m. It issues, under the name of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the

foot of a Himalayan snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level of the sea.

During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it receives the Jahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of the Ganges. Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream. At Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it receives the Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more than a series of broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of course, during the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy season. At Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty sister stream, which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west of the sources of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards by south-east through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti and the Gogra. The point of junction with both the Gumti and the Gogra has more or less pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of land at Allahabad, where the Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true Prayag, _the_ place of pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of devout Hindus repair to wash away their sins in the sacred river. It is here that the great festival called the Magh mela is held.

Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from the south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume from the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it receives the Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply to the southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur. By this time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flies, from the sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over the level country, and this spot marks the commencement of the delta, 220 m. in a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river, from the Bay of Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the Padma or Padda, and proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past Pabna to Goalanda, above which it is joined by the Jamuna or main stream of the Brahmaputra. The vast confluence of waters rushes towards the sea, receiving further additions from the hill country on the east, and forming a broad estuary known under the name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay of Bengal near Noakhali. This estuary, however, is only the largest and most easterly of a great number of mouths or channels. The most westerly is the Hugli, which receives the waters of a number of distributary channels that start from the parent Ganges above Murshidabad. Between the Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the east lies the delta. The upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile districts, such as Murshidabad, Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas. But towards its southern base, resting on the sea, the country sinks into a series of great swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable channels. This wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the _sundari_ tree, which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts.

The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the Hugli, on which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth. Beyond this city the navigation is conducted by native craft,--the modern facilities for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the river having put an end to the previous steamer communication, which plied until about 1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below Calcutta important boat routes through the delta connect the Hugli with the eastern branches of the river, for both native craft and steamers.

The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities: Calcutta, Monghyr, Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are on the Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is bounded on the N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan range, on the S. by the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the ranges which separate Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin thus enclosed embraces 432,480 sq. m. According to the latest calculations, the length of the main stream of the Ganges is 1540 m., or with its longest affluent, 1680; breadth at true entrance into the sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in dry season, 1-1/4 to 2-1/4 m.; depth in dry season, 30 ft.; flood discharge, 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second; ordinary discharge, 207,000 cub. ft.; longest duration of flood, about 40 days. The average fall from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in. per mile; from Benares to Calcutta, between 4 and 5 in.; from Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great changes take place from time to time in the river-bed, which alter the face of the country. Extensive islands are thrown up, and attach themselves to the mainland, while the river deserts its old bed and seeks a new channel, it may be many miles off. Such changes are so rapid and on so vast a scale, and the corroding power of the current on the bank so irresistible, that in Lower Bengal it is considered perilous to build any structure of a large or permanent character on its margin. Many decayed or ruined cities attest the changes in the river-bed in ancient times; and within our own times the main channel which formerly passed Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the town high and dry, 7 m. from the bank.

The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as far as Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been sanctioned.

The UPPER GANGES CANAL and the LOWER GANGES CANAL are the two principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Provinces. The Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and irrigates 978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of the original canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates 830,000 acres. The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna, command the greater portion of the Doab lying between the Ganges and the Jumna, above Allahabad. Navigation in either is insignificant. (T. H. H.*)

GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among the Himalaya Mountains. It is situated in the native state of Garhwal in the United Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief head-stream of the Ganges, which is here not above 15 or 20 yds. broad, with a moderate current, and not in general above 3 ft. deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and on the bank near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in which are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century. The bed of the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the Brahmans into three basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of these portions is dedicated to Brahma, another to Vishnu and the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to Gangotri is considered efficacious in washing away the sins of the devotee, and ensuring him eternal happiness in the world to come. The water taken from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and sold at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is 10,319 ft.

GANGPUR, a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until 1905 among the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by Ranchi district, E. by the Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the Central Provinces. The country is for the most part an undulating plain, broken by detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range, possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from the plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with two flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani, formed here by the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both navigable by canoes. The Ib was formerly famous on account of diamonds found in its bed, and its sands are still washed for gold. One of the largest coalfields in India extends into the state, and iron ore is also found. Jungle products--lac, silk cocoons, catechu and resin, which are exported; wild animals--bisons, buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, wild dogs and many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 238,896; estimated revenue, L16,000.

GANGRENE (from Gr. [Greek: gangraina], an eating sore, from [Greek: grainein], to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (q.v.), or a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the circulation by various causes.

GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and politician, was born at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January 1758. He was educated for the profession of law and practised as _avocat_. During the troubled period which culminated in the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July 1789, he came prominently forward in public affairs, and was one of the seven members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat at the hotel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, and was only released by the counter-revolution of the 9th Thermidor. During the first consulate he was called to the tribunate, but was excluded in 1802. In 1815 he was elected deputy for Cantal, and finally left the Chamber on its dissolution in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best known as the most vigorous defender of the mercantile school in opposition to the views of Adam Smith and the English economists.

His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision with which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess much value for the student of political economy. He wrote _Essai politique sur le revenue des peuples de l'antiquite, du moyen age, &c._ (1808); _Des systemes d'economie politique_ (1809); _Theorie d'economie politique_ (1815); _Dictionnaire analytique de l'economie politique_ (1826).

GANJAM, a district of British India, in the extreme north-east of the Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much of the district is exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is interspersed with open valleys and fertile plains. Pleasant groves of trees in the plains give to the scenery a greener appearance than is usually met with in the districts to the south. The mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of the Eastern Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft.--its principal peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam, with an area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114, mostly wild backward tribes, incapable of being governed under ordinary conditions and therefore ruled by an agent of the governor with special powers. The chief rivers are the Rushikulya, the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The sea and river fisheries afford a livelihood to a considerable section of the population. The hilly region abounds in forests consisting principally of _sal_, with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller quantities.

Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its early history is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the Gajapati dynasty ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract became even nominally a part of their dominions. Owing to the nature of the country the rising Mahommedan power was long kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a century after the first invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor was sent to govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present district of Ganjam. In 1753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were made over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an English force sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to abandon Ganjam and their other factories in the north. In 1765 the Northern Circars (including Ganjam) were granted to the English by imperial firman, and in August 1768 an English factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a fort. The present district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the earlier years of British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in the administration of the district; and on more than one occasion the refractory large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in 1836 occurred the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came into contact with the aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose practice of human sacrifice was successfully accomplished. A petty rising of a section of the Kondhs occurred in 1865, which was, however, suppressed without the aid of regular troops.

In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,256, showing an increase of 20% in the decade. There are two systems of government irrigation: (1) the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam minor rivers system. The principal crops are rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and a little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is evaporated, as a government monopoly, along the coast. Sugar is refined, according to German methods, at Aska, where rum also is produced. A considerable trade is conducted at the ports of Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open roadsteads. The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway (Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to Madras in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlakimedi. The headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of Ganjam occupied this position till 1815, when it was found unhealthy, and its importance has since declined.

GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS (1791-1852), French chemist, was born at Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered the medical department of the French army, and witnessed the retreat from Moscow in 1812. After the downfall of the empire he worked at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at the Faculty of Sciences as assistant to L.J. Thenard. His contributions to technical chemistry included a method of refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers formed of gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for manufacturing glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c. The Institute awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of chlorine as a remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for his discovery of the efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and chloride for preserving anatomical preparations. In the latter part of his life he turned his attention to embalmment, his method depending on the injection of solutions of aluminium salts into the arteries. He died at Paris in January 1852. His son FELIX, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the question of the disposal of the dead, among his publications being _Mort reelle et mort apparente_ (1868), _Inhumation et cremation_ (1876), and _Les Cimetieres_ (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of which only one volume appeared.

GANNET (O.E. _ganot_) or SOLAN GOOSE,[1] the _Pelecanus bassanus_ of Linnaeus and the _Sula bassana_ of modern ornithologists, a large sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose of breeding, to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of Forth, and to certain other islands off the coast of Britain, of which four are in Scottish waters--namely, Ailsa Craig, at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the group known collectively as St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east of the Butt of Lewis; and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance westward of Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the coast of Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and it resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel--its only English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settlements are Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and various small islands off the coast of Iceland, of which the Vestmannaeyjar, the Reykjanes Fuglasker and Grimsey are the chief. On the western side of the Atlantic it appears to have but five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four rocks in the Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn when its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-season many of the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions at a vast distance from their home, while at other times of the year their range is greater still, for they not only frequent the North Sea and the English Channel, but stray to the Baltic, and, in winter, extend their flight to the Madeiras, while the members of the species of American birth traverse the ocean from the shores of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.

Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail, the gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is white, tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer edge and principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare spaces round the eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin. The first plumage of the young is of a deep brown above, but paler beneath, and each feather is tipped with a triangular white spot. The nest is a shallow depression, either on the ground itself or on a pile of turf, grass and seaweed--which last is often conveyed from a great distance. The single egg it contains has a white shell of the same chalky character as a cormorant's. The young are hatched blind and naked, but the slate-coloured skin with which their body is covered is soon clothed with white down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark colour already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the majority of gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood of their breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea, follow the shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of which they are most useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great distance from land. Their prey is almost invariably captured by plunging upon it from a height, and a company of gannets fishing presents a curious and interesting spectacle. Flying in a line, each bird, when it comes over the shoal, closes its wings and dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it emerges after a few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers, mounts in a wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself above its prey.[2]

Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note, such as its closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all connected by a web--characters which it possesses in common with most of the other members of the group of birds (_Steganopodes_) to which it belongs. But more remarkable still is the system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of large size, pervading almost the whole surface of the body, communicating with the lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied at the will of the bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of several writers--Montagu, Sir R. Owen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1831, p. 90), and Macgillivray.

In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two nearly allied but somewhat smaller forms--one, _Sula capensis_, inhabiting the coast of South Africa, and the other, _S. serrator_, the Australian seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but the former seems to have a permanently black tail, and the latter a tail the four middle feathers of which are blackish-brown with white shafts.

Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the smaller birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extraordinary stupidity they commonly display. They differ, however, in having no median stripe of bare skin down the front of the throat; they almost invariably breed upon trees and are inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, _S. cyanops_, when adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but _S. piscator_ is readily distinguishable by its red legs, and _S. leucogaster_ by its upper plumage and neck of deep brown. These three are widely distributed within the tropics, and are in some places exceedingly abundant. The fourth, _S. variegata_, which seems to preserve throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the immature _S. bassana_, has a much more limited range, being as yet only known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which contribute to the formation of guano. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The phrase _ganotes baed_ (gannet's bath), a periphrasis for the sea, occurs in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, in reference to events which took place A.D. 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose learned treatise on this bird (_Ibis_, 1866, p. 1) nearly exhausts all that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further on (p. 13) this writer remarks:--"The name gannet is intimately connected with our modern English gander, both words being modifications of the ancient British 'gan' or 'gans,' which is the same word as the modern German 'Gans,' which in its turn corresponds with the old High German 'Kans,' the Greek [Greek: chen], the Latin _anser_, and the Sanskrit 'hansa,' all of which possess the same signification, viz. a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland, sulan, sula and haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is not so obvious. Martin [_Voy. St Kilda_] informs us that 'some imagine that the word solan comes from the Irish souler, corrupted and adapted to the Scottish language, _qui oculis irretortis e longinquo respiciat praedam_.' The earlier writers in general derive the word from the Latin _solea_, in consequence of the bird's supposed habit of hatching its egg with its foot; and in a note intercalated into Ray's description of the solan goose in the edition of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society, and edited by Dr Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the statement is given, that 'the gannet, _Sula alba_, should be written solent goose, i.e. a channel goose.'" Hereon an editorial note remarks that this last statement appears to have been a suggestion of Yarrell's, and that it seems at least as possible that the "Solent" took its name from the bird.

[2] The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations on this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at 12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in 1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (_Report on the Herring Fisheries of Scotland_, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),--being a diminution of one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.

GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth), a group of specialized North American Lower and Middle Eocene mammals of uncertain affinity. The group includes _Hemiganus_, _Psittacotherium_ and _Conoryctes_ from the Puerco, _Calamodon_ and _Hemiganus_ from the Wasatch, and _Stylinodon_ from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of _Conoryctes_, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones. The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be considered ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the molars when first developed have tritubercular summits, but these soon become worn away, leaving tall columnar crowns, with a subcircular surface of dentine exposed at the summit of each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a comparatively full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested with enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life. These and other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard the Ganodonta as an ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this view is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally assigned to _Calamodon_ have been obtained from the Lower Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.

See J.L. Wortman, "The Ganodonta and their Relationship to the Edentata," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott, "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*)

GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at Berlin on the 22nd of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents. He studied law first at Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at Heidelberg, where he attended Hegel's lectures, and became thoroughly imbued with the principles of the Hegelian philosophy. In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he returned to Berlin as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and the following year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary, professor in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical school of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied the method to one special branch--the right of succession. His great work, _Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung_ (1824, 1825, 1829 and 1835), is of permanent value, not only for its extensive survey of facts, but for the admirable manner in which the general theory of the slow evolution of legal principles is presented. In 1830, and again in 1835, Gans visited Paris, and formed an intimate acquaintance with the leaders of literary culture and criticism there. The liberality of his views, especially on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure of the Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of the last fifty years (published as _Vorlesungen uber d. Geschichte d. letzten funfzig Jahre_, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He died at Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works above mentioned, there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental laws of property (_Uber die Grundlage des Besitzes_, Berlin, 1829), a portion of a systematic work on the Roman civil law (_System des romischen Civil-Rechts_, 1827), and a collection of his miscellaneous writings (_Vermischte Schriften_, 1832). Gans edited the _Philosophie der Geschichte_ in Hegel's _Werke_, and contributed an admirable preface.

See _Revue des deux mondes_ (Dec. 1839).

GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Austrian musical composer, was born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His father, a schoolmaster and teacher of music, undertook his son's early education, which the boy continued under various masters till 1802, when he became the pupil of the celebrated Abbe G.J. Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and with his fellow-pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits, Gansbacher's permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was during his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt, that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the close friendship which sprang up among the three young musicians, and was dissolved by death only, has become celebrated in the history of their art. But Gansbacher was himself by no means without merit. He creditably filled the responsible and difficult post of director of the music at St Stephen's cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844); and his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They consist chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies, motets, offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also wrote several sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions of a dramatic kind.

GANTE, a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft. It is largely used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has the appearance of a fine hessian cloth.

GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of Dardania, and Callirrhoe. He was the most beautiful of mortals, and was carried off by the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself, or by Zeus in the form of an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12; Virgil, _Aeneid_, v. 254; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 255). By way of compensation, Zeus presented his father with a team of immortal horses (or a golden vine). Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of the fountains of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and identified by astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the divinity that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When pederasty became common in Greece, an attempt was made to justify it and invest it with dignity by referring to the rape of the beautiful boy by Zeus; in Crete, where the love of boys was reduced to a system, Minos, the primitive ruler and law-giver, was said to have been the ravisher of Ganymede. Thus the name which once denoted the good genius who bestowed the precious gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar Latin under the form _Catamitus_. Ganymede being carried off by the eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E. Veckenstedt (_Ganymedes_, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that Ganymede is the genius of intoxicating drink ([Greek: methu], mead, for which he postulates a form [Greek: medos]), whose original home was Phrygia.

See article by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 53 (Pl. 1.) gives an illustration of Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.

GAO, GAO-GAO, or GARO, a town of French West Africa, in the Upper Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger, 400 m. by river below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The present town dates from the French occupation in 1900; of the ancient city there are scanty ruins, the chief being a truncated pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century) of Mahommed Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque. According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient times and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with the Egyptians. It is known, however, that the city of which the French settlement is the successor was founded by the Songhoi, probably in the 7th or 8th century, and became the capital of their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears to have been the correct name of the Songhoi city, though it was also known as Gogo and Kuku (Kaougha)[1]. In the 12th century Idrisi describes Kuku as a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and industry; it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao but to another town somewhat to the south--at that period the middle course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks. In the 14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and its great mosque was built (c. 1325) by the Melle sovereign Kunkur Musa on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the 15th century the Songhoi regained power and Gao attained its greatest prosperity in the reign of Askia. It did not enjoy the commercial importance of Jenne nor the intellectual supremacy of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the western Sudan for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power the city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the _Ruma_ of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the Tuareg, the last named surrendering possession to the French. The first European to reach Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth, and in 1896 by the French naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the headquarters of a military district. A caravan route leads from it to Kano and Bornu. From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.

See TIMBUKTU. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article by F. Dubois in _L'Afrique francaise_ (January 1909).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake Chad in the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the Bulala dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose rule in the 15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The existence of the state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the Bornuese it was known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which persists as that of a district in French Congo (see BORNU). The similarity of the name Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given rise to much confusion.

GAOL, or JAIL, a prison (q.v.). The two forms of the word are due to the parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French respectively, _jaiole_ or _jaole_, and _gaiole_ or _gayolle_. The common origin is the med. Lat. _gabiola_, a diminutive formed from _cavea_, a hollow, a den, from which the English "cave" is derived. The form "gaol" still commonly survives in English, and is in official usage, e.g. "gaol-delivery," but the common pronunciation of both words, "jail," shows the real surviving word.

GAON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural _Geonim_), the title given to the heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia, Sura and Pumbeditha. Though the name is far older, it is chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived between the close of the Talmud and the transference of the centre of Judaism from Asia to Europe--i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle of the 11th century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the Exilarchs (see EXILARCH) but were otherwise independent. They exercised wide authority and were appealed to in settlement of the social and religious affairs of the diaspora. To them must be assigned the arrangement of the main lines of the present Synagogue liturgy. Their chief literary activity took the form of Answers to Questions--a form which was extensively used in later centuries. The most noted of the Geonim, who will be found treated under their respective names, were Ahai, Amram, Semach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038, closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a half centuries.

A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_, vol. v. p. 571. (I. A.)

GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes Alpes. Pop. (1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built at a height of 2418 ft. on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent of the Durance), in an agreeable position, and is dominated afar by snowy peaks on the N.E. The little city has the look of a Provencal town, being white. The 17th-century cathedral church has been entirely reconstructed (1866-1905). In the prefecture is the tomb of the constable de Lesdiguieres (1543-1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine sculptor, Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives, which include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c. There are a few small manufactories of purely local importance. Gap is connected by railway with Briancon (51-1/2 m.) and with Grenoble (85-1/2 m.), while from the railway junction of Veynes (16-1/2 m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m. by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence, is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century, and in 1791 was enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun (then suppressed).

Gap is the _Vapincum_ of the Romans, and was founded by Augustus about 14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in 1232 most of the region passed by marriage to the dauphins of Viennois. The town itself, however, remained under the rule of the bishops until 1512, when it was annexed to the crown of France. The bishops continued to bear the title of count of Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. It was the birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), who first preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562, but then took refuge in Switzerland.

See J. Roman, _Histoire de la ville de Gap_ (Gap, 1892). (W. A. B. C.)

GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands, 3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 11,278. It is situated in a rich rice-growing region, and extensive forests in its vicinity contain fine hardwoods. Its climate is comparatively cool and healthy. The principal native dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is the oldest town of the province.

GARARISH (KARARISH), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling along the right bank of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Merawi. Many members of the tribe are agriculturists, others act as guides or transport drivers. They declare themselves kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are more Arab than Beja.

GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was the son of a Servian peasant, who made money by exporting cattle and pigs to Austria and by his intelligence and wealth attained to a certain influence in the country. He wanted to give his son as good an education as possible, and therefore sent him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in a German school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very quickly came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him a colonel and commander of the then just organized regular army of Servia. In 1842 he was called to the position of assistant to the home minister, and from that time until his retirement from public life in 1867 he was repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing himself by the energy and justice of his administration. But he rendered far greater services to his country as minister for foreign affairs. He was the first Servian statesman who had a political programme, and who worked to replace the Russian protectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate of all the great powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in 1853 he was decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against Turkey and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in Prince Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853, peremptorily demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander Karageorgevich) his dismissal. But although dismissed, his personal influence in the country secured the neutrality of Servia during the Crimean War. He enjoyed esteem in France, and it was due to him that France proposed to the peace conference of Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to Servia by Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a European international commission. But the agreement of the powers was not secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander Karageorgevich to convoke a national assembly, which had not been called to meet for ten years. The assembly was convoked for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to dethrone Prince Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh Obrenovich. When after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince Michael ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that Servia was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution, and that she obtained, without war, the evacuation of all the fortresses garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the Servian territory, including the fortress of Belgrade (1867). Garashanin was preparing a general rising of the Balkan nations against the Turkish rule, and had entered into confidential arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians, Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. But the execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden resignation (at the end of 1867), and more especially by the assassination of Prince Michael a few months later (the 10th of June 1868). Although he was a Conservative in politics, and as such often in conflict with the leader of the Liberal movement, Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the ablest statesmen whom Servia had in the 19th century. (C. Mi.)

GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1740-1833), French writer and politician, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of September 1749. After receiving a good education under the direction of a relation who was a cure, and having been an advocate at Bordeaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained introductions to the most distinguished writers of the time, and became a contributor to the _Encyclopedie methodique_ and the _Mercure de France_. He gained considerable reputation by an eloge on Michel de L'Hopital in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy for eloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was named professor of history at the _Lycee_, where his lectures enjoyed an equal popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on literature. Being chosen a deputy to the states-general in 1789, he rendered important service to the popular cause by his narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly contributed to the _Journal de Paris_. Possessing strongly optimist views, a mild and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable convictions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying out the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of justice in 1792, and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he called the _commission affreuse_ of communicating to Louis XVI. his sentence of death. In 1793 he became minister of the interior. In this capacity he proved himself quite inefficient. Though himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most scandalous corruption in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably organized detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order, which might easily have been done by a moderate display of firmness. At last, disgusted with the excesses which he had been unable to control, he resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of October he was arrested for Girondist sympathies but soon released, and he escaped further molestation owing to the friendship of Barras and, more especially, of Robespierre, whose literary _amour-propre_ he had been careful to flatter. On the 9th Thermidor, however, he took sides against Robespierre, and on the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the Convention as a member of the executive committee of public instruction. In 1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following year he became a member, then president, of the Council of the Ancients. Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was chosen a senator by Napoleon and created a count. During the Hundred Days he was a member of the chamber of representatives. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the Institute of France, but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name was, in 1816, deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of 1830 he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and Political Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25, 1833. His writings are characterized by elegance, grace and variety of style, and by the highest kind of rhetorical eloquence; but his grasp of his subject is superficial, and as his criticisms have no root in fixed and philosophical principles they are not unfrequently whimsical and inconsistent. He must not be confounded with his elder brother Dominique (1735-1799), who was also a deputy to the states-general.

The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned, _Considerations sur la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1792); _Memoires sur la Revolution, ou expose de ma conduite_ (1795); _Memoires sur la vie de M. Suard, sur ses ecrits, et sur le XVIII^e siecle_ (1820); eloges on Joubert, Kleber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals. Valuable materials for the history of Garat's tenure of the ministry, notably the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt's _Tableaux de la Revolution Francaise_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).

GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew of Dominique Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th of April 1764. Gifted with a voice of exceptional timbre and compass he devoted himself, from an early age, to the cultivation of his musical talents. On account of his manifesting a distaste for the legal profession, for which his father wished him to study, he was deprived of his allowance, but through the patronage of a friend he obtained the office of secretary to Comte d'Artois, and was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to the queen of France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in concerts. He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he became a professional singer, and on account of a song which he had composed in reference to the misfortunes of the royal family he was thrown into prison. On regaining his liberty he went to Hamburg, where he at once achieved extraordinary success; and by his subsequent appearances in Paris, and his visits to Italy, Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for himself a reputation as a singer unequalled by any other of his own time. He was a keen partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the institution of the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of singing. He also composed a number of songs, many of which have considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris.

GARAY, JANOS (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the 10th of October 1812, at Szegszard, in the county of Tolna. From 1823 to 1828 he studied at Funfkirchen, and subsequently, in 1829, at the university of Pest. In 1834 he brought out an heroic poem, in hexameters, under the title _Csatar_. After this he issued in quick succession various historical dramas, among which the most successful were _Arbocz, Orszagh Ilona_ and _Bathori Erzsebet_,--the first two published at Pest in 1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic journalist, and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the political journal _Hirnok_ (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, of which he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian literature with numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The first collection of his poems was published at Pest in 1843; and his prose tales appeared in 1845, under the title of _Tollrajzok_ (Sketches with the Pen). His historical ballads and legends, styled _Arpadok_ (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed. 1848), showed him to be a master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of his lyrical poems also are excellent, as, for example, _Balatoni Kagylok_ (Shells from the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend _Bosnyak Zsofia_ (Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance _Frangepan Kristofne_ (Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize of the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title _Szent Laszlo_ (Saint Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863). Garay was professor of Hungarian language and literature to the university of Pest in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness he died on the 5th of November 1853, in great want. A collective edition of his poems was published at Pest the year after his death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and several of his poems were translated by Kertbeny.

See _Garay Janos Osszes koltemenyei_ (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and _Dichtungen von Johann Garay_ (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).

GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab. _gharbala_, to sift, and related to _ghirbal_, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin, probably from the Lat. _cribrum_, a sieve), originally a medieval commercial term in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort out, or to sift merchandize, such as corn, spices, &c., in order to separate what was good from the refuse or waste; hence to select the best of anything for retention. Similarly a "garbler" was an official who was appointed to sort out, or test the work of those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs offered for sale in the London markets. In this original sense the word is now obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, "garble" now means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary works, or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates, or renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.

GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA (1724-1772), Portuguese lyric poet, was the son of Philippe Correa da Serra, a _fidalgo_ of the royal house who held an important post in the foreign office; his mother was of French descent. The poet's health was frail, and after going through a Jesuit school in Lisbon and learning English, French and Italian at home, he proceeded in 1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a legal career. He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was created a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with D. Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him to live in ease and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit reduced him to poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the _Lisbon Gazette_. In 1756, in conjunction with Cruz e Silva and others, Garcao founded the _Arcadia Lusitana_ to reform the prevailing bad taste in literature, identified with _Seicentismo_, which delighted in conceits, windy words and rhetorical phrases. The _Arcadia_ fulfilled its mission to some extent, but it lacked creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of inanition. Garcao was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing the name of "Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dissertations, with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at its meetings. He lived much in the society of the English residents in Lisbon, and he is supposed to have conceived a passion for an English married lady which completely absorbed him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his literary activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the 9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose displeasure he had incurred by his independence of character. The immediate cause of his incarceration would appear to have been his connexion with a love intrigue between a young friend of his and the daughter of a Colonel Elsden, but he was never brought to trial, and the matter must remain in doubt. After much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order for her husband's release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life, Garcao expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of forty-seven.

Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment, scholarship and wide reading, Garcao set out to raise and purify the standard of poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by a classical simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets _ad sodales_ show a charming personality; his vigorous and elegant odes and epistles are sententious in tone and reveal an inspired poet and a man chastened by suffering. His two comedies in hendecasyllables, the _Theatro Novo_ (played in January 1766) and the _Assemblea_, are excellent satires on the social life of the capital; and in the _Cantata de Dido_, included in the latter piece, the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of form, making this composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century poetry.

Garcao wrote little and spent much time on the _labor limae_. His works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete and accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome, 1888). An English version of the _Cantata de Dido_ appeared in the Academy (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp. 182-184; also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899). (E. Pr.)

GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832), Spanish singer and composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of January 1775. He became a chorister at the cathedral of Seville, and studied music under the best masters of that city. At seventeen he made his debut on the stage at Cadiz, in an operetta, in which were included songs of his own composition. Soon afterwards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold capacity of singer and composer. His reputation being established, he proceeded to Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in Paer's opera _Griselda_. Here also he was received with great applause, his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself, where he continued his successes. His opera _Il Califo di Bagdad_ was favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes were again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera _La Morte di Tasso_ was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was followed in 1823 by his _Il Fazzoletto_. In 1824 he went to London, and thence proceeded to America (1825) with a company of artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and his daughter Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran. In New York was produced his opera _La Figlia dell' aria_ in 1827. He extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the point of returning to Europe in order to retire from public life when he was robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his way to Vera Cruz. Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired from the stage, and devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He died in Paris on the 2nd of June 1832. His method of teaching was famous, and some of the most celebrated singers of the early part of the century were amongst his pupils. He also wrote an excellent book on the art of singing called _Metodo di canto_, of which the essence was subsequently incorporated by his son Manoel in his admirable _Traite complet de l'art du chant_ (1847). His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in all, but with the exception of those quoted, and _El Poeta calculista_, produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the children already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame Viardot (1821-1910), worthily continued the tradition for the best singing with which his name had become associated.

His son, MANOEL GARCIA (1805-1906), who celebrated his hundredth birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was born at Madrid, and after his father's death devoted himself to teaching. He was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire from 1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was a professor at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous for his invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his position as the greatest representative of the old "_bel canto_" style of singing.

GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787), Spanish dramatist, was born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734, and was educated at Salamanca. At Madrid he soon attracted attention by his literary arrogance and handsome person; and at an early age became chief of the National Library, a post from which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of his numerous enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection of Spanish plays entitled _Theatro Hespanol_ (1785-1786) exposed him to severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason. He died at Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying into effect his avowed intention of reviving the national drama. His _Agamemnon vengado_ derives from Sophocles, his _Jaire_ is translated from Voltaire, and even his once famous _Raquel_, though Spanish in subject, is classic in form.

GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier and duellist, was a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain. He never commanded an army or rose to the position of a general, but he was a notable figure in the wars of the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, when personal prowess had still a considerable share in deciding the result of actions. His native town and its district, which lie between Talavera and Madrid, produced many of the most noted _conquistadores_ of America, including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth in the war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted him to shine in operations largely composed of night marches, escalades, surprises and hand-to-hand combats. The main scene of his achievements was in Italy, and he betook himself to it--on his own showing--not in search of glory, but because he had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas, in a street fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to Rome, then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the Romagna and took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier of the pope till he killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it necessary to pass over to the enemy. Now he became acquainted with the Colonnas, who appreciated his services. The wars between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the Catholic king) and Louis XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The Spanish general Gonsalvo de Cordoba, who knew his value, employed him and trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube, till 1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many Munchausen-like stories of personal prowess. It was said that he held a bridge single-handed against 200 Frenchmen, that he stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so forth. In the "Brief Summary" of his life and deeds attributed to him, and printed at the end of the _Chronicle of the Great Captain_, published in 1584 at Alcala de Henares, he lays no claim to having done more than was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in 1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of the younger officers of the army. His body was carried to his native town Trujillo, and buried in the church of Santa Maria Mayor in 1545.

GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO (1812-1884), Spanish dramatist, was born at Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812, and studied medicine in his native town. In 1832 he removed to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by translating plays of Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success, he was on the point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as the author of _El Trovador_, which was played for the first time on the 1st of March 1836. Garcia Gutierrez never surpassed this first effort, which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement in Spain, and which became known all over Europe through Verdi's music. His next great success was _Simon Bocanegra_ (1843), but, as his plays were not lucrative, he emigrated to Spanish America, working as a journalist in Cuba and Mexico till 1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of his later period are a _zarzuela_ entitled _El Grumete_ (1853), _La Venganza catalana_ (1864) and _Juan Lorenzo_ (1865). He became head of the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th of August 1884. His _Poesias_ (1840) and another volume of lyrics, entitled _Luz y tinieblas_ (1842), are unimportant; but the brilliant versification of his plays, and his power of analysing feminine emotions, give him a foremost place among the Spanish dramatists of the 19th century.

GARD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part of the old province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area 2270 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of Lozere and Ardeche, E. by the Rhone, which separates it from Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhone, S. by the Mediterranean, S.W. by Herault and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into three sharply-defined regions. Its north-western districts are occupied by the range of the Cevennes, which on the frontier of Lozere attain a height of 5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its fruitful valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and the chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the mountains are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a dry, hilly region of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation of cereals, the vine and olive, stretches from the foot of the Cevennes over the centre of the department, covering about half its area. The southern portion, which extends to the sea, and was probably at one time covered by it, is a low plain with numerous lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is prosperous, and comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.

Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E., and the Ardeche, the lower course of which forms part of its boundary on the N., the principal rivers are the Ceze, Gard, Vidourle and Herault. The most northern of these is the Ceze, which rises in the Cevennes, and after a course of about 50 m. in an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above Roquemaure. The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its name, is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cevennes from several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a length of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows through a succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the melting of the snows on the Cevennes is subject to inundations, which often cause great damage. Its waters not infrequently rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its bed is sometimes increased in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it is crossed by a celebrated Roman aqueduct--the Pont du Gard (see AQUEDUCT). The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near Le Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below Sommieres it forms the western boundary of the department. The Herault has its source and part of its course in the west of Gard. The Canal de Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which communicates with the Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the Grand-Roubine canal.

The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; it is rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The cold and violent north-west wind known as the mistral is its worst drawback. Les Fumades (near Allegre) and Euzet have mineral springs. The chief grain crops are wheat and oats. Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed for its cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of which is of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks first among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the olive, mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated and yields excellent red and white wines. The department is rich in minerals, and the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt, zinc, lead and copper, which are for the most part situated in the neighbourhoods of Alais and La Grand'-Combe, constitute one of the chief sources of its wealth. Great quantities of salt are obtained from the salt marshes along the coast. The quarries of building and other stone employ a considerable number of workmen. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive, and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre, cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze), liquorice, gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There are also breweries and distilleries, and important metallurgical works, the chief of which are those of Besseges. The exports of Gard include coal, lignite, coke, asphalt, building-stone, iron, steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives, grapes and truffles.

The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is divided into the arrondissements of Nimes, Alais, Uzes and Le Vigan, with 40 cantons and 351 communes. The chief town is Nimes, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon and of a court of appeal. Gard belongs to the 15th military region, which has its headquarters at Marseilles, and to the academie (educational division) of Montpellier. Nimes, Alais, Uzes, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Besseges, La Grand'-Combe and Villeneuve-les-Avignon are the principal places. Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone is crossed by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long built by the Pontiff brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with several old houses, carries on silk-spinning.

GARDA, LAKE OF (the _Lacus Benacus_ of the Romans), the most easterly and the most extensive of the great Lombard lakes, being only surpassed in the Alpine region by those of Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme northern extremity (Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in 1517), the whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents the southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river now flows through a narrow trench which is separated from the lake by the long narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.). Nowadays the lake is fed by the Sarca, that flows in at its north end from the glaciers of the Adamello, while at the southern extremity of the lake the Mincio flows out, on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq. m., its length is 32-1/4 m., its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the height of its surface above sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth yet measured is 1916 ft. Its upper or northern end is narrow, but between Garda (E.) and Salo (W.) the lake expands gradually into a nearly circular basin, which at the southern extremity is divided into two parts by the long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the southern shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this conformation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds, which Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (_Georg_. ii. line 160): _fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino_. The most dangerous of these winds is the _Borea_ or _Suer_, that sweeps down from the north as through a funnel. In the southern portion of the lake the _Vinessa_, an E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The _Ora_ is a regular wind coming from the east which, on reaching the lake, blows from S. to N. The steep grey limestone crags of Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake, contrast strongly with the rich vegetation on the western and southern shores. The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to Salo is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that not merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing lemons, figs, mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter, and has been given the name of the _Riviera Benacense_. The lovely promontory of Sermione, at the southern end of the lake, has also an extremely luxuriant vegetation, while it contains many remains of buildings of Roman and later date, having been the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided here and celebrated its beauties in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat with paddles set in motion by horses was put on the lake, but the first steamer dates only from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W. respectively of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera (14-1/4 m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17-1/2 m. by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8-3/4 m. distant from each other. On the west shore of the lake are Salo, Toscolano, Gargnano and Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast only of Bardolino and Garda. At the northern tip of the lake, and in Tirol, is Riva, the most considerable town on the lake, and 15-1/2 m. by rail from the Mori station on the main Brenner line. (W. A. B. C.)

GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU, COUNT (1766-1818), French general and diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January 1766. He entered the army and rose rapidly during the revolutionary wars, becoming captain in 1793. In May 1799 he distinguished himself by saving a division of the French army which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau. He incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty shortly before the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in 1805 was appointed to be aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief distinction, however, was to be won in the diplomatic sphere. In the spring of 1807, when Russia and Prussia were at war with France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia was also engaged in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a mission to the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the east of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; and Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing of that alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up for Gardane, and signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as showing the strong oriental trend of the emperor's policy. France was to guarantee the integrity of Persia, to recognize that Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) belonged to the shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring that territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, officers and workmen, in the number and to the amount demanded by him. Napoleon on his side required Persia to declare war against Great Britain, to expel all Britons from her territory, and to come to an understanding with the Afghans with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India. Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long and dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at Teheran in December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian treaty at Tilsit in July 1807 rendered the mission abortive. Persia longed only for help against Russia and had no desire, when all hope of that was past, to attack India. The shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant to France a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir John Malcolm to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally, however, Gardane saw that nothing much was to be hoped for in the changed situation of European affairs, and abruptly left the country (April 1809). This conduct was not wholly approved by Napoleon, but he named him count and in 1810 attached him to Massena's army in Portugal. There, during the disastrous retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no notice. He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny (dated April 23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the prospects of a successful invasion of India is of great interest. He admitted the difficulties of this enterprise, but thought that a force of picked French troops, aided by Persians and Afghans, might under favourable conditions penetrate into India by way of Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were distracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius.

See Count Alfred de Gardane, _Mission du general Gardane en Perse_ (Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, _La Politique orientale de Napoleon: Sebastiani et Gardane_ (Paris, 1904). (J. Hl. R.)

GARDELEGEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the right bank of the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main line of railway Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, a hospital, founded in 1285, and a high-grade school. There are considerable manufactures, notably agricultural machinery and buttons, and its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was founded in the 10th century, and was for a long time the seat of a line of counts. It suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in 1775 was burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave Louis I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the Mild of Brunswick.

GARDEN (from O. Fr. _gardin_, mod. Fr. _jardin_; this, like our words "garth," a paddock attached to a building, and "yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as _gards_ and O.H. Ger. _gart_, cf. Dutch _gaarde_ and Ger. _garten_), the ground enclosed and cultivated for the growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables (see HORTICULTURE). The word is also used for grounds laid out ornamentally, used as places of public entertainment. Such were the famous Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in zoological gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or streets. From the fact that Epicurus (q.v.) taught in the gardens at Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as [Greek: hoi apo ton kepon] (so Diog. Laertius x. 10); and Cicero (_De finibus_ v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the _Horti Epicuri_. Thus as the "Academy" refers to the Platonic and the "Porch" ([Greek: stoa]) to the Stoic school, so the "Garden" is the name given to the Epicurean school of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as [Greek: kepotyrannos], the tyrant of the garden.

GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae, containing about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of the warmer parts of the old world. Several are grown in stoves or greenhouses for their handsome, sweet-scented white flowers. The flowers are developed singly at the end of a branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or salver-shaped with a long tube. The double forms of _Gardenia florida_ (a native of China) and _G. radicans_ (a native of Japan) are amongst the most beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy bug, green fly, red spider and scale-insect.

GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at Carriden in Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the age of fourteen he entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, and was afterwards present at the battle of Ramillies, where he was wounded. He subsequently served in different cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of colonel. He fell at the battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September 1745. The circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's _Waverley_. In his early years he was distinguished for his recklessness and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision, as he regarded it, led to his conversion, and from that time he lived a life of great devoutness and of thorough consistency with his Christian profession. Dr Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk, author of an autobiography, says that he was "very ostentatious" about his conversion--speaks of him as weak, and plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col. Gardiner's account of his sins.

His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often reprinted.

GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English historian, son of Rawson Boddam Gardiner, was born near Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March 1829. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first class in _literae humaniores_. He was subsequently elected to fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some years he was professor of modern history at King's College, London, and devoted his life to historical work. He is the historian of the Puritan revolution, and has written its history in a series of volumes, originally published under different titles, beginning with the accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the third volume of the _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_) appeared in 1901. This was completed in two volumes by C.H. Firth as _The Last Years of the Protectorate_ (1909). The series is _History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_, 1603-1642 (10 vols.); _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660_. His treatment is exhaustive and philosophical, taking in, along with political and constitutional history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment during his period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original authorities on which his work is founded many of great value exist only in manuscript, and his researches in public and private collections of manuscripts at home, and in the archives of Simancas, Venice, Rome, Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is universally acknowledged. He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by the fact of his descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly written of it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of perception and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these qualities it will be enough to refer to what he says of the characters of James I., Bacon, Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional matters he writes with an insight to be attained only by the study of political philosophy, discussing in a masterly fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes of government proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a prominent place to everything which illustrates human progress in moral and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially to the rise and development of the idea of religious toleration, finding his authorities not only in the words and actions of men of mark, but in the writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers, whose essays indicate currents in the tide of public opinion. His record of the relations between England and other states proves his thorough knowledge of contemporary European history, and is rendered specially valuable by his researches among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.

Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years which it covers are a period of exceptional importance in many directions, and the actions and characters of the principal persons in it demand careful analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an exaggerated importance to some of the authorities which he was the first to bring to light, to see a general tendency in what may only be the expression of an individual eccentricity, to rely too much on ambassadors' reports which may have been written for some special end, to enter too fully into the details of diplomatic correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not the result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly to the intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom picturesque, though in describing a few famous scenes, such as the execution of Charles I., he writes with pathos and dignity. The minuteness of his narrative detracts from its interest; though his arrangement is generally good, here and there the reader finds the thread of a subject broken by the intrusion of incidents not immediately connected with it, and does not pick it up again without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his supreme qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of character; his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and unmoved. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other books, mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by which his name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting labour, a splendid monument of historical scholarship. His position as an historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862 he was given a civil list pension of L150 per annum, "in recognition of his valuable contributions to the history of England"; he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Edinburgh, and Ph.D. of Gottingen, and honorary student of Christ Church, Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should interfere with the accomplishment of his history. He died on the 24th of February 1902.

Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner's separate works are: _Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage_ (2 vols., London, 1869); _Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660_ (1st ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); _Oliver Cromwell_ (London, 1901); _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (London, 1897); _Outline of English History_ (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896); and _Student's History of England_ (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891; 2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of papers for the Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the _English Historical Review_. (W. Hu.)

GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493-1555), English bishop and lord chancellor, was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of his birth as commonly given, 1483, seems to be about ten years too early, and surmises which have passed current that he was some one's illegitimate child are of no authority. His father is now known to have been John Gardiner, a substantial cloth merchant of the town where he was born (see his will, printed in _Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute_, i. 329), who took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols's _Epistles of Erasmus_, ii. 12, 13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge, where he studied at Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself in the classics, especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted himself to the canon and civil law, in which subjects he attained so great a proficiency that no one could dispute his pre-eminence. He received the degree of doctor of civil law in 1520, and of canon law in the following year.

Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, who made him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have been with him at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion of the celebrated treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and the French ambassadors thither. It is stated, and with great probability, that this was the occasion on which he was first introduced to the king's notice, but he does not appear to have been actively engaged in Henry's service till three years later. In that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very intimate knowledge of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas More were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging a treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army in Italy against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey on his important diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and magnificence of which are so graphically described by Cavendish. Among the imposing train who went with the cardinal--including, as it did, several noblemen and privy councillors--Gardiner alone seems to have been acquainted with the real heart of the matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar moment. Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the object on which he had secretly set his heart--a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. In the course of his progress through France he received orders from Henry to send back his secretary Gardiner, or, as he was called at court, Master Stevens, for fresh instructions; to which he was obliged to reply that he positively could not spare him as he was the only instrument he had in advancing the king's "secret matter." Next year Gardiner, still in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along with Edward Fox, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to promote the same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion are still extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which he was engaged, they certainly give a wonderful impression of the zeal and ability with which he discharged his functions. Here his perfect familiarity with the canon law gave him a great advantage. He was instructed to procure from the pope a decretal commission, laying down principles of law by which Wolsey and Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal. The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not only unusual but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at Orvieto, and had just recently escaped from captivity at St Angelo at the hands of the imperialists. But fear of offending the emperor could not have induced him to refuse a really legitimate request from a king like Henry. He naturally referred the question to the cardinals about him; with whom Gardiner held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of a spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the wanderer his way? The king and lords of England would be driven to think that God had taken away from the Holy See the key of knowledge, and that pontifical laws which were not clear to the pope himself might as well be committed to the flames.

This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was obliged to be content with a general commission for Campeggio and Wolsey to try the cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, was quite inadequate for the purpose in view; and he again instructed Gardiner, while thanking the pope for the commission actually granted, to press him once more by very urgent pleas, to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise, he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even be tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At last the pope--to his own bitter regret afterwards--gave what was desired on the express conditions named, that Campeggio was to show it to the king and Wolsey and no one else, and then destroy it, the two legates holding their court under the general commission. After obtaining this Gardiner returned home; but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings were delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once more to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing. The pope would make no further concessions, and would not even promise not to revoke the cause to Rome, as he did very shortly after.

Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was appointed the king's secretary. He had been already some years archdeacon of Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was added to it in March 1529, which two years later he resigned for that of Leicester. In 1530 he was sent to Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance with the new plan devised for settling the question without the pope's intervention. In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of artifice, more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In November 1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was unexpected, and was accompanied by expressions from the king which made it still more honourable, as showing that if he had been in some things too subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking policy of his own. Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated boldly with his sovereign on some points, and Henry now reminded him of the fact. "I have often _squared_ with you, Gardiner," he said familiarly, "but I love you never the worse, as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1532, nevertheless, he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he took in the preparation of the famous "Answer of the Ordinaries" to the complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. On this subject he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own defence.

His next important action was not so creditable; for he was, not exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but, according to Cranmer's own expression, "assistant" to him as counsel for the king, when the archbishop, in the absence of Queen Catherine, pronounced her marriage with Henry null and void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately afterwards he was sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between the pope and Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most cordial ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause in the matter of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner intimated the appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case the pope should venture to proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and also one on behalf of Cranmer presented with it, were of Gardiner's drawing up. In 1535 he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the king's new title of "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The result was his celebrated treatise _De vera obedientia_, the ablest, certainly, of all the vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his diocese. He was also employed to answer the pope's brief threatening to deprive Henry of his kingdom.

During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies in France and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that he had little influence upon the king's councils. But in 1539 he took part in the enactment of the severe statute of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1540, on the death of Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted, in concert with others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and but for the personal intervention of the king he would probably have succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal supremacy, a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a doctrinal point of view, and it was suspected that he even repented his advocacy of the royal supremacy. He certainly had not approved of Henry's general treatment of the church, especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he schooled himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of his own, named German Gardiner, whom he employed as his secretary, was put to death for treason in reference to the king's supremacy, and his enemies insinuated to the king that he himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. But in truth the king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; for it was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious to prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer's authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy. Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king's church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the archbishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could always rely on the king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining ground in high places, especially after the king's marriage with Catherine Parr; and there seems to be some truth in the story that the queen herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner, with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions in conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men of the Court were condemned at Windsor and three of them were burned. The fourth, who was the musician Marbeck, was pardoned by Gardiner's procurement.

Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., his name was omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry was believed to have intended making him one of his executors. Under Edward VI. he was completely opposed to the policy of the dominant party both in ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The religious changes he objected to both on principle and on the ground of their being moved during the king's minority, and he resisted Cranmer's project of a general visitation. His remonstrances, however, were met by his own committal to the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long before he was called before the council, and, refusing to give them satisfaction on some points, was thrown into the Tower, where he continued during the whole remainder of the reign, a period slightly over five years. During this time he in vain demanded his liberty, and to be called before parliament as a peer of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and given to Dr Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before been made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the duke of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the Tower along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into London, set them all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his bishopric and appointed lord chancellor, and he set the crown on the queen's head at her coronation. He also opened her first parliament and for some time was her leading councillor.

He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of the work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years--to vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness of her mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant what he himself had written touching the royal supremacy. It is said that he wrote a formal _Palinodia_ or retractation of his book _De vera obedientia_, but it does not seem to be now extant; and the reference is probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday 1554, after Cardinal Pole had absolved the kingdom from schism. As chancellor he had the onerous task of negotiating the queen's marriage treaty with Philip, to which he shared the general repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In executing it, however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous for England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high favour. How far he was responsible for the persecutions which afterwards arose is a debated question. He no doubt approved of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided there as chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws. Neither is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop Hooper, and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not exactly to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined, even as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were handed over to the secular power to be burned. Gardiner, however, undoubtedly did his best to persuade them to save themselves by a course which he conscientiously followed himself; nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission along with a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he could very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese no victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after his death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, there are strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane and generous. In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the English commissioners to promote peace with France; but their efforts were ineffectual. In October 1555 he again opened parliament as lord chancellor, but towards the end of the month he fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of November, when he died over sixty years of age.

Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the subject of so much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular historians. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrow-minded bigot he is commonly represented there is nothing whatever to show. He has been called ambitious, turbulent, crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a good many other things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in addition to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of him as a tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted to remain five years in prison rather than change his principles is not very clearly explained; and as to his being despised, we have seen already that neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any means despicable. The truth is, there is not a single divine or statesman of that day whose course throughout was so thoroughly consistent. He was no friend to the Reformation, it is true, but he was at least a conscientious opponent. In doctrine he adhered to the old faith from first to last, while as a question of church policy, the only matter for consideration with him was whether the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally justifiable.

His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as a statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his learning even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part that he was allowed to take in the drawing up of doctrinal formularies in Henry VIII.'s time is not clear; but at a later date he was the author of various tracts in defence of the Real Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being written in prison, were published abroad under a feigned name. Controversial writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he had several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry VIII.'s ambassador.

He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great interest especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge. He was, however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing the language introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to him and Sir Thomas Smith upon the subject, in which, according to Ascham, his opponents showed themselves the better critics, but he the superior genius. In his own household he loved to take in young university men of promise; and many whom he thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as bishops, ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special abode of the muses.

He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his effigy is still to be seen. (J. Ga.)

GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the confluence of Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m. below Augusta. Pop. (1890) 5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born); (1910) 5311. It is served by the Maine Central railway. The site of the city is only a few feet above sea-level, and the Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this point; the water of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a mile, furnishes the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly paper, machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by Dr Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement was called Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a town, the founder being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston. But in 1803, when that part of Pittston which lay on the W. bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as a separate town and new life was given to it by the grandson of the founder, the present name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city in 1849. The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a population of 1177 in 1900.

GARDNER, PERCY (1846- ), English classical archaeologist, was born in London, and was educated at the City of London school and Christ's College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). He was Disney professor of archaeology at Cambridge from 1880 to 1887, and was then appointed professor of classical archaeology at Oxford, where he had a stimulating influence on the study of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also became prominent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his works are: _Types of Greek Coins_ (1883); _A Numismatic Commentary on Pausanias_ (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); _New Chapters in Greek History_ (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and Asia Minor; _Manual of Greek Antiquities_ (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd ed. 1898); _Grammar of Greek Art_ (1905); _Exploratio Evangelica_ (1899), on the origin of Christian belief; _A Historic View of the New Testament_ (1901); _Growth of Christianity_ (1907).

His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862- ), educated at the City of London school and Caius College, Cambridge (fellow, 1885), is also well known as an archaeologist. From 1887 to 1895 he was director of the British School of Archaeology at Athens, and later became professor of archaeology at University College, London. His publications include: _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_ (1887); _Ancient Athens_ (1902); _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_ (1905); _Six Greek Sculptors_ (1910). He was elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.

GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,699. The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway. It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of hill country, well watered with streams and ponds, and includes the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of Fitchburg), South Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the state colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital, and the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a memorial to Levi Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local manufacturer of chairs, who invented various kinds of chair-making machinery. By far the principal industry of the township (dating from 1805) is the manufacture of chairs, the township having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the world; among the other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages, silver-ware and oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the township was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from parts of Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden, was incorporated in 1785, and was named in honour of Col. Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a patriot leader of Massachusetts, who was mortally wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill.

See W.D. Herrick, _History of the Town of Gardner_ (Gardner, 1878), covering the years 1785-1878.

GARE-FOWL[1] (Icelandic, _Geirfugl_; Gaelic, _Gearbhul_), the anglicized form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now considered extinct, formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish islands, the Great Auk of most English book-writers, and the _Alca impennis_ of Linnaeus. In size it was hardly less than a tame goose, and in appearance it much resembled its smaller and surviving relative the razor-bill (_Alca torda_); but the glossy black of its head was varied by a large patch of white occupying nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in place of the razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore eight or more deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and the ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise the coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory evidence that the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that of the breeding-season just as is ordinarily the case in other members of the family _Alcidae_ to which it belongs. The most striking characteristic of the gare-fowl, however, was the comparatively abortive condition of its wings, the distal portions of which, though the bird was just about twice the linear dimensions of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same size as in that species--proving, if more direct evidence were wanting, its inability to fly.

The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is one which has been repeated so often, and in books of such generally good repute and wide dispersal, that a successful refutation seems almost hopeless. This is the notion that it was a bird possessing a very high northern range, and consequently to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this error arose would take too long to tell, but the fact remains indisputable that, setting aside general assertions resting on no evidence worthy of attention, there is but a single record deserving any credit at all of a single example of the species having been observed within the Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who had the best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.[2] It is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements have been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another error which, if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since Sir R. Owen unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird "has not been specially hunted down like the dodo and dinornis, but by degrees has become more scarce." If any reliance can be placed upon the testimony of former observers, the first part of this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the dodo all we know is that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at the time the island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had ceased to exist--the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture, and a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's acts it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p. 354). The extinction of the _Dinornis_ lies beyond the range of recorded history. Supposing it even to have taken place at the very latest period as yet suggested--and there is much to be urged in favour of such a supposition--little but oral tradition remains to tell us how its extirpation was effected. That it existed after New Zealand was inhabited by man is indeed certain, and there is nothing extraordinary in the proved fact that the early settlers (of whatever race they were) killed and ate moas. But evidence that the whole population of those birds was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is wholly wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists who ever lived, John Wolley, that the latest survivors of the species were caught and killed by expeditions expressly organized with the view of supplying the demands of caterers to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of the Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and devastated with the combined objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from very early days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard Bonnycastle (_Newfoundland in 1842_, i. p. 232), was owing to "the ruthless trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared through volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglasker drove some at least of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the mainland, where they were exposed to danger from which they had in their former abode been comparatively free; yet on this rock (Eldey = fire-island) they were "specially hunted down" whenever opportunity offered, until the stock there was wholly extirpated in 1844.

A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould in his _Birds of Great Britain_, where he says that "formerly this bird was plentiful in all the northern parts of the British Islands, particularly the Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement of the 19th century, however, its fate appears to have been sealed; for though it doubtless existed, and probably bred, up to the year 1830, its numbers annually diminished until they became so few that the species could not hold its own." Now of the Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795, says in his posthumously-published _Fauna Orcadensis_ that he could not find it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 1812 he was told, says Montagu (_Orn. Dict. App._), that one male only had made its appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully hunted, but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate had been killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen there since. As to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality recorded for it, and the last example known to have been obtained there, or in its neighbourhood, was that given to Fleming (_Edinb. Phil. Journ._ x. p. 96) in 1821 or 1822, having been some time before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass. That the gare-fowl was not plentiful in either group of islands is sufficiently obvious, as also is the impossibility of its continuing to breed "up to the year 1830."

But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors. As on the death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his memory as quickly as clouds round the setting sun, so have stories, probable as well as impossible, accumulated over the true history of this species, and it behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise more than common caution in sifting the truth from the large mass of error. Americans have asserted that the specimen which belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar College) was obtained by him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there is Macgillivray's distinct statement (_Brit. Birds_, v. p. 359) that Audubon procured it in London. The account given by Degland (_Orn. Europ._ ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his work by M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd that it deserves to be quoted in full: "Il se trouvait en assez grand nombre il y a une quinzaine d'annees aux Orcades; mais le ministre presbyterien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime aux personnes qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a ete cause de sa destruction sur ces iles." The same author claims the species as a visitor to the shores of France on the testimony of Hardy (_Annuaire normand_, 1841, p. 298), which he grievously misquotes both in his own work and in another place (_Naumannia_, 1855, p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English writer (_Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.

John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former resorts of the gare-fowl, or "penguin," as it was there called, in the Newfoundland seas, a place where bones had before been obtained by Stuvitz, and natural mummies so lately as 1863 and 1864. Landing on this rock at the risk of his life, he brought off a rich cargo of its remains, belonging to no fewer than fifty birds, some of them in size exceeding any that had before been known. His collection was subsequently dispersed, most of the specimens finding their way into various public museums.

