Part 48

Discontent grew, and another war was prepared for. On the 23rd of February 1895 General Calleja suspended the constitutional guarantees. The leading chiefs of the Ten Years' War took the field again--Maximo Gomez, Antonio Maceo, Jose Marti, Calixto Garcia and others. Unlike that war, this was carried to the western provinces, and indeed was fiercest there. Among the military means adopted by the Spaniards to isolate their foe were "trochas" (i.e. entrenchments, barbwire fences, and lines of block-houses) across the narrow parts of the island, and "reconcentracion" of non-combatants in camps guarded by the Spanish forces. The latter measure produced extreme suffering and much starvation (as the reconcentrados were largely thrown upon the charity of the beggared communities in which they were huddled). In October 1897 the Spanish premier, P. M. Sagasta, announced the policy of autonomy, and the new dispensation was proclaimed in Cuba in December. But again all final authority was reserved to the captain-general. The system was never to have a practical trial, although a full government was quickly organized under it. The American people had sent food to the reconcentrados; President McKinley, while opposing recognition of the rebels, affirmed the possibility of intervention; Spain resented this attitude; and finally, in February 1898, the United States battleship "Maine" was blown up--by whom will probably never be known--in the harbour of Havana.

On the 20th of April the United States demanded the withdrawal of Spanish troops from the island. War followed immediately. A fine Spanish squadron seeking to escape from Santiago harbour was utterly destroyed by the American blockading force on the 3rd of July; Santiago was invested by land forces, and on the 15th of July the city surrendered. Other operations in Cuba were slight. By the treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th of December, Spain "relinquished" the island to the United States in trust for its inhabitants; the temporary character of American occupation being recognized throughout the treaty, in accord with the terms of the American declaration of war, in which the United States disclaimed any intention to control the island except for its pacification, and expressed the determination to leave the island thereupon to the control of its people. Spanish authority ceased on the 1st of January 1899, and was followed by American "military" rule (January 1, 1899-May 20, 1902). During these three years the great majority of offices were filled by Cubans, and the government was made as different as possible from the military control to which the colony had been accustomed. Very much was done for public works, sanitation, the reform of administration, civil service and education. Most notable of all, yellow fever was eradicated where it had been endemic for centuries. A constitutional convention sat at Havana from the 5th of November 1900 to the 21st of February 1901. The provisions of the document thus formed have already been referred to. In the determination of the relations that should subsist between the new republic and the United States certain definite conditions known as the Platt Amendment were finally imposed by the United States, and accepted by Cuba (12th of June 1901) as a part of her constitution. By these Cuba was bound not to incur debts her current revenues will not bear; to continue the sanitary administration undertaken by the military government of intervention; to lease naval stations (since located at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo) to the United States; and finally, the right of the United States to intervene, if necessary, in the affairs of the island was explicitly affirmed in the provision, "That the government of Cuba consents that the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the protection of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the government of Cuba." The status thus created is very exceptional in the history of international relations. The status of the Isle of Pines was left an open question by the treaty of Paris, but a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States has declared it (in a question of customs duties) to be a part of Cuba, and though a treaty to the same end did not secure ratification (1908) by the United States Senate, repeated efforts by American residents thereon to secure annexation to the United States were ignored by the United States government.

The first Cuban congress met on the 5th of May 1902, prepared to take over the government from the American military authorities, which it did on the 20th of May. Tomas Estrada Palma (1835-1908) became the first president of the Republic. In material prosperity the progress of the island from 1902 to 1906 was very great; but in its politics, various social and economic elements, and political habits and examples of Spanish provenience that ill befit a democracy, led once more to revolution. Congress neglected to pass certain laws which were required by the constitution, and which, as regards municipal autonomy, independence of the judiciary, and congressional representation of minority parties, were intended to make impossible the abuses of centralized government that had characterized Spanish administration. Political parties were forming without very evident basis for differences outside questions of political patronage and the good or ill use of power; and, in the absence of the laws just mentioned, the Moderates, being in power, used every instrument of government to strengthen their hold on office. The preliminaries of the elections of December 1905 and March 1906 being marked by frauds and injustice, the Liberals deserted the polls at those elections, and instead of appealing to judicial tribunals controlled by the Moderates, issued a manifesto of revolution on the 28th of July 1906.[3] This insurrection rapidly assumed large proportions. The government was weak and lacked moral support in the whole island. After repeated petitions from President Palma for intervention by the United States, commissioners (William H. Taft, Secretary of War, and Robert Bacon, Acting Secretary of State) were sent from Washington to act as peace mediators.

