vii. 11 the genealogy of Cyrus is given in exactly the same way as in

the proclamation of Cyrus himself; Teispes is called here the son of the eponym Achaemenes.

The Pasargadian kings of Anshan were vassals of the Median empire. Their kingdom cannot have been of large extent, as Nabonidus in a contemporary inscription (Cylinder from Abu Habba, VR. 64, Schrader, _Keilinschriftl. Bibliothek_, iii. 2, 96), where he mentions his rebellion against Astyages, calls Cyrus "king of Anshan, his (i.e. Astyages') small servant (vassal)." From this inscription we learn that the rebellion of Cyrus (who seems to have become king in 558 B.C., as Herod. i. 214 gives him a reign of 29 years) began in 553 B.C., and from the annals that in 550 Astyages marched against Cyrus, but was defeated; his troops revolted against him, he was taken prisoner, and Cyrus occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The relation of Ctesias (preserved by Nic. Dam. fr. 66; Anaximenes of Lampsacus in Steph. Byz. s.v. [Greek: Pasargadai], Strabo xv. p. 729; Polyaen. vii. 6. 1, 9, 45. 2) that Cyrus was three times beaten by Astyages and that the decisive battle took place in the mountains of Pasargadae, is certainly in the main historical although Herodotus (i. 127 ff.) only mentions the treason of the Median general Harpagus and the defeat and captivity of Astyages. In the rebellion the Persian tribes of the Maraphians and Maspians joined the Pasargadae (Herod. i. 125), while the other tribes appear not to have acknowledged Cyrus till after his victory (see PERSIS). From then he calls himself "king of the Persians."

The history of Cyrus very soon became involved and quite overgrown with legends. Herodotus (i. 95) tells us that he knew four different traditions about him. One makes him the son of Mandane, a daughter of Astyages (originally evidently by a god), who is exposed in the mountains by his grandfather on account of an oracle, but suckled by a dog (a sacred animal of the Iranians) and educated by a shepherd; i.e. the myth which we know from the stories of Oedipus, Perseus, Telephus, Pelias and Neleus, Romulus, Sargon of Agade, Moses, the Indian hero Krishna, and many others, has been transferred to the founder of the Persian empire. At the same time, the rule of Cyrus and the Persians is legitimated by his family connexion with Astyages. This account is partly preserved in Justin i. 4. 10 (probably from Charon of Lampsacus) and in Aelian, _Var. Hist._ xiv. 42, and alluded to by Herodotus i. 95 and 122. The second account, which Herodotus follows, is a rationalized version of the first, where the dog is changed into a woman (the wife of the shepherd) named Spako (bitch). In the later part of his story Herodotus is dependent on the family traditions of Harpagus, whose treason is justified by the cruelty with which Astyages had treated him (the story of Atreus and Thyestes is transferred to them). Harpagus afterwards stood in high favour with Cyrus, and commanded the army which subdued the coasts of Asia Minor; his family seems to have been settled in Lycia. In a third version, preserved from Ctesias in Nicolaus Damasc. p. 66 (cf. Dinon ap. Athen. xiv. 633 C), Cyrus is the son of a poor Mardian bandit Atradates (the Mardians are a nomadic Persian tribe, Herod. i. 125), who comes as a voluntary slave to the court of Astyages, and finds favour with the king. A Chaldaean sage prophesies to him his future greatness, and another Persian slave, Oebares, becomes his associate. He flies to Persia, evades the pursuers whom Astyages sends after him, and begins the rebellion. After the victory Oebares kills Astyages against the will of Cyrus, and afterwards kills himself to evade the wrath of Cyrus. Parts of this story are preserved also in Strabo xv. p. 729, and Justin i. 6. 1-3; 7. 1; cf. Ctesias _ap._ Photium 2-7; many traces of it were afterwards transferred to the story of Ardashir I. (q.v.), the founder of the Sassanid empire. With this version Ctesias and Nicolaus have connected another, in which Cyrus is the son of a Persian shepherd who lives at Pasargadae, and fights the decisive battle at this place. The didactic novel of Xenophon, the _Cyropaedia_, is a free invention adapted to the purposes of the author, based upon the account of Herodotus and occasionally influenced by Ctesias, without any independent traditional element. The account of Aeschylus, _Pers._ 765 ff., is a mixture of Greek traditions with a few oriental elements; here the first king is Medos (the Median empire); his nameless son is succeeded by Cyrus, a blessed ruler, beloved by the gods, who gave peace to all his friends and conquered Lydia, Phrygia, Ionia. Then comes his nameless son, then Mardos (i.e. Smerdis, to whom the name of the Mardians is transferred) who is killed by Artaphrenes (i.e. Artaphernes, Herod. iii. 78, one of the associates of Darius), then Maraphis (eponym of the Maraphian tribe), then another Artaphrenes, then Darius.

The principal events of the later history of Cyrus are in the main correctly stated by Herodotus, although his account contains many legendary traditions. The short excerpt from Ctesias, which Photius has preserved, contains useful information, although we must always mistrust him. Of great value are a short notice in the fragments of Berossus and another in the Old Testament. The original sources are very scanty, besides the cylinder containing his proclamation to the Babylonians we possess only a great many dated private documents from Babylon. These serve to fix the chronology, which is here as everywhere quite in accordance with the dates of the canon of Ptolemy.

Soon after the conquest of the Median empire, Cyrus was attacked by a coalition of the other powers of the East, Babylon, Egypt and Lydia, joined by Sparta, the greatest military power of Greece. In the spring of 546 Croesus of Lydia began the attack and advanced into Cappadocia, while the other powers were still gathering their troops. But Cyrus anticipated them; he defeated Croesus and followed him to his capital. In the autumn of 546 Sardis was taken and the Lydian kingdom became a province of the Persians. The famous story of Herodotus, that the conqueror condemned Croesus to the stake, from which he was saved by the intervention of the gods, is quite inconsistent with the Persian religion (see CROESUS).

During the next years the Persian army under Harpagus suppressed a rebellion of the Lydians under Pactyas, and subjugated the Ionian cities, the Carians and the Lycians (when the town Xanthus resisted to the utmost). The king of Cilicia (Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the Persian supremacy. Why the war with Babylon, which had become inevitable, was delayed until 539, we do not know. Here too Cyrus in a single campaign destroyed a mighty state. The army of Nabonidus was defeated; Babylon itself attempted no resistance, but surrendered on the 16th Tishri (10th of October) 539, to the Persian general Gobryas (_Gaubaruva_, see the chronicle of the reign of Nabonidus; the name Gobryas is preserved also by Xenophon, _Cyrop._ vii. 4. 24); it is possible that the Chaldaean priests, who were hostile to Nabonidus, betrayed the town. In a proclamation issued after his victory Cyrus guarantees life and property to all the inhabitants and designates himself as the favourite of Marduk, the great local god (Bel, Bel-Merodak) of Babel. It is very odd that modern authors have considered this proclamation as inconsistent with the Zoroastrian creed.

From the beginning of 538 Cyrus dates his years as "king of Babylon and king of the countries" (i.e. of the world). With the capital, the Babylonian provinces in Syria fell to the Persians; in 538 Cyrus granted to the Jews, whom Nebuchadrezzar had transported to Babylonia, the return to Palestine and the rebuilding of Jerusalem and its temple (see JEWS, § 19). It is probable that Cyrus had fought more than one war against the peoples of eastern Iran; according to Ctesias he had, before the war with Croesus, defeated the Bactrians and the Sacae (in Ferghana; their king Amorges is the eponym of the Amyrgian Sacae, Herod. vii. 64, called by Darius _Haumavarka_); and the historians of Alexander mention a march through Gedrosia, where he lost his whole army but seven men (Arrian vi. 24. 2; Strabo xv. 722), a tribe Ariaspae on the Etymandros (in Sijistan), who, on account of the support which they gave him against the Scythians, were called Euergetae (Arrian iii. 27. 4; Diod. xvii. 81; Curt. vii. 3. 1), and a town Cyropolis, founded by him on the Jaxartes (Arrian iv. 2. 3; Curt. vii. 6. 16; Strabo xi. 517, called Cyreskhata by Ptolem. vi. 12. 5). In 530, having appointed his son Cambyses king of Babel, he set out for a new expedition against the East. In this war he was killed (Herod.) or mortally wounded (Ctesias). According to Herodotus he attacked the Massagetae beyond the Jaxartes; according to Ctesias, the Derbices, a very barbarous tribe (cf. Strabo xi. 520; Aelian, _Var. Hist._ iv. 1) on the border of the Caspian, near the Hyrcanians (Strabo xi. 514; Steph. Byz.; Curt. vii. 2. 7; Dion. Perieg. 734 ff.; Pomp. Mela iii. 5), or on the Oxus (Plin. vi. 48; Ptolem. vi. 10. 2; _Tab. Peuting._). Berossus (_ap._ Euseb. _Chron._ i. 29) simply says that he fell against the Dahae, i.e. the nomads of the Turanian desert. His death occurred in 528 B.C., as we have a Babylonian tablet from the Adar of the tenth year of Cyrus, i.e. February 528; for in Babylon the first year of Cyrus began in the spring of 538.

In his native district Cyrus had built a city with a palace, called after his tribe Pasargadae (now Murghab), and here he was buried (see PASARGADAE). In a short time he, the petty prince of an almost unknown tribe, had founded a mighty empire, which extended from the Indus and Jaxartes to the Aegaean and the borders of Egypt. This result shows that Cyrus must have been a great warrior and statesman. Nor is his character without nobility. He excels in the humanity with which he treated the vanquished. He destroyed no town nor did he put the captive kings to death; in Babylonia he behaved like a constitutional monarch; by the Persians his memory was cherished as "the father of the people" (Herod. iii. 89), and the Greek tradition preserved by Aeschylus (cf. above) shows that his greatness was acknowledged also by his enemies. He therefore deserves the homage which Xenophon paid to him in choosing him as hero for his didactic novel.

2. CYRUS THE YOUNGER, son of Darius II. and Parysatis, was born after the accession of his father in 424. When, after the victories of Alcibiades, Darius II. decided to continue the war against Athens and give strong support to the Spartans, he sent in 408 the young prince into Asia Minor, as satrap of Lydia and Phrygia Major with Cappadocia, and commander of the Persian troops, "which gather into the field of Castolos" (Xen. _Hell._ i. 4. 3; _Anab._ i. 9. 7), i.e. of the army of the district of Asia Minor. He gave strenuous support to the Spartans; evidently he had already then formed the design, in which he was supported by his mother, of gaining the throne for himself after the death of his father; he pretended to have stronger claims to it than his elder brother Artaxerxes, who was not born in the purple. For this plan he hoped to gain the assistance of Sparta. In the Spartan general Lysander he found a man who was willing to help him, as Lysander himself hoped to become absolute ruler of Greece by the aid of the Persian prince. So Cyrus put all his means at the disposal of Lysander in the Peloponnesian War, but denied them to his successor Callicratidas; by exerting his influence in Sparta, he brought it about that after the battle of Arginusae Lysander was sent out a second time as the real commander (though under a nominal chief) of the Spartan fleet in 405 (Xen. _Hell._ ii. 1. 14). At the same time Darius fell ill and called his son to his deathbed; Cyrus handed over all his treasures to Lysander and went to Susa. After the accession of Artaxerxes II. in 404, Tissaphernes denounced the plans of Cyrus against his brother (cf. Plut. _Artax._ 3); but by the intercession of Parysatis he was pardoned and sent back to his satrapy. Meanwhile Lysander had gained the battle of Aegospotami and Sparta was supreme in the Greek world. Cyrus managed very cleverly to gather a large army by beginning a quarrel with Tissaphernes, satrap of Caria, about the Ionian towns; he also pretended to prepare an expedition against the Pisidians, a mountainous tribe in the Taurus, which was never obedient to the Empire. Although the dominant position of Lysander had been broken in 403 by King Pausanias, the Spartan government gave him all the support which was possible without going into open war against the king; it caused a partisan of Lysander, Clearchus, condemned to death on account of atrocious crimes which he had committed as governor of Byzantium, to gather an army of mercenaries on the Thracian Chersonesus, and in Thessaly Menon of Pharsalus, head of a party which was connected with Sparta, collected another army.

In the spring of 401 Cyrus united all his forces and advanced from Sardis, without announcing the object of his expedition. By dexterous management and large promises he overcame the scruples of the Greek troops against the length and danger of the war; a Spartan fleet of thirty-five triremes sent to Cilicia opened the passes of the Amanus into Syria and conveyed to him a Spartan detachment of 700 men under Cheirisophus. The king had only been warned at the last moment by Tissaphernes and gathered an army in all haste; Cyrus advanced into Babylonia, before he met with an enemy. Here ensued, in October 401, the battle of Cunaxa. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek hoplites and 2500 peltasts, and besides an Asiatic army under the command of Ariaeus, for which Xenophon gives the absurd number of 100,000 men; the army of Artaxerxes he puts down at 900,000. These numbers only show that he, although an eyewitness, has no idea of large numbers; in reality the army of Cyrus may at the very utmost have consisted of 30,000, that of Artaxerxes of 40,000 men. Cyrus saw that the decision depended on the fate of the king; he therefore wanted Clearchus, the commander of the Greeks, to take the centre against Artaxerxes. But Clearchus, a tactician of the old school, disobeyed. The left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes avoided a serious conflict with the Greeks; Cyrus in the centre threw himself upon Artaxerxes, but was slain in a desperate struggle. Afterwards Artaxerxes pretended to have killed the rebel himself, with the result that Parysatis took cruel vengeance upon the slayer of her favourite son. The Persian troops dared not attack the Greeks, but decoyed them into the interior, beyond the Tigris, and tried to annihilate them by treachery. But after their commanders had been taken prisoners the Greeks forced their way to the Black Sea. By this achievement they had demonstrated the internal weakness of the Persian empire and the absolute superiority of the Greek arms.

The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of the Greeks is told by Xenophon in his _Anabasis_ (where he tries to veil the actual participation of the Spartans). Another account, probably from Sophaenetus of Stymphalus, was used by Ephorus, and is preserved in Diodor. xiv. 19 ff. Further information is contained in the excerpts from Ctesias by Photius; cf. also Plutarch's life of Artaxerxes. The character of Cyrus is highly praised by the ancients, especially by Xenophon (cf. also his _Oeconomics_, c. iv.); and certainly he was much superior to his weak brother in energy and as a general and statesman. If he had ascended the throne he might have regenerated the empire for a while, whereas it utterly decayed under the rule of Artaxerxes II. (See also PERSIA: _Ancient History_.) (Ed. M.)

CYSTOFLAGELLATA (so named by E. Haeckel), a group of Mastigophorous Protozoa, distinguished from Flagellata by their large size (0.15-1.5 mm.), and their branched endoplasm, recalling that of _Trachelius_ among Infusoria, within a firm ectosarc bounded by a strong cuticle. Nutrition is holozoic, a deep groove leading down to a mouth and pharynx. A long fine flagellum arises from the pharynx in _Noctiluca_ (E. Suriray) _Leptodiscus_ and (R. Hertwig); and in the former genus, a second flagellum, thick, long and transversely striated, rises farther out, in the groove; this was likened by E. R. Lankester to a proboscis, whence his name of Rhynchoflagellata, which we discard as unnecessary and posterior to Haeckel's. _Noctiluca_ has thus the form of an apple with a long stalk. _Leptodiscus_ (R. Hertwig) has the form of a medusa without a proboscis--it is menisciform with the thin contractile margin produced inwards like a velum on the concave side, while the mouth is on the convex surface and the single flagellum springs from a blind tube on the same surface. _Craspedotella_ (C. A. Kofoid), the third genus, is still more medusiform, with a broad velum, and the mouth in a convex central protrusion of the roof of the bell; and a thick flagellum springs from a blind tube on the convex surface. All three genera are pelagic and phosphorescent, this property being seated in the ectoplasm; _Noctiluca miliaris_ is indeed the chief source of the phosphorescence of our summer seas. O. Bütschli, like other writers, regards the Cystoflagellates as closely allied to the Dinoflagellates, the small flagellum corresponding to the longitudinal, the large flagellum to the transverse flagellum of that group.

The reproduction of _Noctiluca_ has been fairly made out; in the adult state it divides by fission down the oral groove; as a preliminary the external differentiations disappear, and the nucleus divides by modified mitosis; then the external organs are regenerated. Under circumstances not well made out, conjugation between two adults takes place by their fusion commencing at the oral region; flagella and pharynx disappear and the nuclei fuse, while the cytoplasts condense into a sphere. The nucleus undergoes broad division, the young nuclei pass to the surface, which becomes imperfectly divided by grooves into as many rounded prominences as there are nuclei (up to 128 or 256); and these become constricted off from the residual useless cytoplasm as zoospores with two unequal flagella, which were at first regarded as Dinoflagellates, of which they have the form (figs. 5, 6). The metamorphosis of these has not yet been observed.

LITERATURE.--E. Suriray, _Magazin de zoologie_, 1836; G. J. Allman, _Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science_, n.s. xii., 1872; L. Cienkowsky, "Zoospore formation in Noctiluca," _Archiv f. mikroskopische Anatomie_, vii., 1871; R. Hertwig, "Leptodiscus," _Jenaische Zeitschrift_, xi., 1877; C. Ischikawa, _Journal of the College of Science_ (Tokyo, 1894), xii., 1899; F. Doflein, "Conjugation of Noctiluca," _Zoologische Jahrbücher, Anatomie_, xiv., 1900; C. A. Kofoid, "Craspedotella," in _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard_, xlvi., 1905; O. Bütschli, "Mastigophora," in _Protozoa_ (_Braun's Thierreich_, vol. i., _Protozoa_) (1883-1887). (M. Ha.)

CYSTOLITH (Gr. [Greek: kystis], cavity, and [Greek: lithos], stone), a botanical term for the inorganic concretions, usually of calcium carbonate, formed in a cellulose matrix in special cells, generally in the leaf of plants of certain families, e.g. _Ficus elastica_, the india-rubber plant.

CYTHERA (mod. _Cerigo_, but still officially known as Cythera), one of the Ionian islands, situated not less than 150 m. from Zante, but only about 8 m. from Cape Malea on the southern coast of Greece. Its length from N. to S. is nearly 20 m., and its greatest breadth about 12; its area is 114 sq. m. The surface is rocky and broken, but streams abound, and there are various parts of considerable fertility. Two caves, of imposing dimensions, and adorned with stalactites of great beauty, are the most notable among its natural peculiarities; one is situated at the seaward end of the glen of the Mylopotamus, and the other, named Santa Sophia, about two hours' ride from Capsali (Kapsali). Less of the ground is cultivated and more of it is in pasture land than in any other of the seven islands. Some wine and corn are produced, and the quality of the olive oil is good. The honey is still highly prized, as it was in remote antiquity; and a considerable quantity of cheese is manufactured from the milk of the goat. Salt, flax, cotton and currants are also mentioned among the produce. The people are industrious, and many of them seek employment as labourers in the Morea and Asia Minor. Owing to emigration, the population appears to be steadily diminishing, and is now only about 6000, or less than half what it was in 1857. Unfortunately the island has hardly a regular harbour on any part of the coast; from its situation at the meeting, as it were, of seas, the currents in the neighbourhood are strong, and storms are very frequent. The best anchorage is at San Nicolo, at the middle of the eastern side of the island. The principal village is Capsali, a place of about 1500 inhabitants, at the southern extremity, with a bishop, and several convents and churches; the lesser hamlets are Modari, Potamo and San Nicolo.

There are comparatively few traces of antiquity, and the identification of the ancient cities has been disputed. The capital, which bore the same name as the island, was at Paleo-Kastro, about 3 m. from the present port of Avlemona. In the church of St Kosmas are preserved some of the archaic Doric columns of the famous temple of Aphrodite of Cythera, whose worship had been introduced from Syria, and ultimately spread over Greece. According to the accepted story, it was here that the goddess first landed when she emerged from the sea. At a very early date Cythera was the seat of a Phoenician settlement, established in connexion with the purple fishery of the neighbouring coast; it is said that it was therefore called Porphyris (cf. Pliny iv. 18, 19). For a time dependent on Argos, it became afterwards an important possession of the Spartans, who annually despatched a governor named the Cytherodices. In the Peloponnesian war, Nicias occupied the island, but in 421 it was recovered by Sparta. Its modern history has been very much the same as that of the other Ionian islands; but it was subject to Venice for a much shorter period--from 1717 to 1797.

See the works referred to under CEPHALONIA, and also Weil, in _Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. zu Athen_ (1880), pp. 224-243.

CYTISINE (_Ulexin_, _Sophorin_), C11H14N2O, an alkaloid discovered in 1818 by J. B. Chevreul in the seeds of laburnum (_Cytisus Laburnum_) and isolated by A. Husemann and W. Marmé in 1865 (_Zeit. f. Chemie_, 1865, i. p. 161). It is also found in the seeds of furze (_Ulex europaeus_), _Sophora tormentosa_, and _Euchresta horsfieldii_. It is extracted from the seeds by an alcoholic solution of acetic acid, and forms large crystals which melt at 153° C., and are easily soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform. It is a secondary and tertiary di-acid base, and is strongly alkaline in its reaction. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes it to oxycytisine, C11H14N2O2, chromic acid to an acid, C11H9NO3, and potassium permanganate to oxalic acid and ammonia. It acts as a violent poison.

See further, P. C. Plugge, _Arch. der Pharm._ (1891), 229, p. 48 et seq.; A. Partheil, _Ber._ (1890), 23, p. 3201, _Arch. der Pharm._ (1892), 230, p. 448; M. Freund and A. Friedmann, _Ber._ (1901), 34, p. 615; and J, Herzig and H. Meyer, _Monats. f. Chem._ (1897), 18, p. 379.

CYTOLOGY (from [Greek: kytos], a hollow vessel, and [Greek: logos], science), the scientific study of the "cells" or living units of protoplasm (q.v.), of which plants and animals are composed. All the higher, and the great majority of the lower, plants and animals are composed of a vast number of these vital units or "cells." In the case of many microscopic forms, however, the entire organism, plant or animal, consists throughout life of a single cell. Familiar examples of these "unicellular" forms are Bacteria and Diatoms among the plants, and Foraminifera and Infusoria among the animals. In all cases, however, whether the cell-unit lives freely as a unicellular organism or forms an integral part of a multicellular individual, it exhibits in itself all the phenomena characteristic of living things. Each cell assimilates food material, whether this is obtained by its own activity, as in the majority of the protozoa, or is brought, as it were, to its own door by the blood stream, as in the higher Metazoa, and builds this food material into its own substance, a process accompanied by respiration and excretion and resulting in growth. Each cell exhibits in greater or less degree "irritability," or the power of responding to stimuli; and finally each cell, at some time in its life, is capable of reproduction. It is evident therefore that in the multicellular forms all the complex manifestations of life are but the outcome of the co-ordinated activities of the constituent cells. The latter are indeed, as Virchow has termed them, "vital units." It is therefore in these vital units that the explanation of vital phenomena must be sought (see PHYSIOLOGY). As Verworn[1] said, "It is to the cell that the study of every bodily function sooner or later drives us. In the muscle cell lies the problem of the heart beat and that of muscular contraction; in the gland cell reside the causes of secretion; in the epithelial cell, in the white blood corpuscle, lies the problem of the absorption of food, and the secrets of the mind are hidden in the ganglion cell." So also the problems of development and inheritance have shown themselves to be cell problems, while the study of disease has produced a "cellular pathology." The most important problems awaiting solution in biology are cell problems.

_Historical._--The cell-theory ranks with the evolution theory in the far-reaching influence it has exerted on the growth of modern biology; and although almost entirely a product of the 19th century, the history of its development gives place, in point of interest, to that of no other general conception. The cell-theory--in a form, however, very different from that in which we now know it--was originally suggested by the study of plant structure; and the first steps to the formulation, many years later, of a definite cell-theory, were made as early as the later part of the 17th century by Robert Hooke, Marcello Malpighi and Nehemiah Grew. Hooke (1665) noted and described the vesicular nature of cork and similar vegetable substances, and designated the cavities by the term "cells." A few years later Malpighi (1674) and Grew (1682), still of course working with the low power lenses alone available at that time, gave a more detailed description of the finer structure of plant tissue. They showed that it consisted in part of little cell-like cavities, provided with firm cell-walls and filled with fluid, and in part of long tube-like vessels. A long time passed before the next important step forward was made by C. L. Treviranus,[2] who, working on the growing parts of young plants, showed that the tubes and vessels of Malpighi and Grew arose from cells by the latter becoming elongated and attached end to end, the intervening walls breaking down; a conclusion afterwards confirmed by Hugo von Mohl (1830). It was not, however, until the appearance of Matthias Jakob Schleiden's paper _Beiträge zur Phytogenesis_ (1838) that we have a really comprehensive treatment of the cell, and the formulation of a definite cell-theory for plants. It is to the wealth of correlated observations and to the philosophic breadth of the conclusions in this paper that the subsequent rapid progress in cytology is undoubtedly to be attributed. Schleiden in this paper attempted to solve the problem of the mode of origin of cells. The nucleus (_vide infra_) of the cell had already been discovered by Robert Brown (1831), who, however, failed to realize its importance. Schleiden utilized Brown's discovery, and although his theory of phytogenesis is based on erroneous observations, yet the great importance which he rightly attached to the nucleus as a cell-structure made it possible to extend the cell-theory to animal tissues also. We may indeed date the birth of animal cytology from Schleiden's short but epoch-making paper. Comparisons between plant and animal tissues had already been made by several workers, among others by Johannes Müller (1835), and by F. G. J. Henle and J. E. Purkinje (1837). But the first real step to a comprehensive cell-theory to include animal tissues was made by Theodor Schwann. This author, stimulated by Schleiden's work, published in 1830 a series of _Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Übereinstimmung in der Structur und dem Wachstum der Tiere und Pflanzen_. This epoch-making work ranks with that of Schleiden in its stimulating influence on biological research, and in spite of the greater technical difficulties in the way, raised animal cytology at one blow to the position already, and so laboriously, acquired by plant cytology. In the animal cell it is the nucleus and not the cell-wall that is most conspicuous, and it is largely to the importance which Schwann, following the example of Schleiden, attached to this structure as a cell constituent, that the success and far-reaching influence of his work is due. Another feature determining the success of Schwann's work was his selection of embryonic tissue as material for investigation. He showed that in the embryo the cells all closely resemble one another, only becoming later converted into the tissue elements--nerve cells, muscle cells and so forth--as development proceeded; just as a similar mode of investigation had enabled Treviranus to trace the origin from typical cells of the vascular tissue in plants more than 30 years previously. And just as Treviranus showed that there was a union of cells to form the vessels in plants, so Schwann now showed that a union of cells frequently occurred in the formation of animal tissues.

So great was the stimulus given to cytological research by the work of Schleiden and Schwann that these authors are often referred to as the founders of the cell-theory. Their theory, however, differed very greatly from that of the present time. Not only did they suppose new cells to arise by a sort of "crystallization" from a formative "mother liquor" or "cytoblastema" (_vide infra_), but they both defined the cell as a "vesicle" provided with a firm cell-wall and with fluid contents. The cell-wall was regarded as the essential cell-structure, which by its own peculiar properties controlled the cell-processes. The work of Schleiden and Schwann marks the close of the first period in the history of the cell-theory--the period dominated by the cell-wall. The subsequent history is marked by the gradual recognition of the importance of the cell-contents. Schleiden had noticed in the plant cell a finely granular substance which he termed "plant slime" (_Pflanzenschleim_). In 1846 Hugo von Mohl applied to this substance the term "protoplasm"; a term already used by Purkinje six years previously for the formative substance of young animal embryos. Mohl showed that the young plant cell was at first completely filled by the protoplasm, and that only later, by the gradual accumulation of vacuoles in the interior, did this substance come to form a thin layer on the inner surface of the cell-wall. Mohl also described the spontaneous movement of the protoplasm, a phenomenon already noted by Schleiden for his plant slime, and originally discovered by Bonaventura Corti in 1772 for the cells of _Chara_, and rediscovered in 1807 by Treviranus. Not only was attention thus gradually directed to the importance of the cell-contents, but observations were not lacking, even in the plant kingdom, tending to weaken the importance hitherto attached to the cell-wall. Among these may be mentioned Cohn's observation that in the reproduction of Algal forms the protoplasm contracts away from the cell-wall and escapes as a naked "swarm spore." Similarly in the animal kingdom instances began to be noted in which no membrane appeared to be present (Kolliker, 1845; Bischoff, 1842), and for some time it was hotly debated whether these structures could be regarded as true cells. As a result of the resemblance between the streaming movements in these apparently naked cells (e.g. lymphocytes) and those seen in plant cells, R. Remak was led (1852-1853) to apply Mohl's term "protoplasm" to the substance of these animal cells also. Similarly Max Schultze (1863) and H. A. de Bary (1859), as a result of the study of unicellular animals, came to the conclusion that the substance of these organisms, originally termed "Sarcode" by F. Dujardin, was identical with that of the plant and animal cell. Numerous workers now began to realize the subordinate position of the cell-wall (e.g. Nägeli, Alexander Braun, Leydig, Kolliker, Cohn, de Bary, &c.), but it is to Max Schultze above all that the credit is due for having laid the foundation of the modern conception of the cell--a conception often referred to as the _proto-plasmic-theory_ in opposition to the _cell_-theory of Schleiden and Schwann. Max Schultze showed that one and the same substance, protoplasm, occurred in unicellular forms and in the higher plants and animals; that in plants this substance, though usually enclosed _within_ a cell membrane, was sometimes naked (e.g. swarm spores), while in many animal tissues and in many of the unicellular forms the cell-membrane was always absent. He therefore concluded that in all cases the cell-membrane was unessential, and he redefined the "cell" of Schleiden and Schwann as "a small mass of protoplasm endowed with the attributes of life" (1861). In the same year the physiologist Brücke maintained that the complexity of vital phenomena necessitated the assumption for the cell-protoplasm itself of a complex structure, only invisible because of the limitations of our methods of observation. The cell in fact was to be regarded as being itself an "elementary organism." By this time too it was realized that the formation of cells _de novo_, postulated by Schleiden's theory of "phytogenesis," did not occur. Cells only arose by the division of pre-existing cells,--as Virchow neatly expressed it in his since famous aphorism, _omnis cellula e cellula_. It was, however, many years before the details of this "cell-division" were laid bare (see _Cell-Division_ below).

_General Morphology of the Cell._--In its simplest form the cell is a more or less spherical mass of viscid, translucent and granular protoplasm. In addition to the living protoplasm there is present in the cell food-material in various stages of assimilation, which usually presents the appearance of fine granules or spherules suspended in the more or less alveolar or reticular mesh-work of the living protoplasm. In addition there may be more or less obvious accumulations of waste material, pigment, oil drops, &c.--products of the cell's metabolic activity. All these relatively passive inclusions[3] are distinguished from the living protoplasm by the term "metaplasm" (Hanstein), or "paraplasm" (Kupffer), although in practice no very sharp distinction can be drawn between them. The cell is frequently, but by no means always, bounded by a cell-wall of greater or less thickness. In plants this cell-wall consists of cellulose, a substance closely allied to starch; in animals only very rarely is this the case. Usually the cell-wall, when this is present, is a product of the cell's secretive activity; sometimes, however, it appears to be formed by an actual conversion of the surface layer of the protoplasm, and retains the power of growth by "intussusception" like the rest of the protoplasm. Even when a limiting membrane is present, however, evidence is steadily accumulating to show that the cell is not an isolated physiological unit, but that, in the vast majority of cases, there is a protoplasmic continuity between the cells of the organism. This continuity, which is effected by fine protoplasmic threads ("cell-bridges") piercing the cell-wall and bridging the intercellular spaces when these are present, is to be regarded as the morphological expression of the physiological interdependence of the various--often widely separated--tissues of the body.[4] It is probable that it is the specialization of this primitive condition which has produced the cell-elements of the nervous system. In many cases the cell-connexions are so extensive as to obliterate cell-boundaries. A good example of such a "syncytial" tissue is provided by the heart muscle of Vertebrates and the intestinal musculature of Insects (Webber).[5]

In all multicellular, and in the great majority of unicellular, organisms the protoplasm of the cell-unit is differentiated into two very distinct regions,--a more or less central region, the _nucleus_, and a peripheral region (usually much more extensive), the cell-body or _cytoplasm_. This universal morphological differentiation of the cell-protoplasm is accompanied by corresponding chemical differences, and is the expression of a physiological division of labour of fundamental importance. In some of the simpler unicellular organisms, e.g. _Tetramitus_, the differentiated protoplasm is not segregated. Such forms are said to have a "distributed" nucleus, and among the Protozoa correspond to Haeckel's "Protista." It is probable that among plants the Bacteria and Cyanophyceae have a similar distributed nucleus. In all the higher forms, however, the segregation is well marked, and a "nuclear membrane" separates the substance of the nucleus, or "karyoplasm"[6] from the surrounding "cytoplasm." Within the nuclear membrane the karyoplasm is differentiated into two very distinct portions, a clear fluid portion, the "karyolymph," and a firmer portion in the form of a coarser or finer "nuclear reticulum." This latter is again composed of two parts, the "linin reticulum,"[7] and, embedded in the latter and often irregularly aggregated at its nodal points, a granular substance, the "chromatin,"[8] the latter being the essential constituent of the nucleus. In addition to the chromatin there may be present in the nucleus one or more, usually spherical, and as yet somewhat enigmatical bodies, the "nucleoli." In addition to the nucleus and cytoplasm, a third body, the "centrosome," has often been considered as a constant cell-structure. It is a minute granule, usually lying in the cytoplasm not far from the nucleus, and plays an important part in cell-division and fertilization (see below).

_Cell-differentiation._--Both among unicellular and multicellular individuals the cell assumes the most varied forms and performs the most diverse functions. In all cases, however, whether we examine the free-living shapeless and slowly creeping _Amoeba_, or the striped muscle cell or spermatozoon of the Metazoa (fig. 1, b and c), the constant recurrence of cytoplasm and nucleus show that we have to deal in each case with a cell. The variation in the form and structure of the cell is an expression of that universal economic law of nature, "division of labour," with its almost invariable accompanying "morphological differentiation"; the earliest and most fundamental example being in the differentiation of the cell-protoplasm into cytoplasm and nucleus. In multicellular individuals the division of labour to which the structural complexity of the organism is due is between the individual cell-units, some cells developing one aspect, some another, of their vital attributes. Thus one cell specializes in, say, secretion, another in contractility, another in receiving and carrying stimuli, and so forth, so that we have the gland cell, the muscle cell, and the nerve cell, each appropriately grouped with its fellows to constitute the particular tissue or organ--gland, muscle or brain--which has for its function that of its constituent cells. In unicellular animals we also find division of labour and its accompanying morphological differentiation, but here there is no subdivision of the protoplasm of the organism into the semi-autonomous units which so greatly facilitate division of labour in the Metazoa; instead, division of labour must be between different regions of protoplasm in the single cell. The sharply defined character of this regional differentiation in the Protozoa, and the surprising structural complexity it may produce, sufficiently clearly show that although multicellular structure has greatly facilitated regional differentiation in the Metazoa, it is by no means essential to this process (see below, _Present Position of the Cell-theory_).

It is not within the scope of this article to attempt a comprehensive review of the variety in structural complexity to which this division of labour among the cells of the Metazoan and the regional differentiation of the cell-bodies of the Protozoa has given rise. Some indication of the wealth of variety may be best given by taking a general survey of cell-modifications, grouped according to the cell-attributes the expression of which they facilitate.

(a) _Structural Complexity facilitating Movement._--One of the most striking, and hence earliest described, of the fundamental attributes of protoplasm is its power of spontaneous movement. This is seen in the walled cell of plant tissue and in the naked cell-body of _Amoeba_. In the latter case the streaming movements of the naked protoplasm are accompanied by the formation of "pseudopodia," and result in the highly characteristic "amoeboid" creeping movement of this and similar organisms (e.g. lymph corpuscles of the blood).[9] In these examples the whole protoplasm participates in the movement,--there has been no division of labour, and there is, therefore, no visible morphological differentiation. In many cells, movement (either of the entire body or of the surrounding medium) is by means of slender whip-like processes of the protoplasm flagella or cilia. These represent modified pseudopodia, and in the formation of the motile gametes of some of the lower forms, e.g. Myxomycetes (de Bary, 1859), Rhizopods (R. Hertwig, 1874), &c., the actual conversion of a pseudopodium into a flagellum can be witnessed. These vibratile processes may be either one or few in number, and are then large in size and move independently of one another; or they may be very numerous, covering the free surface of the cell (fig. 2, a); they are then very small and move strictly in unison. In the former case they are termed "flagella," in the latter "cilia." In some cases the flagellum is accompanied by an undulating membrane (e.g. Trypanosoma among the protozoa and in many spermatozoa), and it may be situated either at the front end (Euglena) or hind end (spermatozoa) of the body during motion. The cilia may form a uniform coating to the free surface of the cell, as in ciliated epithelium (fig. 2, a) and many infusoria, or the cilia may be variously modified and restricted to special regions of the body, e.g. the "undulating membrane" of the peristomial region in many infusoria, the swimming combs of the Ctenophora (q.v.), and the flame cells of the Platyelmia (q.v.). In one group of infusoria (Hypotricha), the cilia, "cirri," have attained a high degree of differentiation, and reach a considerable size. Both cilia and flagella spring directly from the cell-protoplasm, piercing the cell-membrane, when this is present. At the point where they become continuous with the cell-body there is usually a deeply staining "basal granule." In some cases the flagella are in direct connexion with the centrosome (see below, _Cell-division_), e.g. Trypanosoma and spermatozoa, in some cases even while the centrosome is functioning in mitosis (e.g. insect spermatogenesis, Henneguy[10] and Meves[11] (fig. 3).

In the ability of _Amoeba_ to contract into a spherical mass, and in the presence in its protoplasm of the contractile vacuole, we see another type of spontaneous movement--contractility--of the protoplasm. In the "musculo-epithelial" cells of _Hydra_, the elongated basal portion of the cell alone possesses this contractility. In the higher Metazoa the whole cell--muscle cell--is specialized for contractility, and shows, as a result of its specialization, a distinct fibrillation. This fibrillation is foreshadowed in the contractile regions of many Protozoa, e.g. in the cirri of hypotrichous Infusoria, the tentacle of _Noctiluca_, and the myophane layer of Gregarines. In the quickly contracting muscle cell of Vertebrates and insects, further specialization has produced a structure of considerable complexity (fig. 1, b). Here also the cell is fibrillated, but the fibrillae (sarcostyles) are much more distinct, and are segmented in a manner which gives to the entire cell a "cross striated" appearance. Since quick movement is usually (but not always) associated with voluntary control, these striated muscle cells are often termed "voluntary" muscle fibres. The great increase in length of these cells is accompanied by the fragmentation of the originally single nucleus.

(b) _Cell-modification in Relation to Secretion._--Just as the complex movements considered above were the result of a great development of the power of spontaneous movement possessed by all protoplasm, so cell-secretion is the result of a development of the metabolic processes underlying all vital phenomena. But whereas specialization of the protoplasm for movement resulted in a very obvious morphological complexity, specialization for secretion results in molecular complexity, and only rarely and indirectly results in morphological differentiation. Usually indeed the specialization is only rendered evident by the appearance of the formed secretion, e.g. mucus-secreting epithelial cells (fig. 2, b), the ovarian ovum and the fat cell (fig. 1, a). In some cases a distinct fibrillation of the cytoplasm accompanies or precedes the appearance of the cell-secretion (Mathews, pancreas cell of Amphibia). In many cases the internal secretion is no mere accumulation, e.g. the internal skeleton of the Radiolaria, and the nematocysts of the Coelentera. Frequently in animal tissues the cell-secretions are accumulated in the intercellular spaces, and result in the formation of the various "connective tissues," all of which are characterized by the immense amount of intercellular substance, e.g. fibrous tissue, cartilage and bone. Cell-modifications facilitating the general metabolism, but not necessarily indicating specialized secretion, also occur, e.g. the "gullet" of many Protozoa, the suctorial tubules of the Acinetaria, and the "nutritive processes" of the ovarian ova in many Lepidoptera. Mention may be made here of the network or canal system of the cytoplasm, described for many cells by Golgi, Holgren and others. An enigmatical structure, the "yolk-nucleus" of many ova, has been frequently regarded as a structure of considerable metabolic importance, e.g. Bambeke (1898) for _Pholcus_.[12]

Striking modifications resulting from specialization in secretion are frequently presented by the nucleus. In many secreting cells this structure is extensively branched, e.g. many gland cells and ovarian nutritive cells of insects (fig. 4, b). In some cases the nucleus of the gland cell contains a persistent spireme thread (fig. 4, a); while almost all actively secreting cells are characterized by the possession of large or numerous nucleoli.

(c) _Specialization for the Reception and Conduction of Stimuli._--One of the most striking of the fundamental attributes of living protoplasm is its "irritability," that is to say, its power of responding to external impressions, "stimuli," by movement, which, both in kind and intensity, is wholly independent of the amount of energy expended by the stimulus. The stimulus conveyed by the nerve fibre to the muscle is out of all proportion to the amount of work it may cause the muscle to do. Although protoplasmic irritability is thus incapable of a simple mechanical explanation, science has rejected the assumption of a special "vital force," and interprets protoplasmic response as being a long series of chemico-physical changes,[13] initiated, but only initiated, by the original stimulus; the latter thus standing in the same relation to the response it produces as the pull on the trigger to the propulsion of the rifle bullet. The function of receiving stimuli from the outer world, originally possessed to a greater or less extent by all cells, has, in the Metazoa, been relegated to one class of cells, the sensory cells[14] (fig. 5, D and E). Another class of cells--the "ganglion cells" or "neurones" (fig. 5, A and B), are concerned with the conduction of the stimuli so received. The contractile elements in the Metazoa are thus dependent for their stimuli on the nervous elements--the sensory cells and neurones.

