects a waxy rigidity of the limbs appears spontaneously or can be induced by suggestion; the limbs then retain for long periods without fatigue any position given them by the operator. The most susceptible subjects pass into the stage known as artificial somnambulism. In this condition they continue to respond to all suggestions made by the operator, but seem as insensitive to all other impressions as a person in profound sleep or in coma; and on awaking from this condition they are usually oblivious of all that they have heard, said or done during the somnambulistic period. When in this last condition patients are usually more profoundly influenced by suggestions, especially post-hypnotic suggestions, than when in the lighter stages; but the lighter stages suffice for the production of many therapeutic effects. When a patient is completely hypnotized, his movements, his senses, his ideas and, to some extent, even the organic processes over which he has no voluntary control become more or less completely subject to the suggestions of the operator; and usually he is responsive to the operator alone (_rapport_) unless he is instructed by the latter to respond also to the suggestions of other persons. If left to himself the hypnotized subject will usually awake to his normal state after a period which is longer in proportion to the depth of hypnosis; and the deeper stages seem to pass over into normal sleep. The subject can in almost every case be brought quickly back to the normal state by the verbal command of the operator.

_The Principal Effects produced by Suggestion during Hypnosis._--The subject may not only be rendered incapable of contracting any of the muscles of the voluntary system, but may also be made to use them with extraordinarily great or sustained force (though by no means in all cases). He can with difficulty refrain from performing any action commanded by the operator, and usually carries out any simple command without hesitation. Any one of the sense-organs, or any sensory region such as the skin or deep tissues of one limb may be rendered anaesthetic by verbal suggestion, aided perhaps by some gentle manipulation of the part. On this fact depends the surgical application of hypnotism. Sceptical observers are always inclined to doubt the genuineness of the anaesthesia produced by a mere word of command, but the number of surgical operations performed under hypnotic anaesthesia suffices to put its reality beyond all question. A convincing experiment may, however, be made on almost any good subject. Anaesthesia of one eye may be suggested and its reality tested in the following way. Anaesthesia of the left eye may be suggested, and the subject be instructed to fix his gaze on a distant point and to give some signal as soon as he sees the operator's finger in the peripheral field of view. The operator then brings his finger slowly from behind and to the right forwards towards the subject's line of sight. The subject signals as soon as it crosses the normal temporal boundary of the field of view of the right eye. The operator then brings his finger forward from a point behind and to the left of the subject's head. The subject allows it to cross the monocular field of the left eye and signals only when the finger enters the field of vision of the right eye across its nasal boundary. Since few persons, other than physiologists or medical men, are aware of the relations of the boundaries of the monocular and binocular fields of vision, the success of this experiment affords proof that the finger remains invisible to the subject during its passage across the monocular field of the left eye. The abolition of pain, especially of neuralgias, the pain of rheumatic and other inflammations, which is one of the most valuable applications of hypnotism, is an effect closely allied to the production of such anaesthesia.

It has often been stated that in hypnosis the senses may be rendered extraordinarily acute or hyperaesthetic, so that impressions too faint to affect the senses of the normal person may be perceived by the hypnotized subject; but in view of the fact that most observers are ignorant of the normal limits of sensitivity and discrimination, all such statements must be received with caution, until we have more convincing evidence than has yet been brought forward.

_Positive and Negative Hallucinations_ are among the most striking effects of hypnotic suggestion. A good subject may be made to experience an hallucinatory perception of almost any object, the more easily the less unusual and out of harmony with the surroundings is the suggested object. He may, e.g., be given a blank card and asked if he thinks it a good photograph of himself. He may then assent and describe the photograph in some detail, and, what is more astonishing, he may pick out the card as the one bearing the photograph, after it has been mixed with other similar blank cards. This seems to be due to the part played by _points de repère_, insignificant details of surface or texture, which serve as an objective basis around which the hallucinatory image is constructed by the pictorial imagination of the subject. A negative hallucination may be induced by telling the subject that a certain object or person is no longer present, when he ignores in every way that object or person. This is more puzzling than the positive hallucination and will be referred to again in discussing the theory of hypnosis. Both kinds of hallucination tend to be systematically and logically developed; if, e.g., the subject is told that a certain person is no longer visible, he may become insensitive to impressions made on any sense by that person.

_Delusions_, or false beliefs as to their present situation or past experiences may be induced in many subjects. On being assured that he is some other person, or that he is in some strange situation, the subject may accept the suggestion and adapt his behaviour with great histrionic skill to the induced delusion. It is probable that many, perhaps all, subjects are vaguely aware, as we sometimes are in dreams, that the delusions and hallucinations they experience are of an unreal nature. In the lighter stages of hypnosis a subject usually remembers the events of his waking life, but in the deeper stages he is apt, while remembering the events of previous hypnotic periods, to be incapable of recalling his normal life; but in this respect, as also in respect to the extent to which on awaking he remembers the events of the hypnotic period, the suggestions of the operator usually play a determining part.

Among the organic changes that have been produced by hypnotic suggestion are slowing or acceleration of the cardiac and respiratory rhythms; rise and fall of body-temperature through two or three degrees; local erythema and even inflammation of the skin with vesication or exudation of small drops of blood; evacuation of the bowel and vomiting; modifications of the secretory activity of glands, especially of the sweat-glands.

_Post-hypnotic Effects._--Most subjects in whom any appreciable degree of hypnosis can be induced show some susceptibility to post-hypnotic suggestion, i.e. they may continue to be influenced, when restored to the fully waking state, by suggestions made during hypnosis, more especially if the operator suggests that this shall be the case; as a rule, the deeper the stage of hypnosis reached, the more effective are post-hypnotic suggestions. The therapeutic applications of hypnotism depend in the main upon this post-hypnotic continuance of the working of suggestions. If a subject is told that on awaking, or on a certain signal, or after the lapse of a given interval of time from the moment of awaking, he will perform a certain action, he usually feels some inclination to carry out the suggestion at the appropriate moment. If he remembers that the action has been suggested to him he may refuse to perform it, and if it is one repugnant to his moral nature, or merely one that would make him appear ridiculous, he may persist in his refusal. But if the action is of a simple and ordinary nature he will usually perform it, remarking that he cannot be comfortable till it is done. If the subject was deeply hypnotized and remembers nothing of the hypnotic period, he will carry out the post-hypnotic suggestion in almost every case, no matter how complicated or absurd it may be, so long as it is not one from which his normal self would be extremely averse; and he will respond appropriately to the suggested signals, although he is not conscious of their having been named; he will often perform the action in a very natural way, and will, if questioned, give some more or less adequate reason for it. Such actions, determined by post-hypnotic suggestions of which no conscious memory remains, may be carried out even after the lapse of many weeks or even months. Inhibitions of movement, anaesthesia, positive and negative hallucinations, and delusions may also be made to persist for brief periods after the termination of hypnosis; and organic effects, such as the action of the bowels, the oncoming of sleep and the cessation of pain, may be determined by post-hypnotic suggestion. In short, it may be said that in a good subject all the kinds of suggestion which will take effect during hypnosis will also be effective if given as post-hypnotic suggestions.

_Theory of the Hypnotic State._--Very many so called theories of hypnosis have been propounded, but few of them demand serious consideration. One author ascribes all the symptoms to cerebral anaemia, another to cerebral congestion, a third to temporary suppression of the functions of the cerebrum, a fourth to abnormal cerebral excitability, a fifth to the independent functioning of one hemisphere. Another seeks to explain all the facts by saying that in hypnosis our normal consciousness disappears and is replaced by a dream-consciousness; and yet another by the assumption that every human organism comprises two mental selves or personalities, a normal one and one which only comes into activity during sleep and hypnosis. Most of these "theories" would, even if true, carry us but a little way towards a complete understanding of the facts. There is, however, one theory or principle of explanation which is now gradually taking shape under the hands of a number of the more penetrating workers in this field, and which does seem to render intelligible many of the principle facts. This is the theory of _mental dissociation_.

It is clear that a theory of hypnosis must attempt to give some account of the peculiar condition of the brain which is undoubtedly present as an essential feature of the state. It is therefore not enough to say with Bernheim that hypnosis is a state of abnormally increased suggestibility produced by suggestion; nor is it enough, though it is partially true, to say that it is a state of mono-ideism or one of abnormally great concentration of attention. Any theory must be stated in terms of physiological psychology, it must take account of both the psychical and the nervous peculiarities of the hypnotic state; it must exhibit the physiological condition as in some degree similar to that obtaining in normal sleep; but principally it must account for that abnormally great receptivity for ideas, and that abnormally intense and effective operation of ideas so received, which constitute abnormally great suggestibility.

The theory of mental dissociation may be stated in purely mental terms, or primarily in terms of nervous structure and function, and the latter mode of statement is probably the more profitable at the present time. The increased effectiveness of ideas might be due to one of two conditions: (1) it might be that certain tracts of the brain or the whole brain were in a condition of abnormally great excitability; or (2) an idea might operate more effectively in the mind and on the body, not because it, or the underlying brain-process was more intense than normally, but because it worked out its effects free from the interference of contrary or irrelevant ideas that might weaken its force. It is along this second line that the theory of mental dissociation attempts to explain the increased suggestibility of hypnosis. To understand the theory we must bear in mind the nature of mental process in general and of its nervous concomitants. Mental process consists in the interplay, not merely of ideas, but rather of complex dispositions which are the more or less enduring conditions of the rise of ideas to consciousness. Each such disposition seems capable of remaining inactive or quiescent for long periods, and of being excited in various degrees, either by impressions made upon the sense-organs or by the spread of excitement from other dispositions. When its excitement rises above a certain pitch of intensity, the corresponding idea rises to the focus of consciousness. These dispositions are essential factors of all mental process, the essential conditions of all mental retention. They may be called simply mental dispositions, their nature being left undefined; but for our present purpose it is advantageous to regard them as neural dispositions, complex functional groups of nervous elements or neurones. The neurones of each such group must be conceived as being so intimately connected with one another that the excitement of any part of the group at once spreads through the whole group or disposition, so that it always functions as a unit. The whole cerebrum must be conceived as consisting of a great number of such dispositions, inextricably interwoven, but interconnected in orderly fashion with very various degrees of intimacy; groups of dispositions are very intimately connected to form neural systems, so that the excitement of any one member of such a system tends to spread in succession to all the other members. On the other hand, it is a peculiarity of the reciprocal relations of all such dispositions and systems that the excitement of any one to such a degree that the corresponding idea rises to consciousness prevents or inhibits the excitement of others, i.e. all of them are in relations of reciprocal inhibition with one another (see MUSCLE AND NERVE). The excitement of dispositions associated together to form a system tends towards some end which, either immediately or remotely, is an action, a bodily movement, in many cases a movement of the organs of speech only. Now we know from many exact experiments that the neural dispositions act and react upon one another to some extent, even when they are excited only in so feeble a degree that the corresponding ideas do not rise to consciousness. In the normal state of the brain, then, when any idea is present to consciousness, the corresponding neural disposition is in a state of dominant excitement, but the intensity of that excitement is moderated, depressed or partially inhibited by the sub-excitement of many rival or competing dispositions of other systems with which it is connected. Suppose now that all the nervous connexions between the multitudinous dispositions of the cerebrum are by some means rendered less effective, that the association-paths are partially blocked or functionally depressed; the result will be that, while the most intimate connexions, those between dispositions of any one system remain functional or permeable, the weaker less intimate connexions, those between dispositions belonging to different systems will be practically abolished for the time being; each system of dispositions will then function more or less as an isolated system, and its activity will no longer be subject to the depressing or inhibiting influence of other systems; therefore each system, on being excited in any way, will tend to its end with more than normal force, being freed from all interferences; that is to say, each idea or system of ideas will tend to work itself out and to realize itself in action immediately, without suffering the opposition of antagonistic ideas which, in the normal state of the brain, might altogether prevent its realization in action.

The theory of mental dissociation assumes that the abnormal state of the brain that obtains during hypnosis is of this kind, a temporary functional depression of all, or of many of the associations or nervous links between the neural dispositions; that is, it regards hypnosis as a state of _relative dissociation_. The lighter the stage of hypnosis the slighter is the degree of dissociation, the deeper the stage the more nearly complete is the dissociation.

It is not essential that the theory should explain in what change this stage of dissociation consists, but a view compatible with all that we know of the functions of the central nervous system may be suggested. The connexions between neural dispositions involve synapses or cell-junctions, and these seem to be the places of variable resistance which demarcate the dispositions and systems; and there is good reason to think that their resistances vary with the state of the neurones which they connect, being lowered when these are excited and raised when their excitement ebbs. Now, in the waking state, the varied stimuli, which constantly rain upon all the sense-organs, maintain the whole cerebrum in a state of sub-excitement, keep all the cerebral neurones partially charged with free nervous energy. When the subject lies down to sleep or submits himself to the hypnotizer he arrests as far as possible the flow of his thoughts, and the sensory stimuli are diminished in number and intensity. Under these conditions the general cerebral activity tends to subside, the free energy with which the cerebral neurones are charged ebbs away, and the synaptic resistances rise proportionally; then the effect of sensory impressions tends to be confined to the lower nervous level, and the brain tends to come to rest. If this takes place the condition of normal sleep is realized. But in inducing hypnosis the operator, by means of his words and manipulations, keeps one system of ideas and the corresponding neural system in activity, namely, the ideas connected with himself; thus he keeps open one channel of entry to the brain and mind, and through this one open channel he can introduce whatever ideas he pleases; and the ideas so introduced then operate with abnormally great effect because they work in a free field, unchecked by rival ideas and tendencies.

This theory of relative dissociation has two great merits: in the first place it goes far towards enabling us to understand in some degree most of the phenomena of hypnosis; secondly, we have good evidence that dissociation really occurs in deep hypnosis and in some allied states. Any one may readily work out for himself the application of the theory to the explanation of the power of the operator's suggestions to control movement, to induce anaesthesia, hallucinations and delusions, and to exert on the organic processes an influence greater than can be exerted by mental processes in the normal state of the brain. But the positive evidence of the occurrence of dissociation is a matter of great psychological interest and its nature must be briefly indicated. The phenomena of automatic speech and writing afford the best evidence of cerebral dissociation. Many persons can, while in an apparently normal or but very slightly abnormal condition, produce automatic writing, i.e. intelligibly written sentences, in some cases long connected passages, of whose import they have no knowledge, their self-conscious intelligence being continuously directed to some other task. The carrying out of post-hypnotic suggestions affords in many cases similar evidence. Thus a subject may be told that after waking he will perform some action when a given signal, such as a cough, is repeated for the fifth time. In the post-hypnotic state he remains unaware of his instructions, is not conscious of noting the signals, and yet carries out the suggestion at the fifth signal, thereby proving that the signals have been in some sense noted and counted. Many interesting varieties of this experiment have been made, some of much greater complexity; but all agreeing in indicating that the suggested action is prepared for and determined by cerebral processes that do not affect the consciousness of the subject, but seem to occur as a system of processes detached from the main stream of cerebral activity; that is to say, they imply the operation of relatively dissociated neural systems.

Many authorities go further than this; they argue that, since actions of the kind described are determined by processes which involve operations, such as counting, that we are accustomed to regard as distinctly mental in character and that normally involve conscious activity, we must believe that in these cases also consciousness or psychical activity is involved, but that it remains as a separate system or stream of consciousness concurrent with the normal or personal consciousness.

In recent years the study of various abnormal mental states, especially the investigations by French physicians of severe forms of hysteria, have brought to light many facts which seem to justify this assumption of a secondary stream of consciousness, a co- or sub-consciousness coexistent with the personal consciousness; although, from the nature of the case, an absolute proof of such co-consciousness can hardly be obtained. The co-consciousness seems to vary in degree of complexity and coherence from a mere succession of fragmentary sensations to an organized stream of mental activity, which may rival in all respects the primary consciousness; and in cases of the latter type it is usual to speak of the presence of a secondary personality. The co-consciousness seems in the simpler cases, e.g. in cases of hysterical or hypnotic anaesthesia, to consist of elements split off from the normal primary consciousness, which remains correspondingly poorer; and the assumption is usually made that such a stream of co-consciousness is the psychical correlate of groups and systems of neurones dissociated from the main mass of cerebral neurones. If, in spite of serious objections, we entertain this conception, we find that it helps us to give some account of various hypnotic phenomena that otherwise remain quite inexplicable; some such conception seems to be required more particularly by the facts of negative hallucination and the execution of post-hypnotic suggestions involving such operations as counting and exact discrimination without primary consciousness.

_Supernormal Hypnotic Phenomena._--The facts hitherto considered, strange and perplexing as many of them are, do not seem to demand for their explanation any principles of action fundamentally different from those operative in the normal human mind. But much of the interest that has centred in hypnotism in recent years has been due to the fact that some of its manifestations seem to go beyond all such principles of explanation, and to suggest the reality of modes of influence and action that science has not hitherto recognized. Of these by far the best attested are the post-hypnotic unconscious reckoning of time and telepathy or "thought-transference" (for the latter see TELEPATHY). The post-hypnotic reckoning and noting of the lapse of time seems in some instances to have been carried out, in the absence of all extraneous aids and with complete unconsciousness on the part of the normal personality, with such extreme precision that the achievement cannot be accounted for by any intensification of any faculty that we at present recognize or understand. Thus, Dr Milne Bramwell has reported the case of a patient who, when commanded in hypnosis to perform some simple action after the lapse of many thousands of minutes, would carry out the suggestion punctually to the minute, without any means of knowing the exact time of day at which the suggestion was given or the time of day at the moment its performance fell due; more recently a similar case, even more striking in some respects, has been carefully observed and described by Dr T. W. Mitchell. Other reported phenomena, such as telaesthesia or clairvoyance, and telekinesia, are hardly sufficiently well attested to demand serious consideration in this place.

_Medical Applications of Hypnotism._--The study and practice of hypnotism is not yet, and probably never will be, regarded as a normal part of the work of the general practitioner. Its successful application demands so much time, tact, and special experience, that it will probably remain, as it is now, and as it is perhaps desirable that it should remain, a specialized branch of medical practice. In England it is only in recent years that it has been possible for a medical man to apply it in his practice without incurring professional odium and some risk of loss of reputation. That, in certain classes of cases, it may effect a cure or bring relief when all other modes of treatment are of no avail is now rapidly becoming recognized; but it is less generally recognized that it may be used with great advantage as a supplement to other modes of treatment in relieving symptoms that are accentuated by nervous irritability or mental disturbance. A third wide field of usefulness lies before it in the cure of undesirable habits of many kinds. Under the first heading may be put insomnia, neuralgia, neurasthenia, hysteria in almost all its many forms; under the second, inflammations such as that of chronic rheumatism, contractures and paralyses resulting from gross lesion of the brain, epilepsy, dyspepsia, menstrual irregularities, sea-sickness; under the third, inebriety, the morphia and other drug habits, nail-biting, _enuresis nocturna_, masturbation, constipation, facial and other twitchings. In pronounced mental diseases hypnotism seems to be almost useless; for in general terms it may be said that it can be applied most effectively where the brain, the instrument through which it works, is sound and vigorous. The widespread prejudice against the use of hypnotism is no doubt largely due to the marvellous and (to most minds) mysterious character of the effects producible by its means; and this prejudice may be expected to diminish as our insight into the mode of its operation deepens. The more purely bodily results achieved by hypnotic suggestion become in some degree intelligible if we regard it as a powerful means of diverting nervous energy from one channel or organ to others, so as to give physiological rest to an overworked organ or tissue, or so as to lead to the atrophy of one nervous habit and the replacement of it by a more desirable habit. And in the cure of those disorders which involve a large mental element the essential part played by it is to drive out some habitually recurrent idea and to replace it by some idea, expectation or conviction of healthy tendency.

It seems clear that the various systems of "mind-curing" in the hands of persons lacking all medical training, which are now so frequently the cause of distressing and needless disasters, owe their rapid spread to the fact that the medical profession has hitherto neglected to attach sufficient importance to the mental factor in the causation and cure of disease; and it seems clear, too, that a more general and more intelligent appreciation of the possibilities of hypnotic treatment would constitute the best means at the disposal of the profession for combating this growing evil.

_The Dangers of Hypnotism._--Much has been written on this head of late years, and some of the enthusiastic advocates of hypnotic treatment have done harm to their cause by ignoring or denying in a too thoroughgoing manner the possibility of undesirable results of the spread of the knowledge and practice of hypnotism. Like all powerful agencies, chloroform or morphia, dynamite or strong electric currents, hypnotic suggestion can only be safely used by those who have special knowledge and experience, and, like them, it is liable to abuse. There is little doubt that, if a subject is repeatedly hypnotized and made to entertain all kinds of absurd delusions and to carry out very frequently post-hypnotic suggestions, he may be liable to some ill-defined harm; also, that an unprincipled hypnotizer might secure an undue influence over a naturally weak subject.

But there is no ground for the belief that hypnotic treatment, applied with good intentions and reasonable care and judgment, does or can produce deleterious effects, such as weakening of the will or liability to fall spontaneously into hypnosis. All physicians of large experience in hypnotic practice are in agreement in respect to this point. But some difference of opinion exists as to the possibility of deliberately inducing a subject to commit improper or criminal actions during hypnosis or by post-hypnotic suggestion. There is, however, no doubt that subjects retain even in deep hypnosis a very considerable power of resistance to any suggestion that is repugnant to their moral nature; and it has been shown that, on some cases in which a subject in hypnosis is made to perform some ostensibly criminal action, such as firing an unloaded pistol at a bystander or putting poison into a cup for him to drink, he is aware, however obscurely, of the unreal nature of the situation. Nevertheless it must be admitted that a person lacking in moral sentiments might be induced to commit actions from which in the normal state he would abstain, if only from fear of punishment; and it is probable that a skilful and evil-intentioned operator could in some cases so deceive a well-disposed subject as to lead him into wrong-doing. The proper precaution against such dangers is legislative regulation of the practice of hypnotism such as is already enforced in some countries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of hypnotism has increased in volume at a rapid rate during recent years. Of recent writings the following may be mentioned as among the most important:--_Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion_ by C. Lloyd Tuckey, M.D. (5th ed., London, 1907); _Hypnotism, its History, Practice and Theory_, by J. Milne Bramwell, M.B. (2nd ed., London, 1906); _Hypnotism_, by Albert Moll (5th ed., London, 1901). All these three books give good general accounts of hypnotism, the first being the most strictly medical, the last the most general in its treatment. See also _Hypnotism: or Suggestion in Psycho-Therapy_, by August Forel (translated from the 5th German ed. by G. H. W. Armit, London, 1906); a number of papers by Ed. Gurney, and by Ed. Gurney and F. W. H. Myers in _Proc. of the Soc. for Psychical Research_, especially "The Stages of Hypnotism," in vol. ii.; also some more recent papers in the same journal by other hands; chapter on Hypnotism in _Human Personality and its Survival of bodily Death_, by F. W. H. Myers (London, 1903); _The Psychology of Suggestion_, by Boris Sidis, Ph.D. (New York, 1898); "Zur Psychologie der Suggestion," by Prof. Th. Lipp, and other papers in the _Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus_. Of special historical interest are the following:--_Étude sur le zoomagnétisme_, par A. A. Liébeault (Paris, 1883); _Hypnotisme, suggestion, psycho-thérapie_, par Prof. Bernheim (Paris, 1891); _Braid on Hypnotism_ (a new issue of James Braid's _Neurypnology_), edited by A. E. Waite (London, 1899); _Traité du somnambulisme_, by A. Bertrand (Paris, 1826). A full bibliography is appended to Dr Milne Bramwell's _Hypnotism_. (W. McD.)