All possible efforts to secure a compromise that would preserve the Republic failed. The president resigned (on the 28th of September), Congress dispersed without choosing a successor, and as an alternative to anarchy the United States was compelled to proclaim on the 29th of September 1906 a provisional government,--to last "long enough to restore order and peace and public confidence," and hold new elections. The insurrectionists promptly disbanded. Government was maintained under the Cuban flag,--the diplomatic and consular relations with even the United States remaining in outward forms unchanged; and the regular forms of the constitution were scrupulously maintained so far as possible. No use was made of American military force save as a passive background to the government. The government of intervention at first directed its main effort simply to holding the country together, without undertaking much that could divide public opinion or seem of unpalatably foreign impulse; and later to the establishment of a few fundamental laws which, when intervention ceased, should give greater simplicity, strength and stability to a new native government. These laws strictly defined the powers of the president; more clearly separated the executive departments, so as to lessen friction and jealousies; reformed the courts; reformed administrative routine; and increased the strength of the provinces at the expense of the municipalities. On the 28th of January 1909 the American administration ceased, and the Republic was a second time inaugurated, with General Jose Miguel Gomez (b. 1856), the leader of the Miguelista faction of the Liberal party, as president, and Alfredo Zayas, the leader of the Zayista faction of the same party, as vice-president. The last American troops were withdrawn from the island on the 1st of April 1909.

AUTHORITIES.--General Description.--There is no trustworthy recent description. The best books are E. Pechardo, _Geografia de la isla de Cuba_ (4 tom., Havana, 1854); M. Rodriguez-Ferrer, _Naturaleza y civilizacion de ... Cuba_, vol. i. (Madrid, 1876). See also _United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 192_ (1902), H. Gannett, "A Gazetteer of Cuba." Of general descriptions in English, in addition to travels cited below, may be cited R. T. Hill, _Cuba and Porto Rico with the other West Indies_ (New York, 1898).

Fauna and Flora.--A. H. R. Grisebach, _Catalogus plantarum Cubensium_ (Leipzig, 1866), and F. A. Sauvalle, _Flora Cubana: revisio catalogi Grisebachiani_ (Havana, 1868); and _Flora Cubana: enumeratio nova plantarum Cubensium_ (Havana, 1873); F. Poey et al., _Repertorio fisico-natural de la isla de Cuba_ (2 vols., Havana, 1865-1868), and F. Poey, _Memorias sobre la historia natural de ... Cuba_ (3 tom., Havana, 1851-1860); Ramon de la Sagra, with many collaborators, _Historia fisica, politica y natural de ... Cuba_ (Paris, 1842-1851, 12 vols.; issued also in French; vols. 3-12 being the "Historia Natural"); _Anales_ of the Academia de Ciencias (Havana, 1863- , annual); M. Gomez de la Maza, _Flora Habanera_ (Havana, 1897); S. A. de Morales, _Flora arboricola de Cuba aplicada_ (Havana, 1887, only part published); D. H. Segui, _Ojeado sobre la flora medica y toxica de Cuba_ (Havana, 1900); J. Gundlach, _Contribucion a la entomologia Cubana_ (Havana, 1881); J. M. Fernandez y Jimenez, _Tratado de la arboricultura Cubana_ (Havana, 1867).