_Origin of Cells._--In the preceding sections we have considered the structure of the cell in relation to the fundamental attributes of cell-metabolism, irritability, and movement. We have now to consider the cell in relation to yet another vital attribute, that of reproduction. Just as we now know that the phenomena of assimilation, respiration, excretion, response, movement and so forth, characteristic of living things, are but the co-ordinated expressions of the corresponding activities of the constituent cells, so we now know that the reproduction of the organism is, in its ultimate analysis, a cell-process. Our knowledge of the essential fact that cells only arise by the division of pre-existing cells, now a fundamental axiom of biology, and of the details of this process, have been acquired during recent years by the strenuous efforts of numerous workers.[15] Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1838) supposed that in plants the new cell arose from the parent cell by a sort of "crystallizing" process from the cell fluid or "cytoblastema"; the nucleolus appearing first, then the nucleus, and finally the cell-body. Theodor Schwann (1839) extended Schleiden's theory to animal tissues, with this yet greater error, that new cells might arise, not only within the mother cell as Schleiden had supposed, but also in the intercellular substance so common in animal tissues (to which he also gave the term "cytoblastema"). By 1846, however, the botanists, thanks mainly to the efforts of Hugo von Mohl and Nägeli, recognized as a general law that cells only arise by the division of a pre-existing cell. But it was long before the universal application of this law was recognized by zoologists; the delay being largely due to pathological phenomena. The work of Kölliker (1844-1845), Karl Bogislaus Reichert (1841-1847), and Remak (1852-1855), however, finally enabled Virchow in 1858 to maintain the law of the genetic continuity of cells in the since famous aphorism _omnis cellula e cellula_. At this time, however, nothing was known of the details of cell-division,--one school (Reichert, L. Auerbach, and the majority of the botanists) maintaining that the nucleus disappeared prior to cell-division, the other school (von Baer, Remak, Leydig, Haeckel, &c.) maintaining that it took a leading part in the process. It is not until the appearance of Anton Schneider's work in 1873, followed by those of Fol, Auerbach, Strasburger and many others, that we begin to gain an insight into the process. In 1882 W. Flemming was able to extend Virchow's aphorism to the nucleus also: _omnis nucleus e nucleo_.

_Outline of Cell-division._--There are two very distinct methods of cell-division. The more general and also more complicated method is accompanied by the formation of a complex fibrillar mechanism, and was on this account termed "mitosis" ([Greek: mitos], a thread) by W. Flemming (1882), and "karyokinesis" ([Greek: karyon], nut, nucleus, and [Greek: kinêsis], change, movement) by W. Schleicher (1878). The other method, "amitosis," or direct division, is unaccompanied by any visible mechanism and is of relatively exceptional occurrence. In the more usual method of cell-division, or "mitosis," we can distinguish two distinct but parallel processes, the one undergone by the chromatin and resulting in the "chromatic figure," the other usually only concerning the cytoplasm and resulting in the "achromatic figure."[16]

We will consider the chromatin changes first. The chromatin granules lose their scattered arrangement on the nuclear reticulum, and become instead arranged in a linear series to form a coiled and deeply staining "spireme thread"[17] (fig. 6, a). As the thread contracts, its granular origin becomes less evident, and at the same time the coils become fewer in number; the "close" spireme of earlier stages becomes the "loose" spireme of later stages. As the spireme thread contracts, it segments into a number of short, and usually U-shaped, segments--the "chromosomes" (Waldeyer, 1888). The number of these chromosomes is always constant for the cells of any given species of plant or animal, but varies greatly in number in different species. Thus in the parasitic worm _Ascaris megalocephala_, var. _univalens_, there are only two. In the crustacean _Artemia_ Bauer found 168, while in the amphibian _Salamandra maculata_, as also in the lily, the number is 24. While these changes have been proceeding in the nucleus, changes in the cytoplasm have resulted in the formation of the achromatic figure. These cytoplasmic changes are initiated by the division into two of a minute body, the "centrosome," originally discovered by P. J. van Beneden in 1883,[18] and usually lying not far from the nucleus (fig. 6, a). The daughter centrosomes separate from one another, travelling to opposite poles of the nucleus. At the same time radiations extend out into the cytoplasm from the centrosomes, and, as the nuclear membrane disappears, invade the nuclear area (fig. 7, a). Some of the fibrillae in the latter region become attached to the chromosomes and are termed "mantle fibres"; others become continuous from one centrosome to the other and constitute the "spindle fibres." The remaining radiations at the two poles of the spindle are the "astral rays." (The details of the formation of the achromatic figure vary considerably, some indication of this is given in the next section in connexion with the question of the origin of the mitotic mechanism.) The chromosomes now arrange themselves in the "equatorial plate" of the spindle and each splits longitudinally into two[19] (fig. 6, b and c). The sister chromosomes now pass to opposite poles of the spindle (fig. 6, d), and there, returning to the "resting" condition, constitute the daughter nuclei. Division of the cell follows, usually, in animals, by simple constriction. Both Theodor Boveri and van Beneden, in their papers of 1887, regarded the centrosome as initiating, not only the division of the cell-body but that of the chromatin also; Beneden even suggested that the pull of the mantle fibres caused the division of the chromatin in the equatorial plate. W. Pfitzner in 1882 was the first to show that the splitting of the chromosomes in the equatorial plate was only the reappearance of a split in the spireme thread and was due to a corresponding division into two of each of the chromatin granules. In the spermatogenic cells of _Ascaris_, A. Brauer has shown that the chromatin granules divide while still scattered over the nuclear reticulum and before either the formation of a spireme thread or the division of the centrosome. In many other cases the reverse of this condition occurs, the centrosome dividing long before there is any indication of division in the nucleus (e.g. salamander spermatogenic cells, Meves, &c.). We must therefore, with Boveri and Brauer, regard the division of the chromatin in mitosis as a distinct reproductive act on the part of the chromatin granules, the chromosomes being merely aggregates (temporary or permanent, _vide infra_) of these self-propagating units.

For convenience of description it is usual to recognize four periods in mitosis: (i.) Prophase, (ii.) Metaphase, (iii.) Anaphase, and (iv.) Telophase (Strasburger, 1884). The prophase covers all changes up to the completion of the mitotic figure. The metaphase is the parting of the sister chromosomes in the equatorial plate; their passage to opposite poles of the spindle constitutes the anaphase; and their reconstruction to form the resting daughter nuclei, the telophase.

_The Achromatic Figure._--The mode of origin of the achromatic figure varies greatly. In some cases a distinct and continuous spindle, the "central spindle" of F. Hermann, is visible from the very first separation of the daughter centrosomes (e.g. salamander spermatogenic cell)[20] (fig. 7, b). In other cases the rays only invade the nuclear area and become continuous in the equatorial plane after the centrosomes have assumed their definitive positions at the two poles of the nucleus, and may even appear to indent the disappearing nuclear membrane as they invade the nuclear area.[21] In the salamander testis cell (fig. 7, b), and in many other cases, the whole of the achromatic figure is obviously of cytoplasmic origin. In many cases, however, it equally obviously arises within the nucleus,[22] while in yet other cases[23] the spindle fibres are of mixed origin. The question, therefore, of the cytoplasmic or nuclear origin of the achromatic figure, at one time regarded as of considerable importance, is wholly immaterial. Various elaborate theories have been propounded to explain the mechanism of the mitotic figure. H. Fol (1873) regarded the centrosomes as centres of attractive forces, and compared the mitotic figure to the lines of force in the magnetic field, a comparison made by numerous subsequent workers. E. Klein's hypotheses of two opposing systems of contractile fibrillae, elaborated by van Beneden (1883, 1887) and accepted by Boveri (1888), was still further extended by R. Heidenhain in relation to the leucocytes of the salamander, in which there is a permanent centrosome and astral rays to which the contractile movements of the cell appear to be due[24] (fig. 7, a). Hermann on the other hand confined the contractility to the astral and mantle fibres; while L. Druner regarded the spindle as exerting a pushing force, for not only do the interzonal spindle fibres elongate during the anaphase, but they were often at this period contorted, while on the other hand astral rays may be entirely absent (e.g. Infusoria), and in some cases the spindle pole may be caused to project at the surface of the cell. The futility of these attempted mechanical explanations of mitosis is sufficiently clearly shown, not only by the contradictory nature of the explanations themselves, but by the fact that, in amitosis, nuclear and cytoplasmic division occur without any fibrillar mechanism whatever.

_Centrosome._[25]--This minute body was first detected at the spindle poles by Flemming in 1875, and independently by P. J. van Beneden in 1876. The important part played by the centrosome in fertilization,[26] first described by van Beneden and Theodor Boveri in their papers of 1887-1888, together with the behaviour of this structure in mitosis, led these authors to regard the centrosome not only as the dynamic centre of the cell but as a permanent cell-organ, which, like the nucleus, passed by division from one cell-generation to the next. This conclusion appeared to receive considerable support from the recognition of the centrosome in various kinds of resting cells,[27] and especially from the relation this structure frequently shows to the locomotor apparatus of the cell (e.g. its position in the centre of the radiating fibrillae in the contractile lymph and pigment cells, and its relation to the vibratile flagellum in spermatozoa and some protozoa, e.g. Trypanosoma).[28] In almost all cases the centrosome of the resting cell, when this can be detected, lies in the cytoplasm, and is often already divided in preparation for the next mitotic division (e.g. spermatogenic cells of the salamander; Meves). In some cases, however, it resides in, or arises from, the nucleus (Brauer; spermatogenesis of _Ascaris_, var. _univalens_). This indifferent nuclear or cytoplasmic position for the centrosome is paralleled by the attraction sphere or homologue of the centrosome in many Protozoa. Thus in many forms, e.g. _Euglena_ (Keuten), it lies within the nucleus, while in other forms, e.g. _Noctiluca_ (Ishikawa, 1894, 1898; Calkins, 1898) and _Paramoeba_ (F. Schaudinn, 1896), it lies in the cytoplasm, while in _Tetramitus_ it coexists with a "distributed" nucleus. In the Heliozoa conditions are exceptionally interesting; not only is the centrosome--here resembling in appearance that of the higher forms--permanently visible and extranuclear, lying at the centre of the radiations characteristic of these forms, but there is the strongest possible evidence for its formation _de novo_. For Schaudinn has shown in _Acanthocystis_ that, in the formation of the swarm spores, the nucleus divides amitotically, the centrosome remaining visible and unchanged at the centre of the radiating processes. Yet a centrosome appears later in the nucleus of the swarm spores and migrates into the cytoplasm. The experiments of T. H. Morgan and E. B. Wilson, in which numerous centrosomes and asters ("cytasters") are caused to appear in unfertilized sea-urchin eggs by a brief immersion in a 13% solution of magnesium chloride in sea-water,[29] as also the possibility in many cases that even in normal fertilization the cleavage centrosomes may arise _de novo_,[30] make it no longer possible to regard the centrosome as a permanent cell-structure.

_Significance of Mitosis._--Whatever may be the nature of the chemico-physical changes occurring during cell-division, of which the achromatic spindle and astral rays are the visible expression, it is certain that the whole of this complicated process has for its function, not the division of the chromatin, for that has already occurred on the spireme thread or even earlier, but the distribution of the divided chromatin granules to the two daughter nuclei. It is indeed usually assumed that the mitotic mechanism is not merely for the distribution, but for the _equal_ distribution, of the sister granules to the two daughter nuclei. The conspicuous part the chromatin is seen to play in the whole mechanism of heredity--in maturation, fertilization and development--indicating as it does that the chromatin is the chief, if not the only, bearer of the specific qualities of the organism, sufficiently clearly emphasizes the importance of the equal distribution of this substance between the daughter cells at successive cell-divisions. There are, however, serious objections to the interpretation of mitosis as an adaptation to ensure this equal distribution of the chromatin. Not only does the occurrence of amitosis show that the mitotic mechanism is not essential for either nuclear or cytoplasmic division, but direct division may occur[31] in the life-history of the germ cells, the very point at which it should not occur had mitosis the significance usually attached to it. On the other hand, the most elaborate mitosis occurs in cell-tissues (e.g. skin of salamander larva) which can take no possible share in the reproduction of the species. Moreover, we have no reason for supposing that the division of the chromatin in amitosis is not as meristic, and its subsequent distribution as equal, as is so visibly the case in mitosis.[32] It is necessary, therefore, to seek for some other explanation of the elaborate mechanism of mitosis than that which assumes it necessary for the equal distribution of the divided chromatin granules. The present writer believes the true explanation to be found in that great economic law of nature, "division of labour." The same economy which, working under the control of natural selection, has produced the complexly differentiated tissues of the higher metazoa, which has led to the sexual differentiation between the conjugating gametes and thus to the sexual differentiation of the parents, has resulted in the production of mitosis. Only here the economy finds expression in division of labour, not in space, but in time. The work of the self-propagating chromatin granules is so ordered that periods of undisturbed metabolic activity alternate with periods of reproductive activity. The brief space of time occupied by the latter process has necessitated a more elaborate specialization of the forces--whatever their nature--controlling cell-division; a specialization which has resulted, just as a similar specialization in so many other cases has resulted, in a visible differentiation of the cell-protoplasm. This explanation is in harmony with the occurrence of typical mitosis in active tissue cells on the one hand, and of amitosis in the relatively quiescent primary germ cells on the other.

_Individuality of the Chromosomes._--The most striking feature in the behaviour of the chromatin in mitosis is its resolution, at each division, into a--for any particular species--constant number of chromosomes. This constant recurrence of the specific number of chromosomes at every cell-division is capable of explanation in two radically different ways. One explanation assumes for the organism a specific peculiarity determining the segmentation of the spireme thread into a definite number of segments (Delage, 1899 and 1901).[33] The other regards chromosomes as independent units of the cell, retaining their identity between successive cell-divisions. The latter "Individualitäts Hypothese" was originally put forward by Theodor Boveri in 1887 as a result of C. Rabl's observation (1885) that in epidermal cells of the salamander larva the chromosomes reappear in the mitosis of the daughter cells with the same arrangement as they possessed in the prophase of the mother cell--the angles of the U-shaped chromosomes being all directed towards one pole (Rabl's "Poleseite") of the nucleus. In the formation of the "resting" nucleus, the chromatin, becoming metabolically active, flows out on to the linin reticulum, all trace of the chromosomes being for the time lost. In _Ascaris_, Boveri (1888) obtained similar but still more striking results. The thickened ends of the four elongated chromosomes cause projections on the nuclear surface throughout the resting period, and the ends of the reappearing chromosomes always coincided with these protuberances; cf. also Sutton (1902) on locust spermatagonia. Moreover, the arrangement of the chromosomes must follow one of three well-marked groupings, and this is determined for each individual in the cleavage spindle of the egg and maintained throughout later development (fig. 8).

In the same worm (var. _univalens_) Boveri (1888 and 1899) found that occasional abnormalities in maturation resulted in the suppression of the first polar body and the inclusion of its chromosomes in the second maturation spindle; the egg-nucleus at the time of fertilization thus having two chromosomes instead of one, while the spermatozoon nucleus has only one. Three chromosomes instead of two reappear in subsequent divisions. Boveri's "Individualitäts Hypothese" received striking support from the work of Herla (1893), L. R. Zoja (1895) and O. zur Strassen (1898). Herla and Zoja showed that if the egg of _Ascaris megalocephala_ (var. _bivalens_), which possesses two chromosomes, be fertilized with the spermatozoon of var. _univalens_, in which the germ cell has only one chromosome and that smaller than either of the two in the other variety, three chromosomes reappear, two large and one small, in the cleavage divisions of the resulting hybrid embryo. Zur Strassen's observations on the giant embryos of _Ascaris_ also support Boveri's theory. These embryos arise by the fusion of eggs, either before or after fertilization. The number of chromosomes in the subsequent cleavage-figures is proportional to the number of nuclei that have fused together. Similar results are given by Boveri's (1893-1895) and T. H. Morgan's (1895) experiments on the fertilization of enucleated sea-urchin egg-fragments; all the nuclei of the resulting embryo having only half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the species (e.g. in _Echinus_ 9 instead of 18). All the above facts point to the conclusion that, as Boveri expressed it in his _Grundgesetz der Zahlenkonstanz_ (1888), "the number of chromosomes arising from a resting nucleus is solely dependent on the number which originally entered into its composition."[34]

_Boveri's Law of Proportional Nuclear Growth._--The chromatin in the nucleus is exactly halved at every cell-division. As the bulk of the chromatin remains constant from one cell-generation to another, it must double its bulk between successive divisions. That this proportional growth of the chromatin is dependent solely on the chromatin mass, and not on that of the cell, is very clearly indicated by cases where the normal chromatin mass has been artificially increased or reduced,[35] the chromatin in either case doubling its bulk between successive cell-divisions, and neither the mass of the chromatin nor the number of the chromosomes undergoing any readjustment. By double or partial fertilization, different regions in the same embryo may show nuclei of different sizes (Boveri). We must therefore distinguish in the cell between "young" and "adult" chromatin. In other words the chromatin must be regarded as being composed of individual units, each with a definite constant structure and maximum growth (Boveri, 1904). This conclusion is strongly suggested, not only by the evidence in favour of the individuality of the chromosomes considered above, but also by the independent reproductive activity of the chromatin granules in the prophase of mitosis.

_Differentiation among the Chromosomes._--If we grant the assumption of a persistent individuality for the chromosomes, then it becomes possible to consider whether in one and the same nucleus these structures may not take varying parts in controlling the cell's activity in development and in inheritance. Such a differentiation among the chromosomes would be due to independent ancestry rather than to the economy resulting from a division of labour; nevertheless a division of labour of a sort would be the result of this gradual divergence of the chromosomes from one another, and we might therefore expect that, in some cases at least, a _morphological_ would accompany the _physiological_ differentiation. Examples of such a morphological differentiation do indeed occur in the "accessory" chromosomes first described by H. Henking (1891) for the spermatogonia of _Pyrrhocoris_, and since described for numerous other insects, Arachnids and Myriapods. W. Sutton's work on the spermatogenesis of _Brachystola magna_ is of especial interest in this connexion. Not only does the "accessory chromosome" in this insect form a resting nucleus independent, and obviously physiologically differentiated from that formed from the remaining chromosomes (fig. 9, a), but the latter are themselves differentiated by size, there being one pair of chromosomes of each size (fig. 9, b), a point of considerable interest when we remember that half the chromosomes in each cell are necessarily derived from each parent.[36]

Although this morphological differentiation among the chromosomes is undoubtedly to be regarded as indicating a corresponding physiological differentiation, it by no means follows that the latter need always, or even generally, be accompanied by the former. Since, however, the specific characters of the organism must be due to the combined activity of _all_ the chromosomes, any physiological differentiation among the latter should result in abnormal development if the full complement of chromosomes be not present.[37] Boveri,[38] utilizing Herbst's method[39] for separating echinoderm blastomeres, has interpreted in this manner the abnormal development which H. Driesch[40] found almost invariably to follow the double fertilization of the sea-urchin egg. In such eggs the first cleavage spindle is four-poled. The chromosomes are half again as numerous as in normally fertilized eggs (54 instead of 36), but each is only divided once, so that in the distribution of the resulting 108 chromosomes the four daughter nuclei receive each only 27 instead of 36 (assuming the distribution to be fairly equal, which is by no means usually the case in four-poled mitosis). Driesch had already (1900) shown that any one of the first four blastomeres of a normally fertilized egg will, if isolated, develop normally. Boveri found that in the case of the doubly fertilized egg the isolated "¼" blastomeres develop very variously, a variability only to be accounted for by their varying chromosome equipment. Occasionally a three-poled instead of a four-poled figure resulted from double fertilization. In such cases Driesch found, as we should expect from Boveri's interpretation, that the percentage of approximately normal larvae was considerably greater; for not only would the chances of an equal distribution of the chromosomes be much greater, but the number received by each of the three daughter cells would approximate to, or even equal, the normal.