HYPOCAUST (Gr. [Greek: hypokauston: hypo], beneath, and [Greek: kauein], to burn), the term given to the chamber formed under the floors of the Roman baths, through which the hot air from the furnace passed, sometimes to a single flue, as in the case of the _tepidarium_, but in the _calidarium_ and sweating-room to a series of flues placed side by side forming the lining of the walls. The floor of the hot-air chamber consisted of tiles, 2 ft. square, laid on a bed of concrete; on this a series of dwarf piers 2 ft. high were built of 8-in. square tiles placed about 16 in. apart, which carried the floor of the hall or room; this floor was formed of a bed of concrete covered with layers of pounded bricks and marble cement, on which the marble pavement in slabs or tesserae was laid. In colder countries, as for instance in Germany and England, the living rooms were all heated in a similar way, and round Trèves (Trier) both systems have been found in two or three Roman villas, with the one flue for the ordinary rooms and several wall flues for the hot baths. In England these hypocausts are found in every Roman settlement, and the chief interest in these is centred in the magnificent mosaic pavements with which the principal rooms were laid. Many of the pavements found in London and elsewhere have been preserved in the British or the Guildhall museums; and in some of the provincial towns, such as Leicester and Lincoln, they remain _in situ_ many feet below the present level of the town.

HYPOCHONDRIASIS (synonyms--"the spleen," "the vapours"), a medical term (from [Greek: to hypochondrion, ta hypochondria], the soft part of the body immediately under the [Greek: chondros] or cartilage of the breast-bone) given by the ancients, and indeed by physicians down to the time of William Cullen, to diseases or derangements of one or more of the abdominal viscera. Cullen (_Clinical Lectures,_ 1777) classified it amongst nervous diseases, and Jean Pierre Falret (1794-1870) more fully described it as a morbid condition of the nervous system characterized by depression of feeling and false beliefs as to an impaired state of the health. The subjects of hypochondriasis are for the most part members of families in which hereditary predisposition to degradation of the nervous system is strong, or those who have suffered from morbid influences affecting this system during the earlier years of life. It may be dependent on depressing disease affecting the general system, but under such circumstances it is generally so complicated with the symptoms of hysteria as to render differentiation difficult (see HYSTERIA). Hypochondriasis is often handed down from one generation to another in its individual form, but it is also not unfrequently to be met with in an individual as the sole manifestation in him of a family tendency to insanity. In its most common form it is manifested by simple false belief as to the state of the health, the intellect being otherwise unaffected. We may instance the "vapourish" woman or the "splenetic" as terms society has applied to its milder manifestations. Such persons are constantly asserting a weak state of health although no palpable cause can be discovered. In its more definite phases pain or uneasy sensations are referred by the patient to some particular region, generally the abdomen, the heart or the head. That these are subjective is apparent from the fact that the general health is good: all the functions of the various systems are duly performed; the patient eats and sleeps well; and, when any circumstance temporarily overrides the false belief, he is happy and comfortable. No appeal to the reason is of any avail, and the hypochondriac idea so dominates his existence as to render him unable to perform the ordinary duties of life. In its most aggravated form hypochondriasis amounts to actual insanity, delusions arising as to the existence of living creatures in the intestines or brain, or to the effect that the body is materially changed; e.g. into glass, wood, &c. The symptoms of this condition may be remittent; they may even disappear for years, and only return on the advent of some exciting cause. Suicide is occasionally committed in order to escape from the constant misery. Recovery can only be looked for by placing the patient under such morally hygienic conditions as may help to turn his mind to other matters. (See also NEUROPATHOLOGY.)

HYPOCRISY, pretence, or false assumption of a high character, especially in regard to religious belief or practice. The Greek [Greek: hypokrisis], from which the word is derived through the Old French, meant primarily the acting of a part on the stage, from [Greek: hypokrinesthai], to give an answer, to speak dialogue, play a part on the stage, hence to practice dissimulation.

HYPOSTASIS, in theology, a term frequently occurring in the Trinitarian controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries. According to Irenaeus (i. 5, 4) it was introduced into theology by Gnostic writers, and in earliest ecclesiastical usage appears, as among the Stoics, to have been synonymous with [Greek: ousia]. Thus Dionysius of Rome (cf. Routh, _Rel. Sacr._ iii. 373) condemns the attempt to sever the Godhead into three separate _hypostases_ and three deities, and the Nicene Creed in the anathemas speaks of [Greek: ex heteras hypostaseôs ê ousias]. Alongside, however, of this persistent interchange there was a desire to distinguish between the terms, and to confine [Greek: hypostasis] to the Divine _persons_. This tendency arose in Alexandria, and its progress may be seen in comparing the early and later writings of Athanasius. That writer, in view of the Arian trouble, felt that it was better to speak of [Greek: ousia] as "the common undifferentiated substance of Deity," and [Greek: hypostasis] as "Deity existing in a personal mode, the substance of Deity with certain special properties" ([Greek: ousia meta tinôn idiômatôn]). At the council of Alexandria in 362 the phrase [Greek: treis hypostaseis] was permitted, and the work of this council was supplemented by Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa in the formula [Greek: mia ousia, treis hypostaseis] or [Greek: mia ousia en trisin hypostasesin].

The results arrived at by these Cappadocian fathers were stated in a later age by John of Damascus (_De orth. fid._ iii. 6), quoted in R. L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_, ii. 257.

HYPOSTYLE, in architecture, the term applied to a hall, the flat ceiling of which is supported by columns, as in the Hall of Columns at Karnak. In this case the columns flanking the central avenue are of greater height than those of the side aisles, and this admits of openings in the wall above the smaller columns, through which light is admitted over the aisle roof, through clerestory windows.

HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA, the name originally given to the substance known in chemistry as sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3; the earlier name is still commonly used, especially by photographers, who employ this chemical as a fixer. In systematic chemistry, sodium hyposulphite is a salt of hyposulphurous acid, to which Schutzenberger gave the formula H2SO2, but which Bernthsen showed to be H2S2O4. (See SULPHUR.)

HYPOTHEC (Lat. _hypotheca_, Gr. [Greek: hypothêkê]), in Roman law, the most advanced form of the contract of pledge. A specific thing may be given absolutely to a creditor on the understanding that it is to be given back when the creditor's debt is paid; or the property in the thing may be assigned to the creditor while the debtor is allowed to remain in possession, the creditor as owner being able to take possession if his debt is not discharged. Here we have the kind of security known as pledge and mortgage respectively. In the _hypotheca_, the property does not pass to the creditor, nor does he get possession, but he acquires a preferential right to have his debt paid out of the hypothecated property; that is, he can sell it and pay himself out of the proceeds, or in default of a purchaser he can become the owner himself. The name and the principle have passed into the law of Scotland, which distinguishes between conventional hypothecs, as _bottomry_ and _respondentia_, and tacit hypothecs established by law. Of the latter the most important is the landlord's hypothec for rent (corresponding to distress in the law of England), which extends over the produce of the land and the cattle and sheep fed on it, and over stock and horses used in husbandry. The law of agricultural hypothec long caused much discontent in Scotland; its operation was restricted by the Hypothec Amendment (Scotland) Act 1867, and finally by the Hypothec Abolition (Scotland) Act 1880 it was enacted that the "landlord's right of hypothec for the rent of land, including the rent of any buildings thereon, exceeding two acres in extent, let for agriculture or pasture, shall cease and determine." By the same act and by the Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 1883 other rights and remedies for rent, where the right of hypothec had ceased, were given to the landlord.

HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. [Greek: hypotithenai], to put under; cf. Lat. _suppositio_, from _sub-ponere_), in ordinary language, an explanation, supposition or assumption, which is put forward in the absence of ascertained facts or causes. Both in ordinary life and in the acquisition of scientific knowledge hypothesis is all-important. A detective's work consists largely in forming and testing hypothesis. If an astronomer is confronted by some phenomenon which has no obvious explanation he may postulate some set of conditions which from his general knowledge of the subject would or might give rise to the phenomenon in question; he then tests his hypothesis until he discovers whether it does or does not conflict with the facts. An example of this process is that of the discovery of the planet Neptune: certain perturbations of the orbit of Uranus had been observed, and it was seen that these could be explained on the hypothesis of the existence of a then unknown planet, and this hypothesis was verified by actual observation. The progress of inductive knowledge is by the formation of successive hypotheses, and it frequently happens that the demolition of one or even many hypotheses is the direct road to a new and accurate hypothesis, i.e. to fresh knowledge. A hypothesis may, therefore, turn out to be entirely wrong, yet it may be of the greatest practical use.

The recognition of the importance of hypotheses has led to various attempts at drawing up exact rules for their formation, but logicians are generally agreed that only very elementary principles can be laid down. Thus a hypothesis must contain nothing which is at variance with known facts or principles: it should not postulate conditions which cannot be verified empirically. J. S. Mill (_Logic_ III. xiv. 4) laid down the principle that a hypothesis is not "genuinely scientific" if it is "destined always to remain a hypothesis": it must "be of such a nature as to be either proved or disproved by comparison with observed facts": in the same spirit Bacon said that in searching for causes in nature "Deum semper excipimus." Mill's principle, though sound in the abstract, has, except in a few cases, little practical value in determining the admissibility of hypotheses, and in practice any rule which tends to discourage hypothesis is in general undesirable. The most satisfactory check on hypothesis is expert knowledge in the particular field of research by which rigorous tests may be applied. This test is roughly of two kinds, first by the ultimate principles or presuppositions on which a particular branch of knowledge rests, and second by the comparison of correlative facts. Useful light is shed on this distinction by Lotze, who contrasts (_Logic_, § 273) _postulates_ ("absolutely necessary assumptions without which the content of the observation with which we are dealing would contradict the laws of our thought") with _hypotheses_, which he defines as conjectures, which seek "to fill up the postulate thus abstractly stated by specifying the concrete causes, forces or processes, out of which the given phenomenon really arose in this particular case, while in other cases maybe the same postulate is to be satisfied by utterly different though equivalent combinations of forces or active elements." Thus a hypothesis may be ruled out by principles or postulates without any reference to the concrete facts which belong to that division of the subject to explain which the hypothesis is formulated. A true hypothesis, therefore, seeks not merely to connect or colligate two separate facts, but to do this in the light of and subject to certain fundamental principles. Various attempts have been made to classify hypotheses and to distinguish "hypothesis" from a "theory" or a mere "conjecture": none of these have any great practical importance, the differences being only in degree, not in kind.

The adjective "hypothetical" is used, in the same sense, both loosely in contradistinction to "real" or "actual," and technically in the phrases "hypothetical judgment" and "hypothetical syllogism." (See LOGIC and SYLLOGISM.)

See Naville, _La Logique de l'hypothèse_ (1880), and textbooks of logic, e.g. those of Jevons, Bosanquet, Joseph; Liebmann, _Der Klimax d. Theorien_.

HYPOTRACHELIUM (Gr. [Greek: hypotrachêlion], the lower part of the neck, [Greek: trachêlos]), in classical architecture, the space between the annulet of the echinus and the upper bed of the shafts, including, according to C. R. Cockerell, the three grooves or sinkings found in some of the older examples, as in the temple of Neptune at Paestum and the temple of Aphaea at Aegina; there being only one groove in the Parthenon, the Theseum and later examples. In the temple of Ceres and the so-called Basilica at Paestum the hypotrachelium consists of a concave sinking carved with vertical lines suggestive of leaves, the tops of which project forward. A similar decoration is found in the capital of the columns flanking the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, but here the hypotrachelium projects forward with a cavetto moulding, and is carved with triple leaves like the buds of a rose. In the Roman Doric Order the term was sometimes applied to that which is generally known as the "necking," the space between the fillet and the annulet.

HYPSOMETER (Gr. [Greek: hypsos], height, [Greek: metron], a measure), an instrument for measuring heights which employs the principles that the boiling-point of a liquid is lowered by diminishing the pressure, and that the barometric pressure varies with the height of the point of observation. The instrument consists of a cylindrical vessel in which the liquid, usually water, is boiled, surmounted by a jacketed column, in the outer partitions of which the vapour circulates, while in the central one a thermometer is placed. To deduce the height of the station from the observed boiling-point, it is necessary to know the relation existing between the boiling-point and pressure, and also between the pressure and height of the atmosphere.

HYRACOIDEA, a suborder of ungulate mammals represented at the present day only by the Syrian hyrax (_Procavia syriaca_), the "coney" of the Bible, and its numerous African relatives, all of which may be included in the single genus _Procavia_ (or _Hyrax_), and consequently in the family _Procaviidae_. These creatures have no proper English name, and are generally known as hyraxes, from the scientific term (_Hyrax_) by which they were for many years designated--a term which has unfortunately had to give place to the earlier _Procavia_. In size these animals may be compared roughly to rabbits and hares; and they have rodent-like habits, hunching up their backs after the fashion of some foreign members of the hare-family, more especially the Liu-Kiu rabbit. In the matter of nomenclature these animals have been singularly unfortunate. In the title "hyrax" they have, for instance, usurped the Greek name for the shrew-mouse; while in the Bible they have been given the old English name for the rabbit. Perhaps rock-rabbit would be the best name. At the Cape they are known to the Dutch as dass (badger), which has been anglicized into "dassie."

As regards the recent forms, the dentition in the fully adult animal consists only of incisors and cheek-teeth, the formula being _i._ ½, _c._ 0/0, _p._ 4/4 _m._ 3/3. There is, however, a minute upper canine developed at first, which is early shed; and in extinct forms this tooth was functional and molar-like. The upper incisors have persistent pulps, and are curved longitudinally, forming a semicircle as in rodents; they are, however, not flattened from before backwards as in that order, but prismatic, with an antero-external, an antero-internal and a posterior surface, the first two only being covered with enamel; their tips are consequently not chisel-shaped, but sharp-pointed. They are preceded by functional, rooted milk-teeth. The lower incisors have long tapering roots, but not of persistent growth; and are straight, directed somewhat forwards, with awl-shaped, tri-lobed crowns. Behind the incisors is a considerable gap, followed by the cheek-teeth, which are all contiguous, and formed almost exactly on the pattern of some of the perissodactyle ungulates. The milk-dentition includes three pairs of incisors and one of canines in each jaw. The hyoid arch is unlike that of any known mammal. The dorsal and lumbar vertebrae are very numerous, 28 to 30, of which 21 or 22 bear ribs. The tail is extremely short. There are no clavicles. In the fore foot, the three middle toes are subequally developed, the fifth is present, but smaller, and the first is rudimentary, although, in one species at least, all its normal bones are present. The terminal phalanges of the four outer digits are small, somewhat conical and flattened in form. The carpus has a distinct os centrale. There is a slight ridge on the femur in the place of a third trochanter. The fibula is complete, thickest at its upper end, where it generally unites with the tibia. The articulation between the tibia and astragalus is more complex than in other mammals, the end of the malleolus entering into it. The hind-foot is very like that of a rhinoceros, having three well-developed toes. There is no trace of a first toe, and the fifth meta-tarsal is represented by a small nodule. The terminal phalange of the inner (or second) digit is deeply cleft, and has a peculiar long curved claw, the others having short broad nails. The stomach is formed upon much the same principle as that of the horse or rhinoceros, but is more elongated transversely and divided by a constriction into two cavities--a large left _cul de sac_, lined by a very dense white epithelium, and a right pyloric cavity, with a thick, soft, vascular lining. The intestinal canal is long, and has, in addition to the ordinary short, but capacious and sacculated caecum at the commencement of the colon, lower down, a pair of large, conical, pointed caeca. The liver is much subdivided, and there is no gall-bladder. The brain resembles that of typical ungulates far more than that of rodents. The testes are permanently abdominal. The ureters open into the fundus of the bladder as in some Rodents. The female has six teats, of which four are inguinal and two axillary, and the placenta is zonary and deciduous. There is a gland on the back.

The more typical members of the genus are terrestrial in their habits, and their cheek-teeth have nearly the same pattern as in rhinoceroses; while the interval between the upper incisors is less than the width of the teeth; and the lower incisors are only slightly notched at the cutting edge. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 22, L. 8, S. 6, C. 6. Of this form the earliest known species, _P. capensis_, is the type; but there are many other species, as _P. syriaca_, and _P. brucei_ from Syria and eastern Africa. They inhabit mountainous and rocky regions, and live on the ground. In a second section the molar teeth have the same pattern as in _Palaeotherium_ (except that the third lower molar has but two lobes); the interval between the upper incisors exceeds the width of the teeth; and the lower incisors have distinctly tri-lobed crowns. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 21, L. 7, S. 5, C. 10. The members of this section frequent the trunks and large branches of trees, sleeping in holes. There are several species from Western and South Africa, as _P. arboreus_ and _P. dorsalis_. The members of both groups appear to have a power like that possessed by geckos of clinging to vertical surfaces of rocks and trees by the soles of their feet.

_Extinct Hyracoids._--For many years extinct representatives of the Hyracoidea were unknown, partly owing to the fact that certain fossils were not recognized as really belonging to that group. The longest known of these was originally named _Leptodon graecus_, but, on account of the preoccupation of the generic title, the designation has been changed to _Pliohyrax graecus_. This animal, whose remains occur in the Lower Pliocene of both Attica and Samos, was about the size of a donkey, and possessed three pairs of upper incisor teeth, of which the innermost were large and trihedral, recalling those of the existing genus. On the other hand, the two outer pairs of incisors were in contact with one another and with the canines, so as to form on each side a series continuous with the cheek-teeth.

The next representatives of the group occur in the Upper Eocene beds of the Fayum district of Egypt, where the genera _Saghatherium_ and _Megalohyrax_ occur. These are regarded as representing a distinct family, the _Saghatheriidae_, characterized by the possession of the full series of twenty-two teeth in the upper jaw, among which the first pair of incisors was modified to form trihedral rootless tusks, while the two remaining pairs were separated from one another and from the teeth in front by gaps. The canine was like a premolar, and in contact with the first tooth of that series; and the cheek-teeth were short-crowned, with the premolar simpler than the molars, and a third lobe to the last lower tooth of the latter series. The members of this genus were small or medium-sized ungulates with single-rooted incisors. On the other hand, the representatives of the contemporary genus _Megalohyrax_ were approximately as large as _Pliohyrax_, and in some instances had double roots to the second and third incisors.

It is now possible to define the suborder Hyracoidea as including ungulates with a centrale in the carpus, plantigrade feet, in which the first and fifth toes are reduced in greater or less degree, and clavicles and a foramen in the lower end of the humerus are absent. The femur has a small third trochanter, the radius and ulna and tibia and fibula are respectively separate, at least in the young, and the fibula articulates with the astragalus. The earlier forms had the full series of 44 teeth, with the premolars simpler than the molars; but in the later types the canines and some of the incisors disappear, and at least the hinder premolars become molar-like. In all cases the first upper incisors are large and rootless.

That the group originated in Africa there can be no reasonable doubt; and it is remarkable that so early as the Upper Eocene the types in existence differed comparatively little in structure from the modern forms. In fact the hyraxes were then almost as distinct from other mammals as they are at the present day.

See also C. W. Andrews, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum_, British Museum (1906). (R. L.*)

HYRCANIA. (1) An ancient district of Asia, south of the Caspian Sea, and bounded on the E. by the river Oxus, called _Virkana_, or "Wolf's Land," in Old Persian. It was a wide and indefinite tract. Its chief city is called Tape by Strabo, Zadracarta by Arrian (probably the modern Astarabad). The latter is evidently the same as Carta, mentioned by Strabo as an important city. Little is known of the history of the country. Xenophon says it was subdued by the Assyrians; Curtius that 6000 Hyrcanians were in the army of Darius III. (2) Two towns named Hyrcania are mentioned, one in Hyrcania, the other in Lydia. The latter is said to have derived its name from a colony of Hyrcanians, transported thither by the Persians.

HYRCANUS ([Greek: Hykanos]), a Greek surname, of unknown origin, borne by several Jews of the Maccabaean period.

JOHN HYRCANUS I., high priest of the Jews from 135 to 105 B.C., was the youngest son of Simon Maccabaeus. In 137 B.C. he, along with his brother Judas, commanded the force which repelled the invasion of Judaea led by Cendebeus, the general of Antiochus VII. _Sidetes_. On the assassination of his father and two elder brothers by Ptolemy, governor of Jericho, his brother-in-law, in February 135, he succeeded to the high priesthood and the supreme authority in Judaea. While still engaged in the struggle with Ptolemy, he was attacked by Antiochus with a large army (134), and compelled to shut himself up in Jerusalem; after a severe siege peace was at last secured only on condition of a Jewish disarmament, and the payment of an indemnity and an annual tribute, for which hostages were taken. In 129 he accompanied Antiochus as a vassal prince on his ill-fated Parthian expedition; returning, however, to Judaea before winter, he escaped the final disaster. By the judicious mission of an embassy to Rome he now obtained confirmation of the alliance which his father had previously made with the growing western power; at the same time he availed himself of the weakened state of the Syrian monarchy under Demetrius II. to overrun Samaria, and also to invade Idumaea, which he completely subdued, compelling its inhabitants to receive circumcision and accept the Jewish faith. After a long period of rest he directed his arms against the town of Samaria, which, in spite of the intervention of Antiochus, his sons Antigonus and Aristobulus ultimately took, and by his orders razed to the ground (c. 100 B.C.). He died in 105, and was succeeded by Aristobulus, the eldest of his five sons. The external policy of Hyrcanus was marked by considerable energy and tact, and, aided as it was by favouring circumstances, was so successful as to leave the Jewish nation in a position of independence and of influence such as it had not known since the days of Solomon. During its later years his reign was much disturbed, however, by the contentions for ascendancy which arose between the Pharisees and Sadducees, the two rival sects or parties which then for the first time (under those names at least) came into prominence. Josephus has related the curious circumstances under which he ultimately transferred his personal support from the former to the latter.

JOHN HYRCANUS II., high priest from 78 to 40 B.C., was the eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus by his wife Alexandra, and was thus a grandson of the preceding. When his father died in 78, he was by his mother forthwith appointed high priest, and on her death in 69 he claimed the succession to the supreme civil authority also; but, after a brief and troubled reign of three months, he was compelled to abdicate both kingly and priestly dignities in favour of his more energetic and ambitious younger brother Aristobulus II. In 63 it suited the policy of Pompey that he should be restored to the high priesthood, with some semblance of supreme command, but of much of this semblance even he was soon again deprived by the arrangement of the pro-consul Gabinius, according to which Palestine was in 57 B.C. divided into five separate circles ([Greek: synodoi, synedria]). For services rendered to Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, he was again rewarded with the sovereignty ([Greek: prostasia tou ethnous], Jos. _Ant._ xx. 10) in 47 B.C., Antipater of Idumaea, however, being at the same time made procurator of Judaea. In 41 B.C. he was practically superseded by Antony's appointment of Herod and Phasael to be tetrarchs of Judaea; and in the following year he was taken prisoner by the Parthians, deprived of his ears that he might be permanently disqualified for priestly office, and carried to Babylon. He was permitted in 33 B.C. to return to Jerusalem, where on a charge of treasonable correspondence with Malchus, king of Arabia, he was put to death in 30 B.C.