Geology and Minerals.--M. F. de Castro, "Pruebas paleontologicas de que la isla de Cuba ha estado unida al continento americano y breve idea de su constitucion geologica," _Bol. Com. Mapa Geol. de Esp._ vol. viii. (1881), pp. 357-372; M. F. de Castro and P. Salterain y Legarra, "Croquis geologico de la isla de Cuba," ibid. vol. viii. pl. vi. (published with vol. xi., 1884). Many articles in _Anales_ of the Academy; also, R. T. Hill in _Harvard College Museum of Comparative Zoology, Bulletin_, vol. 16, pp. 243-288 (1895); _United States Geological Survey_, 22nd Annual Report, 1901, C. W. Hayes _et al._, "Geological Reconnaissance of Cuba"; _Civil Report of General Leonard Wood_, governor of Cuba (1902), vol. v., H. C. Brown, "Report on Mineral Resources of Cuba."

Climate.--See the _Boletin Oficial de la Secretaria de Agricultura_, and publications of the observatory of Havana. Sanitation.--For conditions 1899-1902, see _Civil Reports_ of American military governors. For conditions since 1902 consult the _Informe Mensual_ (1903- ) of the Junta Superior de Sanidad.

Agriculture.--Consult the _Boletin_ above mentioned, publications of the Estacion Central Agronomica, and current statistical serial reports of the treasury department (Hacienda) on natural resources, live-stock interests, the sugar industry (annual), &c.

Industries, Commerce, Communications.--See the works of Sagra and Pezuela. For conditions about 1899 consult R. P. Porter (Special Commissioner of the United States government), _Industrial Cuba_ (New York, 1899); W. J. Clark, _Commercial Cuba_ (New York, 1898); reports of foreign consular agents in Cuba; and the statistical annuals of the Hacienda on foreign commerce and railways.

Population.--The early censuses were extremely unreliable. Illuminating discussions of them can be found in Humboldt's _Essay_, Saco's _Papeles_ and Pezuela's _Diccionario_. See _United States Department of War, Report on the Census of Cuba 1899_ (Washington, 1899); _U.S. Bureau of the Census, Cuba: Population, History and Resources, 1907_ (1909).

Education.--See _Civil Reports_ of the American military government, 1899-1902; United States commissioner of education, _Report, 1897-1898_; current reports in _Informe del superintendente de escuelas de Cuba ..._ (Havana, 1903- ). On Letters and Culture.--E. Pechardo y Tapia, _Diccionario ... de voces Cubanas_ (Havana, 1836, 4th ed., 1875; all editions with many errors); Antonio Bachiller y Morales, _Apuntes para la historia de las letras y de la instruccion publica de Cuba_ (3 tom., Havana, 1859-1861); J. M. Mestre, _De la filosofia en la Habana_ (Havana, 1862); A. Mitjans, _Estudio sobre el movimiento cientifico y literario de Cuba_ (Havana, 1890); biographies of Varela and Luz Caballero by Rodriguez (see below); files of _La Revista de Cuba_ (16 vols., Havana, 1877-1884) and _La Revista Cubana_ (21 vols., Havana, 1885-1895). The literature of TRAVEL is rich. It suffices to mention _Letters from the Havannah_, by the English consul (London, 1821); E. M. Masse, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1825); D. Turnbull, _Travels in the West_ (London, 1840), and R. R. Madden, _The Island of Cuba_ (London, 1853)--two very important books regarding slavery; J. B. Rosemond de Beauvallon, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1844); J. G. Taylor, _The United States and Cuba_ (London, 1851); F. Bremer, _The Homes of the New World_ (2 vols., New York, 1853); M. M. Ballou, _History of Cuba, or Notes of a Traveller_ (Boston, 1854); R. H. Dana, _To Cuba and Back_ (Boston, 1859); J. von Sivers, _Die Perle der Antillen_ (Leipzig, 1861); A. C. N. Gallenga, _The Pearl of the Antilles_ (London, 1873); S. Hazard, _Cuba with Pen and Pencil_ (Hartford, Conn., 1873); H. Piron, _L'Ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1876). Of later books, F. Matthews, _The New-Born Cuba_ (New York, 1899); R. Davey, _Cuba Past and Present_ (London, 1898). Among the writers who have left short impressions are A. Granier de Cassagnac (1844), J. J. A. Ampere (1855), A. Trollope (1860), J. A. Froude (1888).