_Reduction._--In all the Metazoa the prevailing, and in the higher forms the only, method of reproduction is by the union (conjugation) of two "sexually" differentiated germ-cells or "gametes"; a small motile "microgamete" or spermatozoon and a large yolk-laden "macrogamete" or ovum (see Reproduction). This differentiation between the germ-cells is another example of the advantages of division of labour; for while the onus of bringing about the union of the germ-cells is thrown entirely on the spermatozoon, the egg devotes itself to the accumulation of food-material (yolk) for the subsequent use of the developing embryo. Far more yolk is thus secreted than would be possible by the combined efforts of both the germ-cells had each of these at the same time to preserve its motility. The fundamental physiological difference which this division of labour has produced in the germ-cells is reflected on to the general metabolism of the parents and underlies the sexual differentiation of the latter.[41] Beyond this, however, sexual differentiation does not go. The two germ nuclei which enter into the formation of the first mitotic figure of the developing egg are not only physiologically equivalent, but, at the time of their union in the egg, are usually morphologically identical.[42] The essence of fertilization is, therefore, the union of two germ nuclei only differing from one another in that they are derived from separate individuals.[43] Since the number of chromosomes appearing in mitosis is solely dependent on the number which originally entered into the composition of the nucleus (Boveri's Law of Chromosome-Constancy), it follows that, in the mitotic figures of the developing embryo, the chromosomes will be half maternal, half paternal in origin;[44] the germ nuclei thus necessarily possessing only half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the ordinary tissue cells of species, i.e. the somatic number.[45] The manner in which this "reduction" in the number of chromosomes in the germ-cells is brought about, and the significance to be attached to the process, constitute the most hotly debated questions in cytology. In all the metazoa the phenomenon of reduction is associated with the two last and, usually, rapidly succeeding "maturation" divisions by which the definitive germ-cells--ova or spermatozoa--are produced.[46]

Assuming the persistent individuality of the chromosomes, then there are only three conceivable methods by which this numerical reduction can be brought about (Boveri, 1904, p. 60). (1) One-half the chromosomes degenerate. (2) The chromosomes are distributed entire, half to one daughter cell, half to the other (reducing division of Weismann, 1887). (3) The chromosomes fuse in pairs (_Conjugation of the Chromosomes_, Boveri, 1892). The first possibility--that of an actual degeneration of a part of the chromatin originally suggested by van Beneden and adopted by August Weismann, Boveri and others, has been long abandoned, and a steadily increasing bulk of evidence is tending to prove the general, if not universal, occurrence of the second method--the distribution between the daughter cells of undivided chromosomes. The occurrence of such a "reducing division" was postulated on theoretical grounds by Weismann (1887)[47] and by Boveri (1888); by the former as a result of his adoption of de Vries's hypothesis of self-propagating and qualitatively varying units for the chromatin; by the latter in relation to his theory of chromosome individuality. The actual occurrence of this reducing division was first demonstrated by Henking (1891) for _Pyrrhocoris_, and afterwards by Häcker, vom Rath and many others, but especially by Rückert (1894) for _Cyclops_ (fig. 10). In this latter type the chromatin of the oocyte, as this prepares for the first maturation division, resolves itself into 12 (instead of 24) longitudinally split chromosomes (fig. 10, a). As these continue to thicken and contract a transverse fission appears (fig. 10, c). This is to be regarded as a belated segmentation of the spireme thread, and shows that the reduction so far is only a "pseudo-reduction" (Rückert), the chromosomes being really all present but temporally united in pairs, i.e. "bivalent" (Häcker). A striking confirmation of this interpretation is provided by Korschelt's description of reduction in the annelid _Ophryotrocha_. In this type the full somatic number of split chromosomes (here only four) appears, and these secondarily associate end to end in pairs, thus forming split "diads" (i.e. tetrads), in every way similar to those described by Rückert for _Cyclops_. In the latter type, at the first maturation division, the sister diads are separated from one another, an "equating" division thus taking place. At the second division the diads are resolved into their constituent parts, and the "univalent" chromosomes are distributed to the daughter cells (reducing division). A similar process has since been described for numerous other types (e.g. various arthropods, Häcker, 1895-1898; vom Rath, 1895; and by Sutton for _Brachystola_, 1902-1903). In _Ophryotrocha_, as in _Pyrrhocoris_ (Henking), _Anasa_ (Paulmeir), _Peripatus_ (Montgomery), &c., reduction occurs at the first maturation division ("pre-reduction" of Korschelt and Heider, 1900), instead of at the second division (post-reduction) as in most Copepods and Orthoptera. In many cases the tetrads (i.e. split chromosomes associated in pairs) have the form of rings, the genesis of which was first clearly determined by vom Rath (1892) in the mole cricket _Gryllotalpa_ (fig. 11). In this form the sister diads remain united by their ends but widely separate in the middle (fig. 11, b). As in _Cyclops_, the belated transverse segmentation appears as the condensation of the chromatin proceeds (fig. 11, d), but the symmetrical tetrads which this process here produces make it impossible to determine at which of the two divisions reduction is effected. An essentially similar ring formation occurs in _Enchaeta_ and _Calanus_ (vom Rath), and in the Copepods _Heterocope_ and Diaptomus (Rückert), and in other types.[48]

All the above cases, in which the reduction is effected by the distribution of entire chromosomes at one or other of the maturation divisions, may be grouped together as "pseudomitotic" (Häcker, and Korschelt & Heider). In sharp contrast to the pseudomitotic method is the "Eumitotic" method, in which the chromosomes are longitudinally divided at both divisions. Such a method not only robs the process of any "reducing" value in Weismann's sense, but is in serious conflict with the chromosome-individuality hypothesis. Nevertheless it is in this sense that Boveri (1881) and van Beneden (1883-1887) described the maturation of the egg, and at a later period Brauer (1893) that of the spermatozoon, in _Ascaris_. In each case the tetrads are formed by the double longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes, the latter appearing in the prophase in the reduced number. Not only was the eumitotic method of _Ascaris_ the first method to be described, but the descriptions are fully equal in point of clearness to that of Hertwig for the pseudomitotic maturation of _Cyclops_.[49] A similar eumitotic maturation has been described for other types also, e.g. _Sagitta_ and the Heteropods, but nowhere more frequently than in the Vertebrates among animals and the Phanerogams among plants. In these two latter groups the chromosomes of the reducing division only rarely have a ring form comparable to that seen in _Gryllotalpa_, &c. When such rings do occur their genesis is very obscure, and at no time do they present the appearance of "tetrads." It is the characteristic appearance these looped chromosomes give to the first maturation division in many Vertebrates, and especially in the Amphibia (fig. 12), that originally led Flemming (1887) to term this type of mitosis "heterotypical"; the second division, lacking this peculiar appearance, being distinguished as "homotypical." Until quite recently these looped chromosomes of the heterotypical mitosis of Vertebrates (and plants) were described as arising by the opening out of longitudinally split chromosomes, exactly as this occurs in the early prophase of the maturation divisions in such types as _Gryllotalpa_, _Diaptomus_, &c. In the heterotype mitosis, however, no transverse segmentation appears, and the halves of the rings, as they separate in the first division, show an obvious longitudinal split in preparation for the second division.[50] Both divisions were thus interpreted as equating divisions.[51] The more recent works of Farmer and Moore (1903-1905), Montgomery (1903, Amphibia), and (for plants) Strasburger (1903-1904) have shown, however, that even for the higher plants and animals, a reducing division in Weismann's sense occurs in an essentially similar manner to that so convincingly described by Rückert, vom Rath and others, for Invertebrate types. For the chromosomes of the heterotype mitosis arise by the looping round, not opening out, of the bivalent chromosomes. The first division is thus a reducing division, while the split appearing in the anaphase of the heterotype and presumably reappearing in the prophase of the homotype is the original split of the spireme thread.

The widespread, if not universal, formation of tetrads, i.e. the temporary union in pairs of split chromosomes, in reduction, and the relation this latter process always bears to _two_ rapidly succeeding maturation divisions--those completing the gametogenic cycle in animals and terminating the sporophytic generation in plants,--has received a suggestive explanation at the hands of Boveri (1904). The growth of the chromatin is an indispensable prelude to its reproduction (Boveri's Law of Proportional Growth). The chromatin is therefore incapable of undergoing reproductive fission in two successive mitotic divisions when these are not separated by a resting (i.e. growth) period. In addition to this, the "bipolar" condition of the adult chromosomes, which determines its mode of attachment to mantle fibres from _both_ poles of the spindle, is not possessed by the unripe chromatin. The undivided, i.e. unripe, chromosomes are therefore incapable of utilizing the mitotic mechanism for such a transverse fission as Weismann originally postulated. The difficulty is, however, at once overcome if the unripe chromosomes are associated in pairs in the equatorial plate, for the bivalent chromosomes so produced are bipolar just as are the adult (i.e. split) chromosomes in the ordinary and homotype mitosis.[52]

_Synopsis_ ([Greek: synaptein], to fuse together).--During the prophase of the reducing or heterotype divisions the whole of the chromatin becomes temporarily massed together at one pole of the nucleus (Moore, 1896, for Elasmobranchs). Montgomery (1901) has suggested that this is to facilitate the temporary union in pairs, or "conjugation" of homologous paternal and maternal chromosomes. In _Ascaris megalocephala_ var. _univalens_, where the somatic number is only two, the association must necessarily be between homologous chromosomes. The assumption that this "selective pairing" of equivalent chromosomes is universal is supported by the behaviour of the "Heterochromosomes" (Montgomery) of the Hemiptera. These chromosomes, distinguished by their size, are paired before, and single after, the "pseudo-reduction" has taken place. Even more convincing is Sutton's account of reduction in _Brachystola_ already referred to.[53] Boveri (1904) has suggested that this temporary association of the chromosomes--presumably facilitated by the synapsis--has a much deeper meaning than to ensure their correct distribution between the daughter nuclei in the heterotype mitosis; the associated chromosomes exchanging material in a manner analogous to conjugation in _Paramoecium_.[54]

_Present Position of the Cell-theory._--Since the time of Schleiden and Schwann a wealth of evidence has accumulated in support of the "cell-theory"--the theory which regards the cell as the unit of organic structure. "The organism consists morphologically, of cells, and subsists, physiologically, by means of the 'reciprocal action' of the cells,"--this was the cell standpoint of Schleiden and Schwann, and it is no exaggeration to say that this same conception has dominated the cell-theory almost to the present day.[55] The frequently striking correlation between cell-division and cell-differentiation in development has caused this process to be regarded as dependent on cell-division, while a wholly exaggerated importance has been attached to the distinction between "unicellular" and "multicellular" organisms--between "intercellular" and "intracellular" organs. The influence of the "cells" upon one another, the subordination of the cell's growth, division and differentiation, to the requirements of the whole organism--seen in normal growth, but nowhere more strikingly than in development and regeneration,--is, however, very difficult of explanation in terms of the cell-theory as this was, until quite recently, generally understood. The very elaborate regional differentiation of the protoplasm often seen in the Protozoa sufficiently indicate that multicellular structure is no essential condition for complex regional differentiation. That the regional differentiation of the protoplasm in the Metazoa should usually correspond with cell-limits is scarcely surprising. Nor is it to be wondered at that, with so convenient a mechanism for segregation to hand as cell-division, the progressive differentiation seen during development should often appear to go hand in hand with this process. In recent years, however, evidence has been steadily accumulating to show that this association between cell-division and regional differentiation of the protoplasm in development is a casual one--as casual, and as natural, as the correspondence between cell limits and regional differentiation in the formed tissues. The fact that the regional differentiation may be foreshadowed in the egg before cleavage begins,[56]--that as Driesch has shown, the mode of cleavage may be artificially altered without affecting the ultimate organization of the embryo,--and many other similar observations, tend to emphasize the importance of the "organism" standpoint (C. O. Whitman, 1903, p. 642) in contradistinction to the widely prevalent "cell" standpoint. The occurrence of syncytial organs and organisms, and the increasing frequency with which protoplasmic continuity is being demonstrated between all kinds of cells, are facts tending in the same direction. In the plant kingdom the growth of the _mass_ has been recognized as the primary factor in development;[57] _die Pflanze bildet Zellen, nicht die Zelle bildet Pflanzen_ (de Bary). For the animal kingdom this "Inadequacy of the Cell-Theory of Development" has been maintained amongst others by Whitman,[58] and by Adam Sedgwick.[59] The latter author, mainly as the result of work on the development of _Peripatus_ and of Elasmobranch embryos, regards the developing embryo as a continuous protoplasmic reticulum, for the nuclei of which the limiting epithelial layers constitute as it were a breeding ground. Differentiation is a regional specialization of this nucleated meshwork, and is not to be regarded as the result of the proliferation and subsequent specialization of cells predestined by cleavage for this end.

It is possible to suggest a mechanico-physical explanation of multicellular structure which will deprive the cell of much of its assumed significance as a unit of organization. The fact that surface area becomes relatively less extensive as bulk increases would alone set a limit to the size of "unicellular" organisms; for not only is there a constant reaction between nucleus and cytoplasm through the nuclear membrane, but the surface of the cell serves both for the intake of food and the elimination of waste material. In addition to the limit thus imposed upon the cytoplasmic area which can be effectually controlled by the nucleus, and the necessity for a minimum surface area to the protoplasmic mass, the advantages of the more or less complete subdivision of the living substance into--as far as their metabolism is concerned--semi-autonomous units, is indicated by the mechanical support derived from the specialized cell walls and turgescent cells of the plant, and the intercellular secretions of the animal tissues. It is more than possible that these two conditions--i.e. surface area for diffusion, and mechanical support--are alone responsible for the _origin_ of multicellular structure, and that the sharply defined character this now so generally possesses has been secondarily acquired as a result of the facilities it undoubtedly offers for regional specialization in the protoplasmic mass.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The special literature of cytology has grown to large dimensions. The following are the more important text-books and papers of general interest: E. B. Wilson, _The Cell in Development and Inheritance_ (2nd ed., 1900); A. Gurwitsch, _Morphologie und Biologie der Zelle_ (Jena, 1904); O. Hertwig, _Allgemeine Biologie_ (Jena, 1906); Korschelt and Heider, _Lehrbuch der vergl. Entwicklungsgeschichte der wirbellosen Tiere_, Allgem. Teil, "The Germ Cells and Experimental Embryology" (Jena, 1903); Whitman, "The Inadequacy of the Cell Theory of Development," _Journ. Morph._ viii., 1893; Adam Sedgwick, "On the Inadequacy of the Cellular Theory of Development," _Quart. Journ. Micro. Science_, xxxvii.; G. C. Bourne, "A Criticism of the Cell Theory" (an answer to Sedgwick's paper), _Quart. Journ. Micro. Science_, xxxviii.; Th. Boveri, "Befruchtung," _Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse der Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch._ Bd. i. (1892), _Das Problem der Befruchtung_ (Jena, 1902), _Ergebnisse über die Konstitution der chromatischen Substanz des Zellkerns_ (Jena, 1904); J. Rückert, "Die Chromatinreduktion bei der Reifung der Sexualzellen," _Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse_, Bd. iii. (1894); V. Häcker, "Die Reifungserscheinungen," _Ergebn. Anat. u. Entwicklungsgesch._ Bd. viii. (1898); F. Meves, "Zellteilung," _Merkel-Bonnets Ergebnisse_, Bd. viii. (1898, 1899); W. Waldeyer, "Die Geschlechtszellen," in O. Hertwig's _Handbuch der vergleich. u. experiment. Entwicklungslehre d. Wirbeltiere_ (1901, 1903). (G. C. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Allgemeine Physiologie_, p. 53 (1895).

[2] _Vom inwendigen Bau der Gewachse_ (1806).

[3] The Chromoplastids of the vegetable cell come under a different category of cell-inclusions; see PLANTS: _Cytology_.

[4] Cf. Pfeffer's classical experiments on the physiological significance of cell-continuity in plant tissues (_Über den Einfluss des Zellkerns auf die Bildung der Zellhaut_, 1896). The recent work in physiology on the influence substances secreted by certain tissues and circulating in the blood-stream exert upon other and widely different tissues, should not be lost sight of in this connexion.

[5] The influence this protoplasmic continuity may have upon our conception of the cell as a unit of organization is referred to below (_Present Position of the Cell-theory_).

[6] A term (from [Greek: karyon], kernel) suggested by Flemming to replace Strasburger's hybrid term "nucleoplasm" (1882). The earlier workers, e.g. Leydig, Schultze, Brücke, de Bary, &c., restricted the term protoplasm to the cell-body--the "Cytoplasm" of Strasburger, an example still followed by O. Hertwig.

[7] From _linum_, a thread, Schwarz, 1887.

[8] From [Greek: chrôma], colour, Flemming, 1879.

[9] The formation of pseudopodia and accompanying changes in form of _Amoeba_ were observed as early as 1755 by Raesel von Rosenhof, who named it on this account the "little Proteus."

[10] "Sur les rapports des cils vibratiles avec les centrosomes," _Archives d'anatomie microscopique_ (1898).

[11] "Über Zentralkörper in männlichen Geschlechtszellen von Schmetterlingen" (Anat. Anz. Bd. xiv., 1897). Cf. also the papers of Lenhossek (_Über Flimmerzellen_, 1898), Karl Peter (_Das Zentrum für die Flimm- und Giesselbewegung_, 1899) and Verworn (_Studien zur Physiologie der Flimmerbewegung_, 1899).

[12] Cf., however, the present writer's interpretation of this structure in the oocyte of _Antedon_. _Phil. Trans. Royal Soc._ (1906), B. 249.

[13] Claude Bernard expressed the same conclusion in 1885. Rejecting both the view that vital phenomena were identical with chemico-physical phenomena, and that which regarded them as totally distinct, he suggested a third point of view: "l'élément ultime du phénomène est physique; l'arrangement est vital."

[14] Many forms of response to stimulus involve no visible specialization, e.g. positive and negative heliotropism, chemiotropism, geotropism, &c., seen more especially in plants, but occurring also in the animal kingdom.

[15] Prominent among these are: Schleiden (1873), Fol (1873-1877), Auerbach (1874), Bütschli (1876), Strasburger (1875-1888), O. Hertwig (1875-1890), R. Hertwig (1875-1877); Flemming (1879-1891), van Beneden (1883-1887), Rabl (1889), Boveri (1887-1903).

[16] This distinction between the chromatic and achromatic portions of the mitotic figure is due to Flemming.

[17] The genesis of the spireme thread was first described by E. G. Balbiani in 1876.

[18] "Recherches sur la maturation de l'oeuf, la fécondation et la division cellulaire" (_Archives de biologie_, vol. iv.).

[19] First discovered by Flemming in 1879 and confirmed by Retzius in 1881.

[20] The discovery by Hermann of the central spindle first clearly showed that two kinds of fibres must be recognized in the mitotic figure. Those of the central spindle correspond to the continuous spindle fibres of Flemming (1891) and Strasburger (1884), and the mantle fibres, i.e. half-spindle or _Polstrahlen_, of van Beneden (1887) and Boveri (1889-1890).

[21] Planter, Watasé, Griffen and others.

[22] e.g. _Euglypha_ (Schewiakoff, 1888), Infusoria (R. Hertwig, 1898). So also Korschelt for _Ophryotrocha_, and many other cases.

[23] e.g. Bauer, spermatogenic cells of _Ascaris univalens_.

[24] Cf. also Watasé, Solger and Zimmermann.

[25] This term is due to Boveri (_Zellenstudien_, ii., 1888, p. 68; _Jen. Zeit._ xxii.), but it was intended by him to include the region of modified cytoplasm or "centrosphere" often enclosing the centrosome proper, i.e. "centriole" of Boveri.

[26] For outline of fertilization see article REPRODUCTION.

[27] e.g. lymph and various epithelial and connective tissue cells of salamander larva (Flemming, 1891; Heidenhain, 1892); pigment cells of fishes (Solger, 1891); red blood corpuscles (Heidenhain, Eisen, 1897); and numerous other cases.

[28] For an interesting development of this subject see Watasé (1894). This author not only identifies the centrosome with the structures seen in lymph cells, &c., but compares it to the basal granules of ciliated cells and to the varicose swellings on the sarcostyles of striped muscle cells!

[29] The force of this evidence is admitted by Boveri himself. Meves, however, maintains the possibility that the numerous centrosomes appearing in the egg arise by the rapid fragmentation of a centrosome already present.

[30] Cf. especially the behaviour of the centrosomes in the fertilization of the egg of _Pleurophyllidia_ (MacFarland, 1897) and that of _Cerebratulus_ (Coe, 1901). Not only may the sperm centrosomes totally disappear before reaching the egg-nucleus, but in the latter type the definitive centrosomes appear while the last traces of the sperm asters are still visible.

[31] e.g. Meves; Spermatagonia of Salamandra.

[32] Cf. especially the artificial production of amitosis in _Spirogyra_; W. Pfeffer, 1899.

[33] Cf. Boveri, 1904, p. 13. (For Boveri's criticism of Delage's views, cf. Boveri, 1901 and 1902.)

[34] It should, however, be noted that the assumption that a particular group of characters remains always associated in a particular chromosome is one that is very difficult to reconcile with the mode of inheritance of Mendelian pairs of characters in the case of organisms with a relatively small chromosome number.

[35] Boveri (1902), "Fertilization of enucleated _Echinus_-egg fragments," and M. Boveri (1903); by shaking the egg shortly after fertilization the sperm centrosome is prevented from dividing, and a monaster instead of a diaster results, the divided chromosomes remaining in the one nucleus.