See Josephus (_Ant._ xiii. 8-10; xiv. 5-13; _Bell. Jud._ i. 2; i. 8-13). Also MACCABEES, _History_. (J. H. A. H.)

HYSSOP (_Hyssopus officinalis_), a garden herb belonging to the natural order _Labiatae_, formerly cultivated for use in domestic medicine. It is a small perennial plant about 2 ft. high, with slender, quadrangular, woody stems; narrowly elliptical, pointed, entire, dotted leaves, about 1 in. long and 1/3 in. wide, growing in pairs on the stem; and long terminal, erect, half-whorled, leafy spikes of small violet-blue flowers, which are in blossom from June to September. Varieties of the plant occur in gardens with red and white flowers, also one having variegated leaves. The leaves have a warm, aromatic, bitter taste, and are believed to owe their properties to a volatile oil which is present in the proportion of ¼ to ½%. Hyssop is a native of the south of Europe, its range extending eastward to central Asia. A strong tea made of the leaves, and sweetened with honey, was formerly used in pulmonary and catarrhal affections, and externally as an application to bruises and indolent swellings.

The hedge hyssop (_Gratiola officinalis_) belongs to the natural order _Scrophulariaceae_, and is a native of marshy lands in the south of Europe, whence it was introduced into Britain more than 300 years ago. Like _Hyssopus officinalis_, it has smooth opposite entire leaves, but the stems are cylindrical, the leaves twice the size, and the flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves and having a yellowish-red veined tube and bluish-white limb, while the capsules are oval and many-seeded. The herb has a bitter, nauseous taste, but is almost odourless. In small quantities it acts as a purgative, diuretic and emetic when taken internally. It was formerly official in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, being esteemed as a remedy for dropsy. It is said to have formed the basis of a celebrated nostrum for gout, called _Eau médicinale_, and in former times was called _Gratia Dei_. When growing in abundance, as it does in some damp pastures in Switzerland, it becomes dangerous to cattle. G. _peruviana_ is known to possess similar properties.

The hyssop (_'ezob_) of Scripture (Ex. xii. 22; Lev. xiv. 4, 6; Numb. xix. 6, 18; 1 Kings v. 13 (iv. 33); Ps. li. 9 (7); John xix. 29), a wall-growing plant adapted for sprinkling purposes, has long been the subject of learned disputation, the only point on which all have agreed being that it is not to be identified with the _Hyssopus officinalis_, which is not a native of Palestine. No fewer than eighteen plants have been supposed by various authors to answer the conditions, and Celsius has devoted more than forty pages to the discussion of their several claims. By Tristram (_Oxford Bible for Teachers_, 1880) and others the caper plant (_Capparis spinosa_) is supposed to be meant; but, apart from other difficulties, this identification is open to the objection that the caper seems to be, at least in one passage (Eccl. xii. 5), otherwise designated (_'abiy-yônah_). Thenius (on 1 Kings v. 13) suggests _Orthotrichum saxatile_. The most probable opinion would seem to be that found in Maimonides and many later writers, according to which the Hebrew _'ezob_ is to be identified with the Arabic _sa'atar_, now understood to be _Satureja Thymus_, a plant of very frequent occurrence in Syria and Palestine, with which _Thymus Serpyllum_, or wild thyme, and _Satureja Thymbra_ are closely allied. Its smell, taste and medicinal properties are similar to those of _H. officinalis_. In Morocco the _sa'atar_ of the Arabs is _Origanum compactum_; and it appears probable that several plants of the genera _Thymus_, _Origanum_ and others nearly allied in form and habit, and found in similar localities, were used under the name of hyssop.

HYSTASPES (the Greek form of the Persian _Vishtaspa_). (1) A semi-legendary king (_kava_), praised by Zoroaster as his protector and a true believer, son of Aurvataspa (Lohrasp). The later tradition and the Shahname of Firdousi makes him (in the modern form Kai Gushtasp) king of Iran. As Zoroaster probably preached his religion in eastern Iran, Vishtaspa must have been a dynast in Bactria or Sogdiana. The Zoroastrian religion was already dominant in Media in the time of the Assyrian king Sargon (c. 715 B.C.), and had been propagated here probably in much earlier times (cf. PERSIA); the time of Zoroaster and Vishtaspa may therefore be put at c. 1000 B.C. (2) A Persian, father of Darius I., under whose reign he was governor of Parthia, as Darius himself mentions in the Behistun inscription (2. 65). By Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 32, and by many modern authors he has been identified with the protector of Zoroaster, which is equally impossible for chronological and historical reasons, and from the evidence of the development of Zoroastrianism itself (see PERSIA: _Ancient History_). (Ed. M.)

HYSTERESIS (Gr. [Greek: hysterêsis], from [Greek: hysterein], to lag behind), a term added to the vocabulary of physical science by J. A. Ewing, who defines it as follows: When there are two qualities M and N such that cyclic variations of N cause cyclic variations of M, then if the changes of M lag behind those of N, we may say that there is hysteresis in the relation of M to N (_Phil. Trans._, 1885, 176, p. 524). The phenomenon is best known in connexion with magnetism. If an iron bar is subjected to a magnetic force which is first gradually increased to a maximum and then gradually diminished, the resulting magnetization of the bar for any given value of the magnetic force will be greater when the force is decreasing than when it is increasing; the iron always tends to retain the magnetic condition which it has previously acquired, and changes of its magnetization consequently lag behind changes of the magnetic force. Thus there is hysteresis in the relation of magnetization to magnetic force. In consequence of hysteresis the process of magnetizing a piece of iron to a certain intensity and then restoring it to its original condition, or of effecting a double reversal of its magnetization, involves the expenditure of energy, which is dissipated as heat in the iron. Electrical generators and transformers often contain pieces of iron the magnetization of which is reversed many times in a second, and in order to economize power and to avoid undue heating it is essential that hysteresis should in such cases be as small as possible. Iron and mild steels showing remarkably little hysteresis are now specially manufactured for use in the construction of electrical machinery. (See MAGNETISM.)

HYSTERIA, a term applied to an affection which may manifest itself by a variety of symptoms, and which depends upon a disordered condition of the highest nervous centres. It is characterized by psychical peculiarities, while in addition there is often derangement of the functions subserved by the lower cerebral and spinal centres. Histological examination of the nervous system has failed to disclose associated structural alterations.

By the ancients and by modern physicians down to the time of Sydenham the symptoms of hysteria were supposed to be directly due to disturbances of the uterus (Gr. [Greek: hystera], whence the name). This view is now universally recognized to be erroneous. The term "functional" is often used by English neurologists as synonymous with hysterical, a nomenclature which is tentatively advantageous since it is at least non-committal. P. J. Möbius has defined hysteria as "a state in which ideas control the body and produce morbid changes in its functions." P. Janet, who has done much to popularize the psychical origin of the affection, holds that there is "a limitation of the field of consciousness" comparable to the contraction of the visual fields met with in the disease. The hysterical subject, according to this view, is incapable of taking into the field of consciousness all the impressions of which the normal individual is conscious. Strong momentary impressions are no longer controlled so efficiently because of the defective simultaneous impressions of previous memories. Hence the readiness with which the impulse of the moment is obeyed, the loss of emotional control and the increased susceptibility to external suggestion, which are so characteristic. A secondary subconscious mental state is engendered by the relegation of less prominent impressions to a lower sphere. The dual personality which is typically exemplified in somnambulism and in the hypnotic state is thus induced. The explanation of hysterical symptoms which are independent of the will, and of the existence of which the individual may be unaware, is to be found in a relative preponderance of this secondary subconscious state as compared with the primary conscious personality. An elaboration of this theory affords an explanation of hysterical symptoms dependent upon a "fixed idea." The following definition of hysteria has recently been advanced by J. F. F. Babinski: "Hysteria is a psychical condition manifesting itself principally by signs that may be termed primary, and in an accessory sense others that we may call secondary. The characteristic of the primary signs is that they may be exactly reproduced in certain subjects by suggestion and dispelled by persuasion. The characteristic of the secondary signs is that they are closely related to the primary phenomena."

The causes of hysteria may be divided into (a) the predisposing, such as hereditary predisposition to nervous disease, sex, age and national idiosyncrasy; and (b) the immediate, such as mental and physical exhaustion, fright and other emotional influences, pregnancy, the puerperal condition, diseases of the uterus and its appendages, and the depressing influence of injury or general disease. Perhaps, taken over all, hereditary predisposition to nerve-instability may be asserted as the most prolific cause. There is frequently direct inheritance, and cases of epilepsy and insanity or other form of nervous disease are rarely wanting when the family history is carefully enquired into. As regards age, the condition is apt to appear at the evolution periods of life--puberty, pregnancy and the climacteric--without any further assignable cause except that first spoken of. It is rare in young children, but very frequent in girls between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five, while it sometimes manifests itself in women at the menopause. It is much more common in the female than in the male--in the proportion of 20 to 1. Certain races are more liable to the disease than others; thus the Latin races are much more prone to hysteria than are those who come of a Teutonic stock, and in more aggravated and complex forms. In England it has been asserted that an undue proportion of cases occur among Jews. Occupation, or be it rather said want of occupation, is a prolific cause. This is noticeable more especially in the higher classes of society.

An hysterical attack may occur as an immediate sequel to an epileptic fit. If the patient suffers only from _petit mal_ (see EPILEPSY), unaccompanied by true epileptic fits, the significance of the hysterical seizure, which is really a post-epileptic phenomenon, may remain unrecognized.

It is convenient to group the very varied symptoms of hysteria into paroxysmal and chronic. The popular term "hysterics" is applied to an explosion of emotionalism, generally the result of mental excitement, on which convulsive fits may supervene. The characters of these vary, and may closely resemble epilepsy. The hysterical fit is generally preceded by an aura or warning. This sometimes takes the form of a sensation as of a lump in the throat (_globus hystericus_). The patient may fall, but very rarely is injured in so doing. The eyes are often tightly closed, the body and limbs become rigid, and the back may become so arched that the patient rests on her heels and head (_opisthotonos_). This stage is usually followed by violent struggling movements. There is no loss of consciousness. The attack may last for half-an-hour or even longer. Hysterical fits in their fully-developed form are rarely seen in England, though common in France. In the chronic condition we find an extraordinary complexity of symptoms, both physical and mental. The physical symptoms are extremely diverse. There may be a paralysis of one or more limbs associated with rigidity, which may persist for weeks, months or years. In some cases, the patient is unable to walk; in others there are peculiarities of the gait quite unlike anything met with in organic disease. Perversions of sensation are usually present; a common instance is the sensation of a nail being driven through the vertex of the head (_clavus hystericus_). The region of the spine is a very frequent seat of hysterical pain. Loss of sensation (_anaesthesia_), of which the patient may be unaware, is of common occurrence. Very often this sensory loss is limited exactly to one-half of the body, including the leg, arm and face on that side (_hemianaesthesia_). Sensation to touch, pain, heat and cold, and electrical stimuli may have completely disappeared in the anaesthetic region. In other cases, the anaesthesia is relative or it may be partial, certain forms of sensation remaining intact. Anaesthesia is almost always accompanied by an inability to recognize the exact position of the affected limb when the eyes are closed. When hemianaesthesia is present, sight, hearing, taste and smell are usually impaired on that side of the body. Often there is loss of voice (hysterical aphonia). It is to such cases of hysterical paralysis and sensory disturbance that the wonderful cures effected by quacks and charlatans may be referred. The mental symptoms have not the same tendency to pass away suddenly. They may be spoken of as inter-paroxysmal and paroxysmal. The chief characteristics of the former are extreme emotionalism combined with obstructiveness, a desire to be an object of interest and a constant craving for sympathy which is often procured at an immense sacrifice of personal comfort. Obstructiveness is the invariable symptom. Hysteria may pass into absolute insanity.

The treatment of hysteria demands great tact and firmness on the part of the physician. The affection is a definite entity and has to be clearly distinguished from malingering, with which it is so often erroneously regarded as synonymous. Drugs are of little value. The moral treatment is all-important. In severe cases, removal from home surroundings and isolation, either in a hospital ward or nursing home, are essential, in order that full benefit may be derived from psychotherapeutic measures.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Charcot, _Leçons sur les maladies du système nerveuse_ (1877); S. Weir Mitchell, _Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System especially in Women_ (1885); Buzzard, _Simulation of Hysteria by Organic Nervous Disease_ (1891); Pitres, _Leçons cliniques sur l'hystérie et l'hypnotisme_ (1891); Richer, _Études cliniques sur la grande hystérie_ (1891); Gilles de la Tourette, _Traité clinique et thérapeutique de l'hystérie_ (1891); Bastian, _Hysterical or Functional Paralysis_ (1893); Ormerod, Art. "Hysteria," in Clifford Allbutt's _System of Medicine_ (1899); Camus and Pagnez, _Isolement et Psychotherapie_ (1904). (J. B. T.; E. Bra.)

HYSTERON-PROTERON (Gr. [Greek: hysteron], latter, and [Greek: proteron], former), a figure of speech, in which the order of words or phrases is inverted, and that which should logically or naturally come last is put first, to secure emphasis for the principal idea; the classical example is Virgil's "_moriamur et in media arma ruamus,_" "let us die and charge into the thick of the fight" (Aen. ii. 358). The term is also applied to any inversion in order of events, arguments, &c.

HYTHE, a market town and watering-place, one of the Cinque Ports, and a municipal and parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 67 m. S.E. by E. of London on a branch of the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 5557. It is beautifully situated at the foot of a steep hill near the eastern extremity of Romney Marsh, about half a mile from the sea, and consists principally of one long street running parallel with the shore, with which it is connected by a straight avenue of wych elms. On account of its fine situation and picturesque and interesting neighbourhood, it is a favourite watering-place. A sea-wall and parade extend eastward to Sandgate, a distance of 3 m. There is communication with Sandgate by means of a tramway along the front. On the slope of the hill above the town stands the fine church of St Leonard, partly Late Norman, with a very beautiful Early English chancel. The tower was rebuilt about 1750. In a vault under the chancel there is a collection of human skulls and bones supposed to be the remains of men killed in a battle near Hythe in 456. Lionel Lukin (1742-1834), inventor of the life-boat, is buried in the churchyard. Hythe possesses a guildhall founded in 1794 and two hospitals, that of St Bartholomew founded by Haimo, bishop of Rochester, in 1336, and that of St John (rebuilt in 1802), of still greater antiquity but unknown date, founded originally for the reception of lepers. A government school of musketry, in which instructors for the army are trained, was established in 1854, and has been extended since, and the Shorncliffe military camp is within 2½ m. of the town.

Lympne, which is now 3 m. inland, is thought to have been the original harbour which gave Hythe a place among the Cinque Ports. The course of the ancient estuary may be distinctly traced from here along the road to Hythe, the sea-sand lying on the surface and colouring the soil. Here are remains of a Roman fortress, and excavations have brought to light many remains of the Roman _Portus Lemanis_. Large portions of the fortress walls are standing. At the south-west corner is one of the circular towers which occurred along the line of wall. The site is now occupied by the fine old castellated mansion of Studfall castle, formerly a residence of the archdeacons of Canterbury. The name denotes a fallen place, and is not infrequently thus applied to ancient remains. The church at Lympne is Early English, with a Norman tower built by Archbishop Lanfranc, and Roman material may be traced in the walls. A short distance east is Shipway or Shepway Cross, where some of the great assemblies relating to the Cinque Ports were held. A mile north from Hythe is Saltwood Castle, of very ancient origin, but rebuilt in the time of Richard II. The castle was granted to the see of Canterbury in 1026, but escheated to the crown in the time of Henry II., when the murder of Thomas à Beckett is said to have been concerted here, and having been restored to the archbishops by King John remained a residence of theirs until the time of Henry VIII. It was restored as a residence in 1882. About 2 m. N.W. of Saltwood are remains of the fortified 14th-century manor-house of Westenhanger. It is quadrangular and surrounded by a moat, and of the nine towers (alternately square and round) by which the walls were defended, three remain.

The parliamentary borough of Hythe, which includes Folkestone, Sandgate and a number of neighbouring villages, returns one member. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 2617 acres.

Hythe (Heda, Heya, Hethe, Hithe, _i.e._ landing-place) was known as a port in Saxon times, and was granted by Halfden, a Saxon thegn, to Christ Church, Canterbury. In the Domesday Survey the borough is entered among the archbishop's lands as appurtenant to his manor of Saltwood, and the bailiff of the town was appointed by the archbishop. Hythe was evidently a Cinque Port before the Conquest, as King John in 1205 confirmed the liberties, viz. freedom from toll, the right to be impleaded only at the Shepway court, &c., which the townsmen had under Edward the Confessor. The liberties of the Cinque Ports were confirmed in Magna Carta and later by Edward I. in a general charter, which was confirmed, often with additions, by subsequent kings down to James II. John's charter to Hythe was confirmed by Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI. These charters were granted to the Cinque Ports in return for the fifty-seven ships which they supplied for the royal service, of which five were contributed by Hythe. The ports were first represented in the parliament of 1365, to which they each sent four members.

Hythe was governed by twelve jurats until 1574, when it was incorporated by Elizabeth under the title of the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Hythe; a fair for the sale of fish, &c., was also granted, to be held on the feast of St Peter and St Paul. As the sea gradually retreated from Hythe and the harbour became choked up with sand, the town suffered the fate of other places near it, and lost its old importance.

I the ninth letter of the English and Latin alphabet, the tenth in the Greek and Phoenician, because in these the symbol Teth (the Greek [theta]) preceded it. Teth was not included in the Latin alphabet because that language had no sound corresponding to the Greek [theta], but the symbol was metamorphosed and utilized as the numeral C = 100, which took this form through the influence of the initial letter of the Latin _centum_. The name of I in the Phoenician alphabet was _Yod_. Though in form it seems the simplest of letters it was originally much more complex. In Phoenician it takes the form [symbol], which is found also in the earliest Syriac and Palestinian inscriptions with little modification. Ultimately in Hebrew it became reduced to a very small symbol, whence comes its use as a term of contempt for things of no importance as in "not one _jot_ or tittle" (Matthew v. 18). The name passed from Phoenician to Greek, and thence to the Latin of the vulgate as _iota_, and from the Latin the English word is derived. Amongst the Greeks of Asia it appears only as the simple upright I, but in some of the oldest alphabets elsewhere, as Crete, Thera, Attica, Achaia and its colonies in lower Italy, it takes the form [symbol] or S, while at Corinth and Corcyra it appears first in a form closely resembling the later Greek _sigma_ [Sigma]. It had originally no cross-stroke at top and bottom. I being not _i_ but _z_. The Phoenician alphabet having no vowel symbols, the value of _yod_ was that of the English _y_. In Greek, where the consonant sound had disappeared or been converted into _h_, I is regularly used as a vowel. Occasionally, as in Pamphylian, it is used dialectically as a glide between _i_ and another vowel, as in the proper name [Greek: Damatriius]. In Latin I was used alike for both vowel and consonant, as in _iugum_ (yoke). The sound represented by it was approximately that still assigned to _i_ on the continent. Neither Greek nor Latin made any distinction in writing between short and long _i_, though in the Latin of the Empire the long sound was occasionally represented by a longer form of the symbol I. The dot over the _i_ begins in the 5th or 6th century A.D. In pronunciation the English short _i_ is a more open sound than that of most languages, and does not correspond to the Greek and Latin sound. Nor are the English short and long _i_ of the same quality. The short _i_ in Sweet's terminology is a high-front-wide vowel, the long _i_, in English often spelt _ee_ in words like _seed_, is diphthonged, beginning like the short vowel but becoming higher as it proceeds. The Latin short _i_, however, in final syllables was open and ultimately became _e_, e.g. in the neuter of _i_-stems as _utile_ from _utili-s_. Medially both the short and the long sounds are very common in syllables which were originally unaccented, because in such positions many other sounds passed into _i_: _officio_ but _facio_, _redimo_ but _emo_, _quidlibet_ but _lubet_ (_libet_ is later); _collido_ but _laedo_, _fido_ from an older _feido_, _istis_ (dative plural) from an earlier _istois_. (P. Gi.)

IAMBIC, the term employed in prosody to denote a succession of verses, each consisting of a foot or metre called an iambus ([Greek: iambos]), formed of two syllables, of which the first is short and the second long (u --). After the dactylic hexameter, the iambic trimeter was the most popular metre of ancient Greece. Archilochus is said to have been the inventor of this iambic verse, the [Greek: trimetros] consisting of three iambic fed. In the Greek tragedians an iambic line is formed of six feet arranged in obedience to the following scheme:--

u -- | u -- | u -- | u -- | u -- | u -- | u u u | u u u | u u u | u u u | u u u | | -- -- | | -- -- | | -- -- | | -- u u | | -- u u | | | | u u -- | | | | | |

Much of the beauty of the verse depends on the caesura, which is usually In the middle of the third foot, and far less frequently in the middle of the fourth. The English language runs more naturally in the iambic metre than in any other. The normal blank verse in English is founded upon an iambic basis, and Milton's line--

And swims | or sinks | or wades | or creeps | or flies | --

exhibits it in its primitive form. The ordinary alexandrine of French literature is a hexapod iambic, but in all questions of quantity in modern prosody great care has to be exercised to recollect that all ascriptions of classic names to modern forms of rhymed or blank verse are merely approximate. The octosyllabic, or four-foot iambic metre, has found great favour in English verse founded on old romances. Decasyllabic iambic lines rhyming together form an "heroic" metre.

IAMBLICHUS (d. c. A.D. 330), the chief representative of Syrian Neoplatonism, is only imperfectly known to us in the events of his life and the details of his creed. We learn, however, from Suidas, and from his biographer Eunapius, that he was born at Chalcis in Coele-Syria, the scion of a rich and illustrious family, that he studied under Anatolius and afterwards under Porphyry, the pupil of Plotinus, that he himself gathered together a large number of disciples of different nations with whom he lived on terms of genial friendship, that he wrote "various philosophical books," and that he died during the reign of Constantine,--according to Fabricius, before A.D. 333. His residence (probably) at his native town of Chalcis was varied by a yearly visit with his pupils to the baths of Gadara. Of the books referred to by Suidas only a fraction has been preserved. His commentaries on Plato and Aristotle, and works on the Chaldaean theology and on the soul, are lost. For our knowledge of his system we are indebted partly to the fragments of these writings preserved by Stobaeus and others, and to the notices of his successors, especially Proclus, partly to his five extant books, the sections of a great work on the Pythagorean philosophy. Besides these, Proclus (412-485) seems to have ascribed to him[1] the authorship of the celebrated book _On the Egyptian Mysteries_ (so-called), and although its differences in style and in some points of doctrine from the writings just mentioned make it improbable that the work was by Iamblichus himself, it certainly emanated from his school, and in its systematic attempt to give a speculative justification of the polytheistic cultus of the day, marks the turning-point in the history of thought at which Iamblichus stood.