Administration.--Consult the literature of history and colonial reform given below. Also: Leandro Garcia y Gragitena, _Guia del empleado de hacienda_ (Havana, 1860), with very valuable historical data; Carlos de Sedano y Cruzat, _Cuba desde 1850 a 1873_. _Coleccion de informes, memorias, proyectos y antecedentes sobre el gobierno de la isla de Cuba_ (Madrid, 1875); Vicente Vasquez Queipo, _Informe fiscal sobre fomento de la poblacion blanca_ (Madrid, 1845); _Informacion sobre reformas en Cuba y Puerto Rico celebrada en Madrid en 1866 y 67 por los representantes de ambas islas_ (2 tom., New York, 1867; 2nd ed., New York, 1877); and the _Diccionario_ of Pezuela. These, with the works of Saco, Sagra, Arango and Alexander von Humboldt's work, _Essai politique sur l'ile de Cuba_ (2 vols., Paris 1826; Spanish editions, 1 vol., Paris, 1827 and 1840; English translation by J. S. Thrasher, with interpolations, New York, 1856), are indispensable. For conditions at the end of the 18th century, Fran. de Arango y Parreno, _Obras_ (2 tom., Havana, 1888). For later conditions, E. Valdes Dominguez, _Los Antiguos Diputados de Cuba_ (Havana, 1879); B. Huber, _Apercu statistique de l'ile de Cuba_ (Paris, 1826); Humboldt; Sagra, vols. 1-2 of the book cited above, being the _Historia fisica y politica_, and also the earlier work on which they are based, _Historia economica-politica y estadistica de ... Cuba_ (Havana, 1831); treatises on administrative law in Cuba by J. M. Morilla (Havana, 1847; 2nd ed., 1865, 2 vols.) and A. Govin (3 vols., Havana, 1882-1883); A. S. Rowan and M. M. Ramsay, _The Island of Cuba_ (New York, 1896); _Coleccion de reales ordenes, decretos y disposiciones_ (Havana, serial, 1857-1898); _Spanish Rule in Cuba_. _Laws Governing the Island. Reviews Published by the Colonial Office in Madrid ..._ (New York, for the Spanish legation, 1896); and compilations of Spanish colonial laws listed under article INDIES, LAWS OF THE. On the new Republican regime: _Gaceta Oficial_ (Havana, 1903- ); reports of departments of government; M. Romero Palafox, _Agenda de la republica de Cuba_ (Havana, 1905). See also the _Civil Reports_ of the United States military governors, J. R. Brooke (2 vols., 1899; Havana and Washington, 1900), L. Wood (33 vols., 1900-1902; Washington, 1901-1902).