[36] Cf. especially in this connexion Häcker's paper _Über die Schicksale der elterlichen und grosselterlichen Kernanteile_ (1902).

[37] Each nucleus contains a duplicate set of chromosomes, the one of maternal, the other of paternal origin, and either of these sets alone suffices for development. This is clearly shown by the experiments of Loeb (1899) and Wilson (1901) on the artificial parthenogenesis of the sea-urchin egg; and those of O. Hertwig (1889 and 1895), Delage (1899) and Winkler (1901), on the fertilization of enucleated Echinoderm eggs (_Merogony_, Delage). The fact that in some forms, e.g. _Ascaris megalocephala_ var. _univalens_, only one chromosome is derived from each parent, originally led Boveri to conclude that _all_ chromosomes must necessarily be physiologically equivalent.

[38] _Über mehrpolige Mitosen als Mittel zur Analyse des Zellkerns_ (1902).

[39] _Über das Auseinandergehen von Furchungs- und Gewebezellen in kalkfreien Medium_ (1900).

[40] "Entwicklungsmechanische Studien V." (_Zeit. für wiss. Zool._, Bd. lv., 1892).

[41] See Geddes and Thomson, _Sex_, esp. pp. 127, 137 and 139.

[42] The equivalence of the germ nuclei in development is shown by the experiments on the fertilization of enucleated eggs and artificial parthenogenesis already referred to.

[43] O. Hertwig, 1873; but esp. van Beneden, 1883.

[44] Häcker, "Über die Selbstständigkeit der väterlichen und mütterlichen Kernbestandteile," _Arch. f. mikr. Anat._ Bd. xlvi. (1896).

[45] First discovered by van Beneden (1883, 1887) for the egg of _Ascaris_.

[46] In the case of the egg the whole of the yolk stored by the "oocyte" (cell-generation immediately preceding the maturation divisions) is handed on to only one of the four resulting cells--an obvious economy. The three yolkless cells are necessarily functionless--abortive ova--and are known as the "polar bodies" (Hertwig). In spermatogenesis the maturation divisions, though bearing the same relation to reduction as in oogenesis (Platner, 1889; O. Hertwig, 1890), give rise to four functional germ-cells. The explanation of sexual differentiation given above, and that of polar body formation given here, render it needless to do more than mention the theories of Mimot (1877), van Beneden (1883) and others, by which "maturation" was regarded as removing the "male" element from the otherwise "hermaphrodite" egg.

[47] Weismann postulated a transverse division of the chromosomes, not a distribution of entire chromosomes; but the result as far as the reduction in the number of hereditary qualities goes is the same. The inability of the mitotic mechanism to effect the transverse division of unsplit chromosomes is pointed out by Boveri (1904).

[48] For an exhaustive account of reduction in Invertebrates see Korschelt and Heider, _Entwicklungsgeschichte_, Allgem. Teil ii. (Jena, 1903).

[49] Nevertheless the possibility of a pseudomitotic interpretation of maturation in _Ascaris_ also has been maintained by O. Hertwig (1890), p. 277, Carnoy and Boveri (1904).

[50] The partial or even complete reconstruction of the nucleus between the heterotype and homotype division in Vertebrates makes it difficult to determine the identity of the split seen in the anaphase of the heterotype with that reappearing in the prophase of the homotype.

[51] e.g. Moore, 1895 (_Scyllium_); Flemming, 1897; Carnoy and Lebrun, 1899 (_Amphibia_); McGregor, 1899; Lenhossek, 1898 (mammals), and many others. So also for plants: Strasburger and Mottier, 1897; Dixon, 1896; Sargant, 1896-1897; Farmer and Moore, 1895; Gregoire, 1899; Guignard, 1899, &c.

[52] H. Henking (1899), T. Montgomery (1898) and F. C. Paulmeir (1899) describe the diverging bivalent halves of the tetrad as being united each by _two_ fibres with the corresponding spindle pole. At the next division, at which the diad is resolved into its constituent univalent chromosomes, the daughter chromosomes are attached to the spindle pole each by only one fibre; the two fibres now passing to opposite poles of the spindle being the same fibres which, in the preceding mitosis, were attached to one and the same pole.

[53] Reference may be here made to Rosenberg's description (1904) of the heterotype mitosis in _Drosera_ hybrids. In the one parent (_D. rotundifolia_) the somatic number is 20, in the other (_D. longifolia_) 10; while the hybrid itself has a somatic number of 30. The reduced number in the hybrid, however, is not 15 but 20. Of these 10 are large and 10 small, the latter presumably representing the supernumerary, and hence unpaired, chromosomes of the _D. rotundifolia_ parent.

[54] In their 1905 paper J. B. Farmer and J. E. S. Moore describe two successive synaptic stages (e.g. Elasmobranchs), the first during the contraction of the spireme thread, the second during the looping up of the bivalent segments. (In this paper the authors suggest the term "Meiosis" or "Meiotic phase" for the nuclear changes accompanying the two maturation divisions in plants and animals ([Greek: meiôsis], reduction).

[55] Whitman, _Jour. Morph._, 1903.

[56] This "Precocious segregation" (Lankester, 1877) is well seen in the eggs of many Ctenophorae, Annelids, Gastropods and Nematodes. See the papers by Lillie (1901), Conklin (1902), &c., and especially Wilson on "Dentalium," _Journ. of Exp. Zool._, No. 1, 1904.

[57] Hofmeister, de Bary, Sachs, &c.

[58] _Loc. cit._

[59] _Quart. Journ. Micro. Science_, 1894, vol. xxxvii.

CYZICENUS, the architectural term given by Vitruvius to the large hall, used by the Greeks, which faced the north, with a prospect towards the gardens; the windows of this hall opened down to the ground, so that the green verdure could be seen by those lying on the couches.

CYZICUS, an ancient town of Mysia in Asia Minor, situated on the shoreward side of the present peninsula of Kapu-Dagh (Arctonnesus), which is said to have been originally an island in the Sea of Marmora, and to have been artificially connected with the mainland in historic times. It was, according to tradition, occupied by Thessalian settlers at the coming of the Argonauts, and in 756 B.C. the town was founded by Greeks from Miletus. Owing to its advantageous position it speedily acquired commercial importance, and the gold _staters_ of Cyzicus were a staple currency in the ancient world till they were superseded by those of Philip of Macedon. During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) Cyzicus was subject to the Athenians and Lacedaemonians alternately, and at the peace of Antalcidas (387 B.C.), like the other Greek cities in Asia, it was made over to Persia. The history of the town in Hellenistic times is closely connected with that of the dynasts of Pergamum, with whose extinction it came into direct relations with Rome. Cyzicus was held for the Romans against Mithradates in 74 B.C. till the siege was raised by Lucullus: the loyalty of the city was rewarded by an extension of territory and other privileges. Still a nourishing centre in Imperial times, the place appears to have been ruined by a series of earthquakes--the last in A.D. 1063--and the population was transferred to Artaki at least as early as the 13th century, when the peninsula was occupied by the Crusaders. The site is now known as Bal-Kiz ([Greek: Palaia Kuzikos]?) and entirely uninhabited, though under cultivation. The principal extant ruins are:--the walls, which are traceable for nearly their whole extent, a picturesque amphitheatre intersected by a stream, and the substructures of the temple of Hadrian. Of this magnificent building, sometimes ranked among the seven wonders of the ancient world, thirty-one immense columns still stood erect in 1444. These have since been carried away piecemeal for building purposes by the Turks.

See J. Marquardt, _Cyzicus_ (Berlin, 1830); G. Perrot, _Exploration de la Galatie_ (Paris, 1862); F. W. Hasluck and A. E. Henderson in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (1904), 135-143. (F. W. Ha.)

CZARNIECKI, STEPHEN (1590-1665), Polish general, learnt the science of war under Stanislaw Koniecpolski in the Prussian campaigns against Gustavus Adolphus (1626-1629), and under Wladislaus IV. in the Muscovite campaign of 1633. On the 15th of April 1648 he was one of the many noble Polish prisoners who fell into the hands of Chmielnicki at the battle of "Yellow Waters," and was sent in chains to the Crimea, whence he was ransomed in 1649. He took an active part in all the subsequent wars with the Cossacks and received more disfiguring wounds than any other commander. When Charles X. of Sweden invaded Poland in 1655, Czarniecki distinguished himself by his heroic defence of Cracow, which he only surrendered under the most honourable conditions. His energy and ability as a leader of guerillas hampered Charles X. at every step, and though frequently worsted he from time to time inflicted serious defeats upon the Swedes, notably at Jaroslaw and at Kozienice in 1656. Under his direction the popular rising against the invader ultimately proved triumphant. It was he who brought King John Casimir back from exile and enabled him to regain his lost kingdom. It was against his advice that the great battle of Warsaw was fought, and his subsequent strategy neutralized the ill effects of that national disaster. On the retirement of the Swedes from Cracow and Warsaw, and the conclusion of the treaty of Copenhagen with the Danes, he commanded the army corps sent to drive the troops of Charles X. out of Jutland and greatly contributed to the ultimate success of the Allies. On the conclusion of the Peace of Oliva, which adjusted the long outstanding differences between Poland and Sweden, Czarniecki was transferred to the eastern frontier where the war with Muscovy was still raging. In the campaign of 1660 he won the victories of Polonka and Lachowicza and penetrated to the heart of the enemy's country. The diet of 1661 publicly thanked him for his services; the king heaped honours and riches upon him, and in 1665 he was appointed acting commander-in-chief of Poland, but died a few days after receiving this supreme distinction. By his wife Sophia Kobierzycka he left two daughters. Czarniecki is rightly regarded as one of the most famous of heroic Poland's great captains, and to him belongs the chief merit of extricating her from the difficulties which threatened to overwhelm her during the disastrous reign of John Casimir. Czarniecki raised partisan-warfare to the dignity of a science, and by his ubiquity and tenacity demoralized and exhausted the regular armies to which he was generally opposed.

See Ludwik Jenike, _Stephen Czarniecki_ (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1891); Michal Dymitr Krajewski, _History of Stephen Czarniecki_ (Pol.), (Cracow, 1859).

CZARTORYSKI, ADAM GEORGE, PRINCE (1770-1861), Polish statesman, was the son of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski and Isabella Fleming. After a careful education at home by eminent specialists, mostly Frenchmen,[1] he first went abroad in 1786. At Gotha he heard Goethe read his _Iphigenie auf Tauris_, and made the acquaintance of the dignified Herder and "fat little Wieland." In 1789 he visited England with his mother, and was present at the trial of Warren Hastings. On a second visit in 1793 he made many acquaintances among the English aristocracy and studied the English constitution. In the interval between these visits he fought for his country during the war of the second partition, and would subsequently have served under Kosciuszko also had he not been arrested on his way to Poland at Brussels by the Austrian government. After the third partition the estates of the Czartoryskis were confiscated, and in May 1795 Adam and his younger brother Constantine were summoned to St Petersburg; later in the year they were commanded to enter the Russian service, Adam becoming an officer in the horse, and Constantine in the foot guards. Catherine was so favourably impressed by the youths that she restored them part of their estates, and in the beginning of 1796 made them gentlemen in waiting. Adam had already met the grand duke Alexander at a ball at the princess Golitsuin's, and the youths at once conceived a strong "intellectual friendship" for each other. On the accession of the emperor Paul, Czartoryski was appointed adjutant to Alexander, now Cesarevich, and was permitted to revisit his Polish estates for three months. At this time the tone of the Russian court was extremely liberal, humanitarian enthusiasts like Peter Volkonsky and Nikolai Novosiltsov possessing great influence.

Throughout the reign of Paul, Czartoryski was in high favour and on terms of the closest intimacy with the emperor, who in December 1798 appointed him ambassador to the court of Sardinia. On reaching Italy Czartoryski found that the monarch to whom he was accredited was a king without a kingdom, so that the outcome of his first diplomatic mission was a pleasant tour through Italy to Naples, the acquisition of the Italian language, and a careful exploration of the antiquities of Rome. In the spring of 1801 the new emperor Alexander summoned his friend back to St Petersburg. Czartoryski found the tsar still suffering from remorse at his father's assassination, and incapable of doing anything but talk religion and politics to a small circle of private friends. To all remonstrances he only replied "There's plenty of time." The senate did most of the current business; Peter Vasilevich Zavadovsky, a pupil of the Jesuits, was minister of education. Alexander appointed Czartoryski curator of the academy of Vilna (April 3, 1803) that he might give full play to his advanced ideas. He was unable, however, to give much attention to education, for from the beginning of 1804, as adjunct of foreign affairs, he had the practical control of Russian diplomacy. His first act was to protest energetically against the murder of the due d'Enghien (March 20, 1804), and insist on an immediate rupture with France. On the 7th of June the French minister Hédouville quitted St Petersburg; and on the 11th of August a note dictated by Czartoryski to Alexander was sent to the Russian minister in London, urging the formation of an anti-French coalition. It was Czartoryski also who framed the Convention of the 6th of November 1804, whereby Russia agreed to put 115,000 and Austria 235,000 men in the field against Napoleon. Finally, on the 11th of April 1805 he signed an offensive-defensive alliance with England. But his most striking ministerial act was a memorial written in 1805, but otherwise undated, which aimed at transforming the whole map of Europe. In brief it amounted to this. Austria and Prussia were to divide Germany between them. Russia was to acquire the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, the Bosphorus with Constantinople, and Corfu. Austria was to have Bosnia, Wallachia and Ragusa. Montenegro, enlarged by Mostar and the Ionian Islands, was to form a separate state. England and Russia together were to maintain the equilibrium of the world. In return for their acquisitions in Germany, Austria and Prussia were to consent to the erection of an autonomous Polish state extending from Danzig to the sources of the Vistula, under the protection of Russia. Fantastic as it was in some particulars, this project was partly realized[2] in more recent times, and it presented the best guarantee for the independent existence of Poland which had never been able to govern itself. But in the meantime Austria had come to an understanding with England as to subsidies, and war had begun.

In 1805 Czartoryski accompanied Alexander both to Berlin and Olmütz as chief minister. He regarded the Berlin visit as a blunder, chiefly owing to his profound distrust of Prussia; but Alexander ignored his representations, and in February 1807 he lost favour and was superseded by Andrei Eberhard Budberg. But though no longer a minister Czartoryski continued to enjoy Alexander's confidence in private, and in 1810 the emperor candidly admitted to Czartoryski that his policy in 1805 had been erroneous and he had not made a proper use of his opportunities. The same year Czartoryski quitted St Petersburg for ever; but the personal relations between him and Alexander were never better. The friends met again at Kalisch shortly before the signature of the Russo-Prussian alliance of the 20th of February 1813, and Czartoryski was in the emperor's suite at Paris in 1814, and rendered his sovereign material services at the congress of Vienna.

On the erection of the congressional kingdom of Poland every one thought that Czartoryski, who more than any other man had prepared the way for it, would be its first governor-general, but he was content with the title of senator-palatine and a share in the administration. In 1817 the prince married Anna Sapiezanko, the wedding leading to a duel with his rival Pac. On the death of his father in 1823 he retired to his ancestral castle at Pulawy; but the Revolution of 1830 brought him back to public life. As president of the provisional government he summoned (Dec. 18th, 1830) the Diet of 1831, and after the termination of Chlopicki's dictatorship was elected chief of the supreme council by 121 out of 138 votes (January 30th). On the 16th of September his disapproval of the popular excesses at Warsaw caused him to quit the government after sacrificing half his fortune to the national cause; but it must be admitted that throughout the insurrection he did not act up to his great reputation. Yet the energy of the sexagenarian statesman was wonderful. On the 23rd of August he joined Girolano Ramorino's army-corps as a volunteer, and subsequently formed a confederation of the three southern provinces of Kalisch, Sandomir and Cracow. At the end of the war he emigrated to France, where he resided during the last thirty years of his life. He died at his country residence at Montfermeil, near Meaux, on the 15th of July 1861. He left two sons, Witold (1824-1865), and Wladyslaus (1828-1894), and a daughter Isabella, who married Jan Dzialynski in 1857. The principal works of Czartoryski are _Essai sur la diplomatie_ (Marseilles, 1830); _Life of J. U. Niemcewiez_ (Pol). (Paris, 1860); _Alexander I. et Czartoryski: correspondance ... et conversations_ (1801-1823) (Paris, 1865); _Mémoires et correspondance avec Alex. I._, with preface by C. de Mazade, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); an English translation _Memoirs of Czartoryski, &c._, edited by A. Gielguch, with documents relating to his negotiations with Pitt, and conversations with Palmerston in 1832 (2 vols., London, 1888).

See Bronislaw Zaleski, _Life of Adam Czartoryski_ (Pol.) (Paris, 1881); Lubomir Gadon, _Prince Adam Czartoryski_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1892); Ludovik Debicki, _Pulawy_, vol. iv.; Lubomir Gadon, _Prince Adam Czartoryski during the Insurrection of November_ (Pol.) (Cracow, 1900). (R. N. B.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Among them was the famous democrat Dupont de Nemours.

[2] e.g. Austria obtained Bosnia, and Montenegro has been enlarged.

CZARTORYSKI, FRYDERYK MICHAL, PRINCE (1696-1775), Polish statesman, was born in 1696. Of small means and no position, he owed his elevation in the world to extraordinary ability, directed by an energetic but patriotic ambition. After a careful education on the best French models, which he completed at Paris, Florence and Rome, he attached himself to the court of Dresden, and through the influence of Count Fleming, the leading minister there, obtained the vice-chancellorship of Lithuania and many other dignities. Czartoryski was one of the many Polish nobles who, when Augustus II. was seriously ill at Bialyvostok in 1727, signed the secret declaration guaranteeing the Polish succession to his son; but this did not prevent him from repudiating his obligations when Stanislaus Leszczynski was placed upon the throne by the influence of France in 1733. When Stanislaus abdicated in 1735 Czartoryski voted for Augustus III. (of Saxony), who gladly employed him and his family to counteract the influence of the irreconcilable Potokis. For the next forty years Czartoryski was certainly the leading Polish statesman. In foreign affairs he was the first to favour an alliance with Russia, Austria and England, as opposed to France and Prussia--a system difficult to sustain and not always beneficial to Poland or Saxony. In Poland Czartoryski was at the head of the party of reform. His palace was the place where the most promising young gentlemen of the day were educated and sent abroad that they might return as his coadjutors in the great work. His plan aimed at the restoration of the royal prerogative and the abolition of the _liberum veto_, an abuse that made any durable improvement impossible. These patriotic endeavours made the Czartoryskis very unpopular with the ignorant _szlachta_, but for many years they had the firm and constant support of the Saxon court, especially after Brühl succeeded Fleming.

Czartoryski reached the height of his power in 1752 when he was entrusted with the great seal of Lithuania; but after that date the influence of his rival Mniszek began to prevail at Dresden, whereupon Czartoryski sought a reconciliation with his political opponents at home and foreign support both in England and Russia. In 1755 he sent his nephew Stanislaus Poniatowski to St Petersburg as Saxon minister, a mission which failed completely. Czartoryski's philo-Russian policy had by this time estranged Brühl, but he frustrated all the plans of the Saxon court by dissolving the diets of 1760, 1761 and 1762. In 1763 he went a step farther and proposed the dethronement of Augustus III., who died the same year. During the ensuing interregnum the prince chancellor laboured night and day at the convocation diet of 1764 to reform the constitution, and it was with displeasure that he saw his incompetent nephew Stanislaus finally elected king in 1765. But though disgusted with the weakness of the king and obliged to abandon at last all hope of the amelioration of his country, Czartoryski continued to hold office till the last; and as chancellor of Lithuania he sealed all the partition treaties. He died in the full possession of his faculties and was considered by the Russian minister Repnin "the soundest head in the kingdom." It is a mistake, however, to regard Czartoryski as the sole reforming statesman of his day, and despite his great services there were occasions when the partisan in him got the better of the statesman. His foreign policy, moreover, was very vacillating, and he changed his "system" more frequently perhaps than any contemporary diplomatist. But when all is said he must remain one of the noblest names in Polish history.

See the _Correspondence_ of Czartoryski in the Collections of the Russian Historical Society, vols. 7, 10, 13, 48, 51, 67 (St Petersburg, 1890, &c.); Wladyslaw Tadeusz Kisielewski, _Reforms of the Czartorysccy_ (Pol.) (Sambor, 1880); Adalbert Roepell, _Polen um die Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1876); Jacques Victor Albert de Broglie, _Le Secret du roi_ (Paris, 1878); Antoni Waliszewki, _The Potoccy and the Czartorysccy_ (Pol.); Carl Heinrich Heyking, _Aus Polens und Kurlands letzten Tagen_ (Berlin, 1897); Ludwik Denbicki, _Pulawy_ (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1887-1888). (R. N. B.)