A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting the gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which are without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be especially mentioned:--J.J.S. Steenstrup, "Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere Udbredningskreds," _Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser_ (Copenhagen, 1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," _Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club_, iv. p. 111; "Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's Researches in Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1861), p. 374; W. Preyer, "_Uber Plautus impennis_," _Journ. fur Orn._ (1862), pp. 110, 337; K.E. von Baer, "Uber das Aussterben der Tierarten in physiologischer und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht," _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. de St-Petersb._ vi. p. 513; R. Owen, "Description of the Skeleton of the Great Auk," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. p. 317; "The Gare-fowl and its Historians," _Nat. Hist. Rev._ v. p. 467; J.H. Gurney, jun., "On the Great Auk," _Zoologist_ (2nd ser.), pp. 1442, 1639; H. Reeks, "Great Auk in Newfoundland," &c., _op. cit._ p. 1854; V. Fatio, "Sur l'Alca impennis," _Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse_, ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; "On existing Remains of the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1870), p. 256; J. Milne, "Relics of the Great Auk," _Field_ (27th of March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875). Lastly, reference cannot be omitted to the happy exercise of poetic fancy with which Charles Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief facts of the gare-fowl's extinction (derived from one of the above-named papers) into his charming _Water Babies_. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The name first appears, and in this form, in the _Account of Hirta_ (St Kilda) _and Rona, &c._, by the lord register, Sir George M'Kenzie, of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his _Collection of Voyages and Travels_ (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald's _Scotia illustrata_ (1684). Martin soon after, in his _Voyage to St Kilda_, spelt it "Gairfowl." Sir R. Owen adopted the form "garfowl," without, as would seem, any precedent authority.

[2] The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as to the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is within, or at the Fiskernas, which is without, the Arctic Circle.

GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president of the United States, was born on the 19th of November 1831 in a log cabin in the little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. His early years were spent in the performance of such labour as fell to the lot of every farmer's son in the new states, and in the acquisition of such education as could be had in the district schools held for a few weeks each winter. But life on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he left home and set off to make a living in some other way. A book of stories of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He decided, therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping across the country to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment from the captain of a lake schooner. But the captain drove him from the deck, and, wandering on in search of work, he fell in with a canal boatman who engaged him. During some months young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on recovery, having resolved to attend a high school and fit himself to become a teacher, he passed the next four years in a hard struggle with poverty and in an earnest effort to secure an education, studying for a short time in the Geauga Seminary at Chester, Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter and a farmer; studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, Garfield became professor of ancient languages and literature in the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen to the presidency of the institution.

Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days of the Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas struggle were exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns of 1857 and 1858, he became known as an effective speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His reward for his services was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the member from Portage and Summit counties. When the "cotton states" seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous measures. He was one of the six Ohio senators who voted against the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution (Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any constitutional amendment which should give Congress the power to abolish or interfere with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the government to coerce seceded states; defended the "Million War Bill" appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses; and when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio furnish 20,000 soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share. He had just been admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of war he at once offered his services to the governor, and became lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, recruited largely from among his former students. He served in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second day's fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at Chickamauga, and was made a major-general of volunteers for gallantry in that battle. In 1862 he was elected a member of Congress from the Ashtabula district of Ohio, and, resigning his military commission, took his seat in the House of Representatives in December 1863. In Congress he joined the radical wing of the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of Confederate property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized as a hard worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought him places on important committees--he was chairman successively of the committee on military affairs, the committee on banking and currency, and the committee on appropriations,--and his ability as a speaker enabled him to achieve distinction on the floor of the House and to rise to leadership. Between 1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of importance on "The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," "The Freedman's Bureau," "The Reconstruction of the Rebel States," "The Public Debt and Specie Payments," "Reconstruction," "The Currency," "Taxation of United States Bonds," "Enforcing the 14th Amendment," "National Aid to Education," and "the Right to Originate Revenue Bills." The year 1874 was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, the Credit Mobilier and the "Salary Grab," disgusted thousands of independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the country. Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion with the Credit Mobilier scandal, but the charge was never proved. A Republican convention in his district demanded his resignation, and re-election seemed impossible; but he defended himself in two pamphlets, "Increase of Salaries" and "Review of the Transactions of the Credit Mobilier Company," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. In 1876 Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his district; and afterwards as one of the two representatives of the Republicans in the House, he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the dispute regarding the presidential election of 1876. When, in 1877, James G. Blaine was made a senator from Maine, the leadership of the House of Representatives passed to Garfield, and he became the Republican candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, having chosen John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, an effort was made to send Garfield to the United States Senate in Sherman's place. But the president needed his services in the House, and he was not elected to the Senate until 1880.

The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party must nominate a candidate for the presidency. General Grant had served two terms (1869-1877), and the unwritten law of custom condemned his being given another. But the "bosses" of the Republican party in three great States--New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois--were determined that he should be renominated. These men and their followers were known as the "stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions, one supporting James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John Sherman, of Ohio. When the convention met and the balloting began, the contest along these factional lines started in earnest. For eight-and-twenty ballots no change of any consequence was noticeable. Though votes were often cast for ten names, there were but two real candidates before the convention, Grant and Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the cry "Anything to beat Grant!" an effort was made to find some man on whom the opposition could unite. Such a man was Garfield. His long term of service in the House, his leadership of his party on its floor, his candidacy for the speakership, and his recent election to the United States Senate, marked him out as the available man. Between the casting of the first and the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader of Sherman's adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or two votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire vote hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared nominated. During the campaign Garfield was subject to violent personal abuse; the fact that he was alleged to have received $329 from the Credit Mobilier as a dividend on stock led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of "329," and this number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged "Morey letter," in which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion of the Chinese, was widely circulated and injured his candidacy in the West. That the charges against Garfield were not generally credited, however, is shown by the fact that he received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155. He was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.

Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of composing the differences in his party. For his secretary of state he chose James G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator Roscoe Conkling (q.v.), the leader of the New York "stalwarts." Without consulting the New York senators, Garfield appointed William H. Robertson, another political enemy of Conkling's, to the desirable post of Collector of the Port of New York, and thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony. On the 2nd of July, while on his way to attend the commencement exercises at Williams College, the new president was shot in a Washington railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced by the abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents; and on the 19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had been removed on the 6th. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890 a monument was erected by popular subscription to his memory.

In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom he had seven children. His son, HARRY AUGUSTUS GARFIELD (b. 1863) graduated at Williams College in 1885, practised law in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888-1903, was professor of politics at Princeton University in 1903-1908, and in 1908 became president of Williams College. Another son, JAMES RUDOLPH GARFIELD (b. 1865), also graduated at Williams College in 1885 and practised law in Cleveland; he was a Republican member of the Ohio Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of corporations, Department of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907, attracting wide attention by his reports on certain large industrial organizations, and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the cabinet of President Roosevelt.

President Garfield's writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882. (J. B. McM.)

GAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (_Belone_) found in nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized by their long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by their jaws being produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed beak. About fifty species are known from different parts of the globe, some attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One species is common on the British coasts, and is well known by the names of "long-nose," "green-bone," &c. The last name is given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green colour of their bones, which deters many people from eating them, although their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The skipper (_Scomberesox_) and half-beak (_Hemirhamphus_), in which the lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the gar-pikes.

GARGANEY[1] (North-Italian, _Garganello_), or SUMMER-TEAL, the _Anas querquedula_ and _A. circia_ of Linnaeus (who made, as did Willughby and Ray, two species out of one), and the type of Stephens's genus _Querquedula_. This bird is one of the smallest of the _Anatidae_, and has gained its common English name from being almost exclusively a summer-visitant to England where nowadays it only regularly resorts to breed in some of the East-Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it was found at the same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly larger than the common teal (_A. crecca_), the male is readily distinguished therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of which are nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks, while a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the eyes. The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars black with a white shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (_speculum_) greyish green bordered above and below by white. The female closely resembles the hen teal, but possesses no wing-spot. In Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very rare, and though it is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence of its occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range, and its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it breeds in many parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be common; but it ranges far to the eastward in Asia--even to Formosa, according to Swinhoe--and yearly visits India in winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in Norfolk arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast reed-beds which border the Broads--a situation rarely or never chosen by the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the trachea in the male garganey differs in form from that described in any other drake, being more oval and placed nearly in the median line of the windpipe, instead of on one side, as is usually the case.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (_Orn._, lib. iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never to have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being invariably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous as "summer-teal."

GARGANO, MONTE (anc. _Garganus Mons_), a massive mountainous peninsula projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia, Italy, and belonging geologically to the opposite Dalmatian coast; it was indeed separated from the rest of Italy by an arm of the sea as late as the Tertiary period. The highest point (Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The oak forests for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely disappeared.

GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE (from the Fr. _gargouille_, originally the throat or gullet, cf. Lat. _gurgulio_, _gula_, and similar words derived from root _gar_, to swallow, the word representing the gurgling sound of water; Ital. _doccia di grande_; Ger. _Ausguss_), in architecture, the carved termination to a spout which conveys away the water from the gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque figures. The term is applied more especially to medieval work, but throughout all ages some means of throwing the water off the roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been adopted, and in Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the washing of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the roof passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved or modelled in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice. At Pompeii large numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been found which were modelled in the shape of various animals.

GARHWAL, or GURWAL. 1. A district of British India, in the Kumaon division of the United Provinces. It has an area of 5629 sq. m., and consists almost entirely of rugged mountain ranges running in all directions, and separated by narrow valleys which in some cases become deep gorges or ravines. The only level portion of the district is a narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the north, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet (25,413), Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the district. At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the Ganges. Cultivation is principally confined to the immediate vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for purposes of irrigation. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty chieftainships, each chief with his own independent fortress (_garh_). Nearly 500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the minor principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. For twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the country with a rod of iron, until a series of encroachments by them on British territory led to the war with Nepal in 1814. At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon were converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality was restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, Garhwal has rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop. (1901) 429,900. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in the district, which also contains the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and wool are imported, the trade with Tibet being considerable. The administrative headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is the largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara, the terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Najibabad.

2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area 4180 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district mentioned above, and its topographical features are similar. It contains the sources of both the Ganges and the Jumna, which are visited by thousands of Hindu pilgrims. The gross revenue is about L28,000, of which nearly half is derived from forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.

GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was born at Nice on the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from home to escape a clerical education, but afterwards joined his father in the coasting trade. After joining the "Giovine Italia" he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a number of companions on board the frigate "Euridice," plotted to seize the vessel and occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being discovered, Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by default on the 3rd of June 1834. Escaping to South America in 1836, he was given letters of marque by the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil. After a series of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and subjected to severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining liberty, he renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro. During the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and Menotti. Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to Corrientes with a small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but was overtaken by Admiral Brown, against whose fleet he fought for three days. When his ammunition was exhausted he burned his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo, he formed the Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and Sant' Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of Uruguay. Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to return to Italy upon receiving news of the incipient revolutionary movement. In October 1847 he wrote to Pius IX., offering his services to the Church, whose cause he for a moment believed to be that of national liberty.

Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword at the disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties with the Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000 strong, but shortly after taking the field was obliged, by the defeat of Custozza, to flee to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman republic with the defence of San Pancrazio against the French, where he gained the victory of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the saddle, although wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From the 3rd of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged against the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, dispersing an army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After the fall of Rome he left the city at the head of 4000 volunteers, with the idea of joining the defenders of Venice, and started on that wonderful retreat through central Italy pursued by the armies of France, Austria, Spain and Naples. By his consummate generalship and the matchless endurance of his men the pursuers were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his devoted wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice, where the tricolor still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of Ravenna; the Austrians were seeking him in all directions, and most of his legionaries were captured and shot. Anita died near Comacchio, and he himself fled across the peninsula, being assisted by all classes of the people, to Tuscany, whence he escaped to Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in order to earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a trading skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was placed in command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the Austrians at Casale on the 8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the 23rd of May, and, after a series of victorious fights, liberating Alpine territory as far as the frontier of Tirol. When about to enter Austrian territory proper his advance was, however, checked by the armistice of Villafranca.

Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom he had been aided during the campaign, he was apprised, immediately after the wedding, of certain circumstances which caused him at once to abandon that lady and to start for central Italy. Forbidden to invade the Romagna, he returned indignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and Bertani he planned the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson of the sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but Crispi succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the 5th of May 1860 with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of 1070 strong. Calling at Talamone to embark arms and money, he reached Marsala on the 11th of May, and landed under the protection of the British vessels "Intrepid" and "Argus." On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was proclaimed at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were routed at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the 6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine frigates and protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate. Once established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling Lafarina and driving out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi routed the Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on the 20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria, secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was fitting out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged the expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning to Messina, Garibaldi found a letter from Victor Emmanuel II. dissuading him from invading the kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi replied asking "permission to disobey." Next day he crossed the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August, accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San Giovanni and of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon Naples became a triumphal progress, which the wiles of Francesco II. were powerless to arrest. On the 7th of September Garibaldi entered Naples, while Francesco fled to Gaeta. On the 1st of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army 40,000 strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had occupied the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of Bersaglieri reaching the Volturno in time to take part in the battle. Their presence put an end to the plan for the invasion of the papal states, and Garibaldi unwillingly issued a decree for the _plebiscite_ which was to sanction the incorporation of the Two Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th of November Garibaldi accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after disbanding his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the regular army.

Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect of his followers by the Italian government induced him to return to political life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found violent expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile them, but the publication by Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi provoked a hostility which, but for the intervention of the king, would have led to a duel between Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. Cavour's successor, Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular army; Rattazzi, who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an expedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo and gathered an army under the banner "Roma o morte." Rattazzi, frightened at the prospect of an attack upon Rome, proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, sent the fleet to Messina, and instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. Circumventing the Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to Melito with 3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of August. Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once more to Caprera amidst general sympathy.

In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded an enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. From England he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and, after the defeat of the Italian troops at Custozza, took the offensive in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of July he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, on the 10th at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply "Obbedisco" ("I obey") has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience to a command destructive of a successful leader's hopes, but documents now published (cf. _Corriere della sera_, 9th of August 1906) prove beyond doubt that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the 9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th of July to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply. From the Trentino he returned to Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, he prepared to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the Italian government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding the surveillance of the Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, and, with the complicity of the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd of November his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of L40,000 with an annual pension of L2000 be conferred upon him as a recompense for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by parliament (27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time he succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the countess Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted another marriage with the mother of his children, Clelia and Manlio. In 1880 he went to Milan for the inauguration of the Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited Naples and Palermo, but was prevented by illness from being present at the 600th anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882 his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.

See Garibaldi, _Epistolario_, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885), and _Memorie autografiche_ (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 ed.); Giuseppe Guerzoni, _Garibaldi_ (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie White Mario, _Garibaldi e i suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan, _Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic_ (London, 1907), which contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi's early career, of the events leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of Rome and of Garibaldi's flight, with a very full bibliography; also Trevelyan's _Garibaldi and the Thousand_ (1909). (H. W. S.)

GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century _chanson de geste_ of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary narratives left by the _trouveres_. This local cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers de Metz, Anseis, fils de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based on history, and the failure absolutely to identify the events recorded does not deprive the poems of their value as a picture of the savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries. The episodes are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the _trouveres_ to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet been offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F. Settegast, _Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_, 1904) that these poems resume historical traditions going back to the Vandal irruption of 408 and the battle fought by the Romans and the West Goths against the Huns in 451. The cycle relates three wars against hosts of heathen invaders. In the first of these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of Metz fight by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in a great battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in Metz by the "Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who defers his assistance by the advice of the traitor Hardre. Hervis then transfers his allegiance to Anseis of Cologne, by whose help the invaders are repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the third Thierry, king of Moriane[1] sends to Pippin for help against four Saracen kings. He is delivered by a Frankish host, but falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz was the son of a citizen to whom the duke of Lorraine had married his daughter Aelis, and his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the _chanson_ which gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had desired that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux puts himself forward as his rival and Hardre, Fromont's father, is slain by Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war that ensues between the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. They finally submit their differences to the king, only to begin their disputes once more. Blanchefleur becomes the wife of Pippin, while Garin remains her faithful servant. One of the most famous passages of the poem is the assassination of Begue by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying waste his enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs continue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin Paris, the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of Aquitaine, the last of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed and slain by Pippin the Short, king of the Franks; but the _trouveres_ had in mind no doubt the wars which marked the end of the Carolingian dynasty.

See _Li Romans de Garin le Loherain_, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833); _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, _Popular Epics of the Middle Ages_ (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot, _Etudes d'histoire du moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast, _Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_ (Leipzig, 1904). A complete edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first volume of which, _Hervis de Mes_ (Gesellschaft fur roman. Lit., Dresden), appeared in 1903.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] i.e. Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne) of Savoy.

GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known as Johannes Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de Garlandia, was born in England, though most of his life was spent in France. John Bale in his _Catalogus_, and John Pits, following Bale, placed him among the writers of the 11th century. The main facts of his life, however, are stated in a long poem _De triumphis ecclesiae_ contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A x in the British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the point of view of the victories gained by the church over heretics at home and infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a certain John of London, whom it is difficult to distinguish from others of the same name; but he must have been in Paris in or before 1202, for he mentions as one of his teachers Alain de Lisle, who died in that year or the next. Garland was one of the professors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse, and remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which he gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the hatred of the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe for the professors of the university, who had been installed by the Catholic party. Garland was one of the first to fly, and the rest of his life was spent in Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. Garland's grammatical works were much used in England, and were often printed by Richard Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde. He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on mathematics and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription may have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus, a canon of Besancon in the 12th century. The treatise on alchemy, _Compendium alchimiae_, often printed under his name, was by a 14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.

The best known of his poems beside the "De Triumphis Ecclesiae" is "Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis," contained in the same MS. Among his other works are his "Dictionarius," a Latin vocabulary, printed by T. Wright in the _Library of National Antiquities_ (vol. i., 1857); _Compendium totius grammatices ..._, printed at Deventer, 1489; two metrical treatises, entitled _Synonyma_ and _Equivoca_, frequently printed at the close of the 15th century.

For further bibliographical information see the British Museum catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae aetatis ..._, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire, &c._ See also _Histoire litt. de la France_, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P. Meyer, _La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois_, vol. ii. pp. xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, _Lexicographie latine du XII^e et du XIII^e siecles_ (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L. Kingsford in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, giving a list also of the works on alchemy, mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him; J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906) 549. (E. G.)

GARLIC (O. Eng. _garleac_, i.e. "spear-leek"; Gr. [Greek: skorodon]; Lat. _allium_; Ital. _aglio_; Fr. _ail_; Ger. _Knoblauch_), _Allium sativum_, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae, indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. The bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are 10 or 12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in February or March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. If of fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. To prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xix. 34) advises to bend the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk.

Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.). It is stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. The percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly (_Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond._, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, organic matter 13.38, and inorganic matter 1.53--that of the leaves being water 87.14, organic matter 11.27 and inorganic matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and characteristic odour and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C3H5)2S (see Hofmann and Cahours, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ x. p. 320). This, when garlic has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been used as an article of diet. It formed part of the food of the Israelites in Egypt (Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed by Cheops in the construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in Egypt, where, however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed (see Rawlinson's _Herodotus_, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by the ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes (cf. Virg. _Ecl_. ii. 11), and, as Pliny tells us (_N.H._ xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the rustic's _theriac_ (see F. Adams's _Paulus Aegineta_, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative of the heat of the sun in field labour. "The people in places where the simoon is frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (_An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_, p. 140, 1815), "eat garlic, and rub their lips and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, to prevent their suffering by the simoon." "O dura messorum ilia," exclaims Horace (_Epod_. iii.), as he records his detestation of the popular esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign of vulgarity (cf. Shakespeare, _Coriol_. iv. 6, and _Meas. for Meas._ iii. 2). In England garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, but in the southern countries of Europe it is a common ingredient in dishes, and is largely consumed by the agricultural population. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at cross-roads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, _Characters_, [Greek: Deisidaimonias]); and according to Pliny garlic and onions were invocated as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower Egypt, who worshipped the onion, are said to have held both it and garlic in aversion as food. Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic properties, and was of old, as still sometimes now, employed as a medicinal remedy. Pliny (_N.H._ xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list of complaints in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen (_Mat. Med._ ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone. In the United States the bulb is given in doses of 1/2-2 drachms in cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. Garlic may also be prescribed as an extract consisting of the inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10 grains, and as the _syrupus allii aceticus_, in doses of 1-4 drachms. This last preparation has recently been much extolled in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.

The wild "crow garlic" and "field garlic" of Britain are the species _Allium vineale_ and _A. oleraceum_ respectively.

GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit, son of Brian Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated at Winchester and afterwards studied law in London. Having become a Roman Catholic, he went to Italy, joined the Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under Bellarmine and others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he joined the mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the dispute between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the "Wisbech Stirs" (1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston in his resistance to any compromise with the civil government. His antagonism to the secular clergy was also shown later, when in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was the means of betraying to the government the "Bye Plot," contrived by William Watson, a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four vows.

Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with conspicuous success. His life was one of concealment and disguises; a price was put on his head; but he was fearless and indefatigable in carrying on his propaganda and in ministering to the scattered Catholics, even in their prisons. The result was that he gained many converts, while the number of Jesuits in England increased during his tenure of office from three to forty. It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he is best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death, needs discussion in greater detail.

In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII. directing that no person unfavourable to the Catholic religion should be allowed to succeed to the throne. About the same time he was consulted by Catesby, Tresham and Winter, all afterwards involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on the subject of the mission to be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to invade England. According to his own statement he disapproved, but he gave Winter a recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person at Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy Fawkes when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham when he went to Rome (see GUNPOWDER PLOT). The preparations for the plot had now been actively going forward since the beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of June 1605 Garnet was asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter upon any undertaking which should involve the destruction of the innocent together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged in a town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according to his own accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the death of "not only innocents but friends and necessary persons for a commonwealth," and showed him a letter from the pope forbidding rebellion. According to Sir Everard Digby, however, Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, replied "that they were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or procure stirs, but yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the pope's mind they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good.... This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me, gave me absolute belief that the matter in general was approved, though every particular was not known." Both men were endeavouring to exculpate themselves, and therefore both statements are subject to suspicion. A few days later, according to Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known as Greenway, informed him of the whole plot "by way of confession," when, as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged Greenway to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently, after his trial, Garnet said he "could not certainly affirm" that Greenway intended to relate the matter to him in confession.

Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a matter of considerable controversy not only between Roman Catholics and Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers themselves. Father Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600, discusses the exact case of the revelation of a plot in confession. Almost all the learned doctors, he says, declare that the confessor may reveal it, but he adds, "the contrary opinion is the safer and better doctrine, and more consistent with religion and with the reverence due to the holy rite of confession." According to Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and defender, "If the person confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a priest to break the seal of confession in order to avert a great calamity"; but he justifies Garnet's silence by insisting that it was not lawful to disclose a treasonable secret to a heretical king. According to Garnet's own opinion a priest cognizant of treason against the state "is bound to find all lawful means to discover it _salvo sigillo confessionis_." In this connexion it is worth pointing out that Garnet had not thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue with the king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this case that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his inactivity now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that he was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway's information, he had still Catesby's earlier revelations to act upon. He appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent the crime, beyond writing to Rome in vague terms that "he feared some particular desperate courses," which aroused no suspicions in that quarter. At the same time he wrote to Father Parsons on the 4th of September that "as far as he could now see the minds of the Catholics were quieted."

His movements immediately prior to the attempt were certainly suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected meeting of parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a pilgrimage to St Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started from Gothurst (now Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby's house in Buckinghamshire, included Rokewood, and stopped at the houses of John Grant and Robert Winter, three others of the conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for the prayers of the company "for some good success for the Catholic cause at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went on the 29th of October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which place it had been settled the conspirators were to assemble after the explosion. On the 6th of November, Bates, Catesby's servant and one of the conspirators, brought him a letter with the news of the failure of the plot and desiring advice. On the 30th Garnet addressed a letter to the government in which he protested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, "as one who hopeth for everlasting salvation."

It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and Greenway were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the plot; and on the same day Garnet removed from Coughton to Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a house furnished with cleverly-contrived hiding-places for the use of the proscribed priests. Here he remained some time in concealment in company with another priest, Oldcorne _alias_ Hall, but at last on the 30th of January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer, they surrendered and were taken up to London, being well treated during the journey by Salisbury's express orders. He was examined by the council on the 13th of February and frequently questioned during the following days, but refused to incriminate himself, and a threat to inflict torture had no effect upon his resolution. Subsequently Garnet and Oldcorne having been placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to communicate with one another, their conversations were overheard on several separate occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet at first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th of March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at the Guildhall on the 28th.

Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed him to perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property; for the law of England took no account of religious scruples or professional etiquette when they permit the execution of a preventable crime. Strangely enough, however, the government passed over the incriminating conversation with Greenway, and relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to support the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more modern days. The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure in criminal cases did not then exist, and Garnet's trial, like many others, was influenced by the political situation, the case against him being supported by general political accusations against the Jesuits as a body, and with evidence of their complicity in former plots against the government. The prisoner himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false statements, and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of equivocation. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of equivocation to cases "of necessary defence from injustice and wrong or of the obtaining some good of great importance when there is no danger of harm to others," and he could justify his conduct in lying to the council by their own conduct towards him, which included treacherous eavesdropping and fraud, and also threats of torture. Moreover, the attempt of the counsel for the crown to force the prisoner to incriminate himself was opposed to the whole spirit and tradition of the law of England. He was declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of the irregularity and unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial justice was done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd of May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for his concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he had never approved it. The king, who had shown him favour throughout and who had forbidden his being tortured, directed that he should be hanged till he was quite dead and that the usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.

Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw" was circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained straw from the scene of execution which came into the hands of one John Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who was present, developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the credence which the story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was commissioned by the privy council to discover and punish the impostors. Garnet's name was included in the list of the 353 Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England in 1880, and in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of the province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is styled "a martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation." The passage in _Macbeth_ (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no doubt refers especially to Garnet. His _aliases_ were Farmer, Marchant, Whalley, Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was the author of a letter on the Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, _alias_ John Jones, in Diego Yepres's _Historia particular de la persecucion de Inglaterra_ (1599); a _Treatise of Schism_, a MS. treatise in reply to _A Protestant Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician_; a translation of the _Stemma Christi_ with supplements (1622); a treatise on the Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).

AUTHORITIES.--Of the great number of works embodying the controversy on the question of Garnet's guilt the following may be mentioned, in order of date: _A True and Perfect Relation of the whole Proceedings against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates_ (1606, repr. 1679), the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; _Apologia pro Henrico Garneto_ (1610), by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the pseudonym Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, _Antilogia versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes_, in which the whole subject is well treated; Henry More, _Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis_ (1660); D. Jardine, _Gunpowder Plot_ (1857); J. Morris, S.J., _Condition of the Catholics under James I._ (1872), containing Father Gerard's narrative; J.H. Pollen, _Father Henry Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot_ (1888); S.R. Gardiner, _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897), in reply to John Gerard, S.J., _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ (1897); J. Gerard, _Contributions towards a Life of Father Henry Garnet_ (1898). See also _State Trials II._, and _Cal. of State Papers Dom._, (1603-1610). The original documents are preserved in the _Gunpowder Plot Book_ at the Record Office.

GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related minerals, many of which are used as gem-stones. The name probably comes from the Lat. _granaticus_, a stone so named from its resemblance to the pulp of the pomegranate in colour, or to its seeds in shape; or possibly from _granum_, "cochineal," in allusion to the colour of the stone. The garnet was included, with other red stones, by Theophrastus, under the name of [Greek: anthrax], while the common garnet seems to have been his [Greek: anthrakion]. Pliny groups several stones, including garnet, under the term _carbunculus_. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet (almandine) cut _en cabochon_, or with a smooth convex surface, frequently hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of colour, and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see ALMANDINE). The Hebrew word _nophek_, translated [Greek: anthrax] in the Septuagint, seems to have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst _bareketh_ ([Greek: smaragdos] of the Septuagint), though also rendered "carbuncle," was probably either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie, rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt. Though not extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for engraved gems, it was much used for this purpose by the Romans of the Empire. Flat polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian jewelry, the material used being almandine, or "precious garnet."

Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the variation is limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates, conformable to the general formula R''3R'''2(SiO4)3, where R'' = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R''' = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many kinds of garnet they may be reduced to the following six types, which may occur intermixed isomorphously:--

1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (_Grossularite_), Ca3Al2Si3O12.

2. Calcium-ferric garnet (_Andradite_), Ca3Fe2Si3O12.

3. Calcium-chromium garnet (_Uvarovite_), Ca3Cr2Si3O12.

4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (_Pyrope_), Mg3Al2Si3O12.

5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (_Almandine_), Fe3Al2Si3O12.

6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (_Spessartine_), Mn3Al2Si3O12.

These are frequently called respectively:--(1) Lime-alumina garnet; (2) lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina garnet; (5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.

The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of some of their elements.

All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two forms (see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced octahedron occurs in some of the combinations. Cleavage obtains parallel to the dodecahedron, but is imperfect. The hardness varies according to composition from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific gravity in like manner has a wide range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium garnets to 4.3 in the ferrous-aluminium species. Sir Arthur H. Church found that many garnets when fused yielded a product of lower density than the original mineral. The colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or even black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur, leading some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really cubic. The refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic sections, viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands out in relief.

Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline schists, gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and occasionally in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite, garnet forms the peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for industrial purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits, weathered from the parent rock, though in some important workings the rock is quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are described under their respective headings (see ALMANDINE, CINNAMON STONE, DEMANTOID and PYROPE). Most of the minerals noticed in this article are of scientific rather than commercial interest.

Grossularite or "gooseberry-stone," is typically a brownish-green garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to vesuvianite, q.v.), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is related to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in rose-pink dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov. Andradite was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d'Andrada e Silva, who described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes most of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact masses, sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be referred melanite, a black garnet well known from the volcanic tuffs near Rome, used occasionally in the 18th century for mourning jewelry. Another black garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees, is called pyreneite. Under andradite may also be placed topazolite, a honey-yellow garnet, rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite, a brown resin-like garnet, with which certain kinds of idocrase have been confused; aplome, a green garnet from Saxony and Siberia; and jelletite, a green Swiss garnet named after the Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed the green Siberian mineral termed demantoid (q.v.), sometimes improperly called olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a Russian minister, Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from Siberia and Canada, but though of fine colour is never found in crystals large enough for gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine, named after Spessart, a German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet, cut for jewelry when sufficiently clear, and rather resembling cinnamon-stone. It is found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines in Amelia county, Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red garnet, forming a fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county, N.C., and has been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under the name of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope, and shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (q.v.).

Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes. Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of sandpaper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the boot-trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in the United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much of the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common garnet, where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent in metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially, and is known as a furnace-product.

It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to the mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in icositetrahedra. (F. W. R.*)

GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906), English librarian and author, son of the learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett (1789-1850), priest-vicar of Lichfield cathedral and afterwards keeper of printed books at the British Museum, who came of a Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on the 27th of February 1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern philological research in England; his articles in the _Quarterly Review_ (1835, 1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic question, and his essays in the _Transactions_ of the Philological Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of the English language. The son, who thus owed much to his parentage, was educated at home and at a private school, and in 1851, just after his father's death, entered the British Museum as an assistant in the library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent of the reading-room, and from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he was keeper of the printed books. In 1883 he was given the degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour repeated by other universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.

His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the value of his services there, made him a well-known figure in the literary world, and he published much original work in both prose and verse. His chief publications in book-form were: in verse, _Primula_ (1858), _Io in Egypt_ (1859), _Idylls and Epigrams_ (1869, republished in 1892 as _A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology_), _The Queen and other Poems_ (1902), _Collected Poems_ (1893); in prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), Emerson (1887), Milton (1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume of remarkably original and fanciful tales, _The Twilight of the Gods_ (1888); a tragedy, _Iphigenia in Delphi_ (1890); _A Short History of Italian Literature_ (1898); _Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily_ (1899); _Essays of an Ex-librarian_ (1901). He was an extensive contributor to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and the _Dictionary of National Biography_, editor of the _International Library of Famous Literature_, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the elaborate _English Literature: an illustrated Record_. So multifarious was his output, however, in contributions to reviews, &c., and as translator or editor, that this list represents only a small part of his published work. He was a member of numerous learned literary societies, British and foreign. His facility as an expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute generalization, together with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his work an authority which was universally recognized, though it sometimes suffered from his relying too much on his memory and his power of generalizing--remarkable as both usually were--in cases requiring greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But as an interpreter, whether of biography or _belles lettres_, who brought an unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best sense, interestingly and comprehensibly before a large public, and at the same time acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship, Dr Garnett's writing was always characterized by clearness, common sense and sympathetic appreciation. His official career at the British Museum marked an epoch in the management of the library, in the history of which his place is second only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the "sliding press" in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the general catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was resumed under him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes of a Dryasdust, his human interest in books made him an ideal librarian, and his courtesy and helpfulness were outstanding features in a personality of singular charm. The whole bookish world looked on him as a friend. Among his "hobbies" was a study of astrology, to which, without associating his name with it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the pseudonym of "A.G. Trent" he published in 1880 an article (in the _University Magazine_) on "The Soul and the Stars"--quoted in Wilde and Dodson's _Natal Astrology_. He satisfied himself that there was more truth in the old astrology than modern criticism supposed, and he had intended to publish a further monograph on the subject, but the intention was frustrated by the ill-health which led up to his death on the 13th of April 1906. He married (1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney Singleton (d. 1903), and had a family of six children; his son Edward (b. 1868) being a well-known literary man, whose wife translated Turgeneff's works into English. (H. Ch.)

GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French economist, was born at Beuil (Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October 1813. Coming to Paris he studied at the Ecole de Commerce, of which he eventually became secretary and finally a professor. In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin (1801-1864) the Societe d'Economie politique, becoming its secretary, a post which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the Association pour la Liberte des Echanges. He also helped to establish and edited for many years the _Journal des economistes_ and the _Annuaire de l'economie politique_. Of the school of _laissez faire_, he was engaged during his whole life in the advancement of the science of political economy, and in the improvement of French commercial education. In 1873 he became a member of the Institute, and in 1876 a senator for the department in which he was born. He died at Paris on the 25th of September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more important: _Traite d'economie politique_ (1845), _Richard Cobden et la Ligue_ (1846), _Traite des finances_ (1862), and _Principes du population_ (1857).

GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821), French politician and economist, was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November 1754. He was educated for the law, and obtained when young the office of _procureur_ to the Chatelet in Paris. On the calling of the states-general he was elected as one of the _deputes suppleants_ of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator of the department of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to the Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In 1797 he was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800 he was prefect of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator and in 1808 a count. After the Restoration he obtained a peerage, and on the return of Louis XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he became minister of state and member of privy council, and in 1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on the 4th of October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his facile power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation depends rather on his later works on political economy, especially his admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's _Wealth of Nations_ (1805) and his _Histoire de la monnaie_ (2 vols., 1819), which contains much sound and well-arranged material. His _Abrege des principes de l'econ. polit._ (1796) is a very clear and instructive manual. The valuable _Description geographique, physique, et politique du departement de Seine-et-Oise_ (1802) was drawn up from his instructions. Other works are _De la propriete_ (1792) and _Histoire des banques d'escompte_ (1806).

GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898), French architect, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He was educated in a primary school, and it was intended that he should pursue his father's craft, that of a wheelwright. His mother, however, having heard that with a little previous study he might enter an architect's office and eventually become a measuring surveyor (_verificateur_), and earn as much as six francs a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing and mathematics at the Petite Ecole de Dessin, in the rue de Medecine, the cradle of so many of the great artists of France. His progress was such as to justify his being sent first into an architect's office and then to the well-known atelier of Lebas, where he began his studies in preparation for the examination of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, which he passed in 1842, at the age of seventeen. Shortly after his admission it became necessary that he should support himself, and accordingly he worked during the day in various architects' offices, among them in that of M. Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the Ecole to the evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three, the Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture, engraving and music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His principal works were the measured drawings of the Forum of Trajan and the temple of Vesta in Rome, and the temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his travelling studentship he went to Athens and measured the temple at Aegina, subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph in 1877. The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned by the duc de Luynes to make of the tombs of the house of Anjou were not published, owing to the death of his patron; and since Garnier's death they have been given to the library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, along with other drawings he made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was appointed surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor Baltard to make two water-colour drawings of the Hotel de Ville, to be placed in the album presented to Queen Victoria in 1855, on the occasion of her visit to Paris, proved very acceptable. These two drawings are now in the library at Windsor.

In 1860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was announced for a design for a new imperial academy of music, and out of 163 competitors Garnier was one of five selected for a second competition, in which, by unanimous vote, he carried off the first prize, and the execution of the design was placed in his hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its completion by the Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the structure of the present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a cost of about 35,000,000 francs (L1,420,000). During the war the building was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are the Casino at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, the Hotel du Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs, those of the musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Masse and Duprato. In 1874 he was elected a member of the Institute of France, and after passing through the grades of chevalier, officer and commander of the Legion of Honour, received in 1895 the rank of grand officer, a high distinction that had never before been granted to an architect. Charles Garnier's reputation was not confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of Europe, and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal of the Royal Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria. Besides his monograph on the temple of Aegina, he wrote several works, of which _Le Nouvel Opera de Paris_ is the most valuable. For the International Exhibition of 1889 he designed the buildings illustrating the "History of the House" in all periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards published by him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the Institute of France, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, services which in France are rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died on the 3rd of August 1898. (R. P. S.)

GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839-1873), French officer and explorer, was born at St Etienne on the 25th of July 1839. He entered the navy, and after voyaging in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he obtained a post on the staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862 was campaigning in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of the natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration of Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion that the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a mission to explore the valley of the Mekong, but as Garnier was not considered old enough to be put in command, the chief authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagree. In the course of the expedition--to quote the words of Sir Roderick Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he was presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of London--from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai 5392 m. were traversed, and of these 3625 m., chiefly of country unknown to European geography, were surveyed with care, and the positions fixed by astronomical observations, nearly the whole of the observations being taken by Garnier himself. Volunteering to lead a detachment to Talifu, the capital of Sultan Suleiman, the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in Yunnan, he successfully carried out the more than adventurous enterprise. When shortly afterwards Lagree died, Garnier naturally assumed the command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return to France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of his narrative was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and during the siege of Paris he served as principal staff officer to the admiral in command of the eighth "sector." His experiences during the siege were published anonymously in the feuilleton of _Le Temps_, and appeared separately as _Le Siege de Paris, journal d'un officier de marine_ (1871). Returning to Cochin-China he found the political circumstances of the country unfavourable to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China, and in 1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupre, governor of Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a new colony in Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took Hanoi, the capital of Tongking, and on the 21st of December he was slain in fight with the Black Flags. His chief fame rests on the fact that he originated the idea of exploring the Mekong, and carried out the larger portion of the work.

The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine effectue pendant les annees 1866, 1867 et 1868, publie sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec le concours de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel_ (2 vols.). An account of the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen is given in the _Bulletin de la Soc. de Geog._ (1874). His _Chronique royale du Cambodje_, was reprinted from the _Journal Asiatique_ in 1872. See _Ocean Highways_ (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh Clifford, _Further India_, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).

GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545-c. 1600), French tragic poet, was born at Ferte Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his first work while still a law-student at Toulouse, where he won a prize (1565) in the _jeux floraux_. It was a collection of lyrical pieces, now lost, entitled _Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier_ (1565). After some practice at the Parisian bar, he became conseiller du roi au siege presidial et senechaussee of Le Maine, his native district, and later lieutenant-general criminel. His friend Lacroix du Maine says that he enjoyed a great reputation as an orator. He was a distinguished magistrate, of considerable weight in his native province, who gave his leisure to literature, and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized by his own generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600.

In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of dramatists who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these productions there is little that is strictly dramatic except the form. A tragedy was a series of rhetorical speeches relieved by a lyric chorus. His pieces in this manner are _Porcie_ (published 1568, acted at the hotel de Bourgogne in 1573), _Cornelie_ and _Hippolyte_ (both acted in 1573 and printed in 1574). In _Porcie_ the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the subject of an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death of the nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group of tragedies--_Marc-Antoine_ (1578), _La Troade_ (1579), _Antigone_ (acted and printed 1580)--shows an advance on the theatre of Etienne Jodelle and Jacques Grevin, and on his own early plays, in so much that the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance of action, though this is accomplished by the plan of joining together two virtually independent pieces in the same way.

In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces _Bradamante_ and _Les Juives_. In _Bradamante_, which alone of his plays has no chorus, he cut himself adrift from Senecan models, and sought his subject in Ariosto, the result being what came to be known later as a tragi-comedy. The dramatic and romantic story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands, though even there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the stage. The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic interest in the manner of Corneille. _Les Juives_ is the pathetic story of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the Jewish king Zedekiah and his children. The Jewish women lamenting the fate of their children take a principal part in this tragedy, which, although almost entirely elegiac in conception, is singularly well designed, and gains unity by the personality of the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French tragedies of the 16th and 17th centuries it is, with _Athalie_, the best constructed with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual representation is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, in fact, visually conceived.

Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of his century and the precursor of the great achievements of the next.

The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, 4 vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found in Emile Faguet, _La Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (1883, pp. 183-307).

GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841), French politician, was born at Marseilles on the 27th of December 1801. Soon after his birth his father Jean Francois Garnier, a naval surgeon, died, and his mother married Simon Pages, a college professor, by whom she had a son. The boys were brought up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pages. Etienne found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study law, and made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of the Restoration, he joined various democratic societies, notably the _Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera_, an organization for purifying the elections. He took part in the revolution of July 1830; became secretary of the _Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera_, whose propaganda he brought into line with his anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831 was sent from Isere to the chamber of deputies. He was concerned in the preparation of the _Compte rendu_ of 1832, and advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker, and his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on the 23rd of June 1841.

His half-brother, LOUIS ANTOINE GARNIER-PAGES (1803-1878), fought on the barricades during the revolution of July 1830, and after Etienne's death was elected to the chamber of deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter of reform, and was a leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet fixed for the 22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the 5th of March 1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred great unpopularity by the imposition of additional taxes. He was a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Executive Commission. Under the Empire he was conspicuous in the republican opposition and opposed the war with Prussia, and after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the Government of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into private life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He wrote _Histoire de la revolution de 1848_ (1860-1862); _Histoire de la commission executive_ (1869-1872); and _L'Opposition et l'empire_ (1872).

GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now particularly used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from the O. Fr. _garnisant_ or _guarnissant_, participle of _garnir_, _guarnir_, to furnish, equip. This is of Teutonic origin, the base being represented in O. Eng. _warnian_, to take warning, beware, and Ger. _warnen_, to warn, Eng. _warn_; the original sense would be to guard against, fortify, hence equip or fit out. The meaning of "warn" is seen in the law term "garnishee," a person who owes money to or holds money belonging to another and is "warned" by order of the court not to pay it to his immediate creditor but to a third person who has obtained final judgment against that creditor. (See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; BANKRUPTCY.)

GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a tribe of doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom it is almost entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section of the great Bodo tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of Assam. According to the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117. In the 18th century they are mentioned as being frequently in conflict with the inhabitants of the plains below their hills, and in 1790 the British government first tried to reduce them. No permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the Garos were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in 1861, but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was now posted among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the district was constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was committed against a native on the survey staff, there was little opposition when an expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the whole district into submission, and there were thereafter no further disturbances.

The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which here run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that river debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great sweep to the south. The administrative headquarters are at Tura. The area of the district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 138,274, showing an increase of 14% in the decade. The American missionaries maintain a small training school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were entirely destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures. Coal in large quantities and petroleum are known to exist. The chief exports are cotton, timber and forest products. Trade is small, though the natives, according to their own standard, are prosperous. They are fair agriculturists. Communications within the district are by cart-roads, bridle-paths and native tracks.

GARONNE (Lat. _Garumna_), a river of south-western France, rising in the Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents, one of which has a subterranean course of 2-1/2 m., disappearing in the sink known as the Trou du Taureau ("bull's hole") and reappearing at the Goueil de Joueou. After a course of 30 m. in Spanish territory, during which it flows through the fine gorge called the Vallee d'Aran, the Garonne enters France in the department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of the Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At Montrejeau it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at this point the vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn abruptly east, flowing in a wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint Martory it gives off the irrigation canal of that name. At this point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, and supplies the motive power to several mills. It is joined on the right by various streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the Salat, at whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize and the Ariege (both names signifying "river"). From Toulouse the Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern border of the plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the principal streams being the Save, the Gers and the Baise. On its right hand the Garonne is swelled by its two chief tributaries, the Tarn, near Moissac, and the Lot, below Agen; farther down it is joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and on the left by the Ciron. Between Toulouse and Castets, 33-1/2 m. above Bordeaux, and the highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend, the river is accompanied at a distance of from a 1/2 to 3 m. by the so-called "lateral canal" of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856. This canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches, one of which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn. From Toulouse to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of the Garonne, crossing the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while another magnificent aqueduct of twenty-three arches carries it at Agen from the right to the left bank of the river. It has a fall of 420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is navigable for vessels having the maximum dimensions of 98-1/2 ft. length, 19 ft. breadth and 6-1/2 ft. draught. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly in agricultural produce and provisions, building materials, wood and industrial products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160 yds. broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its great commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing width between two flat shores to the Bec d'Ambes (15-1/2 m.), where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to form the vast estuary known as the Gironde. The triangular peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers is called Entre-deux-mers ("between two seas") and is famous for its wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 sq. m. Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. The most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the flood level at Castets attained the record height of 42-1/2 ft. above low-water mark.

GARRET (from the O. Fr. _garite_, modern _guerite_, a watch-tower, connected ultimately with "guard" and "ward"), properly a small look-out tower built on a wall, and hence the name given to a room on the top storey of a building, the sloping ceiling of which is formed by the roof.

GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE ALMEIDA-GARRETT (1799-1854), perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since Camoens, was of Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the Quinta do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett made his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early age under the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of Bocage. Going to the university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon earned notoriety by the precocity of his talents and his fervent Liberalism, and there he gained his first oratorical and literary successes. His tragedy _Lucrecia_ was played there in February 1819, and during this period he also wrote _Merope_ as well as a great part of _Cato_, all these plays belonging to the so-called classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he proceeded to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married D. Luiza Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal separation took place in 1839.

The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of 1820 reached its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal by order of the Absolutist ministry then in power, and went to England. He became acquainted with the masterpieces of the English and German romantic movements during his stay abroad.

Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at Havre the poem "Camoes," which destroyed the influence of the worn-out classical and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following year composed the patriotic poem "D. Branca," or "The Conquest of the Algarve." He was permitted to return to Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism. With the publication of _O Portuguez_, he raised the tone of the press, exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language then unknown in political controversy, and he introduced the "feuilleton." But his defence of Liberal principles brought him three months' imprisonment, and when D. Miguel was proclaimed absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828, Garrett had again to leave the country. In London, where he sought refuge, he continued his adhesion to romanticism by publishing _Adozinda_ and _Bernal-Francez_, expansions of old folk-poems, which met with the warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson. He spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, Warwick and London, engaged in writing poetry and political pamphlets, and by these and by his periodicals he did much to unite the Portuguese _emigres_ and to keep up their spirit amid their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning that an expedition was being organized in France for the liberation of Portugal, Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira, whence he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal government. Here he became a co-operator with the statesman Mousinho da Silveira, and assisted him in drafting those laws which were to revolutionize the whole framework of Portuguese society, this important work being done far from books and without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote some of the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into _Flores sem Fructo_. He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on the 8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the historical romance _Arco de Sant' Anna_, descriptive of the city in the reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the Home and Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted many important royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and commercial codes. In the following November he was despatched as secretary to the marquis on a diplomatic mission to foreign courts, which involved him in much personal hardship. In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to return home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of public instruction.

In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and charge d'affaires at Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most difficult circumstances, for which he received no thanks and little pay. When he got back, the government employed him to draw up a proposal for the construction of a national theatre and for a conservatoire of dramatic art, of which he became the head. He instituted prizes for the best plays, himself revising nearly all that were produced, and a school of dramatists and actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects from Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the _Auto de Gil Vicente_, considering that the first step towards the recreation of the Portuguese drama was to revive the memory of its founder, and he followed this up in 1842 by the _Alfageme de Santarem_, dealing with the Holy Constable, and in 1843 by _Frei Luiz de Sousa_, one of the few great tragedies of the 19th century, a work as intensely national as _The Lusiads_. The story, which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. Joao de Portugal, who was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns, years afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and the mother of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the pair separate and enter religion, and Manoel becomes the famous chronicler, _Frei Luiz de Sousa_ (q.v.). The characters live and move, especially Telmo, the old servant, who would never believe in the death of his former master D. Joao, and the consumptive child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere of impending disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the return of D. Joao and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the language is Portuguese of the best.

Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as an orator. In that year he delivered many notable discourses in defence of liberal ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright bill, which, when it became law in 1851, served as a precedent for similar legislation in England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his famous speech known as _Porto Pyreu_, in which he skilfully turned the well-known anecdote of the "mad Athenian" against his opponents. While attending with assiduity to his duties as a deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama _D. Filippa de Vilhena_, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the session of 1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his speech against the law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to Santarem resulted in his prose masterpiece _Viagens na minha terra_, at once a novel and a miscellany of literary, political and philosophic criticism, written without plan or method, easy, jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part in the civil war that followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but continued his literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy _A Sobrinha do Marquez_, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an historical memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of the year 1850 in finishing his _Romanceiro_, a collection of folk-poetry of which he was the first to perceive the value; and in June 1851 he was created a viscount. In the following December he drew up the additional act to the constitutional charter, and his draft was approved by the ministers at a cabinet meeting in his house. Further, he initiated the _Conselho Ultramarino_; and the _Law of the Misericordias_, with its preamble, published in 1852, was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became for a short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out _Folhas Cahidas_, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion and exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said: "if Camoens had written love verses at Garrett's age, he could not have equalled him." His final literary work was a novel, _Helena_, which he left unfinished, and on the 10th of February 1854 he made his last notable speech in the House. He died on the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903 his remains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos at Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet, novelist, journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark of Rebello da Silva: "Garrett was not a man of letters only but an entire literature in himself."

Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a deep sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular capacity for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able jurist, he was bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic temperament explains his many-sided activity, his expansive kindliness, his seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism, his aristocratic pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism, and the ingenuousness that absolves him from many faults in an irregular life. From his rich artistic nature sprang his profound, sincere, sensual and melancholy lyrics, the variety and perfection of his scenic creations, the splendour of his eloquence, the truth of his comic vein, the elegance of his lighter compositions. Two books stand out in bold relief from among his writings: _Folhas Cahidas_, and that tragedy of fatality and pity, _Frei Luiz de Sousa_, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the truest realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several editions.

AUTHORITIES.--Gomes de Amorim, _Garrett, memorias biographicas_ (3 vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa en el siglo XIX_ (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr Theophilo Braga, _Garrett e o romantismo_ (Oporto, 1904), and _Garrett e os dramas romanticos_ (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. iii. pp. 309-316, and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See _Revue encyclopedique Larousse_, No. 284, for a bibliography of the foreign translations of Garrett. _Frei Luiz de Sousa_ was translated by Edgar Prestage under the title _Brother Luiz de Sousa_ (London, 1909). (E. Pr.)

GARRETTING, properly Galletting, a term in architecture for the process in which the "gallets" or small splinters of stone are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints; they are stuck in while the mortar is wet.

GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical manager, was descended from a good French Protestant family named Garric or Garrique of Bordeaux, which had settled in England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella Clough, the daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a recruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford on the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had made his home at Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731 rejoined his regiment at Gibraltar. This kept him absent from home for many years, during which letters were written to him by "little Davy," acquainting him with the doings at Lichfield. When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a short visit to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine merchant. On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had previously been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was, largely by the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical court, sent with his brother George to the "academy" at Edial, just opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary was, however, closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of March 1736/7 both Johnson and Garrick left Lichfield for London--Johnson, as he afterwards said, "with twopence halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick "with three-halfpence in his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy of _Irene_, was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however, before the end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain Garrick died about a month after David's arrival in London. Soon afterwards, his uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having left David a sum of L1000, he and his brother entered into partnership as wine merchants in London and Lichfield, David taking up the London business. The concern was not prosperous--though Samuel Foote's assertion that he had known Garrick with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine merchant need not be taken literally--and before the end of 1741 he had spent nearly half of his capital.

His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried his hand both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. His first dramatic piece, _Lethe_, or _Aesop in the Shades_, which he was thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound transcript to King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played at Drury Lane on the 15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known frequenter of theatrical circles. His first appearance on the stage was made in March 1741, _incognito_, as harlequin at Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill, having allowed him to take his place during a few scenes of the pantomime entitled _Harlequin Student_, or _The Fall of Pantomime with the Restoration of the Drama_. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party of players from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first part as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan (in Southerne's _Oroonoko_). His success in this and other parts determined his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he made his appearance at Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and gained the most enthusiastic applause. Among the audience was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock, early in the same year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so rapidly to pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his brother at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on the part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration, were ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had added to his popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, like Horace Walpole, at first held out against the _furore_) declared, was "horn-mad" about him. Before his Richard had exhausted its original effect, he won new applause as Aboan, and soon afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway's _Venice Preserved_, as well as in several comic characters (including that of Bayes). Glover ("Leonidas") attended every performance; the duke of Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the first six months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen characters of all kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared in his own name. Pope went to see him three times during his first performances, and pronounced that "that young man never had his equal as an actor, and he will never have a rival." Before next spring he had supped with "the great Mr Murray, counsellor," and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope through Murray's introduction, while he was dining with Halifax, Sandwich and Chesterfield. "There was a dozen dukes of a night at Goodman's Fields," writes Horace Walpole. Garrick's farce of _The Lying Valet_, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at this time brought out with so much success that he ventured to send a copy to his brother.

His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent Garden and Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the manager of Goodman's Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick was engaged by Fleetwood for Drury Lane for the season of 1742. In June of that year he went over to Dublin, where he found the same homage paid to his talents as he had received from his own countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg) Woffington, of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. (His claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is still _sub judice_. There remains some obscurity as to the end of their liaison.) From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at Drury Lane, after which he again went over to Dublin. Here he remained during the whole season, as joint-manager with Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the Theatre Royal in Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short engagement with Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances under a management not his own. With the close of that season Fleetwood's patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing L8000 as two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747 it was opened with a strong company of actors, Johnson's prologue being spoken by Garrick, while the epilogue, written by him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The negotiations involved Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who appears to have had a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part himself till his performance of Archer in the _Beaux' Stratagem_, a month after the opening. For a time at least "the drama's patrons" were content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the end Garrick had to "please" them, like most other managers, by gratifying their love of show. Garrick was surrounded by many players of eminence, and he had the art, as he was told by Mrs Clive, "of contradicting the proverb that one cannot make bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more difficult, making actors and actresses without genius." He had to encounter very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was involved in frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their fellows did he, so far as it appears, show that jealousy of real merit from which so many great actors have been unable to remain free. For the present he was able to hold his own against all competition. The naturalness of his acting fascinated those who, like Partridge in _Tom Jones_, listened to nature's voice, and justified the preference of more conscious critics. To be "pleased with nature" was, as Churchill wrote, in the _Rosciad_ (1761),[1] to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his fellows, Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour in both voice and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound. "It seemed," wrote Richard Cumberland, "as if a whole century had been stepped over in the passage of a single scene; old things were done away, and a new order at once brought forward, bright and luminous, and clearly destined to dispel the barbarisms of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously devoted to the illusions of imposing declamation." Garrick's French descent and his education may have contributed to give him the vivacity and versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic power of wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, comedy and farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a modern actor of high rank; it includes not less than seventeen Shakespearian parts. As a manager, though he committed some grievous blunders, he did good service to the theatre and signally advanced the popularity of Shakespeare's plays, of which not less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane under his management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and he is credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of _Macbeth_. On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick's production of _Hamlet_ in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane even by the galleries, "though without their favourite acquaintances the gravediggers." Among his published adaptations are an opera, _The Fairies_ (from _Midsummer Night's Dream_) (1755); an opera _The Tempest_ (1756); _Catherine and Petruchio_ (1758); _Florizel and Perdita_ (1762). But not every generation has the same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best honoured. Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a manager, but he refused Home's _Douglas_, and made the wrong choice between _False Delicacy_ and _The Good Natur'd Man_. For the rest, he purified the stage of much of its grossness, and introduced a relative correctness of costume and decoration unknown before. To the study of English dramatic literature he rendered an important service by bequeathing his then unrivalled collection of plays to the British Museum.

After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful but reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married Mademoiselle Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who had attracted admiration at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, and had come to England early in 1746, where her modest grace and the rumours which surrounded her created a _furore_, and where she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl and countess of Burlington. Garrick, who called her "the best of women and wives," lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton, acquired by him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick's quarrel with Barry, the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in the favour of the public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited Paris, where they were cordially received and made the acquaintance of Diderot and others at the house of the baron d'Holbach. It was about this time that Grimm extolled Garrick as the first and only actor who came up to the demands of his imagination; and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by Garrick's visit that Diderot first gave expression to the views expounded in his _Paradoxe sur le comedien_. After some months spent in Italy, where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April 1765. Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her husband until 1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor Castle.

Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which ended in dismal failure, though he composed an "Ode upon dedicating a building and erecting a Statue to Shakespeare" on the occasion. (See, _inter alia, Garrick's Vagary, or England Run Mad; with particulars of the Stratford Jubilee_, 1769.) Of his best supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with whom he had been reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired in 1769; but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre. He sold his share in the property in 1776 for L35,000, and took leave of the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters--Hamlet, Lear, Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian parts; Lusignan in _Zara_, Aaron Hill's adaptation of Voltaire's _Zaire_; and Kitely in his own adaptation of Ben Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_; Archer in Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_; Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's _Alchemist_; Sir John Brute in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Leon in Fletcher's _Rule a Wife and have a Wife_. He ended the series, as Tate Wilkinson says, "in full glory" with "the youthful Don Felix" in Mrs Centlivre's _Wonder_ on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the 20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at the foot of Shakespeare's statue with imposing solemnities. An elegy on his death was published by William Tasker, poet and physiognomist, in the same year.