History.--The works (see above) of Sagra, Humboldt and Arango are indispensable; also those of Francisco Calcagno, _Diccionario biografico Cubano_ (ostensibly, New York, 1878); Vidal Morales y Morales, _Iniciadores y primeros martires de la revolucion Cubana_ (Havana, 1901); Jose Ahumada y Centurion, _Memoria historica politica de ... Cuba_ (Havana, 1874); Jacobo de la Pezuela, _Diccionario geografico-estadistico-historico de ... Cuba_ (4 tom., Madrid, 1863-1866); _Historia de ... Cuba_, (4 tom., Madrid, 1868-1878; supplanting his _Ensayo historico de ... Cuba_, Madrid and New York, 1842); and Jose Antonio Saco, _Obras_ (2 vols., New York, 1853), _Papeles_ (3 tom., Paris, 1858-1859), and _Coleccion postuma de Papeles_ (Havana, 1881). Also: Rodriguez Ferrer, _op. cit._ above, vol. 2 (Madrid, 1888); P. G. Guiteras, _Historia de ... Cuba_ (2 vols., New York, 1865-1866). Of great value is J. Zaragoza, _Las Insurrecciones en Cuba_. _Apuntes para la historia politica_ (2 tom., Madrid, 1872-1873); also J. I. Rodriguez, _Vida de ... Felix Varela_ (New York, 1878), and _Vida de D. Jose de la Luz_ (New York, 1874; 2nd ed., 1879). On early history see _Coleccion de documentos ineditos relativos al descubrimiento ... de ultramar_ (series 2, vols. 1, 4, 6, Madrid, 1885-1890). On archaeology, N. Fort y Roldan, _Cuba indigena_ (Madrid, 1881); M. Rodriguez Ferrer (see above); and especially A. Bachiller y Morales, _Cuba primitiva_ (Havana, 1883). For the history of the Cuban international problem consult Jose Ignacio Rodriguez, _Idea de la anexion de la isla de Cuba a los Estados Unidos de America_ (Havana, 1900), and J. M. Callahan, Cuba and International Relations (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1898), which supplement each other. On the domestic reform problem there is an enormous literature, from which may be selected (see general histories above and works cited under S Administration of this bibliography): M. Torrente, _Bosquejo economico-politico_ (2 tom., Madrid-Havana, 1852-1853); D. A. Galiano, _Cuba en 1858_ (Madrid, 1859); Jose de la Concha, twice Captain-General of Cuba, _Memorias sobre el estado politico, gobierno y administracion de ... Cuba_ (Madrid, 1853); A. Lopez de Letona, _Isla de Cuba, reflexiones_ (Madrid, 1856); F. A. Conte, _Aspiraciones del partido liberal de Cuba_ (Havana, 1892); P. Valiente, _Reformes dans les iles de Cuba et de Porto Rico_ (Paris, 1869); C. de Sedano, _Cuba: Estudios politicos_ (Madrid, 1872); H. H. S. Aimes, _History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511-1868_ (New York, 1907); F. Armas y Cespedes, _De la esclavitud en Cuba_ (Madrid, 1866), and _Regimen politico de las Antillas Espanolas_ (Palma, 1882); R. Cabrera, _Cuba y sus Jueces_ (Havana, 1887; 9th ed., Philadelphia, 1895; 8th ed., in English, _Cuba and the Cubans_, Philadelphia, 1896); P. de Alzola y Minondo, _El Problema Cubano_ (Bilbao, 1898); various works by R. M. de Labra, including _La Cuestion social en las Antillas Espanolas_ (Madrid, 1874), _Sistemas coloniales_ (Madrid, 1874), &c.; R. Montoro, _Discursos ... 1878-1893_ (Philadelphia, 1894); Labra _et al._, _El Problema colonial contemporanea_ (2 vols., Madrid, 1894); articles by Em. Castelar _et al._, in Spanish reviews (1895-1898). On the period since 1899 the best two books in English are C. M. Pepper, _To-morrow in Cuba_ (New York, 1899); A. G. Robinson, _Cuba and the Intervention_ (New York, 1905). (F. S. P.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Other countries taking only 27,462 long tons out of a total of 5,719,777 in the seven fiscal years 1899-1900 to 1905-1906.

[2] In these same years the trade of the United States with Cuba and Porto Rico was: importations from the islands, $59,221,444 annually; exportations to the islands, $20,017,156. The corresponding figures for Spain were $7,265,142 and $20,035,183; and for the United Kingdom, $714,837 and $11,971,129, the trade with other countries being of much less amount.

[3] In the preliminary registration by Moderate officials a total electorate was registered of 432,313,--about 30% of the supposed population of the island.