Part 1

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Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE CROWLAND: "The dissolution of the monastery in 1539 was fatal to the progress of the town, which had prospered under the thrifty rule of the monks, and it rapidly sank into the position of an unimportant village." 'unimportant' amended from 'umimportant'.

ARTICLE CROWNE, JOHN: "The king exacted one more comedy, which should, he suggested, be based on the No pued esser of Moreto." 'be' amended from 'he'.

ARTICLE CRUSADES: "Taking a route midway between the eastern route of the crusaders of 1097 and the western route of Louis VII. in 1148 ..." 'western' amended from 'westerh'.

ARTICLE CRUSADES: "... beginning as charitable societies, developed into military clubs, and developed again from military clubs into chartered companies, possessed of banks, navies and considerable territories." 'societies' amended from 'socities'.

ARTICLE CUBA: "The range near Baracoa is extremely wild and broken." 'extremely' amended from 'entremely'.

ARTICLE CUBA: "The total commercial movement of the island in the five calendar years 1902-1906 averaged $177,882,640 ..." 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VII, SLICE VII

Crocoite to Cuba

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

CROCOITE CROWE, EYRE EVANS CROCUS CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROESUS CROW INDIANS CROFT, SIR HERBERT CROWLAND CROFT, SIR JAMES CROWLEY, ROBERT CROFT, WILLIAM CROWN (coin) CROFTER CROWN and CORONET CROKER, JOHN WILSON CROWN DEBT CROKER, RICHARD CROWNE, JOHN CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON CROWN LAND CROLL, JAMES CROWN POINT CROLY, GEORGE CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI CROMAGNON RACE CROYDON CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE CROZAT, PIERRE CROMARTY CROZET ISLANDS CROMARTY FIRTH CROZIER, WILLIAM CROME, JOHN CROZIER CROMER, EVELYN BARING CRUCIAL CROMER CRUCIFERAE CROMORNE CRUDEN, ALEXANDER CROMPTON, SAMUEL CRUDEN CROMPTON CRUELTY CROMWELL, HENRY CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE CROMWELL, OLIVER CRUNDEN, JOHN CROMWELL, RICHARD CRUSADES CROMWELL, THOMAS CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM CRUSTACEA CROOKSTON CRUSTUMERIUM CROP CRUVEILHIER, JEAN CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA CROQUET CRYOLITE CRORE CRYPT CROSBY, HOWARD CRYPTEIA CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION CRYPTOBRANCHUS CROSSBILL CRYPTOGRAPHY CROSSEN CRYPTOMERIA CROSSING CRYPTO-PORTICUS CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM CRYSTAL-GAZING CROSS RIVER CRYSTALLITE CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT CRYSTALLIZATION CROSS SPRINGER CRYSTALLOGRAPHY CROTCH, WILLIAM CRYSTAL PALACE, THE CROTCHET CSENGERY, ANTON CROTONA CSIKY, GREGOR CROTONIC ACID CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ CROTON OIL CSOMA DE KOROS, ALEXANDER CROUP CTENOPHORA CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE CTESIAS CROW CTESIPHON CROWBERRY CUBA CROWD

CROCOITE, a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCrO4, and crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is sometimes used as a paint, being identical in composition with the artificial product chrome-yellow; it is the only chromate of any importance found in nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near Ekaterinburg in the Urals in 1766; and named crocoise by F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek [Greek: krokos], saffron, in allusion to its colour, a name first altered to crocoisite and afterwards to crocoite. It is found as well-developed crystals of a bright hyacinth-red colour, which are translucent and have an adamantine to vitreous lustre. On exposure to light much of the translucency and brilliancy is lost. The streak is orange-yellow; hardness 2(1/2)-3; specific gravity 6.0. In the Urals the crystals are found in quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are Congonhas do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the Philippines, and Umtali in Mashonaland. Gold is often found associated with this mineral. Crystals far surpassing in beauty any previously known have been found in the Adelaide Mine at Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms, 3 or 4 in. in length, with a brilliant lustre and colour.

Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied minerals phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is a basic lead Chromate, Pb3Cr2O9, and the latter a lead and copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb, Cu)CrO4. (Pb, Cu)3(PO4)2. Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic crystals, and was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in 1797 discovered (simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth) the element chromium in crocoite. (L. J. S.)

CROCUS, a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae, containing about 70 species, natives of Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia, and especially developed in the dry country of south-eastern Europe and western and central Asia. The plants are admirably adapted for climates in which a season favourable to growth alternates with a hot or dry season; during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in the form of a short thickened stem protected by the scaly remains of the bases of last season's leaves (known botanically as a "corm"). At the beginning of the new season of growth, new flower- and leaf-bearing shoots are developed from the corm at the expense of the food-stuff stored within it. New corms are produced at the end of the season, and by these the plant is multiplied.

These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural varieties of _C. vernus_, _C. versicolor_ and _C. aureus_ (Dutch crocus), the two former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the latter the yellow varieties. The crocus succeeds in any fairly good garden soil, and is usually planted near the edges of beds or borders in the flower garden, or in broadish patches at intervals along the mixed borders. The corms should be planted 3 in. below the surface, and as they become crowded they should be taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at least every five or six years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect when dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure ground.

Some of the best of the varieties are:--_Purple_: David Rizzio, Sir J. Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. _Striped_: Albion, La Majestueuse, Sir Walter Scott, Cloth of _Silver_, Mme Mina. _White_: Caroline Chisholm, Mont Blanc. _Yellow_: Large Dutch.

The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, but those who make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly to search them out and grow them. They require the same culture as the more familiar garden varieties; but, as some of them are apt to suffer from excess of moisture, it is advisable to plant them in prepared soil in a raised pit, where they are brought nearer to the eye, and where they can be sheltered when necessary by glazed sashes, which, however, should not be closed except when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather in order to protect the blossoms, especially in the case of winter flowering species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of very great beauty. The following species are recommended:--

Spring flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. aureus_, _aureus_ var. _sulphureus_, _chrysanthus_, _Olivieri_, _Korolkowi_, _Balansae_, _ancyrensis_, _Susianus_, _stellaris_. _Lilac_: _C. Imperati_, _Sieberi_, _etruscus_, _vernus_, _Tomasinianus_, _banaticus_. _White_: _C. biflorus_ and vars., _candidus_, _vernus_ vars. _Striped_: _C. versicolor_, _reticulatus_.

Autumn flowering:--_Yellow_: _C. Scharojani_. _Lilac_: _C. asluricus_, _cancellatus_ var., _cilicicus_, _byzantinus_ (_iridiflorus_), _longiflorus_, _medius_, _nudiflorus_, _pulchellus_, _Salzmanni_, _sativus_ vars. _speciosus_, _zonatus_. _White_: _caspius_, _cancellatus_, _hadrialicus_, _marathonisius_.

Winter flowering:--_C. hyemaeis_, _laevigatus_, _vitellinus_.

CROESUS, last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty, (560-546 B.C.), succeeded his father Alyattes after a war with his half-brother. He completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing Ephesus, Miletus and other places, and extended the Lydian empire as far as the Halys. His wealth, due to trade, was proverbial, and he used part of it in securing alliances with the Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own army. Various legends were told about him by the Greeks, one of the most famous being that of Solon's visit to him with the lesson it conveyed of the divine nemesis which waits upon overmuch prosperity (Hdt. i. 29 seq.; but see SOLON). After the overthrow of the Median empire (549 B.C.) Croesus found himself confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and along with Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to resist it. A coalition was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt promised troops and Sparta its fleet. But the coalition was defeated by the rapid movements of Cyrus and the treachery of Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled to Persia with the gold that had been entrusted to him, and betrayed the plans of the confederates. Fortified with the Delphic oracles Croesus marched to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes fortune turned against him and he was forced to retreat to Sardis. Here he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by storm. We may gather from the recently discovered poem of Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped to escape his conqueror by burning himself with his wealth on a funeral pyre, like Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the hands of Cyrus before he could effect his purpose.[1] A different version of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus (followed by Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be burnt alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the Persian reverence for fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his pious worshipper, and the name of Solon uttered by Croesus resulted in his deliverance. According to Ctesias, who uses Persian sources, and says nothing of the attempt to burn Croesus, he subsequently became attached to the court of Cyrus and received the governorship of Barene in Media. Fragments of columns from the temple of Attemis now in the British Museum have upon them a dedication by Croesus in Greek.