As a speculative theory Neoplatonism (q.v.) had received its highest development from Plotinus. The modifications introduced by Iamblichus were the elaboration in greater detail of its formal divisions, the more systematic application of the Pythagorean number-symbolism, and chiefly, under the influence of Oriental systems, the thorough-going mythic interpretation of what the previous philosophy had still regarded as notional. It is on the last account, probably, that Iamblichus was looked upon with such extravagant veneration. As a philosopher he had learning indeed, but little originality. His aim was to give a philosophical rendering of the popular religion. By his contemporaries he was accredited with miraculous powers (which he, however, disclaimed), and by his followers in the decline of Greek philosophy, and his admirers on its revival in the 15th and 16th centuries, his name was scarcely mentioned without the epithet "divine" or "most divine," while, not content with the more modest eulogy of Eunapius that he was inferior to Porphyry only in style, the emperor Julian regarded him as not even second to Plato, and said that he would give all the gold of Lydia for one epistle of Iamblichus.

Theoretically, the philosophy of Plotinus was an attempt to harmonize the principles of the various Greek schools. At the head of his system he placed the transcendent incommunicable one ([Greek: hen amethekton]), whose first-begotten is intellect ([Greek: nous]), from which proceeds soul ([Greek: psychê]), which in turn gives birth to [Greek: physis], the realm of nature. Immediately after the absolute one, Iamblichus introduced a second superexistent unity to stand between it and the many as the producer of intellect, and made the three succeeding moments of the development (intellect, soul and nature) undergo various modifications. He speaks of them as intellectual ([Greek: theoi noeroi]), supramundane ([Greek: hyperkosmioi]), and mundane gods ([Greek: egkosmioi]). The first of these--which Plotinus represented under the three stages of (objective) being ([Greek: on]), (subjective) life ([Greek: zôê]), and (realized) intellect ([Greek: nous])--is distinguished by him into spheres of intelligible gods ([Greek: theoi noêtoi]) and of intellectual gods ([Greek: theoi noeroi]), each subdivided into triads, the latter sphere being the place of ideas, the former of the archetypes of these ideas. Between these two worlds, at once separating and uniting them, some scholars think there was inserted by Iamblichus, as afterwards by Proclus, a third sphere partaking of the nature of both ([Greek: theoi noêtoi kai noeroi]). But this supposition depends on a merely conjectural emendation of the text. We read, however, that "in the intellectual hebdomad he assigned the third rank among the fathers to the Demiurge." The Demiurge, Zeus, or world-creating potency, is thus identified with the perfected [Greek: nous], the intellectual triad being increased to a hebdomad, probably (as Zeller supposes) through the subdivision of its first two members. As in Plotinus [Greek: nous] produced nature by mediation of [Greek: psychê], so here the intelligible gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods. The first of these is incommunicable and supramundane, while the other two seem to be mundane though rational. In the third class, or mundane gods ([Greek: theoi egkosmioi]), there is a still greater wealth of divinities, of various local position, function, and rank. We read of gods, angels, demons and heroes, of twelve heavenly gods whose number is increased to thirty-six or three hundred and sixty, and of seventy-two other gods proceeding from them, of twenty-one chiefs ([Greek: hegemones]) and forty-two nature-gods ([Greek: theoi genesiourgoi]), besides guardian divinities, of particular individuals and nations. The world is thus peopled by a crowd of superhuman beings influencing natural events, possessing and communicating knowledge of the future, and not inaccessible to prayers and offerings.

The whole of this complex theory is ruled by a mathematical formulism of triad, hebdomad, &c., while the first principle is identified with the monad, [Greek: nous] with the dyad, and [Greek: psychê] with the triad, symbolic meanings being also assigned to the other numbers. "The theorems of mathematics," he says, "apply absolutely to all things," from things divine to original matter ([Greek: hylê]). But though he thus subjects all things to number, he holds elsewhere that numbers are independent existences, and occupy a middle place between the limited and unlimited.

Another difficulty of the system is the account given of nature. It is said to be "bound by the indissoluble chains of necessity which men call fate," as distinguished from divine things which are not subject to fate. Yet, being itself the result of higher powers becoming corporeal, a continual stream of elevating influence flows from them to it, interfering with its necessary laws and turning to good ends the imperfect and evil. Of evil no satisfactory account is given; it is said to have been generated accidentally.

In his doctrine of man Iamblichus retains for the soul the middle place between intellect and nature which it occupies in the universal order. He rejects the passionless and purely intellectual character ascribed to the human soul by Plotinus, distinguishing it sharply both from those above and those below it. He maintains that it moves between the higher and lower spheres, that it descends by a necessary law (not solely for trial or punishment) into the body, and, passing perhaps from one human body to another, returns again to the supersensible. This return is effected by the virtuous activities which the soul performs through its own power of free will, and by the assistance of the gods. These virtues were classified by Porphyry as political, purifying ([Greek: kathartikai]), theoretical, and paradigmatic; and to these Iamblichus adds a fifth class of priestly virtues ([Greek: hieratikai aretai]), in which the divinest part of the soul raises itself above intellect to absolute being.

Iamblichus does not seem ever to have attained to that ecstatic communion with and absorption in deity which was the aim of earlier Neoplatonism, and which Plotinus enjoyed four times in his life, Porphyry once. Indeed his tendency was not so much to raise man to God as to bring the gods down to men--a tendency shown still more plainly in the "Answer of Abamon the master to Porphyry's letter to Anebo and solutions of the doubts therein expressed," afterwards entitled the _Liber de mysteriis_, and ascribed to Iamblichus.

In answer to questions raised and doubts expressed by Porphyry, the writer of this treatise appeals to the innate idea all men have of the gods as testifying to the existence of divinities countless in number and various in rank (to the correct arrangement of which he, like Iamblichus, attaches the greatest importance). He holds with the latter that above all principles of being and intelligence stands the absolute one, from whom the first god and king spontaneously proceeds; while after these follow the ethereal, empyrean, and heavenly gods, and the various orders of archangels, angels, demons, and heroes distinguished in nature, power, and activity, and in greater profusion than even the imagination of Iamblichus had conceived. He says that all the gods are good (though he in another place admits the existence of evil demons who must be propitiated), and traces the source of evil to matter; rebuts the objection that their answering prayer implies passivity on the part of gods or demons; defends divination, soothsaying, and theurgic practices as manifestations of the divine activity; describes the appearances of the different sorts of divinities; discusses the various kinds of sacrifice, which he says must be suitable to the different natures of the gods, material and immaterial, and to the double condition of the sacrificer as bound to the body or free from it (differing thus in his psychology from Iamblichus); and, in conclusion, states that the only way to happiness is through knowledge of and union with the gods, and that theurgic practices alone prepare the mind for this union--again going beyond his master, who held assiduous contemplation of divine things to be sufficient. It is the passionless nature of the soul which permits it to be thus united to divine beings,--knowledge of this mystic union and of the worship associated with it having been derived from the Egyptian priests, who learnt it from Hermes.

On one point only does the author of the _De mysteriis_ seem not to go so far as Iamblichus in thus making philosophy subservient to priestcraft. He condemns as folly and impiety the worship of images of the gods, though his master held that these _simulacra_ were filled with divine power, whether made by the hand of man or (as he believed) fallen from heaven. But images could easily be dispensed with from the point of view of the writer, who not only held that all things were full of gods ([Greek: panta plêrê theôn], as Thales said), but thought that each man had a special divinity of his own--an [Greek: idios daimôn]--as his guard and companion.

The following are the extant works of Iamblichus: (1) _On the Pythagorean_ (_Life_ [Greek: Peri tou Pythagorikou biou]), ed. T. Kiessling (1815), A. Nauck (St Petersburg, 1884); for a discussion of the authorities used see E. Rohde in _Rheinisches Museum_, xxvi., xxvii. (1871, 1872); Eng. trans. by Thomas Taylor (1818), (2) The _Exhortation to Philosophy_ ([Greek: Logos protreptikos eis philosophian]), ed. T. Kiessling (1813); H. Piselli (1888). (3) The treatise _On the General Science of Mathematics_ ([Greek: Peri tês koinês mathêmatkês epistêmês]), ed. J. G. Friis (Copenhagen, 1790), N. Festa (Leipzig, 1891). (4) The book _On the Arithmetic of Nicomachus_ ([Greek: Peri tês Nikomachou arithmêtikês eisagôgês]), along with fragments on fate ([Greek: Peri heimarmenês]) and prayer ([Greek: Peri euchês]), ed. S. Tennulius (1688), the _Arithmetic_ by H. Pistelli (1894). (5) The _Theological Principles of Arithmetic_ ([Greek: Theologoumena tês arithmêtikês])--the seventh book of the series--by F. Ast (Leipzig, 1817). Two lost books, treating of the physical and ethical signification of numbers, stood fifth and sixth, while books on music, geometry and astronomy followed. The emperor Julian had a great admiration for Iamblichus, whom he considered "intellectually not inferior to Plato"; but the _Letters to Iamblicus the Philosopher_ which bear his name are now generally considered spurious.

The so-called _Liber de mysteriis_ was first edited, with Latin translation and notes, by T. Gale (Oxford, 1678), and more recently by C. Parthey (Berlin, 1857); Eng. trans. by Thomas Taylor (1821).

There is a monograph on Iamblichus by G. E. Hebenstreit (_De Iamblichi, philosophi Syri, doctrina_, Leipzig, 1764), and one of the _De myst._ by Harless (_Das Buch v. d. ägypt. Myst._, Munich, 1858). The best accounts of Iamblichus are those of Zeller, _Phil. d. Griechen_, iii. 2, pp. 613 sq., 2nd ed.; E. Vacherot, _Hist. de l'école d'Alexandrie_ (1846), ii. 57 sq.; J. Simon, _Hist. de l'école d'Alexandrie_ (1845); A. E. Chaignet, _Histoire de la psychologie des Grecs_ (Paris, 1893) v. 67-108; T. Whittaker, _The Neo-Platonists_ (Cambridge, 1901). (W. R. So.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Besides the anonymous testimony prefixed to an ancient MS. of Proclus, _De Myst._ viii. 3 seems to be quoted by the latter as Iamblichus's. Cf. Meiners. "Judicium de libro qui de Myst. Aeg. inscribitur," in _Comment. Soc. Reg. Sci. Gott._, vol. iv., 1781, p. 77.

IAMBLICHUS, of Syria, the earliest of the Greek romance writers, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He was the author of [Greek: Babylôniaka], the loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, of which an epitome is preserved in Photius (cod. 94). Garmus, a legendary king of Babylon, forces Sinonis to marry him and throws Rhodanes into prison. The lovers manage to escape, and after many singular adventures, in which magic plays a considerable part, Garmus is overthrown by Rhodanes, who becomes king of Babylon. According to Suidas, Iamblichus was a freedman, and a scholiast's note on Photius further informs us that he was a native Syrian (not descended from Greek settlers); that he borrowed the material for his romance from a love story told him by his Babylonian tutor, and that he subsequently applied himself with great success to the study of Greek. A MS. of the original in the library of the Escorial is said to have been destroyed by fire in 1670. Only a few fragments have been preserved, in addition to Photius's epitome.

See _Scriptores erotici_, ed. A. Hirschig (1856) and R. Hercher (1858); A. Mai, _Scriptorum veterum nova collectio_, ii.; E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900).

IANNINA (i.e. "the city of St John"; Gr. _Ioannina_; Turk _Yaniá_; also written Janina, Jannina, and, according to its Albanian pronunciation, Yanina), the capital of the vilayet of Iannina, Albania, European Turkey. Pop. (1905) about 22,000. The largest ethnical groups in the population are the Albanian and Greek; the purest form of colloquial Greek is spoken here among the wealthy and highly educated merchant families. The position of Iannina is strikingly picturesque. At the foot of the grey limestone mass of Mount Mitzekeli (1500 ft.), which forms part of the fine range of hills running north from the Gulf of Arta, there lies a valley (the _Hellopia_ of antiquity) partly occupied by a lake; and the city is built on the slopes of a slight eminence, stretching down to the western shore. It has greatly declined from the state of barbaric prosperity which it enjoyed from 1788 to 1822, when it was the seat of Ali Pasha (q.v.), and was estimated to have from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. The fortress--Demir Kule or Iron Castle, which, like the principal seraglio, was built on a promontory jutting into the lake--is now in ruins. But the city is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and still possesses many mosques and churches, besides synagogues, a Greek college (gymnasium), a library and a hospital. Sayades (opposite Corfu) and Arta are the places through which it receives its imports. The rich gold and silver embroidery for which the city has long been famous is still one of the notable articles in its bazaar; but the commercial importance of Iannina has notably declined since the cession of Arta and Thessaly to Greece in 1881. Iannina had previously been one of the chief centres of the Thessalian grain trade; it now exports little except cheese, hides, bitumen and sheepskins to the annual value of about £120,000; the imports, which supply only the local demand for provisions, textile goods, hardware, &c., are worth about double that sum.

The lake of Iannina (perhaps to be identified with the Pambotus or Pambotis of antiquity) is 6 m. long, and has an area of 24 sq.m., with an extreme depth of less than 35 ft. In time of flood it is united with the smaller lake of Labchistas to the north. There are no affluents of any considerable size, and the only outlets are underground passages or _katavothra_ extending for many miles through the calcareous rocks.

The theory supported by W. M. Leake (_Northern Greece_, London, 1835) that the citadel of Iannina is to be identified with Dodona, is now generally abandoned in favour of the claims of a more southern site. As Anna Comnena, in describing the capture of the town ([Greek: ta Ioannina]) by Bohemond in 1082, speaks of the walls as being dilapidated, it may be supposed that the place existed before the 11th century. It is mentioned from time to time in the Byzantine annals, and on the establishment of the lordship of Epirus by Michael Angelus Comnenus Ducas, it became his capital. In the middle ages it was successively attacked by Serbs, Macedonians and Albanians; but it was in possession of the successors of Michael when the forces of the Sultan Murad appeared before it in 1430 (cf. Hahn, _Alban. Studien_, Jena [1854], pp. 319-322). Since 1431 it has continued under Turkish rule.

Descriptions of Iannina will be found in Holland's _Travels_ (1815); Hughes, _Travels in Greece_, &c. (1830); H. F. Tozer, _Researches in the Highlands of Turkey_ (London, 1869). See also ALBANIA and the authorities there cited.

IAPETUS, in Greek mythology, son of Uranus and Gaea, one of the Titans, father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus and Menoetius, the personifications of certain human qualities (Hesiod, _Theog._ 507). As a punishment for having revolted against Zeus, he was imprisoned in Tartarus (Homer, _Iliad_, viii. 479) or underneath the island of Inarime off the coast of Campania (Silius Italicus xii. 148). Hyginus makes him the son of Tartarus and Gaea, and one of the giants. Iapetus was considered the original ancestor of the human race, as the father of Prometheus and grandfather of Deucalion. The name is probably identical with Japhet (Japheth), and the son of Noah in the Greek legend of the flood becomes the ancestor of (Noah) Deucalion. Iapetus as the representative of an obsolete order of things is described as warring against the new order under Zeus, and is naturally relegated to Tartarus.

See F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, i. (1857); C. H. Völcker, _Die Mythologie des Iapetischen Geschlechtes_ (1824); M. Mayer, _Giganten und Titanen_ (1887).

IAPYDES, or IAPODES, one of the three chief peoples of Roman Illyria. They occupied the interior of the country on the north between the Arsia (Arsa) and Tedanius (perhaps the Zermanja), which separated them from the Liburnians. Their territory formed part of the modern Croatia. They are described by Strabo as a mixed race of Celts and Illyrians, who used Celtic weapons, tattooed themselves, and lived chiefly on spelt and millet. They were a warlike race, addicted to plundering expeditions. In 129 B.C. C. Sempronius Tuditanus celebrated a triumph over them, and in 34 B.C. they were finally crushed by Augustus. They appear to have had a _foedus_ with Rome, but subsequently rebelled.

See Strabo iv. 207, vii. 313-315; Dio Cassius xlix. 35; Appian, _Illyrica_, 10, 14, 16; Livy, _Epit._ lix. 131; Tibullus iv. 1. 108; Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, 14.

IATROCHEMISTRY (coined from Gr. [Greek: iatros], a physician, and "chemistry"), a stage in the history of chemistry, during which the object of this science was held to be "not to make gold but to prepare medicines." This doctrine dominated chemical thought during the 16th century, its foremost supporters being Paracelsus, van Helmont and de la Boë Sylvius. But it gave way to the new definition formulated by Boyle, viz. that the proper domain of chemistry was "to determine the composition of substances." (See CHEMISTRY: I. _History_; MEDICINE.)

IAZYGES, a tribe of Sarmatians first heard of on the Maeotis, where they were among the allies of Mithradates the Great. Moving westward across Scythia, and hence called Metanastae, they were on the lower Danube by the time of Ovid, and about A.D. 50 occupied the plains east of the Theiss. Here, under the general name of Sarmatae, they were a perpetual trouble to the Roman province of Dacia. They were divided into freemen and serfs (_Sarmatae Limigantes_), the latter of whom had a different manner of life and were probably an older settled population enslaved by nomad masters. They rose against them in A.D. 334, but were repressed by foreign aid. Nothing is heard of Iazyges or Sarmatae after the Hunnish invasions. Graves at Keszthely and elsewhere in the Theiss valley, shown by their contents to belong to nomads of the first centuries A.D., are referred to the Iazyges. (E. H. M.)

IBADAN, a town of British West Africa, in Yorubaland, Southern Nigeria, 123 m. by rail N.E. of Lagos, and about 50 m. N.E. of Abeokuta. Pop. 1910 estimated at 150,000. The town occupies the slope of a hill, and stretches into the valley through which the river Ona flows. It is enclosed by mud walls, which have a circuit of 18 m., and is encompassed by cultivated land 5 or 6 m. in breadth. The native houses are all low, thatched structures, enclosing a square court, and the only break in the mud wall is the door. There are numerous mosques, _orishas_ (idol-houses) and open spaces shaded with trees. There are a few buildings in the European style. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture; but a great variety of handicrafts is also carried on. Ibadan is the capital of one of the Yoruba states and enjoys a large measure of autonomy. Nominally the state is subject to the _alafin_ (ruler) of Oyo; but it is virtually independent. The administration is in the hands of two chiefs, a civil and a military, the _bale_ and the _balogun_; these together form the highest court of appeal. There is also an _iyaloda_ or mother of the town, to whom are submitted all the disputes of the women. Ibadan long had a feud with Abeokuta, but on the establishment of the British protectorate the intertribal wars were stopped. In 1862 the people of Ibadan destroyed Ijaya, a neighbouring town of 60,000 inhabitants. A British resident and a detachment of Hausa troops are stationed at Ibadan.

See also YORUBAS, ABEOKUTA and LAGOS.

IBAGUÉ, or SAN BONIFACIO DE IBAGUÉ, a city of Colombia, and capital of the department of Tolima, about 60 m. W. of Bogotá and 18 m. N.W. of the Nevado de Tolima. Pop. (1900, estimate) 13,000. Ibagué is built on a beautiful plain between the Chipalo and Combeima, small affluents of the Cuello, a western tributary of the Magdalena. Its elevation, 4300 ft. above the sea, gives it a mild, subtropical climate. The plain and the neighbouring valleys produce cacao, tobacco, rice and sugar-cane. There are two thermal springs in the vicinity, and undeveloped mines of sulphur and silver. The city has an endowed college. It is an important commercial centre, being on the road which crosses the Quindio pass, or _paramo_, into the Cauca valley. Ibagué was founded in 1550 and was the capital of the republic for a short time in 1854.

IBARRA, a city of Ecuador and capital of the province of Imbabura, about 50 m. N.N.E. of Quito, on a small fertile plain at the northern foot of Imbabura volcano, 7300 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000. It stands on the left bank of the Tahuando, a small stream whose waters flow north and west to the Pacific through the Mira, and is separated from the higher plateau of Quito by an elevated transverse ridge of which the Imbabura and Mojanda volcanoes form a part. The surrounding country is mountainous, the valleys being very fertile. Ibarra itself has a mild, humid climate, and is set in the midst of orchards and gardens. It is the see of a bishop and has a large number of churches and convents, and many substantial residences. Ibarra has manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, hats, sandals (_alpargates_), sacks and rope from _cabulla_ fibre, laces, sugar and various kinds of distilled spirits and cordials made from the sugar-cane grown in the vicinity. Mules are bred for the Colombian markets of Pasto and Popayan. Ibarra was founded in 1597 by Alvaro de Ibarra, the president of Quito. It has suffered from the eruptions of Imbabura, and more severely from earthquakes, that of 1859 causing great damage to its public buildings, and the greater one of the 16th of August 1868 almost completely destroyed the town and killed a large number of its inhabitants. The village of Carranqui, 1¼ m. from Ibarra, is the birthplace of Atahualpa, the Inca sovereign executed by Pizarro, and close by is the small lake called Yaguarcocha where the army of Huaynacapac, the father of Atahualpa, inflicted a bloody defeat on the Carranquis. Another aboriginal battle-field is that of Hatuntaqui, near Ibarra, where Huaynacapac won a decisive victory and added the greater part of Ecuador to his realm. The whole region is full of _tolas_, or Indian burial mounds.

IBERIANS (Iberi, [Greek: Ibêres]), an ancient people inhabiting parts of the Spanish peninsula. Their ethnic affinities are not known, and our knowledge of their history is comparatively slight. It is almost impossible to make any statement in regard to them which will meet with general agreement. At the same time, the general lines of Iberian controversy are clear enough The principal sources of information about the Iberians are (1) historical, (2) numismatic, (3) linguistic, (4) anthropological.

1. _Historical._--The name seems to have been applied by the earlier Greek navigators to the peoples who inhabited the eastern coast of Spain; probably it originally meant those who dwelt by the river Iberus (mod. _Ebro_). It is possible (Boudard, _Études sur l'alphabet ibérien_ (Paris, 1852) that the river-name itself represents the Basque phrase _ibay-erri_ "the country of the river." On the other hand, even in older Greek usage (as in Thuc. vi. 1) the term Iberia is said to have embraced the country as far east as the Rhone (see Herodorus of Heraclea, _Fragm. Hist. Gr._ ii. 34), and by the time of Strabo it was the common Greek name for the Spanish peninsula. Iberians thus meant sometimes the population of the peninsula in general and sometimes, it would appear, the peoples of some definite race ([Greek: genos]) which formed one element in that population. Of the tribal distribution of this race, of its linguistic, social and political characteristics, and of the history of its relation to the other peoples of Spain, we have only the most general, fragmentary and contradictory accounts. On the whole, the historical evidence indicates that in Spain, when it first became known to the Greeks and Romans there existed many separate and variously civilized tribes connected by at least apparent identity of race, and by similarity (but not identity) of language, and sufficiently distinguished by their general characteristics from Phoenicians, Romans and Celts. The statement of Diodorus Siculus that the mingling of these Iberians with the immigrant Celts gave rise to the Celtiberians is in itself probable. Varro and Dionysius Afer proposed to identify the Iberians of Spain with the Iberians of the Caucasus, the one regarding the eastern, and other the western, settlements as the earlier.