In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his later years he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary mobility of his whole person, and his power of as it were transforming himself at will, are attested by many anecdotes and descriptions, but the piercing power of his eye must have been his most irresistible feature.

Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks on Garrick and his doings many are scattered through the pages of Boswell, spoke warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his friend's conversation, as well as of his liberality and kindness of heart; while to the great actor's art he paid the exquisite tribute of describing Garrick's sudden death as having "eclipsed the gaiety of nations, and impoverished the public stock of harmless pleasure." But the most discriminating character of Garrick, slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by Goldsmith in his poem of _Retaliation_. Beyond a doubt he was not without a certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not cast in a heroic mould, he must have been one of the most amiable of men. Garrick was often happy in his epigrams and occasional verse, including his numerous prologues and epilogues. He had the good taste to recognize, and the spirit to make public his recognition of, the excellence of Gray's odes at a time when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His dramatic pieces, _The Lying Valet_, adapted from Motteux's _Novelty Lethe_ (1740), _The Guardian_, _Linco's Travels_ (1767), _Miss in her Teens_ (1747), _Irish Widow_, &c., and his alterations and adaptations of old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge of stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action; but he cannot be said to have added one new or original character to the drama. He was joint author with Colman of _The Clandestine Marriage_ (1766), in which he is said to have written his famous part of Lord Ogleby. The excellent farce, _High Life below Stairs_, appears to have been wrongly attributed to Garrick, and to be by James Townley. His _Dramatic Works_ (1798) fill three, his _Poetic_ (1735) two volumes.

Garrick's _Private Correspondence_ (published in 1831-1832 with a short memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes his extensive _Foreign Correspondence_ with distinguished French men and women, and the notices of him in the memoirs of Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D'Arblay, and above all in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, bear testimony to his many attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in the Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of all kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe's _Bibliographical History of English Theatrical Literature_ (1887). The earlier biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801) and by the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter a work of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to dates; and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his verses is furnished by Joseph Knight's valuable Life (1894). A memoir of Garrick is included in a volume of French _Memoirs of Mlle Clairon and others_, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and an Italian _Biografia di Davide Garrick_ was published by C. Blasis at Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald's _Life_ (2 vols., 1868; new edition, 1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with additions, among Sir Theodore Martin's _Monographs_ (1906). A delightful essay on Garrick appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (July 1868), directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick's acting in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (_Verm. Schriften_, iii., Gottingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of Garrick's labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, _David Garrick als Shakespeare-Darsteller_, &c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons' _Garrick, and his Circle_ and _Some unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick_, ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting additions to the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by James Smyth, _David Garrick_ (1887). T.W. Robertson's play _David Garrick_, first acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir Charles Wyndham, is of course mere fiction.

As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The _Connoisseur_ (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon was preferred by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain from the hand of Hogarth, including the famous picture of Garrick as Richard III. The portraits by Reynolds include the celebrated "Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy." Zoffany's are portraits in character. Roubiliac's statue of Shakespeare, for which Garrick sat, and for which he paid the sculptor three hundred guineas, was originally placed in a small temple at Hampton, and is now in the entrance hall at the British Museum. (R. Ca.; A. W. W.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In the subsequent _Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers_, Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however, Garrick requited by good-humoured kindness.

GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879), the American anti-slavery leader, was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 10th of December 1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The father, Abijah, a sea-captain, went away from home when William was a child, and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. She died in 1823. William had a taste for books, and made the most of his limited opportunities. His mother first set him to learn the trade of a shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815, at Baltimore, Maryland, and, when she found that this did not suit him, let him try his hand at cabinet-making (at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him no better. In October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was made more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen, proprietor of the Newburyport _Herald_, to learn the trade of a printer. He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write anonymously for the _Herald_. His communications won the commendation of the editor, who had not at first the slightest suspicion that he was the author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. A series of political essays, written by him for the Salem _Gazette_, was copied by a prominent Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to the Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts. His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of the _Herald_, when temporarily called away from his post, left the paper in his charge.

The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many another poor boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the college. He was full of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of the Greeks to throw off the Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest sympathy, and at one time he seriously thought of entering the West Point Academy and fitting himself for a soldier's career. His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the publication of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the _Free Press_, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was "Our Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was full of spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy place and the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston, where, after working for a time as a journeyman printer, he became the editor of the _National Philanthropist_, the first journal established in America to promote the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors. His work in this paper was highly appreciated by the friends of temperance, but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end of the year. In 1828 he was induced to establish the _Journal of the Times_ at Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper, though attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was too far ahead of public sentiment on moral questions to win a large support. In Boston he had met Benjamin Lundy (q.v.), who had for years been preaching the abolition of slavery. Garrison had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals, and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery question. Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper, entitled _The Genius of Universal Emancipation_, and he resolved to go to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship. With this object in view he walked from Boston to Bennington, through the frost and snow of a New England winter, a distance of 125 m. His mission was successful. Garrison was deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal and devotion, and he resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter to the work of abolishing slavery.

In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn of 1829, and thenceforth the _Genius_ was published weekly, under the joint editorship of the two men. It was understood, however, that Garrison would do most of the editorial work, while Lundy would spend most of his time in lecturing and procuring subscribers. On one point the two editors differed radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and Garrison of immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized somewhere beyond the limits of the United States; the latter held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country, with all the rights of freemen. In view of this difference it was agreed that each should speak on his own individual responsibility in the paper, appending his initial to each of his articles for the information of the reader. It deserves mention here that Garrison was then in utter ignorance of the change previously wrought in the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth Heyrick's pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the duty of immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was perfectly manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolishing it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for immediate emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders. For general talk about the evils of slavery they cared little, but this assertion that every slave was entitled to instant freedom filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for they saw that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The _Genius_, now that it had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a paper to be feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic Garrison heaped the strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in Newburyport having taken a cargo of slaves from Baltimore to New Orleans, he characterized the transaction as an act of "domestic piracy," and avowed his purpose to "cover with thick infamy" those engaged therein. He was thereupon prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted in costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His imprisonment created much excitement, and in some quarters, in spite of the pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of indignant comment in public as well as private. The excitement was fed by the publication of two or three striking sonnets, instinct with the spirit of liberty, which Garrison inscribed on the walls of his cell. One of these, _Freedom of Mind_, is remarkable for freshness of thought and terseness of expression.

John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry Clay to pay Garrison's fine and thus release him from prison. To the credit of the slaveholding statesman it must be said that he responded favourably, but before he had time for the requisite preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New York, contributed the necessary sum and set the prisoner free after an incarceration of seven weeks. The partnership between Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which, upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African colonization. He was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore, that a movement against slavery resting upon any less radical foundation than this would be ineffectual. He first proposed to establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on returning to New England and observing the state of public opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending her influence, through political, commercial, religious and social channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore, to publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus, set himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by means of lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the North. It was an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and indifference to his wrongs were almost universal. In Boston, then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and thereupon announced in one of the daily journals that if some suitable place was not promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844), who had previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor of a Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small hall; and, no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully, and delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which he unfolded his principles and plans. He visited privately many of the leading citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and merchants, and besought them to take the lead in a national movement against slavery; but they all with one consent made excuse, some of them listening to his plea with manifest impatience. He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and dangers of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contemplated movement, was intensified by opposition, and he resolved to go forward, trusting in God for success.

On the 1st of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and without a single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp (1804-1843) issued the first number of the _Liberator_, avowing their "determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread and water, or their hands obtain employment." Its motto was, "Our country is the world--our countrymen are mankind"; and the editor, in his address to the public, uttered the words which have become memorable as embodying the whole purpose and spirit of his life: "I am in earnest--I will not equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single inch--and I will be heard." Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison and his brave partner, who died long before the end of the conflict, made their bed on the floor of the room, "dark, unfurnished and mean," in which they printed their paper, and where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, in compliance with the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina, "ferreted them out" in "an obscure hole," "their only visible auxiliary a negro boy." But the paper founded under such inauspicious circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived to record not only President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipation, but the adoption of an amendment to the constitution of the United States for ever prohibiting slavery. It was the beginning and the nucleus of an agitation that eventually pervaded and filled every part of the country. Other newspapers were afterwards established upon the same principles; anti-slavery societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate emancipation, sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into political parties, into the press, and into legislative and ecclesiastical assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking alarm from the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safeguards of the system, seceded from the Union and set up a separate government.

Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone. He knew that the national government had no power over the system in any state, though it could abolish it at the national capital, and prohibit it in the territories. He thought it should bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition; but neither he nor his associates ever asked Congress to exercise any unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine the moral influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern churches and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of Christianity to bear against the slave system, and to advocate the rights of the slaves to immediate and unconditional freedom. He was a man of peace, hating war not less than he did slavery; but he warned his countrymen that if they refused to abolish slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner or later ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be overthrown, if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which adopted its constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this year Garrison issued his _Thoughts on African Colonization_, in which he showed by ample citations from official documents that the American Colonization Society was organized in the interest of slavery, and that in offering itself to the people of the North as a practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception. His book, aided by others taking substantially the same view, smote the society with a paralysis from which it never recovered. Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its character and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New England Anti-Slavery Society to visit England for the purpose of counteracting their influence. He went in the spring of 1833, when he was but twenty-seven years of age, and was received with great cordiality by British Abolitionists, some of whom had heard of his bold assaults upon American slavery, and had seen a few numbers of the _Liberator_. The struggle for emancipation in the West Indies was then at the point of culmination; the leaders of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled in London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with him a "protest" against the American Colonization Society, signed by Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney, William Evans, S. Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper, Daniel O'Connell and others, in which they declared their deliberate judgment that "its precepts were delusive," and "its real effects of the most dangerous nature." He also received assurances of the cordial sympathy of British Abolitionists with him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He gained a hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the confidence of those whom he addressed by his evident earnestness, sincerity and ability.

Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people and press of the United States at the outset, and when he returned home in September with the "protest" against the Colonization Society, and announced that he had engaged the services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of that year (1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its principles and purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added fresh fuel to the public excitement, and when Thompson came over in the next spring, the hostility to the cause began to manifest itself in mobs organized to suppress the discussion of the slavery question. Now began what Harriet Martineau called "the martyr age in America." In the autumn of 1835 Thompson was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly for England. Just before his departure the announcement that he would address the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society of Boston created "a mob of gentlemen of property and standing," from which, if he had been present, he could hardly have escaped with his life. The whole city was in an uproar. Garrison, almost denuded of his clothing, was dragged through the streets with a rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great difficulty, and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be secretly removed from the city.

Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the North, and many men of influence, both in the church and in the state, were won to the cause. Garrison, true to his original purpose, never faltered or turned back. The Abolitionists of the United States were a united body until 1839-1840, when divisions sprang up among them. Garrison countenanced the activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of allowing them to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was opposed upon social and religious grounds. Then there were some who thought Garrison dealt too severely with the churches and pulpits for their complicity with slavery, and who accused him of a want of religious orthodoxy; indeed, according to the standards of his time he was decidedly heterodox, though he had an intensely religious nature and was far from being an infidel, as he was often charged with being. He was, moreover, not only a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political systems based on force. "As to the governments of this world," he said, "whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove that in their essential elements, as at present administered, they are all anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom be brought into conformity with the will of God; that they cannot be maintained except by naval and military power to carry them into effect; that all their penal enactments, being a dead letter without any army to carry them into effect, are virtually written in human blood; and that the followers of Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor, power, and emolument--at the same time 'submitting to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake' and offering no physical resistance to any of their mandates, however unjust or tyrannical." These views were very distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt that Garrison greatly injured abolitionism by causing it to be associated in men's minds with these unpopular views on other subjects. The dissentients from his opinions determined to form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in working by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-Slavery Society in 1840, and to the formation of the "Liberty Party" (q.v.) in politics. (See BIRNEY, JAMES G.) The two societies sent their delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat in that body, because the women delegates from the United States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the constitution of the United States as a shield and support of slavery; and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came to the conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The Southern states had greatly enlarged representation in Congress on account of their slaves, and the national government was constitutionally bound to assist in the capture of fugitive slaves, and to suppress every attempt on their part to gain their freedom by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison, adopting a bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and chose as his motto, "No union with slaveholders."

One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by strained interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others, admitting that they were immoral, felt themselves obliged, notwithstanding, to support the constitution in order to avoid what they thought would be still greater evils. The American Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the president from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this period the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which was greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the field of politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his convictions. On the other hand, he always had the highest respect for every earnest and faithful opponent of slavery, however far their special views might differ. When in 1861 the Southern states seceded from the Union and took up arms against it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the struggle, that the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery clauses, and that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure foundations of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore ceased from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to the task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable event. His services at this period were recognized and honoured by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole country knew that the agitation which made the abolition of slavery feasible and necessary was largely due to his uncompromising spirit and indomitable courage.

In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled a dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting that it had become _functus officiis_, and that whatever needed to be done for the protection of the freedmen could best be accomplished by new associations formed for that purpose. The _Liberator_ was discontinued at the end of the same year, after an existence of thirty-five years. He visited England for the second time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he was received with distinguished honours, public as well as private. In 1877, when he was there for the last time, he declined every form of public recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston, after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In 1843 a small volume of his _Sonnets and other Poems_ was published, and in 1852 appeared a volume of _Selections from his Writings and Speeches_. His wife, Helen Eliza Benson, died in 1876. Four sons and one daughter survived them.

Garrison's son, WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON (1838-1909), was a prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's suffrage, and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an opponent of imperialism; another son, WENDELL PHILLIPS GARRISON (1840-1907), was literary editor of the New York _Nation_ from 1865 to 1906.

The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the account given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson (reprinted from his _Garrison: an Outline of his Life_, New York, 1879). The writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist, editor, and an intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the _Liberator_ during Garrison's absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor or an associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil War, the New York _Tribune_ and the New York _Evening Post_. He also published an excellent brief biography in _William Lloyd Garrison and his Times_ (Boston, 1880).

The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and candid work of his sons, W.P. and F.J. Garrison, _William Lloyd Garrison 1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children_ (4 vols., New York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student of the anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith's _The Moral Crusader: a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison_ (New York, 1892) is a brilliant sketch.

GARRISON, originally a term for stores or supplies, also a defence or protection, now confined in meaning to a body of troops stationed in a town or fortress for the purpose of defence. In form the word is derived from O. Fr. _garison_, modern _guerison_, from _guerir_, to furnish with stores, to preserve, but in its later meaning it has been confused with the Fr. _garnison_, the regular word for troops stationed for purposes of defence. In English "garnison" was used till the 16th century, when "garrison" took its place. In the British army "garrison troops," especially "garrison artillery," are troops trained and employed for garrison work as distinct from field operations.

GARROTE (Spanish for "cudgel"), an appliance used in Spain and Portugal for the execution of criminals condemned to death. The criminal is conducted to the place of execution (which is public) on horseback or in a cart, wearing a black tunic, and is attended by a procession of priests, &c. He is seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by an iron collar (the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever dislocates his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column at the base of the brain. (See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) Originally a stout cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal, who was seated in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and the neck a stick was inserted (hence the name) and twisted till strangulation ensued.

"Garrotting" is the name given in England to a form of robbery with violence which became rather common in the winter of 1862-1863. The thief came up behind his victim, threw a cord over his head, and tightened it nearly to strangulation point, while robbing him. An act of 1863, imposing the penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offence, had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely. At any rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of any sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the penalty, that view has always been taken by the English judges who had experience of such cases.

GARRUCHA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Almeria; on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of the river Antas. Pop. (1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha, which is defended by an ancient castle, affords shelter to large ships, and is the natural outlet for the commerce of a thriving agricultural and mining district. Despite its small size and the want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a considerable trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit, &c. Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and in the same year the value of the exports reached L478,000, and that of the imports L128,000. Both imports and exports trebled their value in the ten years 1892-1902.

GARSTON, a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool. Pop. (1891) 13,444; (1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the London & North Western railway company, employ most of the working population. There is about a mile of quayage, with special machinery for the shipping of coal, which forms the chief article of export.

GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician and poet, was born of a good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and became a member of the College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he delivered the Harveian oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating from some ten years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of the sick poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In 1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, _The Dispensary_, in six cantos, which had an instant success, passing through three editions within a year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and their allies among the physicians. The poem has little interest at the present day, except as a proof that the heroic couplet was written with smoothness and polish before the days of Pope. Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and became the leading physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the Tories. In 1714 he was knighted by George I. and he died on the 18th of January 1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work _The Dispensary_ and _Claremont_, a moral epistle in verse. He made a Latin oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the _Life of Otho_ in the fifth volume of Dryden's Plutarch. In 1717 he edited a translation of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, himself supplying the fourteenth and part of the fifteenth book.

GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the Indus on the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla. In accordance with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together with Yatung and Gyantse, was thrown open to British trade. On the return of the column from Lhasa in that year Gartok was visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who found only a few dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in the midst of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place.

GARY, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern end of Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, Ill. Pop. (1910 census) 16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, and (for freight only) the Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the Indiana Harbor Belt railways, and by several steamship lines plying the Great Lakes. There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but the city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps intersected from east to west by the Grand Calumet and the Little Calumet rivers, small streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S. of the lake shore. In 1906 the United States Steel Corporation bought this tract to establish on it a great industrial community, as direct water connexion with the Lake Superior ore region was possible, and it was comparatively accessible to West Virginia coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad facilities. The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town in June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution of water, gas and electricity. The water-supply is taken from the lake at a point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public utilities the Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about 500 dwellings, two hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small patch of land, now within the limits of the city, has been from the beginning in the hands of private owners, but the remainder of the lots (except those already sold) are owned by the Steel Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions intended to prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide improvement of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been dredged out into a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel Corporation, covering about 1200 acres. All the machinery in this great plant is driven by electricity from generators whose motive power is supplied by the combustion of gases from the blast furnaces. From the same sources is also supplied the electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is operated by three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 horse-power capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United States Steel Corporation.

GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other carbonaceous matter (see below, section _Gas Manufacture_; for gas engines see the separate heading GAS ENGINE).

_The Gaseous State._--Matter is studied under three physical phases--solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes grouped as "fluids." The study of the physical properties of fluids in general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and their applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special science dealing with the physical properties of gases is named pneumatics.

The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals in its properties to other of our senses, so that the evidences of its presence are manifold. Thus we feel it in its motion as wind, and observe the dynamical effects of this motion in the quiver of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It offers resistance to the passage of bodies through it, destroying their motion and transforming their energy--as is betrayed to our hearing in the whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.

The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids may be stated in dynamical language thus:--solids can sustain a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral pressure; fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed by a rigid boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then takes the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But here we distinguish between fluids according as they are gases or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the region, however small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the remainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the region. Remove any portion and a part of the space will be left unoccupied by liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then otherwise conditioned than by the form of the wall or bounding surface of the region; and if the portion of the wall not in contact with the liquid is removed the form and quantity of the liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be kept in an open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of Sir Oliver Lodge: "A solid has volume and shape; a liquid has volume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape."

It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a "vapour." The latter possesses the physical property stated above which distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being readily condensible to a liquid, either by lowering the temperature or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the introduction of the term "permanent gases" to denote gases which were apparently not liquefiable. The list included hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases have been liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term meaningless (see LIQUID GASES). The term "perfect gas" is applied to an imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation of molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which any molecule is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally small compared with the time during which it traverses its mean free path. It serves as a means of research, more particularly in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in order to co-ordinate actual experiences.

The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance, in Greek cosmology, "air" ([Greek: pneuma]) was one of the fundamental elements. The alchemists used such terms as _spiritus_, _flatus_, _halitus_, _aura_, _emanatio nubila_, &c., words implying a "wind" or "breath." The word "gas" was invented by J.B. van Helmont in his _Ortus medicinae_, posthumously published in 1648, in the course of his description of the gas now known as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning yielded a "spirit," which he named _spiritus sylvestris_ on account of its supposed untamable nature ("Gas sylvestre sive incoercibile, quod in corpus cogi non potest visibile"); and he invented the word "gas" in the expression: "... this spirit, hitherto unknown, ... I call by a new name _gas_" ("hunc spiritum, incognitum hactenus, novo nomine _gas_ voco"). The word was suggested by the Gr. [Greek: chaos], chaos, for he also writes: "I have called this spirit _gas_, it being scarcely distinguishable from the Chaos of the ancients" ("halitum illum _Gas_ vocavi, non longe a Chao veterum secretum"). The view that the word was suggested by the Dutch _geest_, spirit, is consequently erroneous. Until the end of the 18th century the word "air," qualified by certain adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known--a custom due in considerable measure to the important part which common air played in chemical and physical investigations.

The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essentially general properties, such as the weight and density, the relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric and thermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, viscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally properties independent of composition. These subjects are discussed in the articles DENSITY; THERMOMETRY; CALORIMETRY; DIFFUSION; CONDUCTION OF HEAT; and CONDENSATION OF GASES. The latter has for its province the preparation, collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations in which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. The historical development of the chemistry of gases--pneumatic chemistry--is treated in the article CHEMISTRY; the technical analysis of gaseous mixtures is treated below under _Gas Analysis_. Connecting the experimental study of the physical and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice termed the kinetic theory of gases. This subject, which is discussed in the article MOLECULE, has for its purpose (1) the derivation of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the experimental observations of the diverse physical properties, and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical composition.

_Gas Analysis._--The term "gas analysis" is given to that branch of analytical chemistry which has for its object the quantitative determination of the components of a gaseous mixture. The chief applications are found in the analysis of flue gases (in which much information is gained as to the completeness and efficiency of combustion), and of coal gas (where it is necessary to have a product of a definite composition within certain limits). There are, in addition, many other branches of chemical technology in which the methods are employed. In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume noted, or it is absorbed in water and the amount determined by titration with a standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult and tedious, and consequently the laboratory methods are not employed in technology, where time is an important factor and moderate accuracy is all that is necessary. In this article an outline of the technical practice will be given.

The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a series of absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring vessel is that devised by W. Hempel. It consists of two vertical tubes provided with feet and connected at the bottom by flexible rubber tubing. One tube, called the "measuring tube," is provided with a capillary stopcock at the top and graduated downwards; the other tube, called the "level tube," is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes, raising the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock, which is then turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock, by means of a fine tube which has been previously filled with water or in which the air has been displaced by running the gas through. By opening the stopcock and lowering the level tube any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated over. In cases where a large quantity of gas, i.e. sufficient for several tests, is to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a large bottle.

The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by bringing the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading the graduation on the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors associated with recording the coincidence of a graduation with a meniscus. The temperature and atmospheric pressure are simultaneously noted. If the tests be carried out rapidly, the temperature and pressure may be assumed to be constant, and any diminution in volume due to the absorption of a constituent may be readily expressed as a percentage. If, however, the temperature and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced to 0 deg. and 760 mm. by means of the formula V0 = V(P-p)/(1 + .00366t)760, in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric pressure, p the vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the experiment. This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.

Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs. 1 and 2. The simpler form consists of two bulbs connected at the bottom by a wide tube. The lower bulb is provided with a smaller bulb bearing a capillary through which the gas is led to the apparatus, the higher bulb has a wider outlet tube. The arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand. Sometimes the small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette varies with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other cases a composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the absorbent is protected by a second pipette containing water. In the case of solid reagents, e.g. phosphorus, the absorbing bulb has a tubulure at the bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing liquid is brought to the outlet of the capillary by tilting or by squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the wide end, and the liquid is maintained there by closing with a clip. The capillary is connected with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously filled with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas passes into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the pipette being shaken from time to time. It is then run back into the measuring tube by lowering the level tube, the stopcock is closed, and the volume noted. The operation is repeated until there is no further absorption.

The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are to be estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases where titration methods are not employed, the general order is as follows: carbon dioxide, olefines, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is particularly applicable to coal-gas. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by a potash solution containing one part of potash to between two and three of water; the stronger solution absorbs about 40 volumes of the gas. The olefines--ethylene, &c.--are generally absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which solidifies when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed. Oxygen is absorbed by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated pipette filled with water. The temperature must be above 18 deg.; and the absorption is prevented by ammonia, olefines, alcohol, and some other substances. An alkaline solution of pyrogallol is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs oxygen, becoming black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the solution immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as carbon dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash; when large in amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal cuprous chloride and the residue burned. Hydrogen may be estimated by absorption by heated palladium contained in a capillary through which the gas is passed, or by exploding (under reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and measuring the diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas is contained over water, and is improved by using mercury. Methane cannot be burnt in this way even when there is much hydrogen present, and several other methods have been proposed, such as mixing with air and aspirating over copper oxide heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen and burning in a platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide formed being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water, such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur dioxide, &c., are estimated by passing a known volume of the gas through water and titrating the solution with a standard solution. Many types of absorption vessel are in use, and the standard solutions are generally such that 1 c.c. of the solution corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under normal conditions.

Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the commonest is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in the graduated cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a water jacket and provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is connected by a capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of absorbing vessels, the connexion being effected by stopcocks. These vessels consist of two vertical cylinders joined at the bottom by a short tube. The cylinder in direct communication with the capillary is filled with glass tubes so as to expose a larger surface of the absorbing solution to the gas. The other cylinder is open to the air and serves to hold the liquid ejected from the absorbing cylinder. Any number of bulbs can be attached to the horizontal capillary; in the form illustrated there are four, the last being a hydrogen pipette in which the palladium is heated in a horizontal tube by a spirit lamp. At the end of the horizontal tube there is a three-way cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with water by raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels are then about half filled with the absorbents, and, by opening the cocks and aspirating, the liquid is brought so as completely to fill the bulbs nearer the capillary. The cocks are then closed. By opening the three-way cock to the supply of the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any desired amount can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is effected by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the levelling bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.

Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by Scheele, Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and others, the methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who began his researches in 1838. He embodied his results in his classical _Gasometrische Methoden_ (1857, second edition 1877), a work translated into English by H. Roscoe. Clemens Winkler contributed two works, _Anleitung zur chemischen Untersuchung der Industriegase_ (1876-1877) and _Lehrbuch der technischen Gasanalyse_ (2nd ed., 1892), both of which are very valuable for the commercial applications of the methods. W. Hempel's researches are given in his _Neue Methode zur Analyse der Gase_ (1880) and _Gasanalytische Methoden_ (1890, 3rd ed. 1900).

GAS MANUFACTURE

Historical.

1. _Illuminating Gas._--The first practical application of gas distilled from coal as an illuminating agent is generally ascribed to William Murdoch, who between the years of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the possibility of making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton, dean of Kildare, filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained by the distillation of coal, and showed that on pricking the bladders and applying a light to the escaping gas it burnt with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen Hales published the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of Newcastle coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the university of Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at Maestricht, made experiments on distilling gas from coal with the view of obtaining a permanent gas sufficiently light for filling balloons, and in 1785 experimentally lighted his lecture room with gas so obtained as a demonstration to his students, but no commercial application was made of the fact. Lord Dundonald, in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the production of tar and oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and even used it for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from these facts that, prior to Murdoch's experiments, it was known that illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792, and which culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt & Co.'s engine works at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, undoubtedly demonstrated the practical possibility of making the gas on a large scale, and burning it in such a way as to make coal-gas the most important of the artificial illuminants. An impression exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch's early experiments were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as has been shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained from coal by distillation was known a century before Murdoch made his experiments, and the most that can be claimed for him is that he made the first successful application of it on a practical scale.

In 1799 a Frenchman named Philippe Lebon took out a patent in Paris for making an illuminating gas from wood, and gave an exhibition of it in 1802, which excited a considerable amount of attention on the European continent. It was seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer for his secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined, and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how the gas could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering this, he in 1803 exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick a series of experiments with lighting gas made from wood and from coal. Looking upon London as a promising field for enterprise, he came over to England, and at the commencement of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave demonstrations of his process. He then proceeded to float a company, and in 1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall Mall, whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the National Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million sterling. This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of his priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming to parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in getting it passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter being granted later in 1812, the company was called the Chartered Gas Light and Coke Company, and was the direct forerunner of the present London Gas Light and Coke Company. During this period Frederick C. Accum (1769-1838), Dr W. Henry and S. Clegg did so much by their writings and by the improvements they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and burning of coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected with the subject.

The growth of gas lighting.