CZECH (in Bohemian, _Cech_), a name which signifies an inhabitant of Cechy, the native designation of Bohemia. The Czechs belong to the Slavic race, and according to the usually accepted division they form, together with the Poles and the almost extinct Lusatians, the group of the Western Slavs. Speaking generally, it can be said that the Czechs inhabit a large part of Bohemia, a yet larger part of Moravia, parts of Silesia--both Austrian and Prussian--and extensive districts in northern Hungary. In the 19th century the Czechs of Hungary--much to their own detriment--developed a written language that differs slightly from that used in Bohemia, but as regards their race they are identical with the Bohemians and Moravians. Beyond the borders of this continuous territory there are many Czechs in Lower Austria. Vienna in particular has a large and increasing Czech population. There are also numerous Czechs in Russia, particularly Volhynia, in the United States--where a large number of newspapers and periodicals are published in the Czech language--and in London. Though the statistics are very uncertain and untrustworthy, it can be stated that the Czechs number about eight millions.

The period at which the Czechs settled in Bohemia is very uncertain; all theories, indeed, with regard to the advent of the Slavs in northern and eastern Europe are merely conjectural. It was formerly generally accepted as a fact that all Bohemia was originally inhabited by Celtic tribes, who were succeeded by the Germanic Marcomanni, and later by the Slavic Czechs. According to a very ancient tradition reproduced in the book of Cosmas, the earliest Bohemian chronicler, the Czechs arrived in Bohemia led by their eponymous chief Cechus, and first settled on the Rip Hill (Georgberg) near Roudnice. It is a strange proof of the intense obscurity of the earliest Bohemian history that Cosmas, writing at the beginning of the 12th century, is already unaware of the existence of pre-Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia. It is historically certain that the Czechs inhabited parts of Bohemia as early as the 6th century. In the absence of all historical evidence, modern Czech scholars have endeavoured by other means to throw some light on the earliest period of the Czechs. By craniological studies and a thorough examination of the fields where the dead were burnt (in Czech _zárove pole_), still found in some parts of Bohemia, they have arrived at the conclusion that parts of the country were inhabited by Czechs, or at least by Slavs, long before the Christian era, perhaps about the year 500 B.C.

It is certain that the Slavs at the time when they first appeared in history had a common language, known as the ancient Slavic (_praslovanský_) language. When in the course of time the Slavs occupied various countries, which were often widely apart, different dialects arose among them, many of which were influenced by the language of the neighbouring non-Slavic populations. Thus the Czech language from an early period absorbed many German words. It is probable that the development of the Czech language as an independent one, was very gradual. Existent documents, such as the hymn to St Wenceslas, which belongs to the second half of the 10th century, are written partly in old-Slavic, partly in Czech. When the Slavs first occupied Bohemia, they were probably divided into several tribes, of which the Czechs, who inhabited Prague and the country surrounding it, were the most powerful. It is probable that these smaller tribes were only gradually subdued by the Czechs and that some of them had previously to their absorption adopted special dialects. The Netolice, Lucane, Psovane, Sedlcane appear to have been among the more important tribes who were forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Czechs, and it may be conjectured that their language for a time differed slightly from that of their conquerors. The Czech language has, like all Slavic ones, a strong tendency to develop dialects; this was the case at the time of its first appearance as an independent language, and has to a certain extent continued up to the present day. The dialects of Moravia and the northern districts of Hungary still show variations from the generally accepted forms of the Czech language, though since the foundation of the Czech university of Prague this--at least among the educated classes--is no longer true to the same extent as it formerly was. The Czech language at the time of its formation naturally remained closest to those other Slav-speaking countries which were geographically its neighbours, the Poles and the Lusatians, and it may be said that this is still the case. The Czech language at the time when in the 12th and 13th centuries it first appears as a separate and distinct one, differed considerably from that of the present day. Ancient Czech had several diphthongs, such as: _ia_, _ie_, _iu_, _uo_ and _au_, that are unknown to the present language. The letter "_l_" had a threefold sound, and besides the letters _b_, _p_, _m_, _v_, the softer forms _b´_, _p´_, _m´_, _v´_, were also in existence. The letter _g_ (as in other Slavic languages) was often used where modern Czechs employ the letter _h_. Ancient Bohemian had three numbers, the singular, plural and dual; of the dual only scant vestiges remain in modern Czech.

Once it had obtained its independence, the Czech language developed rapidly, and the philosophical and theological writings of Thomas of Stitný (1331-1401) proved that it could already be used even for dealing with the most abstract subjects, though Stitný was blamed by the monks for not writing in Latin, as was then customary. The Czech language is greatly indebted also to John Hus, whose best and most original works were written in the language of his country. Hus showed great interest in the orthography and grammar of his language, and has devoted an interesting treatise entitled "_Orthographia bohemica_" to it. As already mentioned, the Czech language had sprung from diverse dialects, and Hus endeavoured to establish uniformity. To the Bohemian reformer is also due the system of so-called diacritic marks--such as _c_, _u_, _ý_--which with some modifications are still in use.[1] The Latin characters which were in the earliest times, as again at the present day, used when writing Czech, are quite unable to reproduce some sounds peculiar to Slavic languages. This was remedied by the introduction of these marks, and Hus's system of orthography became known as the diacritic one. The Bohemian reformer, zealous for the purity of the language of his country, often in his sermons inveighed quaintly and vehemently against those who defiled the Czech language by introducing numerous "Germanisms." A century later the Czech language was largely indebted to the then recently founded community of the Bohemian (or as they were also often called, Moravian) brethren. A member of the community, Brother John Blakoslav, wrote in 1571 a _Grammatika Ceská_, that still has considerable philological interest. It contains a full account of the construction of the Czech language, based on Latin grammar, with which the writer was thoroughly acquainted. Divines belonging to the same community also at the end of the 16th century published at Kralice in Moravia a complete Czech version of the Old and New Testaments. Together with the _Labyrint Sveta_ (Labyrinth of the World) of Komensky (Comenius), who was also a member of the brotherhood, it can be considered a model of the Czech language in the period immediately preceding its downfall.

The Czechs have always enthusiastically upheld the language of their country. In ancient Czech, indeed, the same word _jazyk_ denotes both "nation" and "language." As late as in 1608 a decree of the estates of Bohemia declared that Czech was the only official and recognized state-language, and that all who wished to acquire citizenship in the country should be obliged to acquire the knowledge of it. While all patriots thus supported the national language, it was greatly disliked by the absolutists who were opposed to the ancient free constitution of Bohemia, as well as by all who favoured the Church of Rome. The overthrow of Bohemian independence at the battle of the White Mountain (1620) was therefore shortly followed by the decline of the Czech language. All Czech writings which could be found were destroyed by the Austrian authorities as being tainted with heresy, while no new books written in Czech appeared, except occasional prayer-books and almanacs. For these scanty writings the German so-called "Schwabach" characters were used, and this custom only ceased in the middle of the 19th century. The Czech language, for some time entirely excluded from the schools, all but ceased to be written, and its revival at the beginning of the 19th century was almost a resurrection.

The first originator of the movement, Joseph Dobrovský or Doubravský (1753-1829) seems himself, at least at the beginning of his life, to have considered it impossible that Czech should again become a widely-spoken language, and one whose literature could successfully compete with that of larger countries. Yet it was the works of this "patriarch of Slavic philology" which first drew the public attention to the half-forgotten Czech language. Dobrovský's work was afterwards continued by Kolar, Jungmann, Palacký, Safarek, and many others, and Czech literature has, both as regards its value and its extension, reached a height that in the middle of the 19th century would have appeared incredible.

Though met by constant opposition on the part of the Austrian authorities, the Czechs have succeeded in re-establishing the use of their language in many of the lower and middle schools of Bohemia and Moravia, and the foundation of a Czech university at Prague (1882-1884) has of course contributed very largely to the ever-increasing expansion of the Czech language. The national language has at all times appeared to the Bohemians as the palladium of their nationality and independence, and the movement in favour of the revival of the Czech language necessarily became a political one, as soon as circumstances permitted. The friends of the national language at the beginning of the 19th century were generally known as the _vlastenci_ (patriots), but when in 1848 representatives of many parts of Austria met at Vienna, the deputies of Bohemia--with the exception of the Germans--formed what was called the national or Czech party. Parliamentary government did not at that period long survive, and at the end of the year 1851 absolutism had been re-established. In 1860 a new attempt to establish constitutional government in Austria was made, and representatives of the Czech party appeared at the provincial diet of Prague and the central parliament at Vienna. The Czech party endeavoured to obtain the re-establishment of the ancient Bohemian constitution, but, allied as they were with a large part of the Bohemian nobility, it was their policy to maintain a somewhat conservative attitude. After having absented themselves for a considerable time from the parliament of Vienna, the legality of which they denied, the Czech deputies reappeared in Vienna in 1879, and, together with the representatives of the Bohemian nobility, formed there what was known as the Cesky Klub.

While the Czechs for a time continued united at Vienna, a schism among them had some time previously occurred at Prague. Dissatisfied with the policy of the Czechs, a new party had been formed in Bohemia which affected more advanced views and became known as the "Young Czech" party. The more conservative Czechs were henceforth known as the "Old Czechs." The "Young Czechs," when the party first became independent in 1872, had thirty-five representatives in the diet of Prague, but at the elections of 1874 their number was reduced to seven. They continued, however, to gain in strength, and obtained for a long time a large majority in the diet, while the Old Czech party for a considerable period almost disappeared. In Vienna also the Old Czech party gradually lost ground. Its leader Dr Rieger, indeed, obtained for the Czechs certain concessions which, underrated at the time, have since proved by no means valueless. The decision of the Old Czech party to take part at a conference in Vienna under the presidency of Count Taafe--then Austrian prime-minister--which was to settle the national differences in Bohemia, caused its complete downfall. The proposals of the Vienna conference were rejected with indignation, and the Old Czechs, having become very unpopular, for a time ceased to contest the elections for the legislative assemblies of Prague and Vienna. The victorious Young Czechs, however, soon proved themselves very unskilful politicians. After very unsuccessfully assuming for a short time an attitude of intransigeant opposition, they soon became subservient to the government of Vienna to an extent which the Old Czechs had never ventured. Dr Kramár, in particular, as leader of the Young Czech party, supported the foreign policy of Austria even when its tendency was most hostile to the interests of Bohemia. The Vienna government has, in recent years, as regards internal affairs, also adopted a policy very unfavourable to the Czech race. Even the continuance of some of the concessions formerly obtained by the Old Czechs has become doubtful. At the elections to the diet of Prague which took place in March 1908, the Young Czechs lost many seats to the Old Czechs, while the Agrarians, Clericals and Radicals were also successful.

See J. Dobrovský, _Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache_ (1818), and _Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache_ (1819); J. Blahoslav, _Grammatika Ceská_, printed from MS. (1867); Lippert, _Social-Geschichte Böhmens_ (1896); Gebauer, _Slovník Starocesky_ (Dictionary of the ancient Czech language, 1903); I. Herzer, _Böhmisch-deutsches Wörterbuch_ (Prague, 1901, &c.); Coufal and Zába, _Slovník Cesko-latinský a Latinsko-ceský_ (Prague, 1904, &c.), and _Historicka Uluonice Jazyka ceskéha_ (Historical grammar of the Czech language, 1904); Morfill, _Grammar of the Bohemian or Cech Language_ (1899); Bourlier, _Les Tchèques_ (1897). (L.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] For the pronunciation of these see the footnote at the beginning of the article BOHEMIA.

CZENSTOCHOWA, or CHENSTOKHOV, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Piotrkow, on the left bank of the Warta (Warthe), 143 m. S.W. of Warsaw, on the railway between that city and Cracow. Pop. (1900) 53,650. Here is a celebrated monastery crowning the steep eminence called Yaznagora or Klarenberg. It was founded by King Vladislaus of the house of Jagiello and was at one time fabulously wealthy. In 1430 it was attacked and plundered by the Hussites; in 1655, and again in 1705, it bravely resisted the Swedes; but in 1772 it was forced to capitulate to the Russians, and in 1793 to the Prussians. The fortifications, which had been built from 1500 onwards, were razed in 1813. This monastery, which is occupied by monks of the order of Paul the Hermit, contains over the altar in its church a painted image of the Virgin, traditionally believed to have been painted by St Luke, and visited annually by throngs (400,000) of pilgrims from all over Russia, eastern Prussia and other neighbouring regions. The inhabitants of the town manufacture cotton, cloth and paper, and do a lively business in rosaries, images, scapularies and so forth.

CZERNOWITZ (Rum. _Cernautzi_), the capital of the Austrian duchy of Bukovina, 420 m. E. of Vienna and 164 m. S.E. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 69,619. It is picturesquely situated on a height above the right bank of the river Pruth, which is crossed here by two bridges, of which one is a railway bridge. Czernowitz is a clean, pleasant town of recent date, and is the seat of the Greek Orthodox archbishop or metropolitan of Bukovina. The principal buildings include the Greek Orthodox cathedral, finished in 1864 after the model of the church of St Isaac at St Petersburg; the Armenian church, in a mixed Gothic and Renaissance style, consecrated in 1875; a handsome new Jesuit church, and a new synagogue in Moorish style, built in 1877. The most conspicuous building of the town is the Episcopal palace, in Byzantine style, built in 1864-1875, which is adorned with a high tower and possesses a magnificent reception hall. In one of the public squares stands the Austrian monument, executed by Pekary and erected in 1875 to commemorate the centenary of Austria's possession of Bukovina. It consists of a marble statue of Austria erected on a pedestal of green Carpathian sandstone. The Francis Joseph University, also opened in 1875, had 50 lecturers and over 500 students in 1901. The language of instruction is German, and it possesses three faculties: theology, law and philosophy. The industry is not very developed and consists chiefly in corn-milling and brewing. An active trade is carried on in agricultural produce, wood, wool, cattle and spirits. Czernowitz has a mixed population, which consists of Germans, Ruthenians, Rumanians, Poles, Jews, Armenians and Gypsies. The town presents, therefore, a cosmopolitan and on market days a very varied appearance, when side by side with people turned out in the latest fashions from Paris or Vienna, we meet peasants of various nationalities, attired in their national costume, intermingled with very scantily-clad Gypsies.

On the opposite bank of the Pruth, at a very little distance to the N., is situated the town of Sadagora (pop. 4512, mostly Jews), where a famous cattle fair takes place every year.

Czernowitz was at the time of the Austrian occupation (1775) an unimportant village. It was created a town in 1786, and at the beginning of the 19th century it numbered only 5000 inhabitants.

CZERNY, KARL (1791-1857), Austrian pianist and composer, was born at Vienna on the 21st of February 1791. His father, who was a teacher of the piano, trained him for that instrument from an early age with such success that he performed in public at the age of nine, and commenced his own career as a teacher at fourteen. He was brought under the notice of Beethoven, and was his pupil in the sense in which the great master had pupils. It is perhaps his greatest claim to distinction as a performer that he was selected to be the first to play Beethoven's celebrated Emperor concerto in public. He soon became the most popular teacher of his instrument in a capital which abounded in pianists of the first rank. Among his pupils he numbered Liszt, Theodor Döhler (1814-1843) and many others who afterwards became famous. As a composer he was prolific to an astonishing degree, considering the other demands on his time. His works, which included every class of composition, numbered 849 at the time of his death. Comparatively few of them possess high merit, and none is the production of genius. He had considerable skill in devising variations for the piano of the display type, and in this and other ways helped to develop the executive power which in the modern school of pianoforte playing seems to have reached the limits of the possible. His various books of exercises, elementary and advanced, of which the best known are the _Études de la vélocité_, have probably had a wider circulation than any other works of their class. To the theory of music he contributed a translation of Reicha's _Traité de composition_, and a work entitled _Umriss der ganzen Musikgeschichte_. Czerny died on the 15th of July 1857 at Vienna. Having no family, he left his fortune, which was considerable, to the Vienna Conservatorium and various benevolent institutions.

D The fourth letter in the English alphabet occupies the same position in the Latin, Greek and Phoenician alphabets, which represent the preceding stages in its history. The Phoenician name _Daleth_ is represented by the Greek _Delta_. In form D has varied throughout its career comparatively little. In the earliest Phoenician it is [symbol] with slight variations; in most Greek dialects [symbol] which has been adopted as the Greek literary form, but in others as e.g. the earliest Attic [symbol] or [symbol]. The form with the rounded back, which has passed from Latin into the languages of western Europe, was borrowed from the Greeks of S.W. Italy, but is widely spread also amongst the peoples of the Peloponnese and of northern Greece. It arises from a form like [symbol] when the sides which meet to the right are written or engraved at one stroke. From a very early period one side of the triangle was often prolonged, thus producing a form [symbol] which is characteristic of Aramaic from 800 B.C. In Greek this was avoided because of the likelihood of its confusion with [symbol], the oldest form of the symbol for _r_, but in the alphabets of Italy--which were borrowed from Etruscan--this confusion actually takes place. Etruscan had no sound corresponding to the symbol D (in inscriptions written from right to left, [symbol]), and hence used it as a by-form for [symbol], the symbol for _r_. The Oscans and Umbrians took it over in this value, but having the sound d they used for it the symbol for _r_ ([symbol] in Umbrian, [symbol] in Oscan).

The sound which D represents is the voiced dental corresponding to the unvoiced _t_. The English _d_, however, is not a true dental, but is really pronounced by placing the tongue against the sockets of the teeth, not the teeth themselves. It thus differs from the _d_ of French and German, and in phonetic terminology is called an alveolar. In the languages of India where both true dentals and alveolars are found, the English _d_ is represented by the alveolar symbol (transliterated _d_). Etymologically in genuine English words d represents in most cases _dh_ of the original Indo-European language, but in some cases an original _t_. In many languages _d_ develops an aspirate after it, and this _dh_ becomes then a voiced spirant (ð), the initial sound of _there_ and _that_. This has occurred widely in Semitic, and is found also in languages like modern Greek, where [delta], except after [nu], is always spirant, [Greek: dén] (= _not_) being pronounced like English _then_. As the mouth position for _l_ differs from that for _d_ only by the breath being allowed to escape past one or both sides of the tongue, confusion has arisen in many languages between _d_ and _l_, the best-known being cases like the Latin _lacrima_ as compared with the Greek [Greek: dák-ry]. The English _tear_ and the forms of other languages show that _d_ and not _l_ is the more original sound. Between vowels in the ancient Umbrian _d_ passed into a sound which was transliterated in the Latin alphabet by _rs_; this was probably a sibilant _r_, like the Bohemian _r_. In many languages it is unvoiced at the end of words, thus becoming almost or altogether identical with _t_. As an abbreviation it is used in Latin for the _praenomen_ Decimus, and under the empire for the title _Divus_ of certain deceased emperors. As a Roman numeral (= 500) it is only the half of the old symbol [symbol] (= 1000); this was itself the old form of the Greek [phi], which was useless in Latin as that language had no sound identical with the Greek [phi]. (P. Gi.)

DACCA, a city of British India, giving its name to a district and division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It was made the capital of that province on its creation in October 1905. The city is 254 m. N.E. by E. of Calcutta, on an old channel of the Ganges. Railway station, 10 m. from the terminus of the river steamers at Narayanganj. The area is about 8 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 90,542. The ruins of the English factory, St Thomas's church, and the houses of the European residents lie along the river banks. Of the old fort erected by Islam Khan, who in 1608 was appointed nawab of Bengal, and removed his capital from Rajmahal to Dacca, no vestige remains; but the jail is built on a portion of its site. The principal Mahommedan public buildings, erected by subsequent governors and now in ruins, are the Katra and the Lal-bagh palace--the former built by Sultan Mahommed Shuja in 1645, in front of the _chauk_ or market place. Its extensive front faced the river, and had a lofty central gateway, flanked by smaller entrances, and by two octagonal towers rising to some height above the body of the building. The Lal-bagh palace was commenced by Azam Shah, the third son of the emperor Aurangzeb. It originally stood close to the Buriganga river; but the channel has shifted its course, and there is now an intervening space covered with trees between it and the river. The walls on the western side, and the terrace and battlement towards the river, are of a considerable height, and present a commanding aspect from the water. These outworks, with a few gateways, the audience hall and the baths, were the only parts of the building that survived in 1840. Since then their dilapidation has rapidly advanced; but even in ruin they show the extensive and magnificent scale on which this princely residence was originally designed. It appears never to have been completed; and when Jean Baptiste Tavernier visited Dacca (c. 1666), the nawab was residing in a temporary wooden building in its court. The English factory was built about that year. The central part of the old factory continued to be used as a court-house till the 19th century, but owing to its ruinous state it was pulled down in 1829 or 1830; in 1840 the only portion that remained was the outward wall. The French and Dutch factories were taken possession of by the English in the years 1778 and 1781 respectively. In the mutiny of 1857 two companies of the 73rd Native Infantry which were stationed in the town joined in the revolt, but were overpowered by a small European force and dispersed. The city still shows some signs of its former magnificence. The famous manufacture of fine muslins is almost extinct, but the carving of shells, carried on from ancient times, is an important industry in the city. There are a Government college, a collegiate school and an unaided Hindu college. There is a large settlement of mixed Portuguese descent, known as Feringhis. Many of the public buildings, including the college, suffered severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897; and great damage was done by tornadoes in April of 1888 and 1902.