2. _Numismatic._--Knowledge of ancient Iberian language and history is mainly derived from a variety of coins, found widely distributed in the peninsula,[1] and also in the neighbourhood of Narbonne. They are inscribed in an alphabet which has many points of similarity with the western Greek alphabets, and some with the Punic alphabet; but which seems to retain a few characters from an older script akin to those of Minoan Crete and Roman Libya.[2] The same Iberian alphabet is found also rarely in inscriptions. The coinage began before the Roman conquest was completed; the monetary system resembles that of the Roman republic, with values analogous to _denarii_ and _quinarii_. The coin inscriptions usually give only the name of the town, e.g. PLPLIS (Bilbilis), KLAQRIQS (Calagurris), SEQBRICS (Segobriga), TMANIAV (Dumania). The types show late Greek and perhaps also late Punic influence, but approximate later to Roman models. The commonest reverse type, a charging horseman, reappears on the Roman coins of Bilbilis, Osca, Segobriga and other places. Another common type is one man leading two horses or brandishing a sword or a bow. The obverse has usually a male head, sometimes inscribed with what appears to be a native name.

3. _Linguistic._--The survival of the non-Aryan language among the Basques around the west Pyrenees has suggested the attempt to interpret by its means a large class of similar-sounding place-names of ancient Spain, some of which are authenticated by their occurrence on the inscribed coins, and to link it with other traces of non-Aryan speech round the shores of the Western Mediterranean and on the Atlantic seaboard of Europe. This phase of Iberian theory opens with K. W. Humboldt (_Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der waskischen Sprache_, Berlin, 1821), who contended that there existed once a single great Iberian people, speaking a distinct language of their own; that an essentially "Iberian" population was to be found in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, in southern France, and even in the British Isles; and that the Basques of the present day were remnants of this race, which had elsewhere been expelled or absorbed. This last was the central and the seminal idea of the work, and it has been the point round which the battle of scholarship has mainly raged. The principal evidence which Humboldt adduced in its support was the possibility of explaining a vast number of the ancient topographical names of Spain, and of other asserted Iberian districts, by the forms and significations of Basque. In reply, Graslin (_De l'Ibérie_, Paris, 1839), maintained that the name Iberia was nothing but a Greek misnomer of Spain, and that there was no proof that the Basque people had ever occupied a wider area than at present; and Bladé (_Origine des Basques_, Paris, 1869) took the same line of argument, holding that Iberia is a purely geographical term, that there was no proper Iberian race, that the Basques were always shut in by alien races, that their affinity is still to seek, and that the whole Basque-Iberian theory is a figment. His main contention has met with some acceptance,[3] but the great current of ethnographical speculation still flows in the direction indicated by Humboldt.

4. _Anthropological._--Humboldt's "Iberian theory" depended partly on linguistic comparisons, but partly on his observation of widespread similarity of physical type among the population of south-western Europe. Since his time the anthropological researches of Broca, Thurnam and Davis, Huxley, Busk, Beddoe, Virchow, Tubino and others have proved the existence in Europe, from Neolithic times, of a race, small of stature, with long or oval skulls, and accustomed to bury their dead in tombs. Their remains have been found in Belgium and France, in Britain, Germany and Denmark, as well as in Spain; and they bear a close resemblance to a type which is common among the Basques as well as all over the Iberian peninsula. This Neolithic race has consequently been nicknamed "Iberians," and it is now common to speak of the "Iberian" ancestry of the people of Britain, recognizing the racial characteristics of "Iberians" in the "small swarthy Welshman," the "small dark Highlander," and the "Black Celts to the west of the Shannon," as well as in the typical inhabitants of Aquitania and Brittany.[4] Later investigators went further. M. d'Arbois de Jubainville, for example (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_, Paris, 1877), maintained that besides possessing Spain, Gaul, Italy and the British Isles, "Iberian" peoples penetrated into the Balkan peninsula, and occupied a part of northern Africa, Corsica and Sardinia; and it is now generally accepted that a race with fairly uniform characteristics was at one time in possession of the south of France (or at least of Aquitania), the whole of Spain from the Pyrenees to the straits, the Canary Islands (the Guanches) a part of northern Africa and Corsica. Whether this type is more conveniently designated by the word _Iberian_, or by some other name ("Eur-african," "Mediterranean," &c.) is a matter of comparative indifference, provided that there is no misunderstanding as to the steps by which the term _Iberian_ attained its meaning in modern anthropology.

AUTHORITIES.--K. W. von Humboldt, "Über die cantabrische oder baskische Sprache" in Adelung, _Mithridates_ iv. (1817), and _Prüfung d. Untersuchungen ü. die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der waskischen Sprache_ (Berlin, 1821); L. F. Graslin, _De l'Ibérie_ (Paris, 1838); T. B. G. M. Bory de St Vincent, _Essai géologique sur le genre humain_ (1838); G. Lagneau, "Sur l'ethnologie des peuples ibériens," in _Bull. soc. anthrop._ (1867), pp. 146-161; J. F. Bladé, _Études sur l'origine des Basques_ (Paris, 1869), _Défense des études_, &c. (Paris, 1870); Phillips, _Die Einwanderung der Iberer in die pyren. Halbinsel_ (Vienna, 1870), _Über das iberische Alphabet_ (Vienna, 1870); W. Boyd Dawkins, "The Northern Range of the Basques," in _Fortnightly Rev._ N.S. xvi. 323-337 (1874); W. T. van Eys, "La Langue ibérienne et la langue basque," in _Revue de linguistique_, pp. 3-15 (1874); W. Webster, "The Basque and the Kelt," in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ v. 5-29 (1875); F. M. Tubino, _Los Aborigines ibericos o los Berberos en la peninsula_ (Madrid, 1876); A. Luchaire, _Les Origines linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877); W. Boyd Dawkins, _Early Man in Britain_ (London, 1880); A. Castaing, "Les Origines des Aquitains," _Mém. Soc. Eth._ N.S. 1, pp. 183-328 (1884); G. C. C. Gerland, "Die Basken und die Iberer" in Gröber, _Grundriss d. roman. Philologie_, 1, pp. 313-334 (1888); M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_ (1889-1894); J. F. Bladé, _Les Vascons avant leur établissement en Novempopulanie_, Agen. (1891); W. Webster, "The Celt-iberians," _Academy_ xl. 268-269 (and consequent correspondence) (1891); J. Rhys, "The Inscriptions and Language of the Northern Picts," _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._ xxvi. 263-351 (1892); F. Fita, "El Vascuence en las inscripciones ógmicas," _Bol. Real. Acad. Hist. Madrid_ (June 1893), xxii. 579-587; G. v. d. Gabelentz, "Baskisch u. Berberisch," _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ 593-613 (Berlin, 1893), _Die Verwandtschaft der Baskischen mit der Berber-Sprache Nordafrikas nachgewiesen_ (Braunschweig, 1894); M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, "Les Celtes en Espagne," _Rev. celtique_, xiv. 357-395 (1894); G. Buschan, "Über die iberische Rasse," _Ausland_, lxvi. 342-344 (1894); F. Olóriz y Aguilera, _Distribucion geografica del indice cefalico en España_ (Madrid, 1894), "La Talla humana en España" in _Discursos R. Acad. Medicina_ xxxvi. 389 (Madrid, 1896); R. Collignon, "La Race basque," _L'Anthropologie_, v. 276-287 (1894); T. de Aranzadi, "Le Peuple basque, résumé" _Bull. soc. d'anth._ 510-520 (1894), "Consideraciones acerca de la raza basca" _Euskel-Erria_ xxxv. 33, 65, 97, 129 (1896); H. Schuchhardt, _Baskische Studien_, i. "Über die Entstehung der Bezugsformen des baskischen Zeitworts"; _Denkschriften der K. Akad. der Wiss._, Phil.-Hist., Classe, Bd. 42, Abh. 3. (Wien, 1893); Ph. Salmon, _Rev. mens. Éc. d'anthr._ v. 155-181, 214-220 (1895); R. Collignon, "Anthr. du S.-O. de la France," _Mém. Soc. Anthr._ § 3. 1. 4. p. 1-129 (1895), _Ann. de géogr._ v. 156-166 (1896), and with J. Deniker, "Les Maures de Sénégal," _L'Anthr._ vii. 57-69 (1897); G. Hervé, _Rev. mens. Éc. d'anthr._ vi. 97-109 (1896); G. Sergi, _Africa: Anthropologia della stirpe Camitica_ (Turin, 1897), _Arii ed Italici_ (1898); L. de Hoyos Sainz, "L'Anthropologie et la préhistorique en Espagne et en Portugal en 1897," _L'Anthropologie_, ix. 37-51 (1898); J. Deniker (see Collignon) "Les Races de l'Europe," _L'Anthropologie_, ix. 113-133 (1898); M. Gèze, "De quelques rapports entre les langues berbère et basque," _Mém. soc. arch. du Midi de la France_, xiii. See also the works quoted in the footnotes; and the bibliography under BASQUES. (J. L. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For the prehistoric civilization of the peninsula as a whole see SPAIN.

[2] P. A. Boudard's _Études sur l'alphabet ibérien_ (Paris, 1852). and _Numismatique ibérienne_ (Béziers, 1859); Aloiss Heiss, _Notes sur les monnaies celtibériennes_ (Paris, 1865), and _Description générale des monnaies antiques de l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1870); Phillips, _Über das iberische Alphabet_ (Vienna, 1870), _Die Einwanderung der Iberer in die pyren. Halbinsel_ (Vienna, 1870); W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxix. (1899) 204, and above all E. Hübner, _Monumenta linguae Ibericae_.

[3] W. van Eys, for example, "La Langue ibérienne et la langue basque," in _Revue de linguistique_, goes against Humboldt; but Prince Napoleon and to a considerable extent A. Luchaire maintain the justice of his method and the value of many of his results. See Luchaire, _Les Origines linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877).

[4] Compare the interesting résumé of the whole question in Boyd Dawkins's _Early Man in Britain_ (London, 1880).

IBEX, one of the names of the Alpine wild goat, otherwise known as the steinbok and bouquetin, and scientifically as _Capra ibex_. Formerly the ibex was common on the mountain-ranges of Germany, Switzerland and Tirol, but is now confined to the Alps which separate Valais from Piedmont, and to the lofty peaks of Savoy, where its existence is mainly due to game-laws. The ibex is a handsome animal, measuring about 4½ ft. in length and standing about 40 in. at the shoulder. The skin is covered in summer with a short fur of an ashy-grey colour, and in winter with much longer yellowish-brown hair concealing a dense fur beneath. The horns of the male rise from the crest of the skull, and after bending gradually backwards terminate in smooth tips; the front surface of the remainder carrying bold transverse ridges or knots. About 1 yd. is the maximum recorded length of ibex-horns. The fact that the fore-legs are somewhat shorter than those behind enables the ibex to ascend mountain slopes with more facility than it can descend, while its hoofs are as hard as steel, rough underneath and when walking over a flat surface capable of being spread out. These, together with its powerful sinews, enable it to take prodigious leaps, to balance itself on the smallest foothold and to scale almost perpendicular rocks. Ibex live habitually at a greater height than chamois or any other Alpine mammals, their vertical limit being the line of perpetual snow. There they rest in sunny nooks during the day, descending at night to the highest woods to graze. Ibex are gregarious, feeding in herds of ten to fifteen individuals; but the old males generally live apart from, and usually at greater elevations than, the females and young. They utter a sharp whistling sound not unlike that of the chamois, but when greatly irritated or frightened make a peculiar snorting noise. The period of gestation in the female is ninety days, after which she produces--usually at the end of June--a single young one which is able at once to follow its mother. Kids when caught young and fed on goat's milk can be readily tamed; and in the 16th century young tamed ibex were frequently driven to the mountains along with the goats, in whose company they would afterwards return. Even wild ibex have been known to stray among the herds of goats, although they shun the society of chamois. Its flesh is said to resemble mutton, but has a flavour of game.

By naturalists the name "ibex" has been extended to embrace all the kindred species of wild goats, while by sportsmen it is used in a still more elastic sense, to include not only the true wild goat (known in India as the Sind ibex) but even the short-horned _Hemitragus hylocrius_ of the Nilgiris. Dealing only with species zoologically known as ibex, the one nearest akin to the European kind is the Asiatic or Siberian ibex (_Capra sibirica_), which, with several local phases, extends from the northern side of Kashmir over an enormous area in Central Asia. These ibex, especially the race from the Thian Shan, are incomparably finer than the European species, their bold knotted horns sometimes attaining a length of close on 60 in. The Arabian, or Nubian, ibex (_C. nubiana_) is characterized by the more slender type of horn, in which the front edge is much narrower; while the Simien ibex (_C. vali_) of Central Abyssinia is a very large and dark-coloured animal, with the horns black instead of brownish, and bearing only slightly marked front ridges. The Caucasian ibex (_C. caucasica_), or tur, is a wholly fox-coloured animal, in which the horns are still flatter in front, and thus depart yet further from the ibex type. In the Spanish ibex (_C. pyrenaica_) the horns are flattened, with ill-defined knobs, and a spiral twist. (See GOAT.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*)

IBIS, one of the sacred birds of the ancient Egyptians. James Bruce identified this bird with the _Abu-Hannes_ or "Father John" of the Abyssinians, and in 1790 it received from Latham (_Index ornithologicus_, p. 706) the name of _Tantalus aethiopicus_. This determination was placed beyond question by Cuvier (_Ann. du Muséum_, iv. 116-135) and Savigny (_Hist. nat. et mythol. de l'ibis_) in 1805. They, however, removed it from the Linnaean genus _Tantalus_ and, Lacépède having some years before founded a genus _Ibis_, it was transferred thither, and is now generally known as _I. aethiopica_, though some speak of it as _I. religiosa_. No attempt can here be made to treat the ibis from a mythological or antiquarian point of view. Savigny's memoir contains a great deal of matter on the subject. Wilkinson (_Ancient Egyptians_, ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 217-224) added some of the results of later research, and Renouf in his _Hibbert Lectures_ explains the origin of the myth.

The ibis is chiefly an inhabitant of the Nile basin from Dongola southward, as well as of Kordofan and Sennar; whence about midsummer it moves northwards to Egypt.[1] In Lower Egypt it bears the name of _Abu-mengel_, or "father of the sickle," from the form of its bill, but it does not stay long in that country, disappearing when the Nile has subsided. Hence most travellers have failed to meet with it there[2] (since their acquaintance with the birds of Egypt is limited to those which frequent the country in winter), and writers have denied generally to this species a place in its modern fauna (cf. Shelley, _Birds of Egypt_, p. 261). However, in 1864, von Heuglin (_Journ. für Ornithologie_, 1865, p. 100) saw a young bird which had been shot in the Delta, and E. C. Taylor (_Ibis_, 1878, p. 372) saw an adult which had been killed near Lake Menzal in 1877. The story told to Herodotus of its destroying snakes is, according to Savigny, devoid of truth, but Cuvier states that he discovered partly digested remains of a snake in the stomach of a mummied ibis.

The ibis is somewhat larger than a curlew, _Numenius arquata_, which bird it resembles, with a much stouter bill and stouter legs. The head and greater part of the neck are bare and black. The plumage is white, except the primaries, which are black, and a black plume, formed by the secondaries, tertials and lower scapulars, and richly glossed with bronze, blue and green, which curves gracefully over the hind-quarters. The bill and feet are also black. The young lack the ornamental plume, and in them the head and neck are clothed with short black feathers, while the bill is yellow. The nest is placed in bushes or high trees, the bird generally building in companies, and in the middle of August von Heuglin (_Orn. Nord-Ost-Afrikas_, p. 1138) found that it had from two to four young or much incubated eggs.[3] These are of a dingy white, splashed, spotted and speckled with reddish-brown.

Congeneric with the typical ibis are two or three other species, the _I. melanocephala_ of India, the _I. molucca_ or _I. strictipennis_, of Australia, and the _I. bernieri_ of Madagascar, all of which closely resemble _I. aethiopica_; while many other forms not very far removed from it, though placed by authors in distinct genera,[4] are known. Among these are several beautiful species such as the Japanese _Geronticus nippon_, the _Lophotibis cristata_ of Madagascar, and the scarlet ibis,[5] _Eudocimus ruber_, of America. The glossy ibis, _Plegadis falcinellus_, found throughout the West Indies, Central and the south-eastern part of North America, as well as in many parts of Europe (whence it not unfrequently strays to the British Islands), Africa, Asia and Australia. This bird, believed to be the second kind of ibis spoken of by Herodotus, is rather smaller than the sacred ibis, and mostly of a dark chestnut colour with brilliant green and purple reflections on the upper parts, exhibiting, however, when young none of the rufous hue. This species lays eggs of a deep sea-green colour, having wholly the character of heron's eggs, and it often breeds in company with herons, while the eggs of all other ibises whose eggs are known resemble those of the sacred ibis. Though ibises resemble the curlews externally, there is no affinity between them. The _Ibididae_ are more nearly related to the storks, _Ciconiidae_, and still more to the spoonbills, _Plataleidae_, with which latter many systematists consider them to form one group, the _Hemiglottides_ of Nitzsch. Together these groups form the sub-order _Ciconiae_ of the order _Ciconiiformes_. The true ibises are also to be clearly separated from the wood-ibises, _Tantalidae_, of which there are four or five species, by several not unimportant structural characters. Fossil remains of a true ibis, _I. pagana_, have been found in considerable numbers in the middle Tertiary beds of France.[6] (A. N.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It has been said to occur occasionally in Europe (Greece and southern Russia).

[2] E. C. Taylor remarked (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 51), that the buff-backed heron, _Ardea bubulcus_, was made by the tourists' dragomans to do duty for the "sacred ibis," and this seems to be no novel practice, since by it, or something like it, Hasselqvist was misled, and through him Linnaeus.

[3] The ibis has more than once nested in the gardens of the Zoological Society in London, and even reared its young there.

[4] For some account of these may be consulted Dr Reichenow's paper in _Journ. für Ornithologie_ (1877), pp. 143-156; Elliot's in _Proc. Zool. Society_ (1877), pp. 477-510; and that of Oustalet in _Nouv. Arch. du Muséum_, ser. 2, vols. i. pp. 167-184.

[5] It is a popular error--especially among painters--that this bird was the sacred ibis of the Egyptians.

[6] The name "_Ibis_" was selected as the title of an ornithological magazine, frequently referred to in this and other articles, which made its first appearance in 1859.

IBLIS, or EBLIS, in Moslem mythology the counterpart of the Christian and Jewish devil. He figures oftener in the Koran under the name Shaitan, Iblis being mentioned 11 times, whereas Shaitan appears in 87 passages. He is chief of the spirits of evil, and his personality is adapted to that of his Jewish prototype. Iblis rebelled against Allah and was expelled from Paradise. The Koranic legend is that his fall was a punishment for his refusal to worship Adam. Condemned to death he was afterwards respited till the judgment day (Koran vii. 13).

See Gustav Weil, _The Bible, the Koran and the Talmud_ (London, 1846).

IBN 'ABD RABBIHI [Abu 'Umar Ahmad ibn Mahommed ibn 'Abd Rabbihi] (860-940), Arabian poet, was born in Cordova and descended from a freed slave of Hisham, the second Spanish Omayyad caliph. He enjoyed a great reputation for learning and eloquence. No diwan of his is extant, but many selections from his poems are given in the _Yatimat ud-Dahr_, i. 412-436 (Damascus, 1887). More widely known than his poetry is his great anthology, the _'Iqd ul-Farid_ ("The Precious Necklace"), a work divided into twenty-five sections, the thirteenth being named the middle jewel of the necklace, the chapters on either side of this being named after other jewels. It is an _adab_ book (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section "Belles Lettres") resembling Ibn Qutaiba's _'Uyun ul-Akhbar_, from which it borrows largely. It has been printed, several times in Cairo (1876, 1886, &c.). (G. W. T.)

IBN 'ARABI [Muhyiuddin Abu 'Abdallah ibn ul-'Arabi] (1165-1240), Moslem theologian and mystic, was born in Murcia and educated in Seville. When thirty-eight he travelled in Egypt, Arabia, Bagdad, Mosul and Asia Minor, after which he lived in Damascus for the rest of his life. In law he was a Zahirite, in theology a mystic of the extreme order, though professing orthodox Ash'arite theology and combating in many points the Indo-Persian mysticism (pantheism). He claims to have had conversations with all the prophets past and future, and reports conversations with God himself. Of his numerous works about 150 still exist. The most extensive is the twelve-volume _Futuhat ul-Makkiyat_ ("Meccan Revelations"), a general encyclopaedia of Sufic beliefs and doctrines. Numerous extracts from this work are contained in Sha'rani's (d. 1565) manual of Sufic dogma (_Yawaqit_) published several times in Cairo. A short account of these works is given in A. von Kremer's _Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams_, pp. 102-109 (Leipzig, 1868). Another characteristic and more accessible work of Ibn 'Arabi is the _Fusus ul-Hikam_, on the nature and importance of the twenty-seven chief prophets, written in 1230 (ed. Bulaq, 1837) and with the _Commentary_ (Cairo, 1891) of Qashani (d. 1350); cf. analysis by M. Schreiner in _Journal of German Oriental Society_, lii. 516-525.

Of some 289 works said to have been written by Ibn 'Arabi 150 are mentioned in C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der arabischen Litteratur_, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), pp. 441-448. See also R. A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_, pp. 399-404 (London, 1907). (G. W. T.)

IBN ATHIR, the family name of three brothers, all famous in Arabian literature, born at Jazirat ibn 'Umar in Kurdistan. The eldest brother, known as MAJD UD-DIN (1149-1210), was long in the service of the amir of Mosul, and was an earnest student of tradition and language. His dictionary of traditions (_Kitab un-Nihaya_) was published at Cairo (1893), and his dictionary of family names (_Kitab ul-Murassa'_) has been edited by Seybold (Weimar, 1896). The youngest brother, known as DIYA UD-DIN (1163-1239), served Saladin from 1191 on, then his son, al-Malik ul-Afdal, and was afterwards in Egypt, Samosata, Aleppo, Mosul and Bagdad. He was one of the most famous aesthetic and stylistic critics in Arabian literature. His _Kitab ul-Mathal_, published in Bulaq in 1865 (cf. _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, xxxv. 148, and Goldziher's _Abhandlungen_, i. 161 sqq.), contains some very independent criticism of ancient and modern Arabic verse. Some of his letters have been published by D. S. Margoliouth "On the Royal Correspondence of Diya ed-Din el-Jazari" in the _Actes du dixième congrès international des orientalistes_, sect. 3, pp. 7-21.

The brother best known by the simple name of Ibn Athir was ABU-L-HASAN 'IZZUDDIN MAHOMMED IBN UL-ATHIR (1160-1234), who devoted himself to the study of history and tradition. At the age of twenty-one he settled with his father in Mosul and continued his studies there. In the service of the amir for many years, he visited Bagdad and Jerusalem and later Aleppo and Damascus. He died in Mosul. His great history, the _Kamil_, extends to the year 1231; it has been edited by C. J. Tornberg, _Ibn al-Athiri Chronicon quod perfectissimum inscribitur_ (14 vols., Leiden, 1851-1876), and has been published in 12 vols. in Cairo (1873 and 1886). The first part of this work up to A.H. 310 (A.D. 923) is an abbreviation of the work of Tabari (q.v.) with additions. Ibn Athir also wrote a history of the Atabegs of Mosul, published in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_ (vol. ii., Paris); a work (_Usd ul-Ghaba_), giving an account of 7500 companions of Mahomet (5 vols., Cairo, 1863), and a compendium (the _Lubab_) of Sam'ani's _Kitab ul-Ansab_ (cf. F. Wüstenfeld's _Specimen el-Lobabi_, Göttingen, 1835). (G. W. T.)

IBN BATUTA, i.e. ABU ABDULLAH MAHOMMED, surnamed IBN BATUTA (1304-1378), the greatest of Moslem travellers, was born at Tangier in 1304. He entered on his travels at twenty-one (1325) and closed them in 1355. He began by traversing the coast of the Mediterranean from Tangier to Alexandria, finding time to marry two wives on the road. After some stay at Cairo, then probably the greatest city in the world (excluding China), and an unsuccessful attempt to reach Mecca from Aidhab on the west coast of the Red Sea, he visited Palestine, Aleppo and Damascus. He then made the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and visited the shrine of Ali at Mashhad-Ali, travelling thence to Basra, and across the mountains of Khuzistan to Isfahan, thence to Shiraz and back to Kufa and Bagdad. After an excursion to Mosul and Diarbekr, he made the _haj_ a second time, staying at Mecca three years. He next sailed down the Red Sea to Aden (then a place of great trade), the singular position of which he describes, noticing its dependence for water-supply upon the great cisterns restored in modern times. He continued his voyage down the African coast, visiting, among other places, Mombasa and Quiloa (Kilwa). Returning north he passed by the chief cities of Oman to New Ormuz (Hurmuz), which had about 15 years before, c. 1315, been transferred to its famous island-site from the mainland (Old Ormuz). After visiting other parts of the gulf he crossed the breadth of Arabia to Mecca, making the _haj_ for the third time. Crossing the Red Sea, he made a journey of great hardship to Syene, and thence along the Nile to Cairo. After this, travelling through Syria, he made a circuit among the petty Turkish states into which Asia Minor was divided after the fall of the kingdom of Rum (Iconium). He now crossed the Black Sea to Kaffa, then mainly occupied by the Genoese, and apparently the first Christian city he had seen, for he was much perturbed by the bell-ringing. He next travelled into Kipchak (the Mongol khanate of Russia), and joined the camp of the reigning khan Mahommed Uzbeg, from whom the great and heterogeneous _Uzbeg_ race is perhaps named. Among other places in this empire he travelled to Bolghar (54° 54´ N.) in order to witness the shortness of the summer night, and desired to continue his travels north into the "Land of Darkness" (in the extreme north of Russia), of which wonderful things were told, but was obliged to forego this. Returning to the khan's camp he joined the cortège of one of the Khatuns, who was a Greek princess by birth (probably illegitimate) and in her train travelled to Constantinople, where he had an interview with the emperor Andronikos III. the Younger (1328-1341). He tells how, as he passed the city gates, he heard the guards muttering _Sarakinu_. Returning to the court of Uzbeg, at Sarai on the Volga, he crossed the steppes to Khwarizm and Bokhara; thence through Khorasan and Kabul, and over the Hindu Kush (to which he gives that name, its first occurrence). He reached the Indus, on his own statement, in September, 1333. This closes the first part of his narrative.

From Sind, which he traversed to the sea and back again, he proceeded to Multan, and eventually, on the invitation of Mahommed Tughlak, the reigning sovereign, to Delhi. Mahommed was a singular character, full of pretence at least to many accomplishments and virtues, the founder of public charities, and a profuse patron of scholars, but a parricide, a fratricide, and as madly capricious, bloodthirsty and unjust as Caligula. "No day did his palace gate fail to witness the elevation of some abject to affluence and the torture and murder of some living soul." He appointed the traveller to be kazi of Delhi, with a present of 12,000 silver dinars (rupees), and an annual salary of the same amount, besides an assignment of village lands. In the sultan's service Ibn Batuta remained eight years; but his good fortune stimulated his natural extravagance, and his debts soon amounted to four or five times his salary. At last he fell into disfavour and retired from court, only to be summoned again on a congenial duty. The emperor of China, last of the Mongol dynasty, had sent a mission to Delhi, and the Moor was to accompany the return embassy (1342). The party travelled through central India to Cambay and thence sailed to Calicut, classed by the traveller with the neighbouring Kaulam (Quilon), Alexandria, Sudak in the Crimea, and Zayton (Amoy harbour) in China, as one of the greatest trading havens in the world--an interesting enumeration from one who had seen them all. The mission party was to embark in Chinese junks (the word used) and smaller vessels, but that carrying the other envoys and the presents, which started before Ibn Batuta was ready, was wrecked totally; the vessel that he had engaged went off with his property, and he was left on the beach of Calicut. Not daring to return to Delhi, he remained about Honore and other cities of the western coast, taking part in various adventures, among others the capture of Sindabur (Goa), and visiting the Maldive Islands, where he became kazi, and married four wives, and of which he has left the best medieval account, hardly surpassed by any modern. In August 1344 he left the Maldives for Ceylon; here he made the pilgrimage to the "Footmark of our Father Adam." Thence he betook himself to Maabar (the Coromandel coast), where he joined a Mussulman adventurer, residing at Madura, who had made himself master of much of that region. After once more visiting Malabar, Canara and the Maldives, he departed for Bengal, a voyage of forty-three days, landing at Sadkawan (Chittagong). In Bengal he visited the famous Moslem saint Shaykh Jalaluddin, whose shrine (_Shah Jalal_ at Silhet) is still maintained. Returning to the delta, he took ship at Sunarganw (near Dacca) on a junk bound for Java (i.e. _Java Minor_ of Marco Polo, or Sumatra). Touching the coast of Arakan or Burma, he reached Sumatra in forty days, and was provided with a junk for China by Malik al Dhahir, a zealous disciple of Islam, which had recently spread among the states on the northern coast of that island. Calling (apparently) at Cambodia on his way, Ibn Batuta reached China at Zayton (Amoy harbour), famous from Marco Polo; he also visited Sin Kalan or Canton, and professes to have been in Khansa (_Kinsay_ of Marco Polo, i.e. Hangchau), and Khanbalik (_Cambaluc_ or Peking). The truth of his visit to these two cities, and especially to the last, has been questioned. The traveller's history, not least in China, singularly illustrates the free masonry of Islam, and its power of carrying a Moslem doctor over the known world of Asia and Africa. On his way home he saw the great bird _Rukh_ (evidently, from his description, an island lifted by refraction); revisited Sumatra, Malabar, Oman, Persia, Bagdad, and crossed the great desert to Palmyra and Damascus, where he got his first news of home, and heard of his father's death fifteen years before. Diverging to Hamath and Aleppo, on his return to Damascus, he found the Black Death raging, so that two thousand four hundred died in one day. Revisiting Jerusalem and Cairo he made the _haj_ a fourth time, and finally reappeared at Fez (visiting Sardinia _en route_) on the 8th of November 1349, after twenty-four years' absence. Morocco, he felt, was, after all, the best of countries. "The _dirhems_ of the West are but little; but then you get more for them." After going home to Tangier, Ibn Batuta crossed into Spain and made the round of Andalusia, including Gibraltar, which had just then stood a siege from the "Roman tyrant Adfunus" (Alphonso XI. of Castile, 1312-1350). In 1352 the restless man started for Central Africa, passing by the oases of the Sahara (where the houses were built of rock-salt, as Herodotus tells, and roofed with camel skins) to Timbuktu and Gogo on the Niger, a river which he calls the Nile, believing it to flow down into Egypt, an opinion maintained by some up to the date of Lander's discovery. Being then recalled by his own king, he returned to Fez (early in 1354) via Takadda, Haggar and Tuat. Thus ended his twenty-eight years' wanderings which in their main lines alone exceeded 75,000 m. By royal order he dictated his narrative to Mahommed Ibn Juzai, who concludes the work, 13th of December 1355 (A.D.) with the declaration: "This Shaykh is the traveller of our age; and he who should call him the traveller of the whole body of Islam would not exceed the truth." Ibn Batuta died in 1378, aged seventy-three.

Ibn Batuta's travels have only been known in Europe during the 19th century; at first merely by Arabic abridgments in the Gotha and Cambridge libraries. Notices or extracts had been published by Seetzen (c. 1808), Kosegarten (1818), Apetz (1819), and Burckhardt (1819), when in 1829 Dr S. Lee published for the Oriental Translation Fund a version from the abridged MSS. at Cambridge, which attracted much interest. The French capture of Constantina afforded MSS. of the complete work, one of them the autograph of Ibn Juzai. And from these, after versions of fragments by various French scholars, was derived at last (1858-1859) the standard edition and translation of the whole by M. Défrémery and Dr Sanguinetti, in 4 vols. See also Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 397-526; C. Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 535-538. Though there are some singular chronological difficulties in the narrative, and a good many cursory inaccuracies and exaggerations, there is no part of it except, perhaps, certain portions of the journeys in north China, which is open to doubt. The accounts of the Maldive Islands, and of the Negro countries on the Niger, are replete with interesting and accurate particulars. The former agrees surprisingly with that given by the only other foreign resident we know of, Pyrard de la Val, two hundred and fifty years later. Ibn Batuta's statements and anecdotes regarding the showy virtues and solid vices of Sultan Muhammad Tughlak are in entire agreement with Indian historians, and add many fresh details. (H. Y.; C. R. B.)

IBN DURAID [Abu Bakr Mahommed ibn ul-Hasan ibn Duraid ul-Azdi] (837-934), Arabian poet and philologist, was born at Basra of south Arabian stock. At his native place he was trained under various teachers, but fled in 871 to Oman at the time Basra was attacked by the negroes, known as the Zanj, under Muhallabi. After living twelve years in Oman he went to Persia, and, under the protection of the governor, 'Abdallah ibn Mahommed ibn Mikal, and his son, Isma'il, wrote his chief works. In 920 he went to Bagdad, where he received a pension from the caliph Moqtadir.

The _Maqsura_, a poem in praise of Ibn Mikal and his son, has been edited by A. Haitsma (1773) E. Scheidius (1786) and N. Boyesen (1828). Various commentaries on the poem exist in MS. (cf. C. Brockelmann, _Gesch. der ar. Lit._, i. 211 ff., Weimar, 1898), The _Jamhara fi-l-Lugha_ is a large dictionary written in Persian but not printed. Another work is the _Kitab ul-Ishtiqaq_ ("Book of Etymology"), edited by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1854); it was written in opposition to the anti-Arabian party to show the etymological connexion of the Arabian tribal names. (G. W. T.)

IBN FARADI [Abu-l-Walid 'Abdallah ibn ul-Faradi] (962-1012), Arabian historian, was born at Cordova and studied law and tradition. In 992 he made the pilgrimage and proceeded to Egypt and Kairawan, studying in these places. After his return in 1009 he became cadi in Valencia, and was killed at Cordova when the Berbers took the city.

His chief work is the _History of the Learned Men of Andalusia_, edited by F. Codera (Madrid, 1891-1892). He wrote also a history of the poets of Andalusia. (G. W. T.)

IBN FARID [Abu-l-Qasim 'Umar ibn ul-Farid] (1181-1235), Arabian poet, was born in Cairo, lived for some time in Mecca and died in Cairo. His poetry is entirely Sufic, and he was esteemed the greatest mystic poet of the Arabs. Some of his poems are said to have been written in ecstasies. His diwan has been published with commentary at Beirut, 1887, &c.; with the commentaries of Burini (d. 1615) and 'Abdul-Ghani (d. 1730) at Marseilles, 1853, and at Cairo; and with the commentary of Rushayyid Ghalib (19th century) at Cairo, 1893. One of the separate poems was edited by J. von Hammer Purgstall as _Das arabische hohe Lied der Liebe_ (Vienna, 1854).

See R. A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_ (London, 1907), pp. 394-398. (G. W. T.)

IBN GABIROL [SOLOMON BEN JUDAH], Jewish poet and philosopher, was born at Malaga, probably about 1021. The early part of his troublous life was spent at Saragossa, but few personal details of it are recorded. His parents died while he was a child and he was under the protection first of a certain Jekuthiel, who died in 1039, and afterwards of Samuel ha-Nagid, the well-known patron of learning. His passionate disposition, however, embittered no doubt by his misfortunes, involved him in frequent difficulties and led to his quarrelling with Samuel. It is generally agreed that he died young, although the date is uncertain. Al Harizi[1] says at the age of twenty-nine, and Moses b. Ezra[2] about thirty, but Abraham Zaccuto[3] states that he died (at Valencia) in 1070. M. Steinschneider[4] accepts the date 1058.

His literary activity began early. He is said to have composed poems at the age of sixteen, and elegies by him are extant on Hai Gaon (died in 1038) and Jekuthiel (died in 1039), each of which was written probably soon after the death of the person commemorated. About the same time he also wrote his _'Anaq_, a poem on grammar, of which only 97 lines out of 400 are preserved. Moses ben Ezra says of him that he imitated Moslem models, and was the first to open to Jewish poets the door of versification,[5] meaning that he first popularized the use of Arabic metres in Hebrew. It is as a poet that he has been known to the Jews to the present day, and admired for the youthful freshness and beauty of his work, in which he may be compared to the romantic school in France and England in the early 19th century. Besides his lyrical and satirical poems, he contributed many of the finest compositions to the liturgy (some of them with the acrostic "Shelomoh ha-qato"), which are widely different from the artificial manner of the earlier payyetanim. The best known of his longer liturgical compositions are the philosophical _Kether Malkuth_ (for the Day of Atonement) and the _Azharoth_, on the 613 precepts (for _Shebhu'oth_). Owing to his pure biblical style he had an abiding influence on subsequent liturgical writers.

Outside the Jewish community he was known as the philosopher Avicebron (Avencebrol, Avicebrol, &c.) The credit of identifying this name as a medieval corruption of Ibn Gabirol is due to S. Munk, who showed that selections made by Shem Tobh Palqera (or Falqera) from the Meqor Hayyim (the Hebrew translation of an Arabic original) by Ibn Gabirol, corresponded to the Latin _Fons Vitae_ of Avicebron. The Latin version, made by Johannes Hispalensis and Gundisalvi about one hundred years after the author's death, had at once become known among the Schoolmen of the 12th century and exerted a powerful influence upon them, although so little was known of the author that it was doubted whether he was a Christian or a Moslem. The teaching of the _Fons Vitae_ was entirely new to the country of its origin, and being drawn largely from Neoplatonic sources could not be expected to find favour with Jewish thinkers. Its distinctive doctrines are: (1) that all created beings, spiritual or corporeal, are composed of matter and form, the various species of matter being but varieties of the universal matter, and similarly all forms being contained in one universal form; (2) that between the primal One and the intellect (the [Greek: nous] of Plotinus) there is interposed the divine Will, which is itself divine and above the distinction of form and matter, but is the cause of their union in the being next to itself, the intellect, in which Avicebron holds that the distinction does exist. The doctrine that there is a material, as well as a formal, element in all created beings was explicitly adopted from Avicebron by Duns Scotus (as against the view of Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas), and perhaps his exaltation of the will above the intellect is due to the same influence. Avicebron develops his philosophical system throughout quite independently of his religious views--a practice wholly foreign to Jewish teachers, and one which could not be acceptable to them. Indeed, this charge is expressly brought against him by Abraham ben David of Toledo (died in 1180). It is doubtless this non-religious attitude which accounts for the small attention paid to the _Fons Vitae_ by the Jews, as compared with the wide influence of the philosophy of Maimonides.

The other important work of Ibn Gabirol is _Islah al-akhlaq_ (the improvement of character), a popular work in Arabic, translated into Hebrew (_Tiqqun middoth ha-nephesh_) by Judah ibn Tibbon. It is widely different in treatment from the _Fons_, being intended as a practical not a speculative work.

The collection of moral maxims, compiled in Arabic but best known (in the Hebrew translation of Judah ibn Tibbon) as _Mibhar ha-peninim_, is generally ascribed to Ibn Gabirol, though on less certain grounds.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Texts of the liturgical poems are to be found in the prayer-books: others in Dukes and Edelmann, _Treasures of Oxford_ (Oxford, 1850); Dukes, _Shire Shelomoh_ (Hanover, 1858); S. Sachs, _Shir ha-shirim asher li-Shelomoh_ (Paris, 1868, incomplete); Brody, _Die weltlichen Gedichte des ... Gabirol_ (Berlin, 1897, &c.).

"Avencebrolis Fons Vitae" (Latin text) in Clemens Bäumker's _Beiträge zur Gesch. d. Philosophie_, Bd. i. Hefte 2-4 (Münster, 1892); _The Improvement of the Moral Qualities_ [Arabic and English] ed. by S. S. Wise (New York, 1901); _A Choice of Pearls_ [Hebrew and English] ed. by Ascher (London, 1859).

On the philosophy in general: S. Munk, _Mélanges_ (quoted above); Guttmann, _Die Philosophie des Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Göttingen, 1889); D. Kaufmann, _Studien über Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Budapest, 1899); S. Horovitz, "Die Psychologie Ibn Gabirols," in the _Jahresbericht des jüd. theol. Seminars Fränckel'scher Stiftung_ (Breslau, 1900); Wittmann, "Zur Stellung Avencebrols ..." (in Bäumker's _Beiträge_, Bd. v. Heft 1, Münster, 1905). (A. Cy.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Jud. Har. Macamæ_, ed. Lagarde (Göttingen, 1883), p. 89, l. 61.

[2] See the passage quoted by Munk, _Mélanges de philosophie arabe et juive_ (Paris, 1859), pp. 264 and 517.

[3] _Liber Juchassin_, ed. Filipowski (London, 1857), p. 217.

[4] _Hebr. Übersetzungen_ (Berlin, 1893), § 219, note 70; cf. Kaufmann, _Studien über Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Budapest, 1899), p. 79, note 2.

[5] See Munk, _op. cit._ pp. 515-516, transl. on pp. 263-264. Metre had been already used by Dunash.

IBN HAUKAL, strictly IBN HAUQAL, a 10th century Arabian geographer. Nothing is known of his life. His work on geography, written in 977, is only a revision and extension of the _Masalik ul-Mamalik_ of al-Istakhri, who wrote in 951. This itself was a revised edition of the _Kitab ul-Ashkal_ or _Suwar ul-Aqalim_ of Abu Zaid ul-Balkhi, who wrote about 921. Ibn Haukal's work was published by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1873). An anonymous epitome of the book was written in 1233.

See M. J. de Goeje, "Die Istahri-Balhi Frage," in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, xxv. 42 sqq.

IBN HAZM [Abu Mahommed 'Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Hazm] (994-1064), Moslem theologian, was born in a suburb of Cordova. He studied history, law and theology, and became a vizier as his father had been before him, but was deposed for heresy, and spent the rest of his life quietly in the country. In legal matters he belonged first to the Shafi'ite school, but came to adopt the views of the Zahirites, who admitted only the external sense of the Koran and tradition, disallowing the use of analogy (_Qiyas_) and _Taqlid_ (appeal to the authority of an imam), and objecting altogether to the use of individual opinion (_Ra'y_). Every sentence of the Koran was to be interpreted in a general and universal sense; the special application to the circumstances of the time it was written was denied. Every word of the Koran was to be taken in a literal sense, but that sense was to be learned from other uses in the Koran itself, not from the meaning in other literature of the time. The special feature of Ibn Hazm's teaching was that he extended the application of these principles from the study of law to that of dogmatic theology. He thus found himself in opposition at one time to the Mo'tazilites, at another to the Ash'arites. He did not, however, succeed in forming a school. His chief work is the _Kitab ul-Milal wan-Nihal_, or "Book of Sects" (published in Cairo, 1899).

For his teaching cf. I. Goldziher, _Die Zahiriten_, pp. 116-172 (Leipzig, (1884), and M. Schreiner in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, lii. 464-486. For a list of his other works see C. Brockelmann's _Geschichte der arabischen Literatur_, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), p. 400. (G. W. T.)

IBN HISHAM [Abu Mahommed 'Abdulmalik ibn Hisham ibn Ayyub ul-Himyari] (d. 834), Arabian biographer, studied in Kufa but lived afterwards in Fostat (old Cairo), where he gained a name as a grammarian and student of language and history. His chief work is his edition of Ibn Ishaq's (q.v.) _Life of the Apostle of God_, which has been edited by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1858-1860). An abridged German translation has been made by G. Weil (Stuttgart, 1864; cf. P. Brönnle, _Die Commentatoren des Ibn Ishaq und ihre Scholien_, Halle, 1895). Ibn Hisham is said to have written a work explaining the difficult words which occur in poems on the life of the Apostle, and another on the genealogies of the Himyarites and their princes. (G. W. T.)

IBN ISHAQ [Mahommed ibn Ishaq Abu 'Abdallah] (d. 768), Arabic historian, lived in Medina, where he interested himself to such an extent in the details of the Prophet's life that he was attacked by those to whom his work seemed to have a rationalistic tendency. He consequently left Medina in 733, and went to Alexandria, then to Kufa and Hira, and finally to Bagdad, where the caliph Mansur provided him with the means of writing his great work. This was the _Life of the Apostle of God_, which is now lost and is known to us only in the recension of Ibn Hisham (q.v.). The work has been attacked by Arabian writers (as in the _Fihrist_) as untrustworthy, and it seems clear that he introduced forged verses (cf. _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, xiv. 288 sqq.). It remains, however, one of the most important works of the age. (G. W. T.)

IBN JUBAIR [Abu-l Husain Mahommed ibn Ahmad ibn Jubair] (1145-1217), Arabian geographer, was born in Valencia. At Granada he studied the Koran, tradition, law and literature, and later became secretary to the Mohad governor of that city. During this time he composed many poems. In 1183 he left the court and travelled to Alexandria, Jerusalem, Medina, Mecca, Damascus, Mosul and Bagdad, returning in 1185 by way of Sicily.

The _Travels of Ibn Jubair_ were edited by W. Wright (Leiden, 1852); and a new edition of this text, revised by M. J. de Goeje, was published by the Gibb Trustees (London, 1907). The part relating to Sicily was published, with French translation and notes, by M. Amari in the _Journal asiatique_ (1845-1846) and a French translation alone of the same part by G. Crolla in _Museon_, vi. 123-132. (G. W. T.)