In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the streets of Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it became common in London. After this so rapid was the progress of this new mode of illumination that in the course of a few years it was adopted by all the principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting streets as well as shops and public edifices. In private houses it found its way more slowly, partly from an apprehension of danger attending its use, and partly from the discomfort which was experienced in many cases through the gas being distributed without purification, and to the careless and imperfect manner in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was during the last four decades of the 19th century that the greatest advance was made, this period having been marked not only by many improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a complete revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the production of light. In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of 3.2 candles illuminating power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle gas, was looked upon as the most perfect burner of the day, and little hope was entertained that any burner capable of universal adoption would surpass it in its power of developing light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric burner yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand for the consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day, by supplying gas at an increased pressure, a light of ten times the power may be obtained. Since the advent of the incandescent mantle, the efficiency of which is dependent upon the heating power of the gas more than on its illuminating power, the manufacture of coal gas has undergone considerable modifications.

Coals used for gas-making.

Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a process of destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition (see COAL), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen, known as bituminous coal, that can with advantage be utilized in gas manufacture. Coals of this character are obtained in England from the Newcastle and Durham field, South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley districts, and an idea of their ultimate composition may be derived from the following table:--

+--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+ | |Carbon.|Hydro-|Sulphur.|Nitro-|Oxygen.| Ash. |Moist-| | | | gen. | | gen. | | | ure. | +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+ | Newcastle gas coal | 82.16 | 4.83 | 1.00 | 1.23 | 6.82 | 3.20 | 0.76 | | Durham gas coal | 84.34 | 5.30 | 0.73 | 1.73 | 4.29 | 2.42 | 1.14 | | South Yorkshire silkstone| 80.46 | 5.09 | 1.66 | 1.67 | 6.79 | 3.30 | 1.03 | | Derbyshire silkstone | 76.96 | 5.04 | 2.39 | 1.77 | 6.92 | 3.28 | 3.64 | | Barnsley gas coal | 75.64 | 4.94 | 2.84 | 1.65 | 7.25 | 4.28 | 3.40 | +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+

Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal, however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.

Destructive distillation of coal.

On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the products will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in the retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its distribution in the retort, with the length of time the distillation has been going on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or less complex nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low temperature, the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin hydrocarbons are present in the original coal. These paraffins, under the influence of heat, split up into simpler members of the same series and into olefines; and if we imagine the action in its simplest form, we should have the gases, as they were evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and ethylene. These have now to pass down the heated retort on their way to the ascension pipe, and the contact with the heated sides of the retort, and the baking from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an infinity of changes. Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up into ethylene and hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and acetylene, and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene, styrolene, retene, &c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time loses some hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation of the phenols in the tar.

There is very little doubt that the general course of the decompositions follows these lines; but any such simple explanation of the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that, instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed in the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort, in practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these to such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the retort at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already formed into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the former into higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon of definite composition, it would be theoretically possible to decompose it entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane, and, by rapidly removing these from the heating zone before any secondary actions took place, to prevent formation of tar. But any such ideal is hopeless in practice, as the coal is not a definite compound, and it is impossible to subject it to a fixed temperature.

Effect of temperature in the retort.

If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000 deg. C. when the charge of coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from about 800 deg. C. close to the walls, to about 400 deg. C. in the centre of the coal; and in the same way, in the space above the coal, the products which come in contact with the sides of the retort are heated to 1000 deg. C., whilst the gas near the coal is probably heated to only 600 deg. C. Moreover, the gases and vapours in the retort are subjected to a period of heating which varies widely with the distance from the mouth of the retort of the coal that is undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the coal near the mouth of the retort is quickly washed out into the ascension pipe by the push of the gas behind, and the period for which it has been exposed to the radiant heat from the walls of the retort is practically nil; whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the retort farthest from the mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution to drive it forward, and has to traverse the longest run possible in the retort, exposed during the whole of that period to radiant heat and to contact with the highly heated surface of the retort itself. Hence we find that the tar is formed of two distinct sets of products, the first due to incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary reactions due to the products of the decomposition being kept too long in the zone of heat.

Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent the second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great loss to the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of benzene carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only useless in the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble, because any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden changes of temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes, whilst their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large proportion of the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these secondary products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heating, to simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and such bodies as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability that, when once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose them by heat, short of the temperature which breaks them up into methane, carbon and hydrogen.

The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal combining with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen becoming distributed amongst all three classes of products. The following table will give an approximate idea of the proportions which go to each:--

Per cent.

Nitrogen as ammonia 14.50 " as cyanogen 1.56 " free in gas and combined in tar 35.26 " remaining in coke 48.68 ------ 100.00

The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal increases; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found, in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the following results as to yield and illuminating power:--

+-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+ | | Cubic ft. of|Illuminating| Total | | Temperature. | Gas per ton.| Power, | Candles | | | | Candles. | per ton.| +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+ | 1. Dull red | 8,250 | 20.5 | 33.950 | | 2. Hotter | 9,693 | 17.8 | 34.510 | | 3. " | 10,821 | 16.7 | 36.140 | | 4. Bright orange| 12,006 | 15.6 | 37.460 | +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+

_Composition of the Gas._

+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | 1. | 2. | 4. | | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Hydrogen | 38.09 | 43.77 | 48.02 | | Marsh gas | 42.72 | 34.50 | 30.70 | | Olefines | 7.55 | 5.83 | 4.51 | | Carbon monoxide | 8.72 | 12.50 | 13.96 | | Nitrogen | 2.92 | 3.40 | 2.81 | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ | | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power shows that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4. From this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the hydrocarbons--the olefines and marsh gas series--gradually break up, depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating hydrogen, the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of temperature.

The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the volume of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the tar, whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly rises, and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a caking coal Wright obtained the following results:--

+--------------+------------------+ | Yield of Gas | Specific Gravity | | per ton, | of Tar. | | Cub. ft. | | +--------------+------------------+ | 6,600 | 1.086 | | 7,200 | 1.120 | | 8,900 | 1.140 | | 10,162 | 1.154 | | 11,700 | 1.206 | +--------------+------------------+

Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from 28.89 to 64.08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha and light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene oils doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also begins to show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches 10,000 cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized.

In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into--(a) Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (b) liquids, consisting of the tar and ammoniacal liquor; and (c) gases, consisting of the unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as follows:--

10,000 cub. ft. of gas = 380 lb. = 17.0 per cent. 10 gallons of tar = 115 " = 5.1 " Gas liquor[1] = 177 " = 7.9 " Coke = 1568 " = 70.0 " ---- ----- 2240 100.0

Solid products.

The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind as ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a great extent, existed in the sap that filled the cells of the plant from which the coal was formed. The retort carbon formed as a dense deposit on the crown of the retort by the action of the high temperature on the hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in a very pure form, and, on account of its density, is largely used for electrical purposes.

Liquid products.

The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous coal is a black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific gravity from 1.1 to 1.2. The ultimate composition of tar made in the London Gas Works is approximately as follows:--

Carbon 77.53 Hydrogen 6.33 Nitrogen 1.03 Sulphur 0.61 Oxygen 14.50 ------ 100.00

These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of compounds (see COAL TAR), and its value as a by-product may be gathered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields--(1) benzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most of the coal-tar colours, can be derived; (2) carbolic acid, from which picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the bitter flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the "Albo-carbon" employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch, extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthracene and saccharin can be extracted.

The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal is the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It contains, as its principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are decomposed on boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and partly combined with stronger acids to form compounds which require to be acted upon by a strong alkali before the ammonia contained in them can be liberated. The ammonia in the first class of compounds is technically spoken of as "free"; that present in the latter as "fixed." The following analysis by L.T. Wright will give an idea of the relative quantities in which these compounds exist in the liquor:--

Grammes per litre.

/ Ammonium sulphide 3.03 Free < Ammonium carbonate 39.16 \ Ammonium chloride 14.23 / Ammonium thiocyanate 1.80 Fixed < Ammonium sulphate 0.19 | Ammonium thiosulphate 2.80 \ Ammonium ferrocyanide 0.41

From a scientific point of view, the term "free" is absolutely incorrect, and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on simply boiling the liquor.

Gaseous products.

The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, and which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite compound, but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some of which are reduced to the lowest limit, in order to develop as fully as possible the light-giving properties of the most important constituents of the gas. The following analysis gives a fair idea of the composition of an average sample of gas made from coal, purified but without enrichment:--

Hydrogen 52.22 Unsaturated hydrocarbons 3.47 Saturated hydrocarbons 34.76 Carbon monoxide 4.23 Carbon dioxide 0.60 Nitrogen 4.23 Oxygen 0.49 ------ 100.00

These constituents may be divided into--(a) light-yielding hydrocarbons, (b) combustible diluents and (c) impurities. The hydrocarbons, upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends, are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and unsaturated, according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine in potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed "unsaturated," but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous members of the "saturated" series of hydrocarbons. They may be separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylene, C2H4, butylene, C4H8, acetylene, C2H2, benzene, C6H6, and naphthalene, C10H8, and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane, CH4, and ethane, C2H6.

The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to the hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the illuminating value depended upon the amount of ethylene present. This, however, is manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of ethylene mixed with 96% of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen should give 16- to 17-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of ethylene and 90% of hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876 M.P.E. Berthelot came to the conclusion that the illuminating value of the Paris coal gas was almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But here again another mistaken idea arose, owing to a faulty method of estimating the benzene, and there is no doubt that methane is one of the most important of the hydrocarbons present, when the gas is burnt in such a way as to evolve from it the proper illuminating power, whilst the benzene vapour, small as the quantity is, comes next in importance and the ethylene last. It is the combined action of the hydrocarbons which gives the effect, not any one of them acting alone.

The series of operations connected with the manufacture and distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation, condensation, exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing, dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains whence the consumer's supply is drawn.

Site of gas works.

The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready means of transport available, and for this reason the works should be built upon the banks of a navigable river or canal, and should have a convenient railway siding. By this means coal may be delivered direct to the store or retort-house, and in the same way residual products may be removed. The fact that considerable area is required and that the works do not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions, and although economy of space should be considered, arrangements should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works whose daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is usual to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit to the size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas is dealt with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is reached. From the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4) it will be possible to gain an idea of the order in which the operations in gas manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.

Retorts.

The retorts in which the coal is carbonized are almost universally made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old single-ended retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given way to a more economical construction known as doubles, double-ended, or "through" retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft. long, and as it is found inconvenient to produce this length in one piece, they are manufactured in three sections, the jointing together of which demands great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at one end to take an iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally employed for retorts are known as "D-shaped," "oval" and "round" (fig. 5). The "D" form is mostly adopted owing to its power of retaining its shape after long exposure to heat, and the large amount of heating surface it presents at its base. The life of this retort is about thirty working months. A cast iron mouthpiece and lid is bolted to the exterior end of each retort, the mouthpiece carrying a socket end to receive the ascension pipe, through which the gas passes on leaving the retort. The retorts are heated externally and are set in an arch, the construction depending upon the number of retorts, which varies from three to twelve. The arch and its retorts is termed a bed or setting, and a row of beds constitutes a bench. It is usual to have a separate furnace for each setting, the retorts resting upon walls built transversely in the furnace.

The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the "direct firing" or by the "regenerative" system, the latter affording marked advantages over the former method, which is now becoming extinct. In the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen is produced by passing air through incandescent gas coke in a generator placed below the bench of retorts, and the heating value of the gases so produced is increased in most cases by the admixture of a small proportion of steam with the primary air supply, the steam being decomposed by contact with the red-hot coke in the generator into water gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (see FUEL: _Gaseous_). The gases so formed vary in proportion with the temperature of the generator and the amount of steam, but generally contain 32 to 38% of combustible gas, the remainder being the residual nitrogen of the air and carbon dioxide. These gases enter the combustion chamber around the retorts at a high temperature, and are there supplied with sufficient air to complete their combustion, this secondary air supply being heated by the hot products of combustion on their way to the exit flue. This method of firing results in the saving of about one-third the weight of coke used in the old form of furnace per ton of coal carbonized, and enables higher temperatures to be obtained, the heat being also more equally distributed.

There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the general arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is charged at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are placed fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air necessary for the partial combustion of the coke to "producer" gas enters between these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to the combustion chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary air is admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been already heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes place at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on rising are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round the retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are conducted down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and shaft. The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the circulation of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is regulated by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the "producer" and "spent" gases this amount can be readily gauged.

Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical position, and the advantages of the one over the other is a question upon which almost every gas engineer has his own views.

Charging and drawing.

The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the practice to carry out such operations entirely by hand, men charging the retorts either by means of shovel or hand-scoop, and the coke produced being withdrawn with hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works adhere to this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by either compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two cases a scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over; the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side of the retort. With "through" retorts charging machines feed the retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about 1-1/2 cwt., entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that the total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six hours to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging machines travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power is transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of more recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine, in which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 20-ft. retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed throughout the length of the retort.

For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being made to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With this method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a telescopic ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before it and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original cost of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the retorts brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the fact that the coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is clear that the suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order to facilitate the work presented great inducements to the gas manager. The object aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to play the part of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the retorts being inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal used; this angle is between 28 deg. and 34 deg. The coal, previously elevated to hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are so arranged that they can travel from end to end of the retort-house and feed the coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be charged, an iron stop or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece, and the door closed. The shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece, and the stop or door, which retains the coal in the chamber, is released; the coal is then discharged into the retort, and rushing down the incline, is arrested by the barrier, and banks up, forming a continuous backing to the coal following. By experience with the class of coal used and the adjustment of the stops in the shoot, the charge can be run into the retort to form an even layer of any desired depth. For the withdrawal of the residual coke at the end of the carbonization, the lower mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier removed and the coke in the lower part of the retort is "tickled" or gently stirred with an iron rod to overcome a slight adhesion to the retort; the entire mass then readily discharges itself. Guides are placed in front of the retort to direct its course to the coke hoppers or conveyer below, and to prevent scattering of the hot material. This system shows a greater economy in the cost of carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and the wear and tear of the mechanical appliances involved have so far prevented its very general adoption.

The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with by Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke, the low illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage to the retort itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distillation, it was quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 20th century, however, the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at Exeter, Messrs Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr Bueb in Germany showed such encouraging results that the idea of the vertical retort again came to the front, and several systems were proposed and tried. The cause of the failure of Murdoch's original vertical retort was undoubtedly that it was completely filled with coal during charging, with the result that the gas liberated from the lower portions of the retort had to pass through a deep bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the gas, destroyed the illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that the question of rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly formed, from the influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort and residual coke, is one of the most important in gas manufacture.

In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit the introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In the case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced, but with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the gas per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives the following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the same coal but by different methods of carbonization:--

Vertical Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft. Inclined " 584 " " " Horizontal " 570 " " "

Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort or whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular and short intervals; by this latter means (the characteristic feature of the Settle-Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume and value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.

Hydraulic main.

From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hydraulic main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal position and supported by columns upon the top of the retort stack, and through it is maintained a slow but constant flow of water, the level of which is kept uniform. The ascension pipe dips about 2 in. into the liquid, and so makes a seal that allows of any retort being charged singly without the risk of the gas produced from the other retorts in the bench escaping through the open retort. Coal gas, being a mixture of gases and vapours of liquids having very varying boiling points, must necessarily undergo physical changes when the temperature is lowered. Vapours of liquids of high boiling point will be condensed more quickly than those having lower boiling points, but condensation of each vapour will take place in a definite ratio with the decrease of temperature, the rate being dependent upon the boiling point of the liquid from which it is formed. The result is that from the time the gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to deposit condensation products owing to the decrease in temperature. Condensation takes place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece leading to the hydraulic main, and to a still greater extent in the hydraulic main itself where the gas has to pass through water.

Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are frequently cleared by an instrument called an "auger," whilst the arch pipe is fitted with hand holes through which it may be easily cleared in case of stoppage. The most soluble of the constituents of crude coal gas is ammonia, 780 volumes of which are soluble in one volume of water at normal temperature and pressure, and the water in the hydraulic main absorbs a considerable quantity of this compound from the gas and helps to form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst, although the liquor is well agitated by the gas bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar from liquor is effected by gravitation. The liquor is run off at a constant rate from the hydraulic main to the store tank, and the gas passes from the top of the hydraulic main to the foul main.

Condensation.

The gas as it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature of from 130 deg. to 150 deg. F., and should now be reduced as nearly as possible to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The operation of efficient condensing is not by any means as simple as might be supposed. The tar and liquor when condensed have a dissolving action on various valuable light-giving constituents of the gas, which in the ordinary way would not be deposited by the lowering of temperature, and for this reason the heavy tar, and especially that produced in the hydraulic main, should come in contact with the gas as little as possible, and condensation should take place slowly.

The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and upon which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphthalene: this compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on cooling to a solid which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes, and the trouble caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in the district supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of carbonization the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and gas managers of to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the gas a difficult problem to solve. It was for some time debated as to whether naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value of the gas, and whether an endeavour should be made to carry it to the point of combustion; but it is now acknowledged that it is a troublesome impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better. Gas leaves the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity for holding that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence of water vapour. The condenser, by effecting the condensation of water vapour, also brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene, apart from that which naturally condenses owing to reduction of temperature.

Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and so placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected at the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than air, owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be more easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is usual to arrange that the water passes through a large number of small pipes contained in a larger one through which the gas flows, and as it constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked by naphthalene, the so-called reversible condenser, in which the stream of gas may be altered from time to time and the walls of the pipes cleaned by pumping tar over them, is a decided advance.

The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the latter being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to replace in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves out; and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered.

Exhauster.

The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the purpose of drawing the gas from the hydraulic main through the condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying vessels to the holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts under a slight vacuum, the amount of gas produced is increased by about 12%, and is of better quality, owing to its leaving the heated retort more quickly. A horizontal compound steam-engine is usually employed to drive the exhauster.

At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide. Ammonia is of considerable marketable value, and even in places where the local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed, it is extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and its complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parliament. As nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted, but most gas companies are now exempt from having to purify the gas from sulphur compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen. Cyanogen compounds also are present in the gas, and in large works, where the total quantity is sufficient, their extraction is effected for the production of either prussiate or cyanide of soda.

Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this point to be about

per cent. by vol.

Hydrogen from 42 to 53 Methane " 32 " 39 Carbon monoxide " 3 " 10 Hydrocarbons-- Gases " 2.5 " 4.5 Light condensable vapours " 0.5 " 1.2 Carbon dioxide " 1.1 " 1.8 Nitrogen " 1.0 " 5.0 Sulphuretted hydrogen " 1.0 " 2.0 Ammonia " 0.5 " 0.95 Cyanogen " 0.05 " 0.12 Carbon disulphide " 0.02 " 0.035 Naphthalene " 0.005 " 0.015

Washers.

It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the extraction of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the gas is now washed with water and ammoniacal liquor. The process is termed washing or scrubbing, and is carried out in various forms of apparatus, the efficiency of which is dependent upon the amount of contact the apparatus allows between the finely divided gas and water in a unit area and the facility with which it may be cleared out. The "Livesey" washer, a well-known type, is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas enters in the centre, and to make its escape again it has to pass into long wrought iron inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through the washer, and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations, drives the liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to agitation by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into close contact with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in series according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.

Scrubbers.

The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed a "scrubber," which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards 1/4 in. thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together; water is caused to flow down over the surface of these boards, the object being to break up the gas as much as possible and bring it into close contact with the water. In this wet purifying apparatus the gas is almost wholly freed from ammonia and from part of the sulphuretted hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide are also partially extracted.

Purifiers.

The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known as "dry purifiers" (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of grids (fig. 9), and covered with the purifying material B to a depth of about 6 in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes being proportional to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas enters at the bottom by the pipe C, the inlet being protected from any falling material by the cover D; it forces its way upwards through all the trays until, reaching the lid or cover E, it descends by the exit tube F, which leads to the next purifier. The edges of the lid dip into an external water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is prevented from escaping.

When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well as from sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the removal of carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphur compounds, whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served to remove the last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than four lime purifiers were employed, and as the one which was first in the series became exhausted, i.e. began to show signs of allowing carbon dioxide to pass through it unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh slaked lime and made the last of the series, the one which was second becoming first, and this procedure went on continuously. This operation was necessitated by the fact that carbon dioxide has the power of breaking up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime, so that until all carbon dioxide is absorbed with the formation of calcium carbonate, the withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannot proceed, whilst since it is calcium sulphide formed by the absorption of sulphuretted hydrogen by the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour of carbon disulphide, purification from the latter can only be accomplished after the necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The foul gas leaving the scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide and 200 grains of carbon dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the first purifier, which contains calcium thiocarbonate and other combinations of calcium and sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted hydrogen and disulphide vapour have practically no action upon the material, but the carbon dioxide immediately attacks the calcium thiocarbonate, forming calcium carbonate with the production of carbon disulphide vapour, which is carried over with the gas into the second box. In the connexion between the first and the second box the gas is found to contain 500 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., but no trace of carbon dioxide. In the second box the formation of calcium thiocarbonate takes place by the action of carbon disulphide upon the calcium sulphide with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen, which is carried over to the third purifier. The gas in the connecting pipe between the second and third purifier will be found to contain 400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20 grains of carbon disulphide. The contents of the third box, being mostly composed of slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming calcium sulphide, and practically remove the remaining impurities, the outlet gas showing 20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of iron then removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be noticed that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities is actually increased between the purifiers--in fact, the greater amount of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon disulphide,--but it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the disturbing element, inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of sulphur and calcium; consequently it is a paramount object in this system to prevent this latter impurity finding its way through the first box of the series. The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide in the gas between the first two boxes is generally the signal for a new clean purifier being put into action, and the first one shut off, emptied and recharged with fresh lime, the impregnated material being sometimes sold for dressing certain soils.

The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the lime purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of free sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon removing the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmosphere the sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen of the air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur, and with moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron. This revivification can be carried on a number of times until the material when dry contains about 50% of free sulphur and even occasionally 60% and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of sulphuric acid to be used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see SULPHURIC ACID).

Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort carbon, which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases preparing from their spent purifying material pure chemical products which are in great demand. The most important of these is sulphate of ammonia, which is used for agricultural purposes as a manure, and is obtained by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid and crystallizing out the ammonium sulphate produced. To do this, saturated ammoniacal liquor is decomposed by lime in the presence of steam, and the freed ammonia is passed into strong sulphuric acid, the saturated solution of ammonium sulphate being carefully crystallized. The market value of the salt varies, but an average figure is L12 per ton, whilst the average yield is about 24 lb. of salt per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the sulphuric acid is usually manufactured on the spot from the spent oxide, so that the sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is considered an undesirable impurity, plays a valuable part in the manufacture of an important by-product.

Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas, from the spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gas works now produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest developments in the gas chemical industry.

Gasholder.

The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as a gasometer), which may be either single lift, i.e. a simple bell inverted in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the telescopic principle, in which case much ground space is saved, as a holder of much greater capacity can be contained in the same-sized tank. The tank for the gasholder is usually made by excavating a circular reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than the proposed holder. A banking is allowed to remain in the centre, as shown in fig. 10, which is known as the "dumpling," this arrangement not only saving work and water, but acting as a support for the king post of a trussed holder when the holder is empty. The tank must be water-tight, and the precaution necessary to be taken in order to ensure this is dependent upon the nature of the soil; it is usual, however, for the tanks to be lined with concrete. Where the conditions of soil are very bad, steel tanks are built above ground, but the cost of these is much greater. The holder is made of sheet iron riveted together, the thickness depending upon the size of the holder. The telescopic form consists of two or more lifts which slide in one another, and may be described as a single lift holder encircled by other cylinders of slightly larger diameter, but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows the general construction. Gas on entering at A causes the top lift to rise; the bottom of this lift being turned up all round to form a cup, whilst the top of the next lift is turned down to form a so-called grip, the two interlock (see fig. 11), forming what is known as the hydraulic cup. Under these conditions the cup will necessarily be filled with water, and a seal will be formed, preventing the escape of gas. A guide framing is built round the holder, and guide rollers are fixed at various intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at the bottom of the cup guide rollers are also fixed (fig. 11). In the year 1892 the largest existing gasholder was built at the East Greenwich works of the South Metropolitan Gas Company; it has six lifts, its diameter is 293 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft. high. The capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.

Governor.

The governor consists usually of a bell floating in a cast iron tank partially filled with water, and is in fact a small gasholder, from the centre of which is suspended a conical valve controlling the gas inlet and closing it as the bell fills. Any deviation in pressure will cause the floating bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the inlet will be decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.

Enrichment.

The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16 candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate, while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an enormous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the ordinary gas, thereby enriching it, but as the supply became limited and the price prohibitive, other methods were from time to time advocated to replace its use in the enrichment of illuminating gas. These may be classified as follows:--

1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained by decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.

2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing crude oils by heat.

3. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with the vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.

4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydrocarbon gases.

Enrichment by tar.

Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for the production and enrichment of gas, and to do this two methods may be adopted:--

(a) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards using the whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas.

(b) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the gas and vapours through superheaters.

If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself is that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends rapidly to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful attempt to make use of certain portions of the liquid products of distillation of coal before condensation by the second method was the Dinsmore process, in which the coal gas and vapours which, if allowed to cool, would form tar, were made to pass through a heated chamber, and a certain proportion of otherwise condensible hydrocarbons was thus converted into permanent gases. Even with a poor class of coal it was claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 21-candle gas could be made by this process, whereas by the ordinary process 9000 cub. ft. of 15-candle gas would have been produced. This process, although strongly advocated by the gas engineer who experimented with it, was never a commercial success. The final solution of the question of enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons derived from tar may be arrived at by a process which prevents the formation of part of the tar during the carbonization of the coal, or by the process devised by C.B. Tully and now in use at Truro, in which tar is injected into the incandescent fuel in a water-gas generator and enriches the water gas with methane and other hydrocarbons, the resulting pitch and carbon being filtered off by the column of coke through which the gas passes.

Enrichment by oil gas.

The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spraying oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization; but experience soon showed that this was not an economical method of working, and that it was far better to decompose the liquid hydrocarbon in the presence of the diluents which are to mingle with it and act as its carrier, since, if this were done, a higher temperature could be employed and more of the heavier portions of the oil converted into gas, without at the same time breaking down the gaseous hydrocarbons too much. In carburetting poor coal gas with hydrocarbons from mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal is undergoing distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier stages, but towards the end of the operation the gas is very poor in illuminants, the methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and the increase in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a coal requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the gas at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the following results:--

_Time after beginning Distillation._

+------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ | | 10 | 1 hour | 3 hours | 5 hours | | | minutes. | 30 minutes.| 25 minutes.| 35 minutes.| +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+ | Sulphuretted hydrogen | 1.30 | 1.42 | 0.49 | 0.11 | | Carbon dioxide | 2.21 | 2.09 | 1.49 | 1.50 | | Hydrogen | 20.10 | 38.33 | 52.68 | 67.12 | | Carbon monoxide | 6.19 | 5.66 | 6.21 | 6.12 | | Saturated hydrocarbons | 57.38 | 44.03 | 33.54 | 22.58 | | Unsaturated " | 10.62 | 5.98 | 3.04 | 1.79 | | Nitrogen | 2.20 | 2.47 | 2.55 | 0.78 | +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+

This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take place in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal. In carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort, many of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours, it would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas is being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension a much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any further quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would have to be completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the temperature necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality of the gas given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation has gone on for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled off and the temperature of the retort has reached its highest point, and this is the best time to feed in the oil.

Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the "Young" or "Peebles" process, which depends on the principle of washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means of oil which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this way it is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent gases are allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this treatment considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed gases are also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again driven out by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas obtained by the Young process, when tested by itself in the burners most suited for its combustion, gives on the photometer an illuminating value averaging from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed, and quite correctly, that the enriching power of the gas is considerably greater. This is accounted for by the fact that it is impossible to construct a burner which will do justice to a gas of such illuminating power.

The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal gas are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as much plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide variations in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.

Enrichment by volatile hydrocarbons.

The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known, a large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being due to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried in suspension. For many years the price of benzol has been falling, owing to the large quantities produced in the coke ovens, and at its present price it is by far the cheapest enriching material that can be obtained. Hence at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so it is used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized and its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite illuminating power.

Enrichment by carburetted water gas.

