m. For the various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball

over the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a number of different "clubs" has been devised to suit the different positions in which the ball may be found and the different directions in which it is wished to propel it. At the start for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position (e.g. "tee'd" on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but after that it may not be touched, except with the club, until it is hit into the next hole. A "full drive," as the farthest distance that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds. in length, of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and the rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that another club is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm. Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes. The player who at the end of the round (i.e. of the course of eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to play. For instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and only three holes remain to be played, it is evident that the former must be the winner, for even if the latter win every remaining hole, he still must be one to the bad at the finish.

The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tournament in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and his opponent passing on into the next round. In the case of the Open Championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores are differently reckoned--each man's total score (irrespective of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish against the total score of the other players in the competition. There is also a species of competition called "bogey" play, in which each man plays against a "bogey" score--a score fixed for each hole in the round before starting--and his position in the competition relatively to the other players is determined by the number of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the "bogey" score at the end of the round. The player who is most holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition. It may be mentioned incidentally that golf occupies the almost unique position of being the only sport in which even a single player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being "Colonel Bogey"--more often than not a redoubtable adversary.

The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their geographical positions and their merits, of being the scenes on which the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said, three in Scotland--St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield--and three in England--Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very far from being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland--Carnoustie, North Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon, Machrihanish, South Uist, Islay, Gullane, Luffness and many more. In England there are--Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great Yarmouth, Brancaster, Seaton Carew, Formby, Lytham, Harlech, Burnham, among the seaside ones; while of the inland, some of them of very fine quality, we cannot even attempt a selection, so large is their number and so variously estimated their comparative merits. Ireland has Portrush, Newcastle, Portsalon, Dollymount and many more of the first class; and there are excellent courses in the Isle of Man. In America many fine courses have been constructed. There is not a British colony of any standing that is without its golf course--Australia, India, South Africa, all have their golf championships, which are keenly contested. Canada has had courses at Quebec and Montreal for many years, and the Calcutta Golf Club, curiously enough, is the oldest established (next to the Blackheath Club), the next oldest being the club at Pau in the Basses-Pyrénées.

The Open Championship of golf was started in 1860 by the Prestwick Club giving a belt to be played for annually under the condition that it should become the property of any who could win it thrice in succession. The following is the list of the champions:--

1860. W. Park, Musselburgh 174--at Prestwick. 1861. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 163--at Prestwick. 1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 163--at Prestwick. 1863. W. Park, Musselburgh 168--at Prestwick. 1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 160--at Prestwick. 1865. A. Strath, St Andrews 162--at Prestwick. 1866. W. Park, Musselburgh 169--at Prestwick. 1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews 170--at Prestwick. 1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 154--at Prestwick. 1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 157--at Prestwick. 1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 149--at Prestwick.

Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the three clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had subscribed for a cup which should be played for over the course of each subscribing club successively, but should never become the property of the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted into the list of championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the play of two rounds, or thirty-six holes, determined the championship, but from 1892 the result has been determined by the play of 72 holes.

After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions:--

1872. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews 166--at Prestwick. 1873. Tom Kidd, St Andrews 179--at St Andrews. 1874. Mungo Park, Musselburgh 159--at Musselburgh. 1875. Willie Park, Musselburgh 166--at Prestwick. 1876. Bob Martin, St Andrews 176--at St Andrews. 1877. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 160--at Musselburgh. 1878. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 157--at Prestwick. 1879. Jamie Anderson, St Andrews 170--at St Andrews. 1880. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 162--at Musselburgh. 1881. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 170--at Prestwick. 1882. Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh 171--at St Andrews. 1883. W. Fernie, Dumfries 159--at Musselburgh. 1884. Jack Simpson, Carnoustie 160--at Prestwick. 1885. Bob Martin, St Andrews 171--at St Andrews. 1886. D. Brown, Musselburgh 157--at Musselburgh. 1887. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh 161--at Prestwick. 1888. Jack Burns, Warwick 171--at St Andrews. 1889. Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh 155--at Musselburgh. 1890. Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake 164--at Prestwick. 1891. Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews 166--at St Andrews. 1892. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake 305--at Muirfield. 1893. W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews 322--at Prestwick. 1894. J. H. Taylor, Winchester 326--at Sandwich. 1895. J. H. Taylor, Winchester 322--at St Andrews. 1896. H. Vardon, Scarborough 316--at Muirfield. 1897. Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake 314--at Hoylake. 1898. H. Vardon, Scarborough 307--at Prestwick. 1899. H. Vardon, Scarborough 310--at Sandwich. 1900. J. H. Taylor, Richmond 309--at St Andrews. 1901. J. Braid, Romford 309--at Muirfield. 1902. A. Herd, Huddersfield 307--at Hoylake. 1903. H. Vardon, Ganton 300--at Prestwick. 1904. J. White, Sunningdale 296--at Sandwich. 1905. J. Braid, Walton Heath 318--at St Andrews. 1906. J. Braid, Walton Heath 300--at Muirfield. 1907. Arnaud Massey, La Boulie 312--at Hoylake. 1908. J. Braid, Walton Heath 291--at Prestwick. 1909. J. H. Taylor, Richmond 295--at Deal. 1910. J. Braid, Walton Heath 298--at St Andrews.