See R. Schubert, _De Croeso et Solone fabula_ (1868); M. G. Radet, _La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1892-1893); A. S. Murray, _Journ. Hell. Studies_, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the supposition that Croesus did actually perish on his own pyre see G. B. Grundy, _Great Persian War_, p. 28; Grote, _Hist. of Greece_ (ed. 1907), p. 104. Cf. CYRUS; LYDIA.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about 500 B.C. in _Journ. of Hell. Stud._, 1898, p. 268).

CROFT, SIR HERBERT, Bart. (1751-1816), English author, was born at Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of November 1751, son of Herbert Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He matriculated at University College, Oxford, in March 1771, and was subsequently entered at Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford with a view to preparing for holy orders. In 1786 he received the vicarage of Prittlewell, Essex, but he remained at Oxford for some years accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary. He was twice married, and on the day after his second wedding day he was imprisoned at Exeter for debt. He then retired to Hamburg, and two years later his library was sold. He had succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the estates, of a distant cousin, Sir John Croft, the fourth baronet. He returned to England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived near Amiens at a house owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said to have been a daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later he removed to Paris, where he died on the 26th of April 1816. In some of his numerous literary enterprises he had the help of Charles Nodier. Croft wrote the Life of Edward Young inserted in Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_. In 1780 he published _Love and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters between Parties whose names could perhaps be mentioned were they less known or less lamented_. This book, which passed through seven editions, narrates the passion of a clergyman named James Hackman for Martha Ray, mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by her lover as she was leaving Covent Garden in 1779 (see the Case and Memoirs of the late Rev. Mr James Hackman, 1779). _Love and Madness_ has permanent interest because Croft inserted, among other miscellaneous matter, information about Thomas Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the poet's sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used without payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition of Chatterton's works for the benefit of his family, published (November 1799) details of Croft's proceedings in the _Monthly Review_. To this attack Croft wrote a reply addressed to John Nichols in the _Gentleman's Magazine_, and afterwards printed separately as _Chatterton and Love and Madness ..._ (1800). This tract evades the main accusation, and contains much abuse of Southey. Croft, however, supplied the material for the exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis's _Biographia Britannica_ (vol. iv., 1789). In 1788 he addressed a letter to William Pitt on the subject of a new dictionary. He criticized Samuel Johnson's efforts, and in 1790 he claimed to have collected 11,000 words used by excellent authorities but omitted by Johnson. Two years later he issued proposals for a revised edition of Johnson's _Dictionary_, but subscribers were lacking and his 200 vols. of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good scholar and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French.

_The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. 1775-1779_ were edited from Croft's book by Mr Gilbert Burgess (1895). See also John Nichols's _Illustrations ..._ (1828), v. 202-218.

CROFT, SIR JAMES (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged to an old family of Herefordshire, which county he represented in parliament in 1541. He was made governor of Haddington in 1549, and became lord deputy of Ireland in 1551. There he effected little beyond gaining for himself the reputation of a conciliatory disposition. Croft was all his life a double-dealer. He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign of Mary, but was released and treated with consideration by Elizabeth after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where he was visited by John Knox in 1559, and where he busied himself actively on behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though in 1560 he was suspected, probably with good reason, of treasonable correspondence with Mary of Guise, the Catholic regent of Scotland; and for ten years he was out of public employment. But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest forbearance and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor and controller of her household. He was one of the commissioners for the trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was sent on a diplomatic mission to arrange peace with the duke of Parma. Croft established private relations with Parma, for which on his return he was sent to the Tower. He was released before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of September 1590.