One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now is by means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas. When steam acts upon carbon at a high temperature the resultant action may be looked upon as giving a mixture of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, both of which are inflammable but non-luminous gases. This water gas is then carburetted, i.e. rendered luminous by passing it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat, the mixture being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22 to 25 candles. This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its illuminating value to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is heated to incandescence by an air blast in a generator lined with fire-brick, and the heated products of combustion as they leave the generator and enter the superheaters are supplied with more air, which causes the combustion of carbon monoxide present in the producer gas and heats up the fire-brick baffles with which the superheater is filled. When the necessary temperature of the fuel and superheater has been reached, the air blast is cut off, and steam is blown through the generator, forming water gas, which meets the enriching oil at the top of the first superheater, called the carburettor, and carries the vapours with it through the main superheaters, where the fixing of the hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advantage of this apparatus is that a low temperature can be used for fixing owing to the enormous surface for superheating, and thus to a great extent the deposition of carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has been very generally adopted in Great Britain as well as in America, and practically all carburetted water-gas plants are founded upon the same set of actions. Important factors in the use of carburetted water gas for enrichment are that it can be made with enormous rapidity and with a minimum of labour; and not only is the requisite increase in illuminating power secured, but the volume of the enriched gas is increased by the bulk of carburetted water gas added, which in ordinary English practice amounts to from 25 to 50%. The public at first strongly opposed its introduction on the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon monoxide, which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%. Still when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal gas, containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the percentage of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%, which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.

A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or non-luminous water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works, non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through the retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas and coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol vapour, a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is distinctly more economical than the use of carburetted water gas. In 1896 Karl Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of making water gas which entirely altered the whole aspect of the industry. In all the attempts to make water gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the fuel had been obtained by "blowing" so deep a bed of fuel that carbon monoxide and the residual nitrogen of the air formed the chief products, this mixture being known as "producer" gas. In the Dellwik process, however, the main point is the adjustment of the air supplied to the fuel in the generator in such a way that carbon dioxide is formed instead of carbon monoxide. Under these conditions producer gas ceases to exist as a by-product, and the gases of the blow consist merely of the incombustible products of complete combustion, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, the result being that more than three times the heat is developed for the combustion of the same amount of fuel, and nearly double the quantity of water gas can be made per pound of fuel than was before possible. The runs or times of steaming can also be continued for longer periods. The possibility of making from 60,000 to 70,000 cub. ft. of water gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft. per ton made by previous processes reduces the price of water gas to about 3-1/2d. per thousand, so that the economic value of using it in admixture with coal gas and then enriching the mixture by any cheap carburetting process is manifest. The universal adoption of the incandescent mantle for lighting purposes has made it evident that the illuminating value of the gas is a secondary consideration, and the whole tendency now is to do away with enrichment and produce a gas of low-candle power but good heating power at a cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent lighting. (See also LIGHTING: _Gas_.) (V. B. L.)

2. _Gas for Fuel and Power_--The first gas-producers, which were built by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and by C.G.C. Bischof at Magdesprung (both in Germany), consisted of simple perpendicular shafts of masonry contracted at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate for the coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought iron casing, are even now used to a great extent. Sometimes the purpose of a gas-producer is attained in a very simple manner by lowering the grate of an ordinary fireplace so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is maintained in the fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great body of coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace, and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper part of the furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monoxide which later on, on the spot where the greatest heat is required, is burned into dioxide by admitting fresh air, preferably pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive arrangement has the further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized immediately after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But it is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to those cases where all the space round the furnace is required for manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar purposes. In these cases the producers are arranged outside the iron-works, glass-works, &c., in an open yard where all the manipulations of feeding them with coal, of stoking, and of removing the ashes are performed without interfering with the work inside. But care must always be taken to place the producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward tendency, in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is to be burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various means. The gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens Brothers, from 1856 onwards, were provided with a kind of brick chimney; on the top of this there was a horizontal iron tube, continued into an iron down-draught, and only from this the underground flues were started which sent the gas into the single furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down by the action of the air, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the gas out of the producer, but it has various drawbacks and has been abandoned in all modern constructions. Where the "natural draught" is not sufficient, it is aided either by blowing air under the grate or else by suction at the other end.

We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-producers producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied in practice.

The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds have been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in fig. 12. A is the charging-hole; B, the inclined front wall, consisting of a cast iron plate with fire-brick lining; C, the equally inclined "step-grate"; D, a damper by which the producer may be isolated in case of repairs; E, a water-pipe, by which the cinders at the bottom may be quenched before taking away; the steam here formed rises into the producer where it forms some "semi-water gas" (see FUEL: _Gaseous_). Openings like that shown at G serve for introducing a poker in order to clean the brickwork from adhering slags. H is the gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft. high; JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch mentioned above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means of the gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch JJ much of the tar and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance where bituminous coal is employed for firing.

This as well as most other descriptions of gas-producers, is not adapted to being worked with such coal as softens in the heat and forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sinking of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be non-bituminous coal, anthracite or coke, or at least so much of these materials should be mixed with ordinary coal that no semi-solid cakes of the kind just described are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work with coal softening in the fire, Lurmann's producer may be employed, which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-producer of the ordinary kind, which during regular work is filled with the coke formed in the horizontal retort E. The door _b_ serves for removing the slags and ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not fall through the grate. The hot producer-gas formed in V is passed round the retort E in the flues n2 n2, and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation by the heat communicated through the flues n2 n2 and is thus converted into coke. The gases formed during this process pass into the upper portion of V and get mixed with the producer-gas formed in the lower portion. From time to time, as the level of the coke in V goes down, some of the freshly formed coke in E is pushed into V, whereby the level of the coke in V should assume the shape shown by the dotted line _l ... m_. If the level became too low, such as is shown by the dotted line x ... y, the working of the producer would be wrong, as in this case the layer of coke at the front side would be too low, and carbon dioxide would be formed in lieu of monoxide.

Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel's producer, the special object of which is to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty slag on combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding the up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they be removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes. To obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat than is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer being pre-heated in the channels e, e. The inside shape of the producer is such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped, as it widens out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion, where the ashes are already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through which the air ascends. The grate b retains any small pieces of fuel, but allows the liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues c, c prevent the brickwork from being melted.

One of the best-known gas-producers for working with compressed air from below is Taylor's, shown in fig. 16. A is the feeding-hopper, on the same principle as is used in blast-furnaces. L is the producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-holes B1 to B4, passing through the brick lining M. F is the contracted part, leading to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the doors D. An injector I, worked by means of the steam-pipe J, forces air through K into F. The circular grate G can be turned round K by means of the crank E from the outside. This is done, without interfering with the blast, in order to keep the fuel at the proper level in L, according to the indications of the burning zone, as shown through the peep-holes B1 to B4. The ashes collecting at the bottom are from time to time removed by the doors D. As the steam, introduced by J, is decomposed in the producer, we here obtain a "semi-water gas," with about 27% CO and 12% H2.

Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer, together with the arrangements for purifying the gas for the purpose of working a gas engine. _a_ is a vertical steam boiler, heated by a central shaft filled with coke, with superheating tubes _b_ passing through the central shaft. _c_ is the steam-pipe, carrying the dry steam into the air-injector _d_. This mixture of steam and air enters into the gas-producer _e_ below the fire-grate _f_. _g_ is the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which is usually employed in this kind of producer. _h_, _h_ are cooling-pipes for the gas where most of the undecomposed steam (say 10% of the whole employed in _d_) is condensed. _i_ is a hydraulic box with water seal; _j_, a coke-scrubber; _k_, a filter; _l_, a sawdust-scrubber; _m_, inlet of gas-holder; _n_, gas-holder; _o_, outlet of same; _p_, a valve with weighted lever to regulate the admission of steam to the gas-producer; _q_, the weight which actuates the lever automatically by the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder. In practical work about 3/4 lb. of steam is decomposed for each pound of anthracite consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon dioxide is found in the resulting gas. The latter has an average calorific power of 1732 calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U. per cubic foot, at 0 deg. and 760 mm.

The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and 19. The gases produced in the generators G are passed through pipes _r_ into washers W, in which water is kept in violent motion by means of paddle-wheels. The spray of water removes the dust and part of the tar and ammonia from the gases, much steam being produced at the same time. This water is withdrawn from time to time and worked for the ammonia it contains. The gases, escaping from W at a temperature of about 100 deg. C., and containing much steam, pass though _g_ and _a_ into a tower, fed with an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the tank _s_, which is spread into many drops by the brick filling of the tower. This liquid is a strong solution of ammonium sulphate, containing about 2.5% free sulphuric acid which absorbs nearly all the ammonia from the gases, without dissolving much of the tarry substances. Most of the liquor arriving at the bottom, after mechanically separating the tar, is pumped back into _s_, but a portion is always withdrawn and worked for ammonium sulphate. When escaping from the acid tower, the gas contains about 0.013% NH3, and has a temperature of about 80 deg. C. and is saturated with aqueous vapour. It is passed through _c_ into a second tower B, filled with blocks of wood, where it meets with a stream of comparatively cold water. At the bottom of this the water runs away, its temperature being 78 deg. C.; at the top the gas passes away through _d_ into the distributing main. The hot water from B, freed from tar, is pumped into a third tower C, through which cold air is forced by means of a Root's blower by the pipe _w_. This air, after being heated to 76 deg. C., and saturated with steam in the tower C, passes through _l_ into the generator G. The water in C leaves this tower cold enough to be used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the steam originally employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, leaving only one-third to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the steam-engine. The gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6 X 12 ft., several of them being erected in series. The introduction of the air and the removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The bottom is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The air enters just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The Mond gas in the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10% monoxide, 23% hydrogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen. The yield of ammonium sulphate is 75 lb. from a ton of coal (slack with 11.5% ashes and 55% fixed carbon).

One of the best plants for the generation of _water-gas_ is that constructed by E. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the valve V at D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes away at the bottom through A. The pressure of the gas should not be such that it could get into the pipe conveying the air-blast, by which an explosive mixture would be formed. This is prevented by the water-cooled damper S, which always closes the air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and vice versa. Below the entry W of the air-blast there is a throttle valve _d_ which is closed as soon as the damper S opens the gas canal; thus a second security against the production of a mixture of air and gas is afforded. The water-cooled ring channel K protects the bottom outlet of the generator and causes the cinders to solidify, so that they can be easily removed. But sometimes no such cooling is effected, in which case the cinders run away in the liquid form. Below K the fuel is lying in a conical heap, leaving the ring channel A free. During the period of hot-blowing (heating-up) S is turned so that the air-blast communicates with the generator; _d_ and G are open; _g_ (the damper connected with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the period of gas-making G and _d_ are closed, S now closes the air-blast and connects the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas passes from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet w being under a pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of the valves and dampers are automatically performed in the proper order by means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards t and shaft _v_. This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to open and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible on the part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged that, when the cone e2 opens, e1 is shut, and vice versa, thus no more gas can escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that which is contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up gas (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it is at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some place where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for 10 or 11 minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7 to 1.5% carbon dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64 to 66% nitrogen, and has a heating value of 950 calories per cub. metre. The water-gas itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an average composition of 3.3% carbon dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide, 0.4% methane, 48.6% hydrogen, 3.7% nitrogen, and a heating value of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1 kilogram coke yields 1.13 cub. metre water-gas and 3.13 Siemens gas. 100 parts coke (of 7000 calories) furnish 42% of their heat value as water-gas and 42% as Siemens gas.

Lastly we give a section of the Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig. 21). The feeding-hoppers A are alternately charged every half-hour, so that the layer of fuel in the generator always remains 4 ft. deep. B is the chimney-damper, C the grate, D the door for removing the slags, E the ash-door, F the inlet of the air-blast, G the upper, G1 the lower outlet for the water-gas which is removed alternately at top and bottom by means of an outside valve, steam being always admitted at the opposite end. The blowing-up generally lasts 1-3/4 minutes, the gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The air-blast works under a pressure of 8 or 9 in. below the grate, or 4 to 4-1/2 in. above the coke. The blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18% carbon dioxide and 1.5% oxygen, with mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas shows 4 to 5% carbon dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0.8% methane, 48 to 51% hydrogen, 4 or 5% nitrogen. About 2.5 cub. metres is obtained per kilogram of best coke.

See Mills and Rowan, _Fuel and its Application_ (London, 1889); Samuel S. Wyer, _Producer-Gas and Gas-Producers_, published by the _Engineering and Mining Journal_ (New York); F. Fischer, _Chemische Technologie der Brennstoffe_ (1897-1901); _Gasformige Heizstoffe_, in Stohmann and Kerl's _Handbuch der technischen Chemie_, 4th edition, iii. 642 et seq. (G. L.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water.

[2] Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from Lunge's _Coal-tar and Ammonia_, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u. Sohn.

GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535-1577), English poet, eldest son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born probably between 1530 and 1535. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to have joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray's Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in 1548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558 and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being "a defamed person and noted for manslaughter," "a common Rymer and a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles," "a notorious ruffianne," an atheist and constantly in debt. His poems, with the exception of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572, but they were probably circulated in MS. before that date. He tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to write on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow of William Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet, Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry into the disposition of William Breton's property with a view to the protection of the children's rights was instituted before the lord mayor, but the matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had from his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to Brill, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He obtained a captain's commission, and took an active part in the campaigns of the next two years, during which he acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his adventures, "The Fruites of Warres" (printed in the edition of 1575) and "Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande." In 1575 he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next year as _The Princely Pleasures at the Courte at Kenelworth_, which celebrated the queen's visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and presented her with the _Pleasant Tale of Hemetes the Heremite_[1] in four languages. Most of his works were actually published during the last years of his life, after his return from the wars. He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whetstone wrote a long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled "A Remembrance of the wel-imployed life and godly end of George Gaskoigne, Esquire."

His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short critical treatise, "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of Master Edouardo Donati,"[2] prefixed to his _Posies_ (1575). He acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly in the added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. His poems were published in 1572 during his absence in Holland, surreptitiously, according to his own account, but it seems probable that the "editor" who supplied the running comment was none other than Gascoigne himself. _A hundreth Sundrie Floures bound up in one small Posie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne outlandish Gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and others; and partely by Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes in Englande, Yelding Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and moral discourse, bothe pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling noses of learned Readers_, was followed in 1575 by an authorized edition, _The Posies of G.G. Esquire_ ... (not dated).

Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a pioneer in more than one direction. In 1576 he published _The Steele Glas_, sometimes called the earliest regular English satire. Although this poem is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is written in the spirit of _Piers Plowman_. Gascoigne begins with a comparison between the sister arts of Satire and Poetry, and under a comparison between the old-fashioned "glas of trustie steele," and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he takes as a symbol of the "Italianate" corruption of the time, he attacks the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the restoration of the feudal ideal.[3]

His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at Gray's Inn, both _Jocasta_ (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed by Francis Kinwelmersh) and _Supposes_ being played there in 1566. _Jocasta_ was said by J.P. Collier (_Hist. of Dram. Poetry_ iii. 8) to be the "first known attempt to introduce a Greek play upon the English stage," but it turns out that Gascoigne was only very indirectly acquainted with Euripides. His play is a literal version of Lodovico Dolce's _Giocasta_, which was derived probably from the _Phoenissae_ in the Latin translation of R. Winter. _Supposes_,[4] a version of Ariosto's _I Suppositi_, is notable as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian comedy, and moreover, as "the earliest play in English prose acted in public or private." Udal's _Ralph Roister Doister_ had been inspired directly by Latin comedy; _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ was a purely native product; but _Supposes_ is the first example of the acclimatization of the Italian models that were to exercise so prolonged an influence on the English stage. A third play of Gascoigne's, _The Glasse of Government_ (published in 1575), is a school drama of the "Prodigal Son" type, familiar on the continent at the time, but rare in England. It is defined by Mr C.H. Herford as an attempt "to connect _Terentian situation_ with a _Christian moral_ in a picture of _school life_," and it may be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama of university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at Antwerp, and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva and Heidelberg respectively.

_The Spoyle of Antwerpe_, written by an eyewitness of the sack of the city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne, but although a George Gascoigne was employed in that year to carry letters for Walsingham, internal evidence is against Gascoigne's authorship. A curious editorial preface by Gascoigne to Sir Humphrey Gilbert's _Discourse of a Discoverie for a new Passage to Cataia_ (1576) has led to the assertion that Gascoigne printed the tract against its author's wish, but it is likely that he was really serving Gilbert, who desired the publication, but dared not avow it. The _Wyll of the Devill_ ... (reprinted for private circulation by Dr F.J. Furnivall, 1871), an anti-popish tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne, is almost certainly by another hand.

Gascoigne's works not already mentioned include: "G. G. in commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie," prefixed to _The Noble Art of Venerie or Hunting_ (1575); _The Complaynte of Phylomene, bound up with The Steele Glas_ (1576); _The Droomme of Doomes-day_ (1576), a prose compilation from various authors, especially from the _De contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis_ of Pope Innocent III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?); _A Delicate Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes ..._ (1576), a free version of St Augustine's _De ebrietate_. _The Posies_ (1572) included _Supposes_, _Jocasta_, _A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F[erdinando] J[eronimi]_, in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly autobiographical _Don Bartholomew of Bath_, and miscellaneous poems. Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were supposed to be concealed under fictitious names in _The Adventures of Master F. J._, and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the names are disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive collection, _The Whole Workes of G. G._ ... appeared in 1587. In 1868-1870 _The Complete Poems of G. G._ ... were edited for the Roxburghe Library by Mr W.C. Hazlitt. In his _English Reprints_ Prof. E. Arber included _Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele Glas_ and the _Complaynt of Philomene_. _The Steele Glas_ was also edited for the _Library of English Literature_, by Henry Morley, vol. i. p. 184 (1889). A new edition, _The Works of George Gascoigne_ (The Cambridge English Classics, 1907, &c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe. See also _The Life and Writings of George Gascoigne_, by Prof. Felix E. Schelling (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in Philology, vol. ii. No. 4 [1894]); C.H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 149-164 (1886); C.H. Herford, "Gascoigne's Glasse of Government," in _Englische Studien_, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &c.).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Printed in 1579 in a pamphlet called _The Paradoxe_, the author of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne's name.

[2] Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_ (1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_ (1904).

[3] "Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele But foure estates, to serve each country soyle, The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest. The King should care for al the subjects still, The Knight should fight, for to defend the same, The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease, And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves."--

(Arber's ed. p. 57.)

[4] The influence of this play on the Shakespearian _Taming of the Shrew_ is dealt with by Prof. A.H. Tolman in _Shakespeare's Part in the Taming of the Shrew_ (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v. No. 4, pp. 215, 216, 1890).

GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1350-1419), chief justice of England in the reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition testify to the fact that he was one of the great lawyers who in times of doubt and danger have asserted the principle that the head of the state is subject to law, and that the traditional practice of public officers, or the expressed voice of the nation in parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part of the legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his birth is uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he practised as an advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. On the banishment of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was appointed one of his attorneys, and soon after Henry's accession to the throne was made chief justice of the court of king's bench. After the suppression of the rising in the north in 1405, Henry eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence upon Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he absolutely refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be tried by their peers. Although both were afterwards executed, the chief justice had no part in the transaction. It has been very much doubted, however, whether Gascoigne could have displayed such independence of action without prompt punishment or removal from office following. The oft-told tale of his committing the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as unauthentic, though it is both picturesque and characteristic. The judge had directed the punishment of one of the prince's riotous companions, and the prince, who was present and enraged at the sentence, struck or grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne immediately committed him to prison, using firm and forcible language, which brought him to a more reasonable mood, and secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence. The king is said to have approved of the act, but there appears to be good ground for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post or resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, and was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire. Some biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412, but this is clearly disproved by Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_; and although it is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long under Henry V., it is not absolutely impossible that the scene in the fifth act of the second part of Shakespeare's _Henry IV._ has some historical basis, and that the judge's resignation was voluntary.

GASCONY (_Wasconia_), an old province in the S.W. of France. It takes its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in 580 and 587 crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the district known to the Romans as Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque, the national language of the Vascones, took root only in a few of the high valleys of the Pyrenees, such as Soule and Labourd; in the plains Latin dialects prevailed, Gascon being a Romance language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia was substituted for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602 they consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but in reality they remained independent. They even appointed national dukes, against whom Charlemagne had to fight at the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke Lupus II. made his submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to establish Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known: Seguin (Sighivinus), William (Guillaume), and Arnaud (Arnaldus). They were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed to the Normans. After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of Gascony falls into the profoundest obscurity. The lists of the 10th-century dukes prepared by ancient and modern historians can only be established by means of hypotheses based in many cases on spurious documents (e.g. the charter of Alaon), and little confidence can be placed in them. During this troubled period Gascony was from time to time attached to one or other of the other Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope of the Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as forming part of France, from which it has never been separated. Disputed in the 11th century by the counts of Poitiers, who were also dukes of Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the duchy finally passed to the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the title of duke of Gascony was merged in that of duke of Aquitaine and disappeared. In the feudal period Gascony comprised a great number of countships (including Armagnac, Bigorre, Fezensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships (including Bearn, Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd and Maremne), and seigneuries (e.g. Albret, &c.). From the ecclesiastical point of view, it corresponded nearly to the archbishopric of Auch.

From about 1073 to 1137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of Aquitaine and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave the first charter of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the duchy was weakened by the increasing independence of its great feudatories, especially the viscounts of Bearn and the counts of Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her father's death, Eleanor, the daughter and heiress of Duke William X., married the king of France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine Gascony passed under his direct rule. In 1151, however, this marriage was annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou, who three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus was the house of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh bone of contention was thrown between the kings of England and of France. Having established himself in the duchy by force of arms, Henry handed it over to his son Richard, against whom many of the great Gascon lords revolted, and from Richard it passed to his brother John. The crusade against the Albigenses was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a new impetus to the process of disintegration which was already at work in the duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive; and the house of Bearn was growing in strength. Gascony served Henry III. as headquarters during his two short and disastrous wars (1230 and 1242) with Louis IX., and in 1259 he did homage for it to this king; his son, Edward I., lost and then regained the duchy.

During the Hundred Years' War Gascony was obviously a battle-field for the forces of England and of France. The French seized the duchy, but, aided by the rivalry between the powerful houses of Foix and Armagnac, Edward III. was able to recover it, and by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 John II. recognized the absolute sovereignty of England therein. Handed over as a principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it was used by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles. The renewal of the war between England and France, which took place in 1369, was due in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of Gascony, and during its course the position of the English was seriously weakened, the whole of the duchy save a few towns and fortresses being lost; but the victories of Henry V. in northern France postponed for a time the total expulsion of the foreigner. This was reserved for the final stage of the war and was one result of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing the capture of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from the duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered severely from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or misruled without restraint.

The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the royal authority in the duchy, although this was not really accomplished until the close of the 15th century when the house of Armagnac was overthrown. It was by means of administrative measures that these kings attained their object. Gascony was governed on the same lines as other parts of France and from the time of Henry IV., who was prince of Bearn, and who united his hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very slightly from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation was largely accepted in Bearn, but not in other parts of Gascony. The wars of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of some of the military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made some slight changes in its government. As may be surmised the boundaries of Gascony varied from time to time, but just before the outbreak of the Revolution they were the Atlantic Ocean, Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from east to west the duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m.

At the end of the _ancien regime_ Gascony was united with Guienne to form a great military government. After the division of France into departments, Gascony, together with Bearn, French Navarre and the Basque country, formed the departments of Basses-Pyrenees, Landes, Hautes-Pyrenees and Gers. Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements and cantons of the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariege and Tarn-et-Garonne.

See Arnaud Oihenart, _Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, tam Ibericae quam Aquitanicae_ (1637); L'Abbe Monlezun, _Histoire de la Gascogne_ (1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited documents; and Jean de Jaurgain, _La Vasconie, etude historique et critique sur les origines ... du duche de Gascogne ... et des grands fiefs du duche de Gascogne_ (1898-1902), a learned and ingenious work, but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last work was rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his _Etudes sur le regne de Hugues Capet_ (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also Barrau-Dihigo, "La Gascogne," a bibliography of manuscript sources and of printed works published in the _Revue de synthese historique_ (1903). (C. B.*)

GAS ENGINE. A gas engine is a heat engine in which the working fluid is atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It differs from a hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given to the working fluid by combustion within the motive power cylinder. In most gas engines--in fact, in all those at present on the market--the working fluid and the fuel that supplies it with heat are mixed with each other before the combustion of the fuel. The fuel--which in the steam and in most hot-air engines is burned in a separate furnace--is, in the gas engine, introduced directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is, indeed, part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an internal combustion engine using gaseous fuel.

The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when Dr N.A. Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive use, but long before that year inventors had been at work, attempting to utilize gas for producing motive power. The first proposal made in Great Britain is found in Street's Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where an explosion engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by vaporizing spirits of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing the vapour with air in a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a piston by the explosion produced. Most of the early engines were suggested by the fact that a mixture of an inflammable gas and atmospheric air gives an explosion when ignited--that is, produces pressure which can be applied in a cylinder to propel a piston. Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine in which the gas and air were raised to a pressure above that of the atmosphere before use in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be clear in his ideas.

Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a paper read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled, "On the Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power in Machinery, with a description of an Engine which is moved by the pressure of the Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions of Hydrogen Gas and Atmospheric Air." In that paper the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine of his invention constructed to operate on the explosion vacuum method. This engine was stated to run with perfect regularity at 60 revolutions per minute, consuming 17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per hour. The hydrogen explosion, however, does not seem to have been noiseless, because Mr Cecil states that in building a larger engine "... to remedy the noise which is occasioned by the explosion, the lower end of the cylinder A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may be enclosed in a large air-tight vessel." Mr Cecil also mentions previous experiments at Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at his lectures on mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a mixture of gas and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place from atmospheric pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have operated an engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil appear to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.

Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill a closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine by exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was evidently suggested by Watt's condensing steam engine, flame being employed instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown's engine is said to have been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat on the Thames, and propel a road carriage. L.W. Wright in 1833 described an explosion engine working at atmospheric pressure and exploding on both sides of the piston. The cylinder is shown as water-jacketed. In William Barnett's engine of 1838 two great advances were made. The engine was so constructed that the mixture of gas and air was compressed to a considerable extent in the motor cylinder before ignition. The method of igniting the compressed charge was also effective. The problem of transferring a flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure is much in excess of that of the external air was solved by means of a hollow plug cock having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one position the hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet issuing within it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned within the hollow. The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it closed to the external air and opened to the engine cylinder; the flame continued to burn with the air contained in the cock, until the compressed inflammable mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder and ignited at the flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the one adopted by Otto about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the credit of being the first to realize clearly the great idea of compression before explosion in gas engines, and to show one way of carrying out the idea in practice. Barnett appears to have constructed an engine, but he attained no commercial success. Several attempts to produce gas engines were made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all failures. Several valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an American, described a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture by raising a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857 Barsanti and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the explosion propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work was done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never came into commercial use, although the fundamental idea was good.

Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor of the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The piston, moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy stored in the fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and air at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke the valves closed, and an explosion, caused by an electric spark, propelled the piston to the end of its stroke. On the return stroke the burnt gases were discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts. These operations were repeated on both sides of the piston, and the engine was thus double-acting. Four hundred of these engines were said to be at work in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works Company Limited built and sold one hundred of them in Great Britain. They were quiet, and smooth in running; the gas consumption, however, was excessive, amounting to about 100 cub. ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical ignition also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by the introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their free-piston engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but Otto succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the engine in a very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed a practical clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one direction but engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the other; it consisted of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets--the same clutch, in fact, as has since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles. This engine consumed about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power per hour--less than half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands were made and sold, but its strange appearance and unmechanical operation raised many objections. Several inventors meanwhile again advocated compression of the gaseous mixture before ignition, among them being Schmidt, a German, and Million, a Frenchman, both in 1861.

To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of proposing, with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now widely used in compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published in Paris in 1862, he stated that to obtain economy with an explosion engine four conditions are requisite: (1) The greatest possible cylinder volume with the least possible cooling surface; (2) the greatest possible rapidity of explosion; (3) the greatest possible expansion; and (4) the greatest possible pressure at the beginning of the expansion. The sole arrangement capable of satisfying these conditions he stated would be found in an engine operating as follows: (1) Suction during an entire out-stroke of the piston; (2) compression during the following in-stroke; (3) ignition at the dead point, and expansion during the third stroke; (4) forcing out of the burnt gases from the cylinder on the fourth and last return stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly contemplated, in theory at least, the engine produced by Dr Otto fourteen years later. He did not, however, put his engine into practice, and probably had no idea of the practical difficulties to be overcome before realizing his conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto belongs the honour of independently inventing the same cycle, now correctly known as the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all practical difficulties and making the gas engine of world-wide application. This he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly surpassed all others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is manufactured over the whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr Otto used low compression, only about 30 lb. per sq. in. above atmosphere. Year by year compression was increased and greater power and economy were obtained, and at present compressions of more than 100 lb. per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.

The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improvement in detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to be used with safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in dimensions and power. In the same period light and heavy oil engines have been developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see OIL ENGINE).

Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working process, into three well-defined types:--

(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous compression.

(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous compression.

(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous compression.