The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution.

1886. Mr Horace Hutchinson at St Andrews. 1887. Mr Horace Hutchinson at Hoylake. 1888. Mr John Ball at Prestwick. 1889. Mr J. E. Laidlay at St Andrews. 1890. Mr John Ball at Hoylake. 1891. Mr J. E. Laidlay at St Andrews. 1892. Mr John Ball at Sandwich. 1893. Mr P. Anderson at Prestwick. 1894. Mr John Ball at Hoylake. 1895. Mr L. Balfour-Melville at St Andrews. 1896. Mr F. G. Tait at Sandwich. 1897. Mr J. T. Allan at Muirfield. 1898. Mr John Ball at Prestwick. 1899. Mr F. G. Tait at Hoylake. 1900. Mr H. H. Hilton at Sandwich. 1901. Mr H. H. Hilton at St Andrews. 1902. Mr C. Hutchings at Hoylake. 1903. Mr R. Maxwell at Muirfield. 1904. Mr W. J. Travis at Sandwich. 1905. Mr A. G. Barry at St Andrews. 1906. Mr J. Robb at Hoylake. 1907. Mr John Ball at St Andrews. 1908. Mr E. A. Lassen at Sandwich. 1909. Mr Robert Maxwell at Muirfield. 1910. Mr John Ball at Hoylake.

The Ladies' Championship was started in 1893.

1893. Lady M. Scott at St Annes. 1894. Lady M. Scott at Littlestone. 1895. Lady M. Scott at Portrush. 1896. Miss A. B. Pascoe at Hoylake. 1897. Miss E. C. Orr at Gullane. 1898. Miss L. Thompson at Yarmouth. 1899. Miss M. Hezlet at Newcastle. 1900. Miss R. K. Adair at Westward Ho. 1901. Miss M. A. Graham at Aberdovy. 1902. Miss M. Hezlet at Deal. 1903. Miss R. K. Adair at Portrush. 1904. Miss L. Dod at Troon. 1905. Miss B. Thompson at Cromer. 1906. Mrs Kennion at Burnham. 1907. Miss M. Hezlet at Newcastle (Co. Down). 1908. Miss M. Titterton at St Andrews. 1909. Miss D. Campbell at Birkdale. 1910. Miss Grant Suttie at Westward Ho.

There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition of the Rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was "teethed" on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance. Very few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, and still more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began to play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of rules that should be lucid and illuminating on every point--an ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at least, that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of St Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had ever of old held, by tacit consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation. The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to meet the demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the thousand and one points that continually must arise for decision in course of playing a game of such variety as golf, consists of the appointment of a standing committee, called the "Rules of Golf Committee." Its members all belong to the Royal and Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership from all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite consistent with a very general representation of the views of north, south, east and west--from Westward Ho and Sandwich to Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland--on the committee. Ireland has, indeed, some of the best links in the kingdom, and yields to neither Scotland nor England in enthusiasm for the game. This committee, after a general revision of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and the committee's answers to these questions have the force of law until they have come before the next general meeting of the Royal and Ancient Club at St Andrews, which may confirm or may reject them at will. The ladies of Great Britain manage otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which settles questions for them; but since this union itself accepts as binding the answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really arrive at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the American Union, governing the play of men and women alike in the States, really act differently. The Americans naturally reserve to themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the exception of a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur player, and certain differences as to the clubs used.