Croft's eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on the curious charge of having contrived the death of the earl of Leicester by witchcraft, in revenge for the earl's supposed hostility to Sir James Croft. Edward Croft was father of Sir Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who became a Roman Catholic and wrote several controversial pieces in defence of that faith. His son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of Hereford, after being for some time, like his father, a member of the Roman church, returned to the church of England about 1630, and about ten years later was chaplain to Charles I., and obtained within a few years a prebend's stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor, and the deanery of Hereford, all of which preferments he lost during the Civil War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he was made bishop of Hereford in 1661. Bishop Croft was the author of many books and pamphlets, several of them against the Roman Catholics; and one of his works, entitled _The Naked Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church_ (London, 1675), was very celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged controversy. The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was created a baronet in 1671, and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert Croft (q.v.), the 18th century writer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Richard Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_, vol. i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd, _State Worthies from the Reformation to the Revolution_ (2 vols., London, 1766); John Strype, _Annals of the Reformation_ (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee's art. "Croft, Sir James," in _Dict. of National Biography_, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see Anthony a Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_ (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John Le Neve, _Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford, 1854).

CROFT (or CROFTS), WILLIAM (1678-1727), English composer, was born in 1678, at Nether Ettington in Warwickshire. He received his musical education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow. He early obtained the place of organist of St Anne's, Soho, and in 1700 was admitted a gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel Royal. In 1707 he was appointed joint-organist with Blow; and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he became solo organist, and also master of the children and composer of the Chapel Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1712 he wrote a brief introduction on the history of English church music to a collection of the words of anthems which he had edited under the title of _Divine Harmony_. In 1713 he obtained his degree of doctor of music in the university of Oxford. In 1724 he published an edition of his choral music in 2 vols. folio, under the name of _Musica Sacra, or Select Anthems in score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and eight voices, to which is added the Burial Service, as it is occasionally performed in Westminster Abbey_. This handsome work included a portrait of the composer and was the first of the kind executed on pewter plates and in score. John Page, in his _Harmonia Sacra_, published in 1800 in 3 vols. folio, gives seven of Croft's anthems. Of instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two violins and a bass, six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute and bass. He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory by his friend and admirer Humphrey Wyrley Birch. Burney in his _History of Music_ devotes several pages of his third volume (pp. 603-612) to Dr Croft's life, and criticisms of some of his anthems. During the earlier period of his life Croft wrote much for the theatre, including overtures and incidental music for _Courtship a la mode_ (1700), _The Funeral_ (1702) and _The Lying Lover_ (1703).

CROFTER, a term used, more particularly in the Highlands and islands of Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents and cultivates a small holding of land or "croft." This Old English word, meaning originally an enclosed field, seems to correspond to the Dutch _kroft_, a field on high ground or downs. The ultimate origin is unknown. By the Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886, a crofter is defined as the tenant of a holding who resides on his holding, the annual rent of which does not exceed L30 in money, and which is situated in a crofting parish. The wholesale clearances of tenants from their crofts during the 19th century, in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of tenure, has led in the past to much agitation on the part of the crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have been the subject of royal commissions and of considerable legislation, but the effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent amending acts, has been to improve their condition markedly, and much of the agitation has now died out. A history of the legislation dealing with the crofters is given in the article SCOTLAND.

CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857), British statesman and author, was born at Galway on the 20th of December 1780, being the only son of John Croker, the surveyor-general of customs and excise in Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. Immediately afterwards he was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and in 1802 he was called to the Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led him to collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject, which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published anonymously _Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish Stage_, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on the management of the Dublin theatres. The book ran through five editions in one year. Equally successful was the _Intercepted Letter from Canton_ (1805), also anonymous, a satire on Dublin society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet on _The State of Ireland, Past and Present_, in which he advocated Catholic emancipation.