IBN KHALDUN [Abu Zaid ibn Mahommed ibn Mahommed ibn Khaldun] (1332-1406), Arabic historian, was born at Tunis. He studied the various branches of Arabic learning with great success. In 1352 he obtained employment under the Marinid sultan Abu Inan (Faris I.) at Fez. In the beginning of 1356, his integrity having been suspected, he was thrown into prison until the death of Abu Inan in 1358, when the vizier al-Hasan ibn Omar set him at liberty and reinstated him in his rank and offices. He here continued to render great service to Abu Salem (Ibrahim III.), Abu Inan's successor, but, having offended the prime minister, he obtained permission to emigrate to Spain, where, at Granada, he was received with great cordiality by Ibn al Ahmar, who had been greatly indebted to his good offices when an exile at the court of Abu Salem. The favours he received from the sovereign excited the jealousy of the vizier, and he was driven back to Africa (1364), where he was received with great cordiality by the sultan of Bougie, Abu Abdallah, who had been formerly his companion in prison. On the fall of Abu Abdallah Ibn Khaldun raised a large force amongst the desert Arabs, and entered the service of the sultan of Tlemçen. A few years later he was taken prisoner by Abdalaziz ('Abd ul 'Aziz), who had defeated the sultan of Tlemçen and seized the throne. He then entered a monastic establishment, and occupied himself with scholastic duties, until in 1370 he was sent for to Tlemçen by the new sultan. After the death of 'Abd ul 'Aziz he resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent. After some further vicissitudes in 1378 he entered the service of the sultan of his native town of Tunis, where he devoted himself almost exclusively to his studies and wrote his history of the Berbers. Having received permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, he reached Cairo, where he was presented to the sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barkuk, who insisted on his remaining there, and in the year 1384 made him grand cadi of the Malikite rite for Cairo. This office he filled with great prudence and probity, removing many abuses in the administration of justice in Egypt. At this time the ship in which his wife and family, with all his property, were coming to join him, was wrecked, and every one on board lost. He endeavoured to find consolation in the completion of his history of the Arabs of Spain. At the same time he was removed from his office of cadi, which gave him more leisure for his work. Three years later he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and on his return lived in retirement in the Fayum until 1399, when he was again called upon to resume his functions as cadi. He was removed and reinstated in the office no fewer than five times.

In 1400 he was sent to Damascus, in connexion with the expedition intended to oppose Timur or Tamerlane. When Timur had become master of the situation, Ibn Khaldun let himself down from the walls of the city by a rope, and presented himself before the conqueror, who permitted him to return to Egypt. Ibn Khaldun died on the 16th of March 1406, at the age of sixty-four.

The great work by which he is known is a "Universal History," but it deals more particularly with the history of the Arabs of Spain and Africa. Its Arabic title is _Kitab ul'Ibar, wa diwan el Mubtada wa'l Khabar, fi ayyam ul 'Arab wa'l'Ajam wa'l Berber_; that is, "The Book of Examples and the Collection of Origins and Information respecting the History of the Arabs, Foreigners and Berbers." It consists of three books, an introduction and an autobiography. Book i. treats of the influence of civilization upon man; book ii. of the history of the Arabs and other peoples from the remotest antiquity until the author's own times; book iii. of the history of the Berber tribes and of the kingdoms founded by that race in North Africa. The introduction is an elaborate treatise on the science of history and the development of society, and the autobiography contains the history, not only of the author himself, but of his family and of the dynasties which ruled in Fez, Tunis and Tlemçen during his lifetime. An edition of the Arabic text has been printed at Bulaq, (7 vols., 1867) and a part of the work has been translated by the late Baron McG. de Slane under the title of _Histoire des Berbères_ (Algiers, 1852-1856); it contains an admirable account of the author and analysis of his work. Vol. i., the _Muqaddama_ (preface), was published by M. Quatremère (3 vols., Paris, 1858), often republished in the East, and a French translation was made by McG. de Slane (3 vols., Paris, 1862-1868). The parts of the history referring to the expeditions of the Franks into Moslem lands were edited by C. J. Tornberg (Upsala, 1840), and the parts treating of the Banu-l Ahmar kings of Granada were translated into French by M. Gaudefroy-Demombynes in the _Journal asiatique_, ser. 9, vol. xiii. The _Autobiography_ of Ibn Khaldun was translated into French by de Slane in the _Journal asiatique_, ser. 4, vol. iii. For an English appreciation of the philosophical spirit of Ibn Khaldun see R. Flint's _History of the Philosophy of History_ (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 157-170. (E. H. P.; G. W. T.)

IBN KHALLIKAN [Abu-l 'Abbas Ahmad ibn Khallikan] (1211-1282), Arabian biographer, was born at Arbela, the son of a professor reputed to be ascended from the Barmecides of the court of Harun al-Rashid. When eighteen he went to Aleppo, where he studied for six years, then to Damascus, and in 1238 to Alexandria and Cairo. In 1252 he married and became chief cadi of Syria in Damascus in 1261. Having held this office for ten years, he was professor in Cairo until 1278, when he again took office in Damascus for three years. In 1281 he accepted a professorship in the same city, but died in the following year.

His great work is the _Kitab Wafayat ul-A'yan_, "The Obituaries of Eminent Men." It contains in alphabetical order the lives of the most celebrated persons of Moslem history and literature, except those of Mahomet, the four caliphs and the companions of Mahomet and their followers (the _Tabiun_). The work is anecdotal and contains many brief extracts from the poetry of the writers. It was published by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1835-1843), in part by McG. de Slane (Paris, 1838-1842), and also in Cairo (1859 and 1882). An English translation by McG. de Slane was published for the Oriental Translation Fund in 4 vols. (London, 1842-1871). Thirteen extra biographies from a manuscript in Amsterdam were published by Pijnappel (Amsterdam, 1845). A Persian translation exists in manuscript, and various extracts from the work are known. Several supplements to the book have been written, the best known being that of Mahommed ibn Shakir (d. 1362), published at Cairo 1882. A collection of poems by Ibn Khallikan is also extant. (G. W. T.)

IBN QUTAIBA, or KOTAIBA [Abu Mahommed ibn Muslim ibn Qutaiba] (828-889), Arabian writer, was born at Bagdad or Kufa, and was of Iranian descent, his father belonging to Merv. Having studied tradition and philology he became cadi in Dinawar and afterwards teacher in Bagdad, where he died. He was the first representative of the eclectic school of Bagdad philologists that succeeded the schools of Kufa and Basra (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section "Grammar"). Although engaged also in theological polemic (cf. I. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_, ii. 136, Halle, 1890), his chief works were directed to the training of the ideal secretary. Of these five may be said to form a series. The _Adab ul-Katib_ ("Training of the Secretary") contains instruction in writing and is a compendium of Arabic style. It has been edited by Max Grünert (Leiden, 1900). The _Kitab ush-Sharab_ is still in manuscript. The _Kitab ul-Ma'arif_ has been edited by F. Wüstenfeld as the _Handbuch der Geschichte_[1] (Göttingen, 1850); the _Kitab ush-Shi'r wash-Shu'arai_ ("Book of Poetry and Poets") edited by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1904).[2] The fifth and most important is the _'Uyun ul-Akhbar_, which deals in ten books with lordship, war, nobility, character, science and eloquence, asceticism, friendship, requests, foods and women, with many illustrations from history, poetry and proverb (ed. C. Brockelmann, Leiden, 1900 sqq.).

For other works (which were much quoted by later Arabian writers) see C. Brockelmann, _Gesch. der arabischen Literatur_, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), pp. 120-122. (G. W. T.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Summary in E. G. Browne, _A Literary History of Persia_ (London, 1902), pp. 387 f.

[2] The preface was translated into German by Theodor Nöldeke in his _Beiträge_ (Hanover, 1864), pp. 1-51.

IBN SA'D [Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' uz-Zuhri, often called Katib ul-Waqidi ("secretary of Waqidi") of Basra] (d. 845), Arabian biographer, received his training in tradition from Waqidi and other celebrated teachers. He lived for the most part in Bagdad, and had the reputation of being both trustworthy and accurate in his writings, which, in consequence, were much used by later writers. His work, the _Kitab ul-Tabaqat ul-Kabir_ (15 vols.) contains the lives of Mahomet, his Companions and Helpers (including those who fought at Badr as a special class) and of the following generation (the Followers) who received their traditions from the personal friends of the Prophet.

This work has been edited under the superintendence of E. Sachau (Leiden, 1904 sqq.); cf. O. Loth, _Das Classenbuch des Ibn Sa'd_ (Leipzig, 1869). (G. W. T.)

IBN TIBBON, a family of Jewish translators, who flourished in Provence in the 12th and 13th centuries. They all made original contributions to philosophical and scientific literature, but their permanent fame is based on their translations. Between them they rendered into Hebrew all the chief Jewish writings of the middle ages. These Hebrew translations were, in their turn, rendered into Latin (by Buxtorf and others) and in this form the works of Jewish authors found their way into the learned circles of Europe. The chief members of the Ibn Tibbon family were (1) JUDAH BEN SAUL (1120-1190), who was born in Spain but settled in Lunel. He translated the works of Bahya, Halevi, Saadiah and the grammatical treatises of Janah. (2) His son, SAMUEL (1150-1230), translated the _Guide of the Perplexed_ by Maimonides. He justly termed his father "the father of the Translators," but Samuel's own method surpassed his father's in lucidity and fidelity to the original. (3) Son of Samuel, MOSES (died 1283). He translated into Hebrew a large number of Arabic books (including the Arabic form of Euclid). The Ibn Tibbon family thus rendered conspicuous services to European culture, and did much to further among Jews who did not understand Arabic the study of science and philosophy. (I. A.)

IBN TUFAIL, or TOFAIL [Abu Bakr Mahommed ibn 'Abd-ul-Malik ibn Tufail ul-Qaisi] (d. 1185), Moslem philosopher, was born at Guadix near Granada. There he received a good training in philosophy and medicine, and is said to have been a pupil of Avempace (q.v.). He became secretary to the governor of Granada, and later physician and vizier to the Mohad caliph, Abu Ya'qub Yusuf. He died at Morocco.

His chief work is a philosophical romance, in which he describes the awakening and growth of intellect in a child removed from the influences of ordinary life. Its Arabic title is _Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan_; it was edited by E. Pococke as _Philosophus autodidactus_ (Oxford, 1671; 2nd ed., 1700), and with a French translation by L. Gauthier (Algiers, 1900). An English translation by S. Ockley was published in 1708 and has been reprinted since. A Spanish translation by F. Pons Boigues was published at Saragossa (1900). Another work of Ibn Tufail, the _Kitab Asrar ul-Hikma ul-mashraqiyya_ ("Secrets of Eastern Science"), was published at Bulaq (1882); cf. S. Munk, _Mélanges_ (1859), pp. 410 sqq., and T. J. de Boer, _Geschichte der Philosophie im Islam_ (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 160 sqq. (also an English translation). (G. W. T.)

IBN USAIBI'A [Muwaffaquddin Abu-l-'Abbas Ahmad ibn ul-Qasim ibn Abi Usaibi'a] (1203-1270), Arabian physician, was born at Damascus, the son of an oculist, and studied medicine at Damascus and Cairo. In 1236 he was appointed by Saladin physician to a new hospital in Cairo, but surrendered the appointment the following year to take up a post given him by the amir of Damascus in Salkhad near that city. There he lived and died. He wrote '_Uyun ul-Anba'fi Tabaqat ul-Atibba_' or "Lives of the Physicians," which in its first edition (1245-1246) was dedicated to the vizier of Damascus. This he enlarged, though it is uncertain whether the new edition was made public in the lifetime of the author.

Edition by A. Müller (Königsberg, 1884). (G. W. T.)

IBO, a district of British West Africa, on the lower Niger immediately above the delta, and mainly on the eastern bank of the river. The chief town, frequently called by the same name (more correctly Abo or Áboh), lies on a creek which falls into the main stream about 150 m. from its mouth and contains from 6000 to 8000 inhabitants. The Ibo are a strong well-built Negro race. Their women are distinguished by their embonpoint. The language of the Ibo is one of the most widely spoken on the lower Niger. The Rev. J. F. Schön began its reduction in 1841, and in 1861 he published a grammar (_Oku Ibo Grammatical Elements_, London, Church Miss. Soc.). (See NIGERIA.)

IBRAHIM AL-MAUSILI (742-804), Arabian singer, was born of Persian parents settled in Kufa. In his early years his parents died and he was trained by an uncle. Singing, not study, attracted him, and at the age of twenty-three he fled to Mosul, where he joined a band of wild youths. After a year he went to Rai (Rei, Rhagae), where he met an ambassador of the caliph Mansur, who enabled him to come to Basra and take singing lessons. His fame as a singer spread, and the caliph Mahdi brought him to the court. There he remained a favourite under Hadi, while Harun al-Rashid kept him always with him until his death, when he ordered his son (Ma'mun) to say the prayer over his corpse. Ibrahim, as might be expected, was no strict Moslem. Two or three times he was knouted and imprisoned for excess in wine-drinking, but was always taken into favour again. His powers of song were far beyond anything else known at the time. Two of his pupils, his son Ishaq and Muhariq, attained celebrity after him.

See the Preface to W. Ahlwardt's _Abu Nowas_ (Greifswald, 1861), pp. 13-18, and the many stories of his life in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_, v. 2-49. (G. W. T.)

IBRAHIM PASHA (1789-1848), Egyptian general, is sometimes spoken of as the adopted son of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt. He is also and more commonly called his son. He was born in his father's native town, Kavala in Thrace. During his father's struggle to establish himself in Egypt, Ibrahim, then sixteen years of age, was sent as a hostage to the Ottoman capitan pasha (admiral), but when Mehemet Ali was recognized as pasha, and had defeated the English expedition under General A. M. Fraser, he was allowed to return to Egypt. When Mehemet Ali went to Arabia to prosecute the war against the Wahhabis in 1813, Ibrahim was left in command in Upper Egypt. He continued the war with the broken power of the Mamelukes, whom he suppressed. In 1816 he succeeded his brother Tusun in command of the Egyptian forces in Arabia. Mehemet Ali had already begun to introduce European discipline into his army, and Ibrahim had probably received some training, but his first campaign was conducted more in the old Asiatic style than his later operations. The campaign lasted two years, and terminated in the destruction of the Wahhabis as a political power. Ibrahim landed at Yembo, the port of Medina, on the 30th of September 1816. The holy cities had been recovered from the Wahhabis, and Ibrahim's task was to follow them into the desert of Nejd and destroy their fortresses. Such training as the Egyptian troops had received, and their artillery, gave them a marked superiority in the open field. But the difficulty of crossing the desert to the Wahhabi stronghold of Deraiya, some 400 m. east of Medina, and the courage of their opponents, made the conquest a very arduous one. Ibrahim displayed great energy and tenacity, sharing all the hardships of his army, and never allowing himself to be discouraged by failure. By the end of September 1818 he had forced the Wahhabi leader to surrender, and had taken Deraiya, which he ruined. On the 11th of December 1819 he made a triumphal entry into Cairo. After his return he gave effective support to the Frenchman, Colonel Sève (Suleiman Pasha), who was employed to drill the army on the European model. Ibrahim set an example by submitting to be drilled as a recruit. When in 1824 Mehemet Ali was appointed governor of the Morea by the sultan, who desired his help against the insurgent Greeks, he sent Ibrahim with a squadron and an army of 17,000 men. The expedition sailed on the 10th of July 1824, but was for some months unable to do more than come and go between Rhodes and Crete. The fear of the Greek fire ships stopped his way to the Morea. When the Greek sailors mutinied from want of pay, he was able to land at Modon on the 26th of February 1825. He remained in the Morea till the capitulation of the 1st of October 1828 was forced on him by the intervention of the Western powers. Ibrahim's operations in the Morea were energetic and ferocious. He easily defeated the Greeks in the open field, and though the siege of Missolonghi proved costly to his own troops and to the Turks who operated with him, he brought it to a successful termination on the 24th of April 1826. The Greek guerrilla bands harassed his army, and in revenge he desolated the country and sent thousands of the inhabitants into slavery in Egypt. These measures of repression aroused great indignation in Europe, and led first to the intervention of the English, French and Russian squadrons (see NAVARINO, BATTLE OF), and then to the landing of a French expeditionary force. By the terms of the capitulation of the 1st of October 1828, Ibrahim evacuated the country. It is fairly certain that the Turkish government, jealous of his power, had laid a plot to prevent him and his troops from returning to Egypt. English officers who saw him at Navarino describe him as short, grossly fat and deeply marked with smallpox. His obesity did not cause any abatement of activity when next he took the field. In 1831, his father's quarrel with the Porte having become flagrant, Ibrahim was sent to conquer Syria. He carried out his task with truly remarkable energy. He took Acre after a severe siege on the 27th of May 1832, occupied Damascus, defeated a Turkish army at Homs on the 8th of July, defeated another Turkish army at Beilan on the 29th of July, invaded Asia Minor, and finally routed the grand vizier at Konia on the 21st of December. The convention of Kutaiah on the 6th of May left Syria for a time in the hands of Mehemet Ali. Ibrahim was undoubtedly helped by Colonel Sève and the European officers in his army, but his intelligent docility to their advice, as well as his personal hardihood and energy, compare most favourably with the sloth, ignorance and arrogant conceit of the Turkish generals opposed to him. He is entitled to full credit for the diplomatic judgment and tact he showed in securing the support of the inhabitants, whom he protected and whose rivalries he utilized. After the campaign of 1832 and 1833 Ibrahim remained as governor in Syria. He might perhaps have administered successfully, but the exactions he was compelled to enforce by his father soon ruined the popularity of his government and provoked revolts. In 1838 the Porte felt strong enough to renew the struggle, and war broke out once more. Ibrahim won his last victory for his father at Nezib on the 24th of June 1839. But Great Britain and Austria intervened to preserve the integrity of Turkey. Their squadrons cut his communications by sea with Egypt, a general revolt isolated him in Syria, and he was finally compelled to evacuate the country in February 1841. Ibrahim spent the rest of his life in peace, but his health was ruined. In 1846 he paid a visit to western Europe, where he was received with some respect and a great deal of curiosity. When his father became imbecile in 1848 he held the regency till his own death on the 10th of November 1848.

See Edouard Gouin, _L'Égypte au XIX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1847); Aimé Vingtrinier, _Soliman-Pasha_ (_Colonel Sève_) (Paris, 1886). A great deal of unpublished material of the highest interest with regard to Ibrahim's personality and his system in Syria is preserved in the British Foreign Office archives; for references to these see _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ x. 852, bibliography to chap. xvii.