A considerable modification has been effected in the implements of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to be short in the head as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 1885. The advantage claimed (probably with justice) for this shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the increased competition among their makers. Whereas under the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, which not only employs workers in the local club-makers' shops all the kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain and in the United States. By far the largest modification in the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an American invention that it is still regarded, although the British law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had been "prior users" of the principle of the balls' manufacture, and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the first balls of the kind were called, was not good. It is singular to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also were called by the name of their first maker, "Gourlay." The general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored ball, which is now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha or some other such substance; round this is wound, by machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute for it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of the rubber-cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than a gutta-percha ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off against these qualities, the ball, because of the greater liveliness, is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages.

When these balls were first put on the market they were sold at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite unequal to the demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as much as a guinea a ball. But the normal price, until about a year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that there was no patent in the balls, was always two shillings for the best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and third-class players, favouring especially those who were short drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely been to bring the second, third and fourth best closer to each other and to the best.

Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no doubt that the balls themselves tend to a greater economy, not only because of their own superior durability but also because, as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they are not nearly so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves being perhaps made of better material than used to be given to their manufacture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual expenditure on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that the outlay on the weapons is very moderate. On the other hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens, renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten or fifteen guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is very moderate compared with the subscriptions to some of the clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all the life of a man or woman.

_Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game._

_Addressing the Ball._--Putting oneself in position to strike the ball.

_All Square._--Term used to express that the score stands level, neither side being a hole up.

_Baff._--To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so loft the ball unduly.

_Baffy._--A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.

_Bogey._--The number of strokes which a good average player should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known as "Colonel Bogey," and plays a fine game.

_Brassy._--A wooden club with a brass sole.

_Bulger._--A driver in which the face "bulges" into a convex shape. The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.

_Bunker._--A sand-pit.

_Bye._--The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up than remain for play.

_Caddie._--The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of "cad"; cf. laddie (from Fr. _cadet_).

_Cleek._--The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive of any of the clubs with iron heads.

_Cup._--A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.

_Dead._--A ball is said to be "dead" when so near the hole that the putting it in in the next stroke is a "dead" certainty. A ball is said to "fall dead" when it pitches with hardly any run.

_Divot._--A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.

_Dormy._--One side is said to be "dormy" when it is as many holes to the good as remain to be played--so that it cannot be beaten.

_Driver._--The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very well and a long shot is needed.

_Foozle._--Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.

"_Fore!_"--A cry of warning to people in front.

_Foursome._--A match in which four persons engage, two on each side playing alternately with the same ball.

_Green._--(a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens" around the holes.

_Grip._--(a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands while playing; (b) the grasp itself--e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose grip," are common expressions.

_Half-Shot._--A shot played with something less than a full swing.

_Halved._--A hole is "halved" when both sides have played it in the same number of strokes. A round is "halved" when each side has won and lost the same number of holes.

_Handicap._--The strokes which a player receives either in match play or competition.

_Hanging._--Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.

_Hazard._--A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and all kinds of bad ground.

_Heel._--To hit the ball on the "heel" of the club, i.e. the part of the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with the same result as from a slice.

_Honour._--The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to decline) of striking off first from the tee.

_Iron._--An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according to the purposes for which they are intended.

_Lie._--(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a "flat lie," "an upright lie"); (b) the position of the ball on the ground (e.g. "a good lie," "a bad lie").

_Like, The._--The stroke which makes the player's score equal to his opponent's in course of playing a hole.

_Like-as-we-Lie._--Said when both sides have played the same number of strokes.

_Line._--The direction in which the hole towards which the player is progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.

_Mashie._--Ah iron club with a short head. The _lofting mashie_ has the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The _driving mashie_ has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer, less lofted shots.

_Match-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won and lost.

_Medal-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by the total of strokes taken on the round.

_Niblick._--A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head, used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.

_Odd, The._--A stroke more than the opponent has played.

_Press._--To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.

_Pull._--To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as to make it curve to the left.

_Putt._--To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in "but").

_Putter._--The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole. Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.

_Rub-of-the-Green._--Any chance deflection that the ball receives as it goes along.

_Run Up._--To send the ball low and close to the ground in approaching the hole--opposite to lofting it up.

_Scratch Player._--Player who receives no odds in handicap competitions.

_Slice._--To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies curving to the right.

_Stance._--(a) The place on which the player has to stand when playing--e.g. "a bad stance," "a good stance," are common expressions; (b) the position relative to each other of the player's feet.