The district of Dacca comprises an area of 2782 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 2,649,522, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The district consists of a vast level plain, divided into two sections by the Dhaleswari river. The northern part, again intersected by the Lakshmia river, contains the city of Dacca, and as a rule lies well above flood-level.

Dacca is watered by a network of rivers and streams, ten of which are navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats of four tons burthen. Among them are the Meghna, the Ganges or Padma, the Lakshmia, a branch of the Brahmaputra, the Jamuna, or main stream of the Brahmaputra, the Mendi-Khali, a large branch of the Meghna, the Dhaleswari, an offshoot of the Jamuna, the Ghazi-khali and the Buriganga. The soil is composed of red ferruginous _kankar_, with a stratum of clay in the more elevated parts, covered by a thin layer of vegetable mould, or by recent alluvial deposits. The scenery along the Lakshmia is very beautiful, the banks being high and wooded. About 20 m. north of Dacca city, small ridges are met with in the Madhupur jungle, stretching into Mymensingh district. These hills, however, are mere mounds of from 20 to 40 ft. high, composed of red soil containing a considerable quantity of iron ore; and the whole tract is for the most part unproductive. Towards the city the red soil is intersected by creeks and morasses, whose margins yield crops of rice, mustard and _til_ seed; while to the east of the town, a broad, alluvial, well-cultivated plain reaches as far as the junction of the Dhaleswari and Lakshmia rivers. The country lying to the south of the Dhaleswari is the most fertile part of the district. It consists entirely of rich alluvial soil, annually inundated to a depth varying from 2 to 14 ft. of water. The villages are built on artificial mounds of earth, so as to raise them above the flood-level.

The wild animals found in the district comprise a few tigers, leopards and wild elephants, deer, wild pig, porcupines, jackals, foxes, hares, otters, &c. The green monkey is very common; porpoises abound in the large rivers. The manufactures consist of weaving, embroidery, gold and silver work, shell-carving and pottery. The weaving industry and the manufacture of fine Dacca muslins have greatly fallen off, owing to the competition of European piece goods. Forty different kinds of cloth were formerly manufactured in this district, the bulk of which during many years was made from English twist, country thread being used only for the finest muslins. It is said that, in the time of the emperor Jahangir, a piece of muslin, 15 ft. by 3, could be manufactured, weighing only 900 grains, its value being £40. In 1840 the finest cloth that could be made of the above dimensions weighed about 1600 grains, and was worth £10. Since then the manufacture has still further decayed, and the finer kinds are not now made at all except to order. The district is traversed by a line of the Eastern Bengal railway, but most of the traffic is still conducted by water. It is a centre of the jute trade.

The division of Dacca occupies the delta of the Brahmaputra, where it joins the main stream of the Ganges. It consists of the four districts of Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur and Backergunge. Its area is 15,837 sq. m. Its population in 1901 was 10,793,988.

DACE, DARE, or DART (_Leuciscus vulgaris_, or _L. dobula_), a fresh-water fish belonging to the family _Cyprinidae_. It is an inhabitant of the rivers and streams of Europe north of the Alps, but it is most abundant in those of France and Germany. It prefers clear streams flowing over a gravelly bottom, and deep, still water, keeping close to the bottom in winter but disporting itself near the surface in the sunshine of summer. It is preyed upon by the larger predaceous fishes of fresh waters, and owing to its silvery appearance is a favourite bait in pike-fishing. The dace is a lively, active fish, of gregarious habits, and exceedingly prolific, depositing its eggs in May and June at the roots of aquatic plants or in the gravelly beds of the streams it frequents. Its flesh is wholesome, but is not held in much estimation. In appearance it closely resembles the roach, usually attaining a length of 8 or 9 in., with the head and back of a dusky blue colour and the sides of a shining silvery aspect, with numerous dark lines running along the course of the scales. The ventral and anal fins are white, tinged with pale red; and the dorsal, pectoral and caudal tipped with black. The dace feeds on worms, insects, insect-larvae, and also on vegetable matter. It is abundant in many of the streams of the south of England, but is unknown in Scotland and Ireland. In America the name of dace is also applied to members of other genera of the family; the "horned dace" (_Semnotilus atromaculatus_) is a well-known variety.

DACH, SIMON (1605-1659), German lyrical poet, was born at Memel in East Prussia on the 29th of July 1605. Although brought up in humble circumstances, he received a careful education in the classical schools of Königsberg, Wittenberg and Magdeburg, and entered the university of Königsberg in 1626 as a student of theology and philosophy. After taking his degree, he was appointed in 1633 _Kollaborator_ (teacher) and in 1636 co-rector of the Domschule (cathedral school) in that city. In 1639 he received the chair of poetry at the university of Königsberg, which he occupied until his death on the 15th of April 1659. In Königsberg he entered into close relations with Heinrich Albert (1604-1651), Robert Roberthin (1600-1648) and Sibylla Schwarz (1621-1638), and with them formed the so-called _Königsberger Dictergruppe_. He sang the praises of the house of the electors of Brandenburg in a collection of poems entitled _Kurbrandenburgische Rose, Adler, Löwe und Scepter_ (1661), and also produced many occasional poems, several of which became popular; the most famous of them is _Anke von Tharaw öss, de my geföllt_ (rendered by Herder into modern German as _Ännchen von Tharau_), composed in 1637 in honour of the marriage of a friend. Among his hymns, many of which are of great beauty, are the following: _Ich bin ja, Herr, in deiner Macht_, _Ich bin bei Gott in Gnaden durch Christi Blut und Tod_, and _O, wie selig seid ihr boch, ihr Frommen_.

Editions of Dach's poems have been published by W. Müller (1823), by H. Österley (for the Stuttgart _Literarischer Verein_, 1876); also selections by the same editor (1876), and in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (1883). See especially the introductions to Österley's editions; also H. Stiehler, _Simon Dach, sein Leben und seine ausgewählte Dichtungen_ (1896).

DACIA, in ancient geography, the land of the Daci, a large district of central Europe, bounded on the N. by the Carpathians, on the S. by the Danube, on the W. by the Pathissus (Theiss), on the E. by the Tyras (Dniester), thus corresponding in the main to the modern Rumania and Transylvania. Towards the west it may originally have extended as far as the Danube where it runs from north to south at Waitzen (Vacz), while on the other hand Ptolemy puts its eastern boundary as far back as the Hierasus (Sereth). The inhabitants of this district were a Thracian stock, originally called [Greek: Daoi], a name which after the 4th century B.C. gave place to [Greek: Dakoi]. Of the other Thracian tribes the Getae (q.v.) were most akin to them in language and manners; by the Greeks the Dacians were usually called Getae, by the Romans Daci. [Greek: Daos] and [Greek: Geta] (Davus, Geta) were common as names of slaves in Attic comedy and in the adaptations of Plautus and Terence.

The Dacians had attained a considerable degree of civilization when they first became known to the Romans. They believed in the immortality of the soul, and regarded death as merely a change of country ([Greek: metoikizesthai]). Their chief priest held a prominent position as the representative of the deity upon earth; he was the king's chief adviser and his decisions were accepted as final. They were divided into two classes--an aristocracy and a proletariate. The first alone had the right to cover their heads and wore a felt hat (hence _tarabostesei_ = [Greek: pilophoroi], _pileati_); they formed a privileged class, and were the predecessors of the Rumanian boyars. The second class, who comprised the rank and file of the army, the peasants and artisans, wore their hair long ([Greek: komêtai], _capillati_). They dwelt in wooden huts surrounded by palisades, but in later times, aided by Roman architects, built walled strongholds and conical stone towers. Their chief occupations were agriculture and cattle breeding; horses were mainly used as draught animals. They also worked the gold and silver mines of Transylvania, and carried on a considerable outside trade, as is shown by the number of foreign coins found in the country.

A kingdom of Dacia was in existence at least as early as the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. under a king Oroles. Conflicts with the Bastarnae and the Romans (112-109, 74), against whom they had assisted the Scordisci and Dardani, had greatly weakened the resources of the Dacians. Under Burbista (Boerebista), a contemporary of Caesar, who thoroughly reorganized the army and raised the moral standard of the people, the limits of the kingdom were extended; the Bastarnae and Boii were conquered, and even Greek towns (Olbia, Apollonia) on the Euxine fell into his hands. Indeed the Dacians appeared so formidable that Caesar contemplated an expedition against them, which was prevented by his death. About the same time Burbista was murdered, and the kingdom was divided into four (or five) parts under separate rulers. One of these was Cotiso, whose daughter Augustus is said to have desired to marry and to whom he betrothed his own five-year-old daughter Julia. He is well known from the line in Horace ("Occidit Daci Cotisonis agmen," _Odes_, iii. 8. 18), which, as the ode was written on the 1st of March 29, probably refers to the campaign of Marcus Crassus (30-28), not to that of Cornelius Lentulus, who was not consul till 18. The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize the Roman supremacy. But they were by no means subdued, and in later times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube and ravaging the province of Moesia. From A.D. 85 to 89 the Dacians were engaged in two wars with the Romans, under Duras or Diurpaneus, and the great Decebalus, who ruled from 86-87 to 107. After two severe reverses, the Romans, under Tettius Julianus, gained a signal advantage, but were obliged to make peace owing to the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni. Decebalus restored the arms he had taken and some of the prisoners and received the crown from Domitian's hands, an apparent acknowledgment of Roman suzerainty. But the Dacians were really left independent, as is shown by the fact that Domitian agreed to purchase immunity from further Dacian inroads by the payment of an annual tribute.

To put an end to this disgraceful arrangement, Trajan resolved to crush the Dacians once and for all. The result of his first campaign (101-102) was the occupation of the Dacian capital Sarmizegethusa (Várhely) and the surrounding country; of the second (105-107), the suicide of Decebalus, the conquest of the whole kingdom and its conversion into a Roman province. The history of the war is given in Dio Cassius, but the best commentary upon it is the famous column of Trajan. According to Marquardt, the boundaries of the province were the Tibiscus (Temes) on the W., the Carpathians on the N., the Tyras on the E., and the Danube on the S., but Brandis (in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_) maintains that it did not extend farther eastwards than the river Olt (Aluta)--the country beyond belonging to lower Moesia--and not so far as the Theiss westwards, being thus limited to Transylvania and Little Walachia. It was under a governor of praetorian rank, and the legio xiii. _gemina_ with numerous auxiliaries had their fixed quarters in the province. To make up for the ravages caused by the recent wars colonists were imported to cultivate the land and work the mines, and the old inhabitants gradually returned. Forts were built as a protection against the incursions of the surrounding barbarians, and three great military roads were constructed to unite the chief towns, while a fourth, named after Trajan, traversed the Carpathians and entered Transylvania by the Roteturm pass. The two chief towns were Sarmizegethusa (afterwards Ulpia Trajana) and Apulum (Karlsburg). With the religion the Dacians also adopted the language of the conquerors, and modern Rumanian is full of Latin words easily recognizable.

In 129, under Hadrian, Dacia was divided into Dacia _Superior_ and _Inferior_, the former comprising Transylvania, the latter Little Walachia, with procurators, probably both under the same praetorian legate (according to Brandis, the procurator of Dacia _inferior_ was independent, but see A. Domaszewski in _Rheinisches Museum_, xlviii., 1893). Marcus Aurelius redivided it into three (_tres Daciae_): Porolissensis, from the chief town Porolissum (near Mojrad), Apulensis from Apulum and Maluensis (site unknown). The _tres Daciae_ formed a commune in so far that they had a common capital, Sarmizegethusa, and a common diet, which discussed provincial affairs, formulated complaints and adjusted the incidence of taxation; but in other respects they were practically independent provinces, each under an ordinary procurator, subordinate to a governor of consular rank.

The Roman hold on the country was, however, still precarious. Indeed it is said that Hadrian, conscious of the difficulty of retaining it, had contemplated its abandonment and was only deterred by consideration for the safety of the numerous Roman settlers. Under Gallienus (256), the Goths crossed the Carpathians and drove the Romans from Dacia, with the exception of a few fortified places between the Temes and the Danube. No details of the event are recorded, and the chief argument in support of the statement in Ruf(i)us Festus that "under the Emperor Gallienus Dacia was lost" is the sudden cessation of Roman inscriptions and coins in the country after 256. Aurelian (270-275) withdrew the troops altogether and settled the Roman colonists on the south of the Danube, in Moesia, where he created the province Dacia Aureliani. This was subsequently divided into Dacia Ripensis on the Danube, with capital Ratiaria (Arcar in Bosnia), and Dacia Mediterranea, with capital Sardica (Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria), the latter again being subdivided into Dardania and Dacia Mediterranea.

See J. D. F. Neigebaur, _Dacien aus den Überresten des klassischen Alterthums_. (Kronstadt, 1851); C. Gooss, _Studien zur Geographie und Geschichte des trajanischen Daciens_ (Hermannstadt, 1874); E. R. Rösler, _Dacier und Romanen_ (Vienna, 1866), and _Romänische Studien_ (Leipzig, 1871); J. Jung, _Römer und Romanen in den Donauländern_ (Innsbruck, 1877), _Die römanischen Landschaften des römischen Reiches_ (1881), and _Fasten der Provinz Dacien_ (1894); W. Tomaschek, "Die alten Thraker," in _Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893); J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, i. (1881), p. 308; T. Mommsen in _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, iii. 160, and _Provinces of Roman Empire_ (Eng. trans., 1886); C. G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, iv. pt. 2 (1901); W. Miller, _The Balkans_ in "The Story of the Nations," vol. 44; on the boundaries of the Roman province of Dacia, see T. Hodgkin and F. Haverfield in _English Historical Review_, ii. 100, 734. (See also VLACHS.)

DACIER, ANDRÉ (1651-1722), French classical scholar, was born at Castres in upper Languedoc, on the 6th of April 1651. His father, a Protestant advocate, sent him first to the academy of Puy Laurens, and afterwards to Saumur to study under Tanneguy Lefèvre. On the death of Lefèvre in 1672, Dacier removed to Paris, and was appointed one of the editors of the Delphin series of the classics. In 1683 he married Anne Lefèvre, the daughter of his old tutor (see below). In 1695 he was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and also of the French Academy; not long after, as payment for his share in the "medallic" history of the king's reign, he was appointed keeper of the library of the Louvre. He died two years after his wife, on the 18th of September 1722. The most important of his works were his editions of Pompeius Festus and Verrius Flaccus, and his translations of Horace (with notes), Aristotle's _Poetics_, the _Electra_ and _Oedipus Coloneus_ of Sophocles, Epictetus, Hippocrates and Plutarch's _Lives_.

His wife, ANNE LEFÈVRE (1654-1720), French scholar and translator from the classics, was born at Saumur, probably in March 1654. On her father's death in 1672 she removed to Paris, carrying with her part of an edition of Callimachus, which she afterwards published. This was so well received that she was engaged as one of the editors of the Delphin series of classical authors, in which she edited Florus, Dictys Cretensis, Aurelius Victor and Eutropius. In 1681 appeared her prose version of Anacreon and Sappho, and in the next few years she published prose versions of Terence and some of the plays of Plautus and Aristophanes. In 1684 she and her husband retired to Castres, with the object of devoting themselves to theological studies. In 1685 the result was announced in the conversion to Roman Catholicism of both M. and Mme Dacier, who were rewarded with a pension by the king. In 1699 appeared the prose translation of the _Iliad_ (followed nine years later by a similar translation of the _Odyssey_), which gained for her the position she occupies in French literature. The appearance of this version, which made Homer known for the first time to many French men of letters, and among others to A. Houdart de la Motte, gave rise to a famous literary controversy. In 1714 la Motte published a poetical version of the _Iliad_, abridged and altered to suit his own taste, together with a _Discours sur Homère_, stating the reasons why Homer failed to satisfy his critical taste. Mme Dacier replied in the same year in her work, _Des causes de la corruption du goût_. La Motte carried on the discussion with light gaiety and badinage, and had the happiness of seeing his views supported by the abbé Jean Terrasson, who in 1715 produced two volumes entitled _Dissertation critique sur l'Iliade_, in which he maintained that science and philosophy, and especially the science and philosophy of Descartes, had so developed the human mind that the poets of the 18th century were immeasurably superior to those of ancient Greece. In the same year Père C. Buffier published _Homère en arbitrage_, in which he concluded that both parties were really agreed on the essential point--that Homer was one of the greatest geniuses the world had seen, and that, as a whole, no other poem could be preferred to his; and, soon after (on the 5th of April 1716), in the house of M. de Valincourt, Mme Dacier and la Motte met at supper, and drank together to the health of Homer. Nothing of importance marks the rest of Mme Dacier's life. She died at the Louvre, on the 17th of August 1720.

See C. A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol ix.; J. F. Bodin, _Recherches historiques sur la ville de Saumur_ (1812-1814); P. J. Burette, _Éloge de Mme Dacier_ (1721); _Mémoires de Mme de Staël_ (1755); E. Egger, _L'Hellénisme en France_, ii. (1869); _Mémoires de Saint-Simon_, iii.; R. Rigault, _Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des modernes_ (1856).

DACITE (from Dacia, mod. Transylvania), in petrology, volcanic rocks which may be considered a quartz-bearing variety of andesite. Like the latter they consist for the most part of plagioclase felspar with biotite, hornblende, augite or enstatite, and have generally a porphyritic structure, but they contain also quartz as rounded, corroded phenocrysts, or as an element of the ground-mass. Their felspar ranges from oligoclase to andesite and labradorite, and is often very zonal; sanidine occurs also in some dacites, and when abundant gives rise to rocks which form transitions to the rhyolites. The biotite is brown; the hornblende brown or greenish brown; the augite usually green. The ground-mass of these rocks is often micro-crystalline, with a web of minute felspars mixed with interstitial grains of quartz; but in many dacites it is largely vitreous, while in others it is felsitic or cryptocrystalline. In the hand specimen many of the hornblende and biotite dacites are grey or pale brown and yellow rocks with white felspars, and black crystals of biotite and hornblende. Other dacites, especially augite- and enstatite-dacites, are darker coloured. The rocks of this group occur in Hungary, Almería (Spain), Argyllshire and other parts of Scotland, New Zealand, the Andes, Martinique, Nevada and other districts of western North America, Greece, &c. They are mostly associated with andesites and trachytes, and form lava flows, dikes, and in some cases massive intrusions in the centres of old volcanoes. Among continental petrographers the older dacites (Carboniferous, &c.) are often known as "porphyrites." (J. S. F.)

DACOIT, a term used in India for a robber belonging to an armed gang. The word is derived from the Hindustani _dakait_, and being current in Bengal got into the Indian penal code. By law, to constitute _dacoity_, there must be five or more in the gang committing the crime. In the time of the Thugs (q.v.) a special police department was created in India to deal with thuggy and dacoity (_thagi_ and _dakaiti_), which exists down to the present day. In Burma also the word dacoit came to be applied in a special sense to the armed gangs, which maintained a state of guerilla warfare for several years after the defeat of the king and his army. (See BURMESE WARS.)

DA COSTA, ISAAK (1798-1860), Dutch poet and theologian, was born at Amsterdam on the 14th of January 1798. His father was a Jew of Portuguese descent, and claimed kindred with the celebrated Uriel D'Acosta. An early acquaintance with Bilderdijk had a strong influence over the boy both in poetry and in theology. He studied at Amsterdam, and afterwards at Leiden, where he took his doctor's degree in law in 1818, and in literature in 1821. In 1814 he wrote _De Verlossing van Nederland_, a patriotic poem, which placed him in line with the contemporary national romantic poets in Germany and in France. His _Poëzy_ (2 vols., 1821-1822) revealed his emancipation from the Bilderdijk tradition, and the oriental colouring of his poems, his hymn to Lamartine, and his translation of part of Byron's _Cain_, establish his claim to be considered as the earliest of the Dutch romantic poets. In 1822 he became a convert to Christianity, and immediately afterwards asserted himself as a champion of orthodoxy and an assailant of latitudinarianism in his _Bezwaren tegen den Geest der Eeuw_ (1823). He took a lively interest in missions to the Jews, and towards the close of his life was a director of the seminary established in Amsterdam in connexion with the mission of the Free Church of Scotland. He died at Amsterdam on the 28th of April 1860. Da Costa ranked first among the poets of Holland after the death of Bilderdijk. His principal poetical works were: _Alphonsus I._ (1818), a tragedy; _Poëzy_ (Leiden, 1821); _God metons_ (1826); _Festliedern_ (1828); _Vijf-en-twintig jaren_ (1840); _Hagar_ (1852); _De Slag bij Nieupoort_ (1857). He also translated _The Persians_ (1816) and the _Prometheus_ (1818) of Aeschylus, and edited the poetical works of Bilderdijk in sixteen volumes, the last volume being an account of the poet. He was the author of a number of theological works, chiefly in connexion with the criticism of the gospels.