IBSEN, HENRIK (1828-1906), Norwegian dramatic and lyric poet, eldest son of Knud Henriksen Ibsen, a merchant, and of his wife Marichen Cornelia Altenburg, was born at Skien on the 20th of March 1828. For five generations the family had consisted on the father's side of a blending of the Danish, German and Scottish races, with no intermixture of pure Norwegian. In 1836 Knud Ibsen became insolvent, and the family withdrew, in great poverty, to a cottage in the outskirts of the town. After brief schooling at Skien, Ibsen was, towards the close of 1843, apprenticed to an apothecary in Grimstad; here he remained through seven dreary years of drudgery, which set their mark upon his spirit. In 1847, in his nineteenth year, he began to write poetry. He made a gloomy and almost sinister impression upon persons who met him at this time, and one of his associates of those days has recorded that Ibsen "walked about Grimstad like a mystery sealed with seven seals." He had continued, by assiduous reading, his self-education, and in 1850 he contrived to come up as a student to Christiania. In the same year he published his first work, the blank-verse tragedy of _Catilina_, under the pseudonym Brynjolf Bjarme. A second drama, _The Viking's Barrow_, was acted (but not printed) a few months later; Ibsen was at this time entirely under the influence of the Danish poet Oehlenschläger. During the next year or two he made a very precarious livelihood in Christiania as a journalist, but in November 1851 he had the good fortune to be appointed "stage-poet" at the little theatre of Bergen, with a small but regular salary. He was practically manager at this house, and he also received a travelling stipend. In 1852, therefore, he went for five months to study the stage, to Copenhagen and to Dresden. Among many dramatic experiments which Ibsen made in Bergen, the most considerable and most satisfactory is the saga-drama of _Mistress Inger at Östraat_, which was produced in 1855; and printed at Christiania in 1857; here are already perceptible some qualities of his mature character. Much less significant, although at the time more successful, is _The Feast at Solhaug_, a tragedy produced in Bergen in 1856; here for a moment Ibsen abandoned his own nascent manner for an imitation of the popular romantic dramatist of Denmark, Henrik Hertz. It is noticeable that Ibsen, by far the most original of modern writers for the stage, was remarkably slow in discovering the true bent of his genius. His next dramatic work was the romantic tragedy of _Olaf Liljekrans_, performed in 1857, but unprinted until 1898. This was the last play Ibsen wrote in Bergen. In the summer of the former year his five years' appointment came to an end, and he returned to Christiania. Almost immediately he began the composition of a work which showed an extraordinary advance on all that he had written before, the beautiful saga-drama of _The Warriors in Helgeland_, in which he threw off completely the influence of the Danish romantic tragedians, and took his material directly from the ancient Icelandic sources. This play marks an epoch in the development of Norwegian literature. It was received by the managers, both in Christiania and Copenhagen, with contemptuous disapproval, and in the autumn of 1857 Ibsen could not contrive to produce it even at the new theatre of which he was now the manager. _The Warriors_ was printed at Christiania in 1858, but was not acted anywhere until 1861. During these years Ibsen suffered many reverses and humiliations, but he persisted in his own line in art. Some of his finest short poems, among others the admirable seafaring romance, _Terje Vigen_, belong to the year 1860. The annoyances which Ibsen suffered, and the retrograde and ignorant conditions which he felt around him in Norway, developed the ironic qualities in his genius, and he became an acid satirist. The brilliant rhymed drama, _Love's Comedy_, a masterpiece of lyric wit and incisive vivacity, was published in 1862. This was a protest against the conventionality which deadens the beauty of all the formal relations between men and women, and against the pettiness, the publicity, and the prosiness of betrothed and married life among the middle classes in Norway; it showed how society murders the poetry of love. For some time past Ibsen had been meditating another saga-drama in prose, and in 1864 this appeared, _Kongsemnerne_ (The Pretenders). These works, however, now so universally admired, contained an element of strangeness which was not welcome when they were new. Ibsen's position in Christiania grew more and more disagreeable, and he had positive misfortunes which added to his embarrassment. In 1862 his theatre became bankrupt, and he was glad to accept the poorly-paid post of "aesthetic adviser" at the other house. An attempt to obtain a poet's pension (_digtergage_) was unsuccessful; the Storthing, which had just voted one to Björnson, refused to do the same for Ibsen. His cup was full of disillusion and bitterness, and in April 1864 he started, by Berlin and Trieste, ultimately to settle in Rome. His anger and scorn gave point to the satirical arrows which he shot back to his thankless fatherland from Italy in the splendid poem of _Brand_, published in Copenhagen in 1866, a fierce attack on the Laodicean state of religious and moral sentiment in the Norway of that day; the central figure, the stern priest Brand, who attempts to live like Christ and is snubbed and hounded away by his latitudinarian companions, is one of the finest conceptions of a modern poet. Ibsen had scarcely closed _Brand_ before he started a third lyrico-dramatic satire. _Peer Gynt_ (1867), which remains, in a technical sense, the most highly finished of all his metrical works. In _Brand_ the hero had denounced certain weaknesses which Ibsen saw in the Norwegian character, but these and other faults are personified in the hero of _Peer Gynt_; or rather, in this figure the poet pictured, in a type, the Norwegian nation in all the egotism, vacillation, and lukewarmness which he believed to be characteristic of it. Ibsen, however, acted better than he preached, and he soon forgot his abstraction in the portrait of Peer Gynt as a human individual. In this magnificent work modern Norwegian literature first rises to a level with the finest European poetry of the century. In 1869 Ibsen wrote the earliest of his prose dramas, the political comedy, _The Young Men's League_, in which for the first time he exercised his extraordinary gift for perfectly natural and yet pregnant dialogue. Ibsen was in Egypt, in October 1869, when his comedy was put on the stage in Christiania, amid violent expressions of hostility; on hearing the news, he wrote his brilliant little poem of defiance, called _At Port Saïd_. By this time, however, he had become a successful author; _Brand_ sold largely, and has continued to be the most popular of Ibsen's writings. In 1866, moreover, the Storthing had been persuaded to vote him a "poet's pension," and there was now an end of Ibsen's long struggle with poverty. In 1868 he left Rome, and settled in Dresden until 1874, when he returned to Norway. But after a short visit he went back to Germany, and lived first at Dresden, afterwards at Munich, and did not finally settle in Christiania until 1891. His shorter lyrical poems were collected in 1871, and in that year his name and certain of his writings were for the first time mentioned to the English public. At this time he was revising his old works, which were out of print, and which he would not resign again to the reading world until he had subjected them to what in some instances (for example, _Mistress Inger at Östraat_) amounted to practical recomposition. In 1873 he published a double drama, each part of which was of unusual bulk, the whole forming the tragedy of _Emperor and Galilean_; this, Ibsen's latest historical play, has for subject the unsuccessful struggle of Julian the Apostate to hold the world against the rising tide of Christianity. The work is of an experimental kind, and takes its place between the early poetry and the later prose of the author. Compared with the series of plays which Ibsen had already inaugurated with _The Young Men's League_, _Emperor and Galilean_ preserves a colour of idealism and even of mysticism which was for many years to be absent from Ibsen's writings, but to reappear in his old age with _The Master-builder_. There is some foundation for the charge that Ibsen has made his romantic Greek emperor needlessly squalid, and that he has robbed him, at last, too roughly of all that made him a sympathetic exponent of Hellenism. Ibsen was now greatly occupied by the political spectacle of Germany at war first in Denmark, then in France, and he believed that all things were conspiring to start a new epoch of individualism. He was therefore deeply disgusted by the Paris commune, and disappointed by the conservative reaction which succeeded it. This disillusion in political matters had a very direct influence upon Ibsen's literary work. It persuaded him that nothing could be expected in the way of reform from democracies, from large blind masses of men moved capriciously in any direction, but that the sole hope for the future must lie in the study of personality, in the development of individual character. He set himself to diagnose the conditions of society, which he had convinced himself lay sick unto death. Hitherto Ibsen had usually employed rhymed verse for his dramatic compositions, or, in the case of his saga-plays, a studied and artificial prose. Now, in spite of the surprising achievements of his poetry, he determined to abandon versification, and to write only in the language of everyday conversation. In the first drama of this his new period, _The Pillars of Society_ (1877), he dealt with the problem of hypocrisy in a small commercial centre of industry, and he drew in the Bernick family a marvellous picture of social egotism in a prosperous seaport town. There was a certain similarity between this piece and _A Doll's House_ (1879), although the latter was much the more successful in awakening curiosity. Indeed, no production of Ibsen's has been so widely discussed as this, which is nevertheless not the most coherently conceived of his plays. Here also, social hypocrisy, was the object of the playwright's satire, but this time mainly in relation to marriage. In _A Doll's House_ Ibsen first developed his views with regard to the individualism of woman. In his previous writings he had depicted woman as a devoted and willing sacrifice to man; here he begins to explain that she has no less a duty to herself, and must keep alive her own conception of honour and of responsibility. The conclusion of _A Doll's House_ was violently and continuously discussed through the length and breadth of Europe, and to the situation of Nora Helmer is probably due more than to anything else the long tradition that Ibsen is "immoral." He braved convention still more audaciously in _Ghosts_ (1881), perhaps the most powerful of the series of plays in which Ibsen diagnoses the diseases of modern society. It was received in Norway with a tumult of ill-will, and the author was attacked no less venomously than he had been twenty years before. Ibsen was astonished and indignant at the reception given to _Ghosts_, and at the insolent indifferentism of the majority to all ideas of social reform. He wrote, more as a pamphlet than as a play, what is yet one of the most effective of his comedies, _An Enemy of the People_ (1882). Dr Stockmann, the hero of that piece, discovers that the drainage system of the bathing-station on which the little town depends is faulty, and the water impure and dangerous. He supposes that the corporation will be grateful to have these deficiencies pointed out; on the contrary, they hound him out of their midst as an "enemy of the people." In this play occurs Ibsen's famous and typical saying, "a minority may be right--a majority is always wrong." This polemical comedy seemed at first to be somewhat weakened by the personal indignation which runs through it, but it has held the stage. Ibsen's next drama, _The Wild Duck_ (1884), was written in singular contrast with the zest and fire which had inspired _An Enemy of the People_. Here he is squalid and pessimistic to a degree elsewhere unparalleled in his writings; it is not quite certain that he is not here guilty of a touch of parody of himself. The main figure of the play is an unhealthy, unlucky enthusiast, who goes about making hopeless mischief by exposing weak places in the sordid subterfuges of others. This drama contains a figure, Hjálmar Ekdal, who claims the bad pre-eminence of being the meanest scoundrel in all drama. _The Wild Duck_ is the darkest, the least relieved, of Ibsen's studies of social life, and his object in composing it is not obvious. With _Rosmersholm_ (1886) he rose to the height of his genius again; this is a mournful, but neither a pessimistic nor a cynical play. The fates which hang round the contrasted lives of Rosmer and Rebecca, the weak-willed scrupulous man and the strong-willed unshrinking woman, the old culture and the new, the sickly conscience and the robust one, create a splendid dramatic antithesis. Ibsen then began to compose a series of dramas, of a more and more symbolical and poetic character; the earliest of these was the mystical _The Lady from the Sea_ (1888). At Christmas 1890 he brought out _Hedda Gabler_; two years later _The Master-builder_ (_Bygmester Solnaes_), in which many critics see the highest attainment of his genius; at the close of 1894 _Little Eyolf_; in 1896 _John Gabriel Borkman_; and in 1900 _When We Dead Awaken_. On the occasion of his seventieth birthday (1898) Ibsen was the recipient of the highest honours from his own country and of congratulations and gifts from all parts of the world. A colossal bronze statue of him was erected outside the new National Theatre, Christiania, in September 1899. In 1901 his health began to decline, and he was ordered by the physician to abandon every species of mental effort. The evil advanced, and he became unconscious of the passage of events. After lingering in this sad condition he died, without suffering, on the 23rd of May 1906, and was accorded a public funeral, with the highest national honours.

No recent writer belonging to the smaller countries of Europe has had so widely spread a fame as that of Ibsen, and although the value of his dramatic work is still contested, it has received the compliment of vivacious discussion in every part of the world. There would, perhaps, have been less violence in this discussion if it had been perceived that the author does not pose as a moral teacher, but as an imaginative investigator. He often and with much heat insisted that he was not called upon as a poet to suggest a remedy for the diseases of society, but to diagnose them. In this he was diametrically opposed to Tolstoi, who admitted that he wrote his books for the healing of the nations. If the subjects which Ibsen treats, or some of them, are open to controversy, we are at least on firm ground in doing homage to the splendour of his art as a playwright. He reintroduced into modern dramatic literature something of the velocity and inevitability of Greek tragic intrigue. It is very rarely that any technical fault can be found with the architecture of his plots, and his dialogue is the most lifelike that the modern stage has seen. His long apprenticeship to the theatre was of immense service to him in this respect. In every country, though least perhaps in England, the influence of Ibsen has been marked in the theatrical productions of the younger school. Even in England, on the rare occasions when his dramas are acted, they awaken great interest among intelligent playgoers.

The editions of Ibsen's works are numerous, but the final text is included in the _Samlede Vaerker_, with a bibliography by J. B. Halvorsen, published in Copenhagen, in 10 vols. (1898-1902). They have been translated into the principal European languages, and into Japanese. The study of Ibsen in English was begun by Mr Gosse in 1872, and continued by Mr William Archer, whose version of Ibsen's prose dramas appeared in 5 vols. (1890, 1891; new and revised edition, 1906). Other translators have been Mr C. Herford, Mr R. A. Streatfield, Miss Frances Lord and Mr Adie. His _Correspondence_ was edited, in 2 vols., under the supervision of his son, Sigurd Ibsen, in 1904 (Eng. trans., 1905). Critical studies on the writings and position of Ibsen are innumerable, and only those which were influential in guiding opinion, during the early part of his career, in the various countries, can be mentioned here: Georg Brandes _Ästhetiske Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1868); Les Quesnel, _Poésie scandinave_ (Paris 1874); Valfrid Valsenius, _Henrik Ibsen_ (Helsingfors, 1879); Edmund Gosse, _Studies in Northern Literature_ (London, 1879); L. Passarge, _Henrik Ibsen_ (Leipzig, 1883); G. Brandes, _Björnson och Ibsen_ (Stockholm, 1882); Henrik Jaeger, _Henrik Ibsen 1828-1888_ (Copenhagen, 1888; Eng. trans., 1890); T. Terwey, _Henrik Ibsen_ (Amsterdam, 1882); G. Bernard Shaw, _The Quintessence of Ibsen_ (London, 1892). In France Count Moritz Prozor carried on an ardent propaganda in favour of Ibsen from 1885, and Jules Lemaître's articles in his _Les Contemporains_ and _Impressions de théâtre_ did much to encourage discussion. W. Archer forwarded the cause in England from 1878 onwards. In Germany Ibsen began to be known in 1866, when John Grieg, P. F. Siebold and Adolf Strodtmann successively drew attention to his early dramas; but his real popularity among the Germans dates from 1880. (E. G.)

IBYCUS, of Rhegium in Italy, Greek lyric poet, contemporary of Anacreon, flourished in the 6th century B.C. Notwithstanding his good position at home, he lived a wandering life, and spent a considerable time at the court of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos. The story of his death is thus related: While in the neighbourhood of Corinth, the poet was mortally wounded by robbers. As he lay dying he saw a flock of cranes flying overhead, and called upon them to avenge his death. The murderers betook themselves to Corinth, and soon after, while sitting in the theatre, saw the cranes hovering above. One of them, either in alarm or jest, ejaculated, "Behold the avengers of Ibycus," and thus gave the clue to the detection of the crime (Plutarch, _De Garrulitate_, xiv.). The phrase, "the cranes of Ibycus," passed into a proverb among the Greeks for the discovery of crime through divine intervention. According to Suidas, Ibycus wrote seven books of lyrics, to some extent mythical and heroic, but mainly erotic (Cicero, _Tusc. Disp._ iv. 33), celebrating the charms of beautiful youths and girls. F. G. Welcker suggests that they were sung by choruses of boys at the "beauty competitions" held at Lesbos. Although the metre and dialect are Dorian, the poems breathe the spirit of Aeolian melic poetry.

The best editions of the fragments are by F. W. Schneidewin (1833) and Bergk, _Poëtae lyrici Graeci_.

ICA (YCA, or ECCA), a city of southern Peru and the capital of a department of the same name, 170 m. S.S.E. of Lima, and 46 m. by rail S.E. of Pisco; its port on the Pacific coast. Pop. (1906, official estimate) 6000. It lies in a valley of the foothills of the Cordillera Occidental, which is watered by the Rio de Ica, is made highly fertile by irrigation, and is filled with vineyards and cotton fields; between this valley and the coast is a desert. The original town was founded in 1563, 4 m. E. of its present site, but it was destroyed by the earthquake of 1571, and again by that of 1664, after which the present town was laid out near the ruins. In 1882 a Chilean marauding expedition inflicted great damage to private property in the town and vicinity. These repeated disasters give the place a partially ruined appearance, but it has considerable commercial and industrial prosperity. It has a large cotton factory and there are some smaller industries. Wine-making is one of the principal industries of the valley, and much brandy, called _pisco_, is exported from Pisco. A new industry is that of drying the fruits for which this region is celebrated. Ica is the seat of a national college.

The department of ICA lies between the Western Cordillera and the Pacific coast, and extends from the department of Lima S.E. to that of Arequipa. Pop. (1906, official estimate) 68,220; area 8721 sq. m. Ica is in the rainless region of Peru, and the greater part of its surface is barren. It is crossed by the rivers Pisco, Ica and Grande, whose tributaries drain the western slope of the Cordillera, and whose valleys are fertile and highly cultivated. The valley of the Nasca, a tributary of the Grande, is celebrated for an extensive irrigating system constructed by the natives before the discovery of America. The principal products of the department are cotton, grapes, wine, spirits, sugar and fruit. These are two good ports on the northern coast, Tambo de Mora and Pisco, the latter being connected with the capital by a railway across the desert, 46 m. long.

ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Eis_), the solid crystalline form which water assumes when exposed to a sufficiently low temperature. It is a colourless crystalline substance, assuming forms belonging to the hexagonal system, and distinguished by a well-marked habit of twinning, which occasions the beautiful "ice flowers" displayed by hoar-frost. It is frequently precipitated as hoar-frost, snow or hail; and in the glaciers and snows of lofty mountain systems or of regions of high latitude it exists on a gigantic scale, being especially characteristic of the seas and lands around the poles. In various regions, especially in France and Italy, great quantities of ice form in caves, which, in virtue of their depth below the earth's surface, their height above the sea-level, or their exposure to suitable winds, or to two or more of these conditions in combination, are unaffected by ordinary climatic changes, so that the mean annual temperature is sufficiently low to ensure the permanency of the ice. The temperature at which water freezes, and also at which ice melts, is so readily determined that it is employed as one of the standard temperatures in the graduation of ordinary thermometer scales, this temperature being the zero of the Centigrade and Réaumur scales, and 32° of the Fahrenheit (see THERMOMETRY). In the act of freezing, water, though its temperature remains unchanged, undergoes a remarkable expansion so that ice at 0° C. is less dense than water--a fact demonstrated by its power of floating. The sub-aqueous retention of "ground-ice" or "anchor-ice," which forms in certain circumstances at the bottom of streams or pools in which there are many eddies, is due to the cohesion between it and the stones or rocks which compose the bed of the streams or pools. As water expands on freezing, so conversely ice contracts on melting; and the ice-cold water thus formed continues to contract when heated until it has reached its point of maximum density, the temperature at which this occurs being about 39° Fahr, or 4° C. Above this point water continuously expands, and at no temperature is it less dense than ice as is shown by the following table:--

Density of ice at 0°C. = .9175 " water at 0°C. = .99988 " " 4°C. = 1.00000 " " 10°C. = .99976 " " 100°C. = .95866

Under the influence of heat, ice itself behaves as most solids do, contracting when cooled, expanding when heated. According to Plücker, the coefficient of cubical dilatation at moderately low temperatures is 0.0001585. From a series of elaborate experiments, Person deduced 0.505 as the specific heat of ice, or about half that of water.

Though no rise of temperature accompanies the melting of ice, there is yet a definite quantity of heat absorbed, namely, about 80 calories per gram; this is called the latent heat of fusion of water (see FUSION). The same amount of heat is evolved when water becomes ice. That ice can be melted by increase of pressure was first pointed out by James Thomson in 1849. He showed that, since water expands on freezing, the laws of thermodynamics require that its freezing-point must be lowered by increase of pressure; and he calculated that for every additional atmosphere of pressure the freezing-point of water was lowered by 0.0075°. This result was verified by his brother, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), in 1850. The Thomsons and H. L. F. Helmholtz successfully applied this behaviour of ice under pressure to the explanation of many properties of the substance. When two blocks of ice at 0° C. are pressed together or even simply laid in contact, they gradually unite along their touching surfaces till they form one block. This "regelation" is due to the increased pressure at the various points of contact causing the ice there to melt and cool. The water so formed tends to escape, thus relieving the pressure for an instant, refreezing and returning to the original temperature. This succession of melting and freezing, with their accompanying thermal effects, goes on until the two blocks are cemented into one.

Ice forms over fresh water if the temperature of the air has been for a sufficient time at or below the freezing-point; but not until the whole mass of water has been cooled down to its point of maximum density, so that the subsequent cooling of the surface can give rise to no convection currents, is freezing possible. Sea-water, in the most favourable circumstances, does not freeze till its temperature is reduced to about -2° C.; and the ice, when formed, is found to have rejected four-fifths of the salt which was originally present. In the upper provinces of India water is made to freeze during cold clear nights by leaving it overnight in porous vessels, or in bottles which are enwrapped in moistened cloth. The water then freezes in virtue of the cold produced by its own evaporation or by the drying of the moistened wrapper. In Bengal the natives resort to a still more elaborate forcing of the conditions. Pits are dug about 2 ft. deep and filled three-quarters full with dry straw, on which are set flat porous pans containing the water to be frozen. Exposed overnight to a cool dry gentle wind from the north-west, the water evaporates at the expense of its own heat, and the consequent cooling takes place with sufficient rapidity to overbalance the slow influx of heat from above through the cooled dense air or from below through the badly conducting straw.

See WATER, and for the manufacture of ice see REFRIGERATING.

ICEBERG (from ice and _Berg_, Ger. for hill, mountain), a floating mass of ice broken from the end of a glacier or from an ice-sheet. The word is sometimes, but rarely, applied to the arch of an Arctic glacier viewed from the sea. It is more commonly used to describe huge floating masses of ice that drift from polar regions into navigable waters. They are occasionally encountered far beyond the polar regions, rising into beautiful forms with breakers roaring into their caves and streams of water pouring from their pinnacles in the warmer air. When, however, they rest in comparatively warm water, melting takes place most rapidly at the base and they frequently overturn. Only one-ninth of the mass of ice is seen above water. When a glacier descends to the sea, as in Alaska, and "advances into water, the depth of which approaches its thickness, the ends are broken off and the detached masses float away as icebergs. Many of the bergs are overturned, or at least tilted, as they set sail. If this does not happen at once it is likely to occur later as the result of the wave-cutting and melting which disturb their equilibrium" (T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, _Geology: Processes and their Results_, 1905). These bergs carry a load of débris from the glacier and gradually strew their load upon the sea floor. They do not travel far before losing all stony and earthy débris, but glacial material found in dredgings shows that icebergs occasionally carry their load far from land. The structure of the iceberg varies with its origin and is always that of the glacier or ice-sheet from which it was broken. The breaking off of the ice-sheet from a Greenland glacier is called locally the "calving" of the glacier. The constantly renewed material from which the icebergs are formed is brought down by the motion of the glacier. The ice-sheet cracks at the end, and masses break off, owing to the upward pressure of the water upon the lighter ice which is pushed into it. This is accomplished with considerable violence. The disintegration of an Arctic ice-sheet is a simpler matter, as the ice is already floating.

ICELAND (Dan. _Island_), an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Denmark. Its extreme northerly point is touched by the Arctic Circle; it lies between 13° 22´ and 24° 35´ W., and between 63° 12´ and 66° 33´ N., and has an area of 40,437 sq. m. Its length is 298 m. and its breadth 194 m., the shape being a rough oval, broken at the north-west, where a peninsula, diversified by a great number of fjords, projects from the main portion of the island. The total length of the coast-line is about 3730 m., of which approximately one-third belongs to the north-western peninsula. Iceland is a plateau or tableland, built up of volcanic rocks of older and younger formation, and pierced on all sides by fjords and valleys. Compared with the tableland, the lowlands have a relatively small area, namely, one-fourteenth of the whole; but these lowlands are almost the only parts of the island which are inhabited. In consequence of the rigour of its climate, the central tableland is absolutely uninhabitable. At the outside, not more than one-fourth of the area of Iceland is inhabited; the rest consists of elevated deserts, lava streams and glaciers. The north-west peninsula is separated from the main mass of the island by the bays Hunaflói and Breiðifjörðr, so that there are really two tablelands, a larger and a smaller. The isthmus which connects the two is only 4¼ m. across, but has an altitude of 748 ft. The mean elevation of the north-west peninsula is 2000 ft. The fjords and glens which cut into it are shut in by precipitous walls of basalt, which plainly shows that they have been formed by erosion through the mass of the plateau. The surface of this tableland is also bare and desolate, being covered with gravel and fragments of rock. Here and there are large straggling snowfields, the largest being Glámu and Drangajökull,[1] on the culminating points of the plateau. The only inhabited districts are the shores of the fjords, where grass grows capable of supporting sheep; but a large proportion of the population gain their livelihood by fishing. The other and larger tableland, which constitutes the substantial part of Iceland, reaches its culminating point in the south-east, in the gigantic snowfield of Vatnajökull, which covers 3300 sq. m. The axis of highest elevation of Iceland stretches from north-west to south-east, from the head of Hvammsfjörðr to Hornafjörðr, and from this water-parting the rivers descend on both sides. The crest of the water-parting is crowned by a chain of snow-capped mountains, separated by broad patches of lower ground. They are really a chain of minor plateaus which rise 4500 to 6250 ft. above sea-level and 2000 to 3000 ft. above the tableland itself. In the extreme east is Vatnajökull, which is separated from Tungnafellsjökull by Vonarskard (3300 ft.). Between Tungnafellsjökull and Hofsjökull lies the broad depression of Sprengisandr (2130 ft.). Continuing north-west, between Hofsjökull and the next snow-capped mountain, Langjökull, lies Kjölur (2000 ft.); and between Langjökull and Eiriksjökull, Flosaskard (2630 ft.). To the north of the _jöklar_ last mentioned there are a number of lakes, all well stocked with fish. Numerous valleys or glens penetrate into the tableland, especially on the north and east, and between them long mountain spurs, sections of the tableland which have resisted the action of erosion, thrust themselves towards the sea. Of these the most considerable is the mass crowned by Mýrdalsjökull, which stretches towards the south. The interior of the tableland consists for the most part of barren, grassless deserts, the surface being covered by gravel, loose fragments of rock, lava, driftsand, volcanic ashes and glacial detritus.

Save the lower parts of the larger glens, there are no lowlands on the north and east. The south coast is flat next the sea; but immediately underneath Vatnajökull there is a strip of gravel and sand, brought down and deposited by the glacial streams. The largest low-lying plain of Iceland, lying between Mýrdalsjökull and Reykjanes, has an area of about 1550 sq. m. In its lowest parts this plain barely keeps above sea-level, but it rises gradually towards the interior, terminating in a ramification of valleys. Its maximum altitude is attained at 381 ft. near Geysir. On the west of Mount Hekla this plain connects by a regular slope directly with the tableland, to the great injury of its inhabited districts, which are thus exposed to the clouds of pumice dust and driftsand that cover large areas of the interior. Nevertheless the greater part of this lowland plain produces good grass, and is relatively well inhabited. The plain is drained by three rivers--Markarfljót, Thjórsá and Oelfusá--all of large volume, and numerous smaller streams. Towards the west there exist a number of warm springs. There is another lowland plain around the head of Faxaflói, nearly 400 sq. m. in extent. As a rule the surface of this second plain is very marshy. Several dales or glens penetrate the central tableland; the eastern part of this lowland is called Borgarfjörðr, the western