_Stymie._--When one ball lies in a straight line between another and the hole the first is said to "stymie," or "to be a stymie to" the other--from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean "the faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the "stymie" only left you the "faintest form" of the hole to aim at.

_Tee._--The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally placed for the first drive to each hole.

_Teeing-Ground._--The place marked as the limit, outside of which it is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is also sometimes called "the tee."

_Top._--To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise much from the ground.

_Up._--A player is said to be "one up," "two up," &c., when he is so many holes to the good of his opponent.

_Wrist-Shot._--A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than a putt.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the game has grown to some considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in the fine work by Mr Robert Clark, _Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game_, together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by Mr Forgan respectively, and the _Golfiana Miscellanea_ of Mr Stewart. A small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named _Hints on Golf_, was very shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter Simpson, Bart., called _The Art of Golf_, a title which sufficiently explains itself. The Badminton Library book on _Golf_ attempted to collect into one volume the most interesting historical facts known about the game, with _obiter dicta_ and advice to learners, and, on similar didactic lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. Everard, Mr Garden Smith and W. Park, the professional player. Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime amateur champion golfer of the United States, has given us a book about the game in that country. _The Book of Golf and Golfers_, compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace Hutchinson, is in the first place a picture-gallery of famous golfers in their respective attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have each contributed a volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has published a book with admirable photographs of players in action, called _Great Golfers: their Methods at a Glance_. A work intended for the use of green committees is among the volumes of the _Country Life_ Library of Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the _Golfing Annual_, in the _Golfer's Year Book_ and in the pages of _Golf_, which has now become _Golf Illustrated_, a weekly paper devoted to the game. Among works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain much of historical value about the game, may be cited the _Golf Book of East Lothian_, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the _Chronicle of Blackheath Golfers_, by Mr W. E. Hughes. (H. G. H.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England), bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby "na small quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes' kingdome of Scoteland" (see letter of His Majesty from Salisbury, the 5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at once as a wise economy of the national moneys, and a protection to native industry in the article. From this it might almost seem that the game was at that date still known and practised in Holland.

[2] _Records of the City of Edinburgh_.

[3] _Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots_, preface, p. lxx. (1863).

[4] Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.

[5] See _History of Leith_, by A. Campbell (1827).

[6] _Local Records of Northumberland_, by John Sykes (Newcastle, 1833).

[7] Robertson's _Historical Notices of Leith_.

GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio railway (Southern Pacific System). Situated in the midst of a rich farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez (1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans, who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on the 20th of December a preliminary "declaration of independence" was published here, antedating by several months the official Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of March 1836. In 1836, when Santa Anna began his advance against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupied by a force of about 350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (c. 1800-1836), who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting to carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with General Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 19-20) in which he inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and was marched back with his force to Goliad, where on the morning of the 27th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna's orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the 19th of May 1903.

GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students (_vagantes_) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 12th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from the Lat. _gula_, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called "_archipoëta_" and "_primas_"--especially in Germany--in whose name their satirical poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted Büdinger's suggestion (_Über einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in Österreich_, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic. Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of goliard from _gailliard_, a gay fellow, leaving "Golias" as the imaginary "patron" of their fraternity.

Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography of an _archipoëta_ who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at Salzburg from 1160 to beyond the middle of the 13th century; but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing. It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the "gild" of goliards should be taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church, especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was too bold for church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Trèves forbade priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the papal legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289 when it was ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons," and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This legislation was only effective when the "privileges of clergy" were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time. But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th century, and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage and attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as truly "medieval" as the monastic life which they despised; they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step in the criticism of abuses in the church.

Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title _Carmina Burana_. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume, _Wine, Women and Song_ (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the Renaissance. The poems of "Bishop Golias" were later attributed to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas Wright in _The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_ (London, 1841).

The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association. It is thus used in _Piers Plowman_, where, however, the _goliard_ still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.

See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, _Goliardendichtung und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England_ (Leipzig, 1905); Spiegel, _Die Vaganten und ihr "Orden"_ (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, _Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters_ (Görlitz, 1870); and the article in _La grande Encyclopédie_. All of these have bibliographical apparatus. (J. T. S.*)

GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David achieved renown (1 Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight. The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul (1 Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath of Gath, "the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver's beam," was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. 18-22)--the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the "brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the resemblance between the two names may have led to the transference. The narratives of David's early life point to some exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achievement in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11,