For practical purposes engines of the first type may be disregarded. Gas engines without compression are now considered to be much too wasteful of gas to be of commercial importance. Those of the second type have never reached the stage of extended commercial application; they are scientifically interesting, however, and may take an important place in the future development of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir William Siemens with regard to them have not been realized, although he spent many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also devoted much thought and work to this second type may be mentioned Brayton (1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883); Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889); and Diesel (1892). Diesel's engines are proving successful as oil engines but have not been introduced as gas engines.

The working cycles of the three types are as follows:--

_First Type._--Four operations.

(a) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmospheric pressure. (b) Exploding the charge. (c) Expanding after explosion. (d) Expelling the burnt gases.

_Second Type._--Five operations.

(a) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric pressure. (b) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver. (c) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of flame, at the pressure of compression. (d) Expanding after admission. (e) Expelling the burnt gases.

_Third Type._--Five operations.

(a) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric pressure. (b) Compressing the charge into a combustion space. (c) Exploding the charge. (d) Expanding after explosion. (e) Expelling the burnt gases.

In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished by the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for the cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its replacement by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at atmospheric temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working fluid to heat or cool through metal surfaces.

_Four-cycle Engines._--Otto-cycle engines belong to the third type, being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture is compressed previous to explosion. Fig. 1 is a side elevation, fig. 2 is a sectional plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine built about 1892 by Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were the original makers of Otto engines in Great Britain. In external appearance it somewhat resembles a modern high-pressure steam engine, of which the working parts are exceedingly strong. In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal and open-ended, works a long trunk piston, the front end of which carries the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the piston through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is considerably longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full in leaves a space into which it does not enter. This is the combustion space, in which the charge is first compressed and then burned. On the forward stroke, the piston A (fig. 2) takes into the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air at atmospheric pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into the space Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a high pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under the pressure of the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust valve is opened, discharges the products of combustion. The engine is then ready to go through the same cycle of operations. It thus takes four strokes or two revolutions of the shaft to complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being used alternately as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at full load, thus gives one impulse for every two revolutions. The valves, which are all of the conical-seated lift type, are four in number--charge inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting valve, and exhaust valve. The igniting valve is usually termed the timing valve, because it determines the time of the explosion. Since the valves have each to act once in every two revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams or eccentrics placed directly on the crank shaft. The valve shaft D is driven at half the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by means of the skew or worm gear E, one wheel of which is mounted on the crank shaft and the other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accomplished by means of a metal tube heated to incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the proper moment the ignition or timing valve is opened, and the mixed gas and air under pressure being admitted to the interior of the tube, the inflammable gases come into contact with the incandescent metal surface and ignite; the flame at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its contents, thus producing the motive explosion.

The working parts are as follows:--A the piston, B the connecting rod, C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing, F the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve cam, I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, R igniting tube, S governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating ignition tube. On the first forward or charging stroke the charge of gas and air is admitted by the inlet valve I, which is operated by the lever J from the cam K, on the valve shaft D. The gas supply is admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift valve L, which is also operated by the lever and link N from the cam M, controlled, however, by the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates either to admit gas wholly, or to cut it off completely, so that the variation in power is obtained by varying the number of the explosions.

Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built further modifications have been made, principally in the direction of dispensing with or diminishing port space, that is, so arranging the ports that the compression space is not broken up into several separate chambers. In this way the cooling surface in contact with the intensely hot gases is reduced to a minimum. This is especially important when high compressions are used, as then the compression space being small, the port spaces form a large proportion of the total space. For maximum economy it is necessary to get rid of port space altogether; this is done by making the lift valves open directly into the compression space. This arrangement can be readily made in small- and medium-sized engines, but in the larger engines it becomes necessary to provide ports, so as to allow the valves to be more easily removed for cleaning.

The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J.E. Dowson for the production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke by the action of air mixed with steam, soon led to the development of larger and larger Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained consisted of a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having a lower heating value of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot. With this gas these engines used about 1 lb. of anthracite per b.h.p. per hour.

From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first placed on the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in 1894, but then presenting many difficulties which were not removed till about nine years later when Dowson and others placed effective suction plants in use in considerable numbers. Such suction plants are now built by all the leading gas engine constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500 i.h.p.

Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros. also attacked the problem of the bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are now at work for powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B.H. Thwaite demonstrated that the so-called waste gas from blast furnaces could be used in gas engines, and this undoubtedly led to the design and construction of the very large gas engines now becoming common both in Europe and in America. It appears from Thwaite's experiments that the surplus gas from the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at least three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day and night, and it is calculated that in America nearly three million horse-power is available from this source. Thwaite's system was put into operation in 1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works, and it was also successfully applied near Barrow-in-Furness. For many reasons the system did not take immediate root in England, but in 1898 the Societe Cockerill of Seraing near Liege applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to utilize blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at 105 revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an engine giving 600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for driving a blowing cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single cylinder of 51.2 in. diameter and a piston stroke of 55.1 in. About 1900 the Gasmotoren Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four cylinders each 33 in. diameter and 39.3 in. stroke, speed 135 revolutions per minute. It was coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley Bros. Ltd. took up the large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p. engine by them was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.'s works, Winnington, in 1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke, and it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.

Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single acting open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the larger engines closed cylinders of the double acting type are used. The engine then closely resembles a double acting steam engine. It has a cylinder cover with packing box of a special type, and, in addition to the water jacket surrounding the cylinder and combustion spaces, the piston and piston rod are hollow and cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such a double acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft is occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding revolution gets two power impulses. For still larger engines two such double acting cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that one piston rod runs through two pistons and connects to a slide in front and to one crank pin by a connecting rod. Such an engine gives two power impulses for every revolution of the crank shaft. The greatest power developed in one double acting cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder of 45-1/4 in. diameter by 51-1/4 in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per minute gives 1100 i.h.p.

_Two-Cycle Engine._--While the Otto or four-cycle engine was developing as above described, inventors were hard at work on the two-cycle engine. In Britain this work fell mostly upon Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while on the continent of Europe the most persevering and determined worker was Koerting.

Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876. His first patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the air pressure vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of 1878, and the engine there described was exhibited at the Royal Agricultural Show at Kilburn, London, 1879. In it a pump compressed a mixture of air and gas into a reservoir, from which it entered the motor cylinder during the first part of its stroke. After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum igniter, the piston was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on the return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for each revolution of the crank shaft. It had difficulties, however, which prevented it from reaching the market.

The particular type of engine now widely known as operating on the Clerk cycle was patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One of the earliest of these engines was set up at Lord Kelvin's laboratory at the Glasgow university and used for the purpose of driving a Siemens dynamo and supplying his house with electric light. The engine was first exhibited in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881 and the London Smoke Abatement Exhibition of the same year. In this engine the charge was not compressed by a separate pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was used, but its function was to act merely as a displacer to take in a mixture of gas and air and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low a pressure as possible, in such a way that the entering charge displaced the exhaust gases through ports which were opened by the overrunning of the piston. The motor piston thus timed and controlled the exhaust discharge, and gave a power impulse for every revolution of the crank. Engines of the Clerk type were built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of Glasgow, the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia, U.S.A., the Campbell Gas Engine Co., and a modification was made and sold in considerable numbers by the Stockport Company. The lapsing of the Otto patent, however, in 1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time, although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine. This two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for motor launch work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for large gas engines up to about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs Koerting of Hanover.

The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders--a power cylinder A and a displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder is to take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it to the power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of the previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end of the motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates with the displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift valve which opens into the compression space from a chamber communicating by a pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-end of the motor cylinder are placed V-shaped ports E which open to the atmosphere by an exhaust pipe. The outward travel of the motor piston C causes it to overrun these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and allows the pressure in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action of the engine is as follows:--The displacer piston D on its forward movement draws in its charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with reference to the motor piston C that it has returned a small portion of its stroke just when the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports. The overrunning of the exhaust ports at once causes the pressure in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere, and then the pressure in the displacer overcomes the pressure in the motor cylinder and opens the lift valve, when the charge flows in to the motor cylinder through the conical compression space and displaces the exhaust gases through the ports E, while it fills up the cylinder A with the inflammable charge. The exhaust gases are sufficiently displaced and the fresh charge introduced into the cylinder by the time the motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E on the out-stroke and closed them on the return stroke. The two cylinders are so proportioned that the exhaust gases are expelled as completely as possible and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without any material part of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless the proportions are carefully made such an escape is possible. The relative operations of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D are secured by advancing the crank of the displacer about a right angle compared to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke compresses the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when compression is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F. This produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of operations one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank. The motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual manner, but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the gases are never hot.

Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was taken out in 1877 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents of 1879-1880 were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second cylinder was used. The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed by a cover and packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas and air into a reservoir at a few lb. above atmosphere. The motor piston was arranged to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but the exhaust discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift valve controlled the overrun ports and determined when the exhaust should be discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at the end of the stroke the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was admitted by a lift valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining exhaust gases and fill the cylinder with charge. This mixture was compressed into a space at the end of the cylinder and ignited by means of a flame ignition device. Robson's engine was built in considerable numbers by Messrs Tangye of Birmingham, the first exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at the end of 1880. The modern Day engine closely resembles the Robson engine so far as its broad operations are concerned.

Atkinson's work on the gas engine was begun in 1878, his first patent being No. 3212 of 1879. The engine described in that patent somewhat resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at Kilburn. Atkinson was ingenious and persevering in the invention of two-cycle engines. Two of his engines were made in considerable numbers. The first was known as the "Differential" engine, exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition, London, in 1885. A later engine produced by him was called the "Cycle" engine, and it proved to be the most economical of all the motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of motors for electric lighting in 1888-1889. Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his ingenious contrivances are now at work on the well-known engines of that firm.

Four-cycle engines now practically monopolize the field of the smaller internal combustion engines, and very large engines are also constructed on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, however, compete strongly with the four-cycle for large gas engines using blast furnace gas. Koerting engines on the Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000 i.h.p. per double acting motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this method gives two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & Platt build a Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of their construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and 40-1/2 in. stroke gives 700 b.h.p.

Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders of a Mather & Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power cylinder section is shown above that of the pump cylinders, but it is to be understood that both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane as in the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The Koerting engine, however, is double acting, whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The power cylinder A has a power piston A^1 and compression spaces A^2 A^3. At the centre of the cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A^1 at both ends of the stroke. A^4 and A^5 are inlet valves for gas and air. The single acting pump cylinders BB^1 supply the air required for the charge, and the double acting gas cylinder CC^1 supplies the gas. Both gas and air are led from these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet valves A^4 A^5. The air pump pistons are lettered B^2 B^3 and the gas pump piston C^2. The main crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of the power piston A^1, and the pump crank F to the trunk air pump piston B^2 which drives the other air pump piston B^3 and the gas pump piston C^2 by a piston rod passing through all three. The gas mixture is not made until the inlet valves A^4 A^5 are reached, so that no explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder A. The air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge some of the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the contents of the cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the engine is exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and the arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each other is also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports E, and the incoming charge fills the cylinder in the same way as in the Clerk engine.

Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechelhauser, operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan at fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A^1 A^2, A^1 being operated by a centre and A^2 by two outside cranks, side rods, and cross head; the pistons A^1 A^2 thus move in opposite directions and give an effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the air and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas on the other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power cylinder by ports C^1; a similar chamber D opens to a gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power cylinder by ports D^1. The exhaust ports E are provided at the other end of the cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust ports E the pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere; the back piston then opens the air ports C^1 and air under slight pressure flows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight pressure from the gas ports D^1. In this way the power cylinder A is charged with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the pistons A^1 A^2 approach each other the charge is compressed into the space between and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons are then forced apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechelhauser engine, which is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardmore of Glasgow, has attained considerable success in driving blowing pumps for blast furnaces, in producing electric light, and in driving iron rolling mills.

Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in 1908 by Mr R.E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:--

Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate of 23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer, 59 motors, total, 69,790 h.p.; the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p.; Gebruder Koerting, 198, total 165,760 h.p.; Societe Alsacienne, 55, total 23,410 h.p.; Societe John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Societe Suisse, Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken, Augsburg and Nurnberg, 215, total 256,240 h.p. The mean power of each gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer and the Augsburg and Nurnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p. It is stated that in one factory there are gas engines representing a total output of 35,000 h.p. These European large gas engines thus give nearly 575,000 h.p. between them.

The installation of large gas engines has made considerable progress in America. Mr E.L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p. was at work or in construction in the United States in 1908. The first large engines were installed at the works of the Lackawanna Steel Co., Buffalo, New York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk type, and were built by the De La Vergne Co. of New York. They included 16 blowing engines, each of 2000 h.p., and 8 engines of 1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce electric light. This large power plant was started in 1902. The Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also built large engines, several of which are in operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel Co. These Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type, having two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with cylinders of 42 in. diameter and 54 in. stroke. The English Westinghouse Co. have also designed large gas engines, and they exhibited a very interesting vertical multiple cylinder gas engine having four cranks and eight single-acting cylinders, four pairs, in tandem, at the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750 h.p., and the pistons were not watered.

Over two million horse-power of the smaller gas engines are now at work in the world, and certainly above one million horse-power of petrol motors.

The application of large gas engines to marine work, the compounding of the gas engine, and many other matters are being strenuously pursued. Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels used for towing purposes in which the vessel is driven by gas engines operated by means of suction gas-producers consuming anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and Messrs Beardmore in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs, and both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thornycroft to a gas launch which has been tested in the Solent, and Beardmore to an old gunboat, the "Rattler." The "Rattler" was fitted with five-cylinder Otto cycle engines and suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has sailed some 1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas engines can be installed on board ship, but progress is being made, and without doubt all difficulties will be ultimately surmounted and gas power successfully applied to ships for both large and small power.

The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have been displaced by electrical ignition of both high and low tension types; all large gas engines are ignited electrically and generally by more than one igniter per cylinder.

The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as to keep up continuity of impulses by the method either of throttling the charge inlet or by varying the point of admission of gas alone or air and gas mixed.

It may be said, indeed, without exaggeration, that the whole world is now alive to the possibilities of the internal-combustion motor, and that progress will be more and more rapid. This motor has almost fulfilled the expectations of those engineers who have devoted a large part of their lives to its study and advancement. They are looking forward now to the completion of the work begun so many years ago, and expect, at no distant date, to find the internal-combustion motor competing with the steam engine even in its latest form, the steam turbine, on sea as vigorously as it does at present on land.

_Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines._--The Otto and Clerk type engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and two-cycle, because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to complete the power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk engine two strokes complete the cycle.

Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of the total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the explosion and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of the total heat of combustion which appears as work given out by the engine available for overcoming external resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the effective efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas engines the indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by tests of Otto engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated thermal efficiencies of from 35% to 37% are often obtained. Some experimenters claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher than ordinary best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared to show this advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal efficiency, the brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency, together with other particulars such as engine dimensions, types and names of experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal efficiency has also increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically one-third of the whole heat of combustion is obtained by these engines in effective work available for all motive power purposes.

TABLE I.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines from 1882 to 1908._

+---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ | |Mechanical | Names of | | Dimensions | Indicated | Brake | Type of | |No.|Efficiency.| Experimenters. | Year.| of Engine. | Thermal | Thermal | Engine. | | | | | | |Efficiency.|Efficiency.| | +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+ | | Per cent. | | | Diam. Stroke. | Per cent. | Per cent. | | | 1 | 87.6 | Slaby | 1882 | 6.75"X13.7" | 16 | 14 | Deutz | | 2 | 84.2 | Thurston | 1884 | 8.5" X14" | 17 | 14.3 | Crossley | | 3 | 86.1 | Society of Arts | 1888 | 9.5" X18" | 22 | 18.9 | Crossley | | 4 | 80.9 | Society of Arts | 1888 | 9.02"X14" | 21 | 17 | Griffin (6-cycle)| | 5 | 87.3 | Kennedy | 1888 | 7.5" X15" | 21 | 18.3 | Beck (6-cycle) | | 6 | 82.0 | Capper | 1892 | 8.5" X18" | 22.8 | 17.4 | Crossley | | 7 | 87.0 | Robinson | 1898 | 10" X18" | 28.7 | 25 | National | | 8 | 83 | Humphrey | 1900 | 26" X36" | 31 | 25.7 | Crossley | | 9 | 81.7 | Witz | 1900 | 51.2" X55.13" | 28 | 22.9 | Cockerill | |10 | 85.5 | Inst. Civil. Eng.| 1905 | 14" X22" | 35[1] | 29.9 | National | |11 | 77.1 | Burstall | 1907 | 16" X24" | 41.5[2] | 32 | Premier | |12 | 87.5 | Hopkinson | 1908 | 11.5" X21" | 36.8 | 32.2 | Crossley | +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+

_Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines._--It has been found that two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16.4% attained in 1884 to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the same period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not so well established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have been so far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests than those of the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table that the mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%, while in the later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75%.

_Standards of Thermal Efficiency_.--To set up an absolute standard of thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner the physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of Europe, and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of Mallard and Le Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and Bairstow and Alexander. From these and other experiments it is possible to measure approximately the internal energy or the specific heats of the gases of combustion at very high temperatures, such as 2000 deg. C.; and to advance the knowledge on the subject a committee of the British Association was formed at Leicester in 1907. Recognizing, in 1882, that it was impossible to base any standard cycle of efficiency upon the then existing knowledge of gaseous explosions Dugald Clerk proposed what is called the air standard. This standard has been used for many years, and it was officially adopted by a committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers appointed in 1903, this committee's two reports, dated March 1905 and December 1905, definitely adopting the air-standard cycle as the standard of efficiency for internal combustion engines. This standard assumes that the working fluid is air, that its specific heat is constant throughout the range of temperature, and that the value of the ratio between the specific heat at constant volume and constant pressure is 1.4. The air-standard efficiency for different cycles will be found fully discussed in the report of that committee, but space here only allows of a short discussion of the various cycles using compression previous to ignition.

TABLE II.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle Engines from 1884 to 1908_.

+-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+ |Mechanical | Name of | | Dimensions | Indicated | Brake | Type of | |Efficiency.| Experimenter. | Year.| of Motor | Thermal | Thermal | Engine. | | | | | Cylinders. |Efficiency.|Efficiency.| | +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+ | Per cent. | | |Diam. Stroke.| Per cent. | Per cent. | | | 84 | Garrett | 1884 | 9" X 20" | 16.4 | 14 | Clerk-Sterne | | .. | Stockport Co. | 1884 | .. .. | .. | 11.2 | Andrews & Co.| | 83 | Clerk | 1887 | 9" X 15" | 20.2 | 16.9 | Clerk-Tangye | | .. | Atkinson | 1885 | 7-1/2" .. | .. | 15 | Atkinson | | 75 | Meyer | 1903 | 26-5/8" X | 38 | 29 | Oechelhauser | | | | | (2"X37-1/2")| | | | | 75 | Mather & Platt| 1907 | .. .. | 30.6 | 23 | Koerting | +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+

For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic cycles, and each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible for the conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as cycles of (1) constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3) constant volume.

The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat is added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compression is assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from the lowest to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant temperature, so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant temperature, which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The heat supply is stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adiabatically expands until the temperature falls to the lowest temperature. A compression operation then takes place at the lowest temperature, so that the necessary heat is discharged by isothermal compression at the lower temperature. It will be recognized that this is the Carnot cycle, and the efficiency E is the maximum possible between the temperature limits in accordance with the well-known second law of thermo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T - T^1)/T = 1 - T^1/T, where T is the absolute temperature at which heat is supplied and T^1 the absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.

It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression are here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that if t be the temperature before compression and t_c the temperature after compression, then E = 1 - t/t_c. This equation in effect says that thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the temperatures before and after compression.

The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to the working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic compression raises the pressure--not the temperature--from the lower to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is added while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure. The temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume. When the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and reduces the pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower point. Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature. The heat in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower pressure but at diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this case also that E = 1 - t/t_c, that is, that although the maximum temperature of the working fluid is higher than the temperature of compression and the temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion is higher than the lower temperature, yet the proportion of heat convertible into work is determined here also by the ratio of the temperatures before and after compression.

The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required is added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added while the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which the fluid is diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion reduces the pressure and temperature of the working fluid until the volume is the same as the original volume before compression, and the necessary heat is discharged from the cycle at constant volume during falling temperature. Here also it can be shown that the thermal efficiency depends on the ratio between the temperature before compression and the temperature after compression. It is as before E = 1 - t/t_c. Where t is the temperature and v the volume before compression, and t_c the temperature and v_c the volume after adiabatic compression, it can be shown that (vc/v)^([gamma]-1) = t/t_c, so that E may be written

/vc\^([gamma]-1) E = 1 - ( -- ) , \v /

and if v_c/v = 1/r, the compression ratio, then

/1\^([gamma]-1) E = 1 - ( --) . \r/

Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature, constant pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency depends only on the ratio of the maximum volume before compression to the volume after compression; and, given this ratio, called 1/r, which does not depend in any way upon temperature determinations but only upon the construction and valve-setting of the engine, we have a means of settling the ideal efficiency proper for the particular engine. Any desired ideal efficiency may be obtained from any of the cycles by selecting a suitable compression ratio. Table III., giving the theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a compression ratio of 1/2 to 1/100th. Such compression ratios as

TABLE III.--_Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume._

1/r E | 1/7 0.55 1/2 0.026 | 1/10 0.61 1/3 0.36 | 1/20 0.70 1/4 0.43 | 1/100 0.85 1/5 0.48 |

100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value in constant volume engines ranges from 1/5th to 1/7th. In the Diesel engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is usually 1/12th. As the value of 1/r increases beyond certain limits, the effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes, because the temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the maximum temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression of 1/100th raises the temperature of air from 17 deg. C. to about 1600 deg. C, and as 2000 deg. C. is the highest available explosion temperature for ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work would be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart from other mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized that constant pressure and constant volume engines have the same thermal efficiency for similar range of compression temperature, but Prof. H.L. Callendar first pointed out the interesting fact that a Carnot cycle engine is equally dependent upon the ratio of the temperature before and after compression, and that its efficiency for a given compression ratio is the same as the efficiencies proper for constant pressure and constant volume engines. Prof. Callendar demonstrated this at a meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers Committee on thermal standards in 1904. The work of this committee, together with Clerk's investigations, prove that in modern gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may be taken that the best result possible in practice is given by multiplying the air-standard value by .7. For instance, an engine with a compression ratio of one-third has an air-standard efficiency of 0.36, and the actual indicated efficiency of a well-designed engine should be .36 multiplied by .7 = 0.25. If, however, the compression ratio be raised to one-fifth, then the air-standard value .48 multiplied by .7 gives .336. The ideal efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to be about 20% short of the air-standard values given. (D. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst. C.E. Committee's values.

[2] This value is, in the author's view, too high; probably due to indicator error.

GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (1810-1865), English novelist and biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810 in Lindsay Row, Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way for Cheyne Walk. Her father, William Stevenson (1772-1829), came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and had been successively Unitarian minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper for students at Edinburgh, editor of the _Scots Magazine_, and contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, before he received the post of Keeper of the Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. His first wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell's mother. She was a Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county the family name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs Stevenson died a month after her daughter was born, and the babe was carried into Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her childhood was spent in the pleasant environment that she has idealized in _Cranford_. At fifteen years of age she went to a boarding-school at Stratford-on-Avon, kept by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her seventeenth year. Then came occasional visits to London to see her father and his second wife, and after her father's death in 1829 to her uncle, Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in Newcastle-on-Tyne In the family of William Turner, a Unitarian minister, and a third in Edinburgh. On the 30th of August 1832 she was married in the parish church of Knutsford to William Gaskell, minister of the Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Manchester, and the author of many treatises and sermons in support of his own religious denomination. Mr Gaskell held the chair of English history and literature in Manchester New College.

Henceforth Mrs Gaskell's life belonged to Manchester. She and her husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street, and finally in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life began with poetry. She and her husband aspired to emulate George Crabbe and write the annals of the Manchester poor. One poetic "Sketch," which appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_ for January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband and wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to become a successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side with those of greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished Unitarian divine, whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all but forgotten. In her earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly occupied with domestic duties--she had seven children--and philanthropic work among the poor. Her first published prose effort was probably a letter that she addressed to William Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume entitled _Visits to Remarkable Places_. She then told the legend of Clopton Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published in 1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been commenced until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs Gaskell visited North Wales, where their only son "Willie" died of scarlet fever at the age of ten months, and it was, it is said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her sorrow that her husband suggested a long work of fiction, and _Mary Barton_ was begun. There were earlier short stories in _Howitt's Journal_, where "Libbie Marsh's Three Eras" and "The Sexton's Hero" appeared in 1847. But it was _Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life_ that laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell's literary career. It was completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it unread. It was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the manuscript for a year without reading it or communicating with the author. A reminder, however, led to its being sought for, considered and accepted, the publishers agreeing to pay the author L100 for the copyright. It was published anonymously in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide popularity, and its author secured first the praise and then the friendship of Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in 1850 to become a contributor to his new magazine _Household Words_, and here the whole of _Cranford_ appeared at intervals from December 1851 to May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted in the "World's Classics" edition (1907), that was published in _All the Year Round_ for November 1863. Earlier than this, indeed, for the very first number of _Household Words_ she had written "Lizzie Leigh." Mrs Gaskell's second book, however, was _The Moorland Cottage_, a dainty little volume that appeared at Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the Christmas number of _Household Words_ for 1853 appeared "The Squire's Story," reprinted in _Lizzie Leigh and other Tales_ in 1865. In 1853 appeared another long novel, _Ruth_, and the incomparable _Cranford_. This last--now the most popular of her books--is an idyll of village life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knutsford and its people. In _Ruth_, which first appeared in three volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to a delicate treatment of a girl's betrayal and her subsequent rescue. Once more we are introduced to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the little Unitarian chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in early years. In 1855 _North and South_ was published. It had previously appeared serially in _Household Words_. Then came--in 1857--the _Life of Charlotte Bronte_, in two volumes. Miss Bronte, who had enjoyed the friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged visits, died in March 1855. Two years earlier she had begged her publishers to postpone the issue of her own novel _Villette_ in order that her friend's _Ruth_ should not suffer. This biography, by its vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy and indeed tragic story of the three Bronte sisters, greatly widened the interest in their writings and gave its author a considerable place among English biographers. But much matter was contained in the first and second editions that was withdrawn from the third. Certain statements made by the writer as to the school of Charlotte Bronte's infancy, an identification of the "Lowood" of _Jane Eyre_ with the existing school, and the acceptance of the story of Bramwell Bronte's ruin having been caused by the woman in whose house he had lived as tutor, brought threats of libel actions. Apologies were published, and the third edition of the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by "another hand." The book in any case remains one of the best biographies in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then popular novel, _Mabel Vaughan_, was also included in her work of this year 1857, but no further book was published by her until 1859, when, under the title of _Round the Sofa_, she collected many of her contributions to periodical literature. _Round the Sofa_ appeared in two volumes, the first containing only "My Lady Ludlow," the second five short stories. These stories reappeared the same year in one volume as _My Lady Ludlow and other Tales_. In the next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of short stories, entitled _Right at Last and other Tales_. The title story had appeared two years earlier in _Household Words_ as "The Sin of a Father." In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by Colonel Vecchj, translated from the Italian--_Garibaldi and Caprera_, and in 1863 she published her last long novel, _Sylvia's Lovers_, dedicated "to My dear Husband by her who best knows his Value." After this we have--in 1863--a one-volume story, _A Dark Night's Work_, and in the same year _Cousin Phyllis and other Tales_ appeared. Reprinted short stories from _All the Year Round_, _Cornhill Magazine_, and other publications, tend to lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during her lifetime. _The Grey Woman and other Tales_ appeared in 1865.

Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn, Alton, Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the profits of her writings as a present for her husband. She was buried in the little graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church. Her unfinished novel _Wives and Daughters_ was published in two volumes in 1866.

Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her death. _Cranford_ has been published in a hundred forms and with many illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic. Scarcely less recognition is awarded to the _Life of Charlotte Bronte_, which is in every library. The many volumes of novels and stories seemed of less secure permanence until the falling in of their copyrights revealed the fact that a dozen publishers thought them worth reprinting. The most complete editions, however, are the "Knutsford Edition," edited with introductions by A.W. Ward, in eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the "World's Classics" edition, edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes (Henry Froude, 1908).

There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical introduction to the "Knutsford" _Mary Barton_ by A.W. Ward; the _Letters of Charles Dickens_; _Women Writers_, by C.J. Hamilton, second series; _H.B. Stowe's Life and Letters_, edited by Annie Fields; _Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher_; _Mrs Gaskell and Knutsford_, by G.A. Payne; _Cranford_, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie; _Ecrivains modernes de l'Angleterre_, by Emile Montegut. (C. K. S.)