His complete poetical works were edited by J. P. Hasebroek (3 vols., Haarlem, 1861-1862). See G. Groen van Prinsterer, _Brieven van, Mr I. da Costa, 1830-1849_ (1872), and J. ten Brink, _Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX^e Eeuw_ (vol. i., 1888), which contains a complete bibliography of his works.

DACTYL (from Gr. [Greek: daktylos], a finger), in prosody, a long syllable followed by two short (see VERSE).

DAEDALUS, a mythical Greek architect and sculptor, who figures largely in the early legends of Crete and of Athens. He was said to have built the labyrinth for Minos, to have made a wooden cow for Pasiphaë and to have fashioned a bronze man who repelled the Argonauts. Falling under the displeasure of Minos, he fashioned wings for himself and his son Icarus, and escaped to Sicily. These legends seem primarily to belong to Crete; and the Athenian element in them which connected Daedalus with the royal house of Erechtheus is a later fabrication. To Daedalus the Greeks of the historic age were in the habit of attributing buildings, and statues the origin of which was lost in the past, and which had no inscription belonging to them. In a later verse in the _Iliad_ (date, 7th or 6th century), Daedalus is mentioned as the maker of a dancing-place for Ariadne in Crete; and such a dancing-place has been discovered by A. J. Evans, in the Minoan palace of Cnossus. Diodorus Siculus says that he executed various works in Sicily for King Cocalus. In many cities of Greece there were rude wooden statues, said to be by him. Later critics, judging from their own notions of the natural course of development in art, ascribed to Daedalus such improvements as separating the legs of statues and opening their eyes. In fact the name Daedalus is a mere symbol, standing for a particular phase of early Greek art, when wood was the chief material, and other substances were let into it for variety.

This Daedalus must not be confused with Daedalus of Sicyon, a great sculptor of the early part of the 4th century B.C., none of whose works is extant. (P. G.)

DAFFODIL, the common name of a group of plants of the genus _Narcissus_, and natural order Amaryllidaceae. (See generally under NARCISSUS.) The common daffodil, _N. Pseudo-narcissus_, is common in woods and thickets in most parts of the N. of Europe, but is rare in Scotland. Its leaves are five or six in number, are about a foot in length and an inch in breadth, and have a blunt keel and flat edges. The stem is about 18 in. long, and the spathe single-flowered. The flowers are large, yellow, scented and a little drooping, with a corolla deeply cleft into six lobes, and a central bell-shaped nectary, which is crisped at the margin. They appear early in the year, or, as Shakespeare says, "come before the swallow dares, and take the winds of March with beauty." The stamens are shorter than the cup, the anthers oblong and converging; the ovary is globose, and has three furrows; the seeds are roundish and black. Many new varieties of the flower have recently been cultivated in gardens. The bulbs are large and orbicular, and have a blackish coat; they, as well as the flowers, are reputed to be emetic in properties. The Peruvian daffodil and the sea daffodil are species of the genus _Ismene_. (For derivation see ASPHODEL.)

DAFYDD AB GWILYM (c. 1340-c. 1400), son of Gwilym Gam and Ardudful Fychan, greatest of the medieval Welsh poets, was born at Bro Gynin, Cardiganshire, about the year 1340. Educated by a scholarly uncle, Llewelyn ab Gwilym Fychan of Emlyn, he became steward to his kinsman, Ivor Hael of Maesaleg, Monmouthshire, who also appointed him instructor to his daughter. The latter arrangement leading to an attachment between tutor and pupil, the girl was banished to a convent in Anglesey, whither the poet followed her, taking service in an adjacent monastery, but on returning to Maesaleg he was permitted to retain his stewardship. He was elected chief bard of Glamorgan and became household bard to Ivor Hael. At Rhosyr in North Wales he met Morfudd Lawgam, to whom he addressed 147 amatory odes. In consequence of attempting to elope with this lady, Dafydd ab Gwilym, being unable to pay the fine demanded by her husband, was imprisoned. Liberated by the goodwill of his friends, he went back to Maesaleg, and after the death of his patron, retired to his birthplace, Bro Gynin. Tradition states that he was a man of noble appearance, and his poems bear evidence of high mental culture. He was acquainted with the works of Homer, Virgil, Ovid and Horace, and was also a student of Italian literature. Especially remarkable as a poet of nature in an age when more warlike themes were chosen by his contemporaries, his poems entitled "The Lark," "The Wind" and "The Mist" are amongst his finest efforts. He has been called the Petrarch, the Ovid, and (by George Borrow) the Horace of Wales. His poems were almost all written in the _cywydd_ form: a short ode not divided into stanzas, each line having the same number of syllables. The poet died about the year 1400, and according to tradition was buried in the graveyard of the monastery of Strata Florida, in Cardiganshire.

See also under CELT; _Celtic Literature_, iv. Welsh.

DAGGER, a hand weapon with a short blade. The derivation is obscure (cf. Fr. _dague_ and Ger. _Degen_), but the word is related to _dag_, a long pointed jag such as would be made in deeply nicking the edge of a garment. The war knife in various forms and under many names has of course been in use in all ages and amongst all races. But the dagger as generally understood was not a short sword, but a special stabbing weapon which could be used along with the sword. The distinction is often difficult to establish in a given case owing to the variations in the length of the weapon. The principal medieval dagger was the _miséricorde_, which from the end of the 12th century was used, in all countries in which chivalry flourished, to penetrate the joints of the armour of an unhorsed adversary (hence Ger. _Panzerbrecher_, armour-breaker). It was so called either because the threat of it caused the vanquished to surrender "at mercy," or from its use in giving what was called the _coup de grâce_. From about 1330 till the end of the succeeding century, in many knightly effigies it is often represented as attached on the right side by a cord or a chain to the sword-belt. This weapon and its sheath were often elaborately adorned. It was customary to secure it from accidental loss by a guard-chain fastened to the breast-armour. Occasionally the miséricorde was fixed to the body-armour by a staple; or, more rarely, it was connected with a _gypcière_ or pouch. The miséricorde may be called a poniard. The distinction between the dagger and the poniard is arbitrary, and in ordinary language the latter is taken as being the shorter and as having less resemblance to a short sword or cutlass. A weapon, with a longer blade than the miséricorde, was habitually worn by civilians, including judges, during the middle ages; such weapons bore the name of _anlace_ (from _annulus_, as it was fastened by a ring), _basilarde_ or _langue de boeuf_, the last from the broad ox-tongue shape of the blade. This had often a small knife fixed on the scabbard, like a Highland officer's dirk of the present day. By nobles and knights the dagger or poniard was worn when they had exchanged their armour for the costume of peace. It is recorded besides that when they appeared at a tournament and on some other occasions, ladies at that time wore daggers depending, with their gypcieres, from their girdles. Thus, writing of the year 1348, Knighton speaks of certain ladies who were present at jousts as "habentes cultellos, quos _daggerios_ vulgariter dicunt, in powchiis desuper impositis." A longer and heavier dagger with a broad blade (Italian) is called _cinquedea_. The Scottish "dirk" was a long dagger, and survives in name in the dirk worn by midshipmen of the royal navy, and in fact in that worn by officers of Highland regiments. In the 15th and 16th centuries the infantry soldiers (Swiss or _landsknecht_) carried a heavy poniard or dagger. This and the earlier Spanish dagger with a thumb-ring were distinctively the weapons of professional soldiers. The rise of duelling produced another type, called the _main gauche_, which was a parrying weapon and often had a toothed edge on which the adversary's sword was caught and broken. One form of this dagger had a blade which expanded into a triple fork on pressing a spring; this served the same purpose. The satellites of the _Vehmgericht_ had a similar weapon, in order, it is suggested, that their acts should be done in the name of the Trinity. The smaller poniards are generally called "stilettos." Much ingenuity and skill have been lavished on the adornment of daggers, and in rendering the blades more capable of inflicting severe wounds. Daggers also were sometimes made to poison as well as to wound. Of oriental daggers may be mentioned the Malay "crease" or "kris," which has a long waxed blade; the Gurkha "kukri," a short curved knife, broadest and heaviest towards the point; and the Hindu "khuttar," which has a flat triangular-shaped blade, and a hilt of H-shape, the cross-bar forming the grip and the sides the guard.

DAGHESTAN, a province of Russia, Transcaucasia, occupying the triangular space between the Andi ridge, the south-east division of the main Caucasus range, and the Caspian Sea. It has the province of Terek on the N.W., the government of Tiflis on the S.W., and that of Baku on the S.E. With the exception of a narrow strip along the sea-coast and a small district in the N., it is entirely mountainous. Area, 11,332 sq. m. The snow-clad Andi ridge, belonging to the system of transverse upheavals which cross the Caucasus, branches off the latter at Borbalo Peak (10,175 ft.), and reaches its highest altitudes in Tebulos-mta (14,775 ft.) and Diklos-mta (13,740 ft.). It is encircled on the N. by a lower outer ridge, the Karadagh, through which the rivers cut their way. This ridge is thickly clothed with forests, chiefly beech. The Boz-dagh and another ridge run between the four Koisu rivers, the head-streams of the Sulak, which flows into the Caspian. The next most important stream, out of the great number which course down the flanks of the Caucasus and terminate in the Caspian, is the Samur. The most notable feature of the province is, however, according to O. W. H. Abich (_Sur la structure et la géologie du Daghestan_, 1862), the successive folds of Jurassic limestones and slates, all nearly parallel to the Caucasus, which form lofty, narrow plateaus. Many of the peaks upon them rise higher than 12,000 ft., and the passes lie at altitudes of 11,000 ft. in the interior and 9000 ft. towards the Caspian. Towards the Caspian, especially between Petrovsk and the river Sulak, the Cretaceous system is well represented, and upon its rocks rest marls, shales, and sandstones of the Eocene period. The country is altogether difficult of access, and only one military route leads up from the river Terek, while every one of the eleven passes known across the Caucasus is a mere bridle-path. The climate is severe on the plateaus, hot towards the Caspian, and dry everywhere. The average temperatures are--year 51°, January 26°, July 73° at Temir-khan-shura (42° 49´ N.; alt. 1510 ft.). The annual rainfall varies from 17 to 21 in. The population, estimated at 605,100 in 1906, numbered 587,326 in 1897, of whom only 5000 were Russians. They consist chiefly of mountaineers known as Lesghians (i.e. 158,550 Avars, 121,375 Darghis, 94,506 Kurins), a race closely akin to the Circassians, intermingled towards the Caspian Sea with Tatars and Georgians. There are also sprinklings of Jews and Persians. The highlands of Daghestan were for many years the stronghold of the Circassians in their struggle against Russia, especially under the leadership of Shamyl, whose last stand was made on the steep mountain fastness of Gunib, 74 m. S. of Temir-khan-shura, in 1859. The difficulty of communication between the valleys has resulted in the growth of a great number of dialects. Avarian is a sort of inter-tribal tongue, while Lakh or Kazi-kumukh, Kurin, Darghi-kaitakh, Andi, and Tabasaran are some of the more important dialects, each subdivided into sub-dialects. The mountaineers breed some cattle and sheep, and cultivate small fields on the mountain-sides. In the littoral districts excellent crops of cereals, cotton, fruit, wine and tobacco are obtained with the aid of irrigation. Silkworms are bred. The mountaineers excel also in a variety of petty trades. Sulphur, salt and copper are the most important of the minerals. A railway line to connect the North Caucasian line (Rostov to Petrovsk) with the Transcaucasian line (Batum to Baku) has been built along the Caspian shore from Petrovsk, through the "gate" or pass of Derbent, to Baku. The province is divided into nine districts--Temir-khan-shura, Avar, Andi, Gunib, Dargo, Kazi-kumukh, Kaitago-Tabasaran, Kurin, and Samur. The only towns are Temir-khan-shura (pop. 9208 in 1897), the capital of the government, Derbent (14,821) and Petrovsk (9806), the last two both on the Caspian.

See G. Radde, "Aus den Daghestanischen Hochalpen," in _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, Erganzungsheft, No. 85, 1887, and, with E. König, "Der Nordfuss des Daghestan," in _Petermanns Mitteil._, Erganzungsheft, No. 117, 1895. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

DAGO, a name given somewhat contemptuously to Spanish, Portuguese and Italian sailors, as "Dutchman" is similarly applied to Germans and Scandinavians as well as to natives of Holland. In America the word is generally confined to the poorer class of Italian immigrants. In the South Wales mining districts the casual labourers, who are only engaged when work is plentiful, are so called. The word is apparently a corruption of the common Spanish and Portuguese Christian name "Diego."

DAGOBERT I. (d. 639), king of the Franks, was the son of Clotaire II. In 623 his father established him as king of the region east of the Ardennes, and in 626 revived for him the ancient kingdom of Austrasia, _minus_ Aquitaine and Provence. As Dagobert was yet but a child, he was placed under the authority of the mayor of the palace, Pippin, and Arnulf, bishop of Metz. At the death of Clotaire II. in 629, Dagobert wished to re-establish unity in the Frankish realm, and in 629 and 630 made expeditions into Neustria and Burgundy, where he succeeded in securing the recognition of his authority. In Aquitaine he gave his brother Charibert the administration of the counties of Toulouse, Cahors, Agen, Périgueux, and Saintes; but at Charibert's death in 632 Dagobert became sole ruler of the whole of the Frankish territories south of the Loire. Under him the Merovingian monarchy attained its culminating point. He restored to the royal domain the lands that had been usurped by the great nobles and by the church; he maintained at Paris a luxurious, though, from the example he himself set, a disorderly court; he was a patron of the arts, and delighted in the exquisite craftsmanship of his treasurer, the goldsmith St Eloi. His authority was recognized through the length and breadth of the realm. The duke of the Basques came to his court to swear fidelity, and at his _villa_ at Clichy the chief of the Bretons of Domnoné promised obedience. He intervened in the affairs of the Visigoths of Spain and the Lombards of Italy, and was heard with deference. Indeed, as a sovereign, Dagobert was reckoned superior to the other barbarian kings. He entered into relations with the eastern empire, and swore a "perpetual peace" with the emperor Heraclius; and it is probable that the two sovereigns took common measures against the Slav and Bulgarian tribes, which ravaged in turn the Byzantine state and the German territories subject to the Franks. Dagobert protected the church and placed illustrious prelates at the head of the bishoprics--Eloi (Eligius) at Noyon, Ouen (Audoenus) at Rouen, and Didier (Desiderius) at Cahors. His reign is also marked by the creation of numerous monasteries and by renewed missionary activity in Flanders and among the Basques. He died on the 19th of January 639, and was buried at St Denis. After his death the Frankish monarchy was again divided. In 634 he had been obliged to give the Austrasians a special king in the person of his eldest son Sigebert, and at the birth of a second son, Clovis, in 635, the Neustrians had immediately claimed him as king. Thus the unification of the realm, which Dagobert had re-established with so much pains, was annulled.

See the _Chronicon_ of Fredegarius; "_Gesta Dagoberti I. regis Francorum_" in _Mon. Germ. hist. Script. rer. Meroving._ vol. ii. edited by B. Krusch; J. H. Albers, _Konig Dagobert in Gesch., Legende, und Sage_ (2nd ed., Kaiserslautern, 1884); E. Vacandard, _Vie de Saint Ouen, évêque de Rouen_ (Paris, 1901); and H. E. Bonnell, _Die Anfange des karoling. Hauses_ (Berlin, 1866). (C. Pf.)

DAGON, a god of the Philistines who had temples at Ashdod (1 Sam. v. 1), and Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21, 23); the former was destroyed by Jonathan, the brother of Judas the Maccabee (1 Macc. x. 84; 148 B.C.). But Dagon was more than a mere local deity; there was a place called Beth-Dagon in Judah (Josh. xv. 41), another on the borders of Asher (_ib._ xix. 27), and a third underlies the modern Bet Dejan, south-east of Nablus. Dagon was in all probability an old Canaanite deity; it appears in the name of the Canaanite Dagantakala as early as the 15th century, and is possibly to be identified with the Babylonian god Dagan. Little is known of his cult (Judg. xvi. 23 seq.), although as the male counterpart of Ashtoreth (see ASTARTE) his worship would scarcely differ from that of the Baalim (see BAAL). The name Dagon seems to come from _dag_ "fish," and that his idol was half-man half-fish is possible from the ichthyomorphic representations found upon coins of Ascalon and Arvad, and from the fact that Berossus speaks of an Assyrian merman-god.

The true meaning of the name is doubtful. In 1 Sam. v. 4, Thenius and Wellhausen, followed by Robertson Smith and others, read "only his fish-part (_dago_) was left to him"; against this, see the comm. of H. P. Smith and Budde. The identification of Dagon with the Babylonian Dagan is doubted by G. F. Moore (_Encyc. Bib._, col. 985), and that of the latter with Odacon and Ea-Oannes is questionable. Philo Byblius (Müller, _Fr. Hist. Graec._ iii. 567 seq.) makes Dagon the inventor of corn and the plough, whence he was called [Greek: Zeus Harotrios]. This points to a natural though possibly late etymology from the Hebrew and Phoenician _dagan_ "corn." It is not improbable that, at least in later times, Dagon had in place of, or in addition to, his old character, that of the god who presided over agriculture; for in the last days of paganism, as we learn from Marcus Diaconus in the _Life of Porphyry of Gaza_ (§ 19), the great god of Gaza, now known as Marna (our Lord), was regarded as the god of rains and invoked against famine. That Marna was lineally descended from Dagon is probable in every way, and it is therefore interesting to note that he gave oracles, that he had a circular temple, where he was sometimes worshipped by human sacrifices, that there were wells in the sacred circuit, and that there was also a place of adoration to him situated, as was usual, outside the town. Certain "marmora" in the temple, which might not be approached, especially by women, may perhaps be connected with the threshold which the priests of Dagon would not touch with their feet (1 Sam. v. 5, Zeph. i. 9). See further, the comm. on the Old Testament passages, Moore (_loc. cit._), and Lagrange, _Relig. sémit._ p. 131 seq.

DAGUERRE, LOUIS JACQUES MANDÉ (1789-1851), French, painter and physicist, inventor of the daguerreotype, was born at Cormeilles, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, and died on the 12th of July 1851 at Petit-Brie-sur-Marne, near Paris. He was at first occupied as an inland revenue officer, but soon took to scene-painting for the opera. He assisted Pierre Prévost (1764-1823) in the execution of panoramic views of Rome, Naples, London, Jerusalem, and Athens, and subsequently (July 11, 1822), in conjunction with Bouton, he opened at Paris the Diorama ([Greek: dis], double; [Greek: horama], view), an exhibition of pictorial views, the effect of which was heightened by changes in the light thrown upon them. An establishment similar to that at Paris was opened by Daguerre in Regent's Park, London. On the 3rd of March 1839 the Diorama, together with the work on which Daguerre was then engaged, was destroyed by fire. This reverse of fortune was soon, however, more than compensated for by the distinction he achieved as the inventor of the daguerreotype photographic process. J. Nicéphore Niepce, who since 1814 had been seeking a means of obtaining permanent pictures by the action of sunlight, learned in 1826 that Daguerre was similarly occupied. In 1829 he communicated to Daguerre particulars of his method of fixing the images produced in the camera lucida by making use of metallic plates coated with a composition of asphalt and oil of lavender; this, where acted on by the light, remained undissolved when the plate was plunged into a mixture of petroleum and oil of lavender, and the development of the image was effected by the action of acids and other chemical reagents on the exposed surface of the plate. The two investigators laboured together in the production of their "heliographic pictures" from 1829 until the death of Niepce in 1833. Daguerre, continuing his experiments, discovered eventually the process connected with his name. This, as he described it, consists of five operations:--the polishing of the silver plate; the coating of the plate with iodide of silver by submitting it for about 20 minutes to the action of iodine vapour; the projection of the image of the object upon the golden-coloured iodized surface, the development of the latent image by means of the vapour of mercury; and, lastly, the fixing of the picture by immersing the plate in a solution of sodium "hyposulphite" (sodium thiosulphate). On the 9th of January 1839, at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences, Arago dwelt on the importance of the discovery of the daguerreotype; and, in consequence of the representations made by him and Gay Lussac to the French government, Daguerre was on the 15th of June appointed an officer of the Legion of Honour. On the same day a bill was presented to the chambers, according to the provisions of which Daguerre and the heir of Niepce were to receive annuities of 6000 and 4000 francs respectively, on the condition that their process should be made known to the Academy. The bill having been approved at the meetings of the two chambers on the 9th of July and on the 2nd of August, Daguerre's process, together with his system of transparent and opaque painting, was published by the government, and soon became generally known (see PHOTOGRAPHY).

Daguerre's _Historique et description des procédés du daguerréotype et du diorama_ (Paris, 1839) passed through several editions, and was translated into English. Besides this he wrote an octavo work, entitled _Nouveau moyen de préparer la couche sensible des plaques destinées à recevoir les images photographiques_ (Paris, 1844).