Chapter 19

COOTE, SIR EYRE (1726-1783), British soldier, the son of a clergyman, was born near Limerick, and entered the 27th regiment. He saw active service in the Jacobite rising of 1745, and some years later obtained a captaincy in the 39th regiment, which was the first British regiment sent to India. In 1756 a part of the regiment, then quartered at Madras, was sent forward to join Clive in his operations against Calcutta, which was reoccupied without difficulty, and Coote was soon given the local rank of major for his good conduct in the surprise of the Nawab's camp. Soon afterwards came the battle of Plassey, which would in all probability not have taken place but for Coote's soldierly advice at the council of war; and after the defeat of the Nawab he led a detachment in pursuit of the French for 400 m. under extraordinary difficulties. His conduct won him the rank of lieutenant-colonel and the command of the 84th regiment, newly-raised for Indian service, but his exertions seriously injured his health. In October 1759 Coote's regiment arrived to take part in the decisive struggle between French and English in the Carnatic. He took command of the forces at Madras, and in 1760 led them in the decisive victory of Wandiwash (January 22). After a time the remnants of Lally's forces were shut up in Pondicherry. For some reason Coote was not entrusted with the siege operations, but he cheerfully and loyally supported Monson, who brought the siege to a successful end on the 15th of January 1761. Soon afterwards Coote was given the command of the East India Company's forces in Bengal, and conducted the settlement of a serious dispute between the Nawab Mir Cassim and a powerful subordinate, and in 1762 he returned to England, receiving a jewelled sword of honour from the Company and other rewards for his great services. In 1771 he was made a K.B. In 1779 he returned to India as lieutenant-general commanding in chief. Following generally the policy of Warren Hastings, he nevertheless refused to take sides in the quarrels of the council, and made a firm stand in all matters affecting the forces. Hyder Ali's progress in southern India called him again into the field, but his difficulties were very great and it was not until the 1st of June 1781 that the crushing and decisive defeat of Porto Novo struck the first heavy blow at Hyder's schemes. The battle was won by Coote under most unfavourable conditions against odds of five to one, and is justly ranked as one of the greatest feats of the British in India. It was followed up by another hard-fought battle at Pollilur (the scene of an earlier triumph of Hyder over a British force) on the 27th of August, in which the British won another success, and by the rout of the Mysore troops at Sholingarh a month later. His last service was the arduous campaign of 1782, which finally shattered a constitution already gravely impaired by hardship and exertions. Sir Eyre Coote died at Madras on the 28th of April 1783. A monument was erected to him in Westminster Abbey.

For a short biography of Coote see _Twelve British Soldiers_ (ed. Wilkinson, London, 1899), and for the battles of Wandewash and Porto Novo, consult Malleson, _Decisive Battles of India_ (London, 1883). An account of Coote may be found in Wilk's _Historical Sketches of Mysore_ (1810).

COPAIBA, or COPAIVA (from Brazilian _cupauba_), an oleo-resin--sometimes termed a balsam--obtained from the trunk of the _Copaifera Lansdorfii_ (natural order Leguminosae) and from other species of _Copaifera_ found in the West Indies and in the valley of the Amazon. It is a somewhat viscous transparent liquid, occasionally fluorescent and of a light yellow to pale golden colour. The odour is aromatic and very characteristic, the taste acrid and bitter. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in absolute alcohol, ether and the fixed and volatile oils. Its approximate composition is more than 50% of a volatile oil and less than 50% of a resin. The pharmacopoeias contain the oleo-resin itself, which is given in doses of from a half to one drachm, and the _oleum copaibae_, which is given in doses of from five to twenty minims, but which is inferior, as a medicinal agent, to the oleo-resin. Copaiba shares the pharmacological characters of volatile oils generally. Its distinctive features are its disagreeable taste and the unpleasant eructations to which it may give rise, its irritant action on the intestine in any but small doses, its irritant action on the skin, often giving rise to an erythematous eruption which may be mistaken for that of scarlet fever, and its exceptionally marked stimulant action on the kidneys. In large doses this last action may lead to renal inflammation. The resin is excreted in the urine and is continually mistaken for albumin since it is precipitated by nitric acid, but the precipitate is re-dissolved, unlike albumin, on heating. Its nasty taste, its irritant action on the bowel, and its characteristic odour in the breath, prohibit its use--despite its other advantages--in all diseases but gonorrhoea. For this disease it is a valuable remedy, but it must not be administered until the acute symptoms have subsided, else it will often increase them. It is best given in cachets or in three times its own bulk of mucilage of acacia. Various devices are adopted to disguise its odour in the breath. The clinical evidence clearly shows that none of the numerous vegetable rivals to copaiba is equal to it in therapeutic value.

COPAL (Mexican _copalli_, incense), a hard lustrous resin, varying in hue from an almost colourless transparent mass to a bright yellowish-brown, having a conchoidal fracture, and, when dissolved in alcohol, spirit of turpentine, or any other suitable menstruum, forming one of the most valuable varnishes. Copal is obtained from a variety of sources; the term is not uniformly applied or restricted to the products of any particular region or series of plants, but is vaguely used for resins which, though very similar in their physical properties, differ somewhat in their constitution, and are altogether distinct as to their source. Thus the resin obtained from _Trachylobium Hornemannianum_ is known in commerce as Zanzibar copal, or gum animé. Madagascar copal is the produce of _T. verrucosum_. From _Guibourtia copallifera_ is obtained Sierra Leone copal, and another variety of the same resin is found in a fossil state on the west coast of Africa, probably the produce of a tree now extinct. From Brazil and other South American countries, again, copal is obtained which is yielded by _Trachylobium Martianum_, _Hymenaea Courbaril_, and various other species, while the dammar resins and the piney varnish of India are occasionally classed and spoken of as copal. Of the varieties above enumerated by far the most important from a commercial point of view is the Zanzibar or East African copal, yielded by _Trachylobium Hornemannianum_. The resin is found in two distinct conditions: (1) raw or recent, called by the inhabitants of the coast sandarusiza miti or chakazi, the latter name being corrupted by Zanzibar traders into "jackass" copal; and (2) ripe or true copal, the sandarusi inti of the natives. The raw copal, which is obtained direct from the trees, or found at their roots or near the surface of the ground, is not regarded by the natives as of much value, and does not enter into European commerce. It is sent to India and China, where it is manufactured into a coarse kind of varnish. The true or fossil copal is found embedded in the earth over a wide belt of the mainland coast of Zanzibar, on tracts where not a single tree is now visible. The copal is not found at a greater depth in the ground than 4 ft., and it is seldom the diggers go deeper than about 3 ft. It occurs in pieces varying from the size of small pebbles up to masses of several ounces in weight, and occasionally lumps weighing 4 or 5 lb have been obtained. After being freed from foreign matter, the resin is submitted to various chemical operations for the purpose of clearing the "goose-skin," the name given to the peculiar pitted-like surface possessed by fossil copal. The goose-skin was formerly supposed to be caused by the impression of the small stones and sand of the soil into which the soft resin fell in its raw condition; but it appears that the copal when first dug up presents no trace of the goose-skin, the subsequent appearance of which is due to oxidation or inter-molecular change.

COPALITE, or COPALINE, also termed "fossil resin" and "Highgate resin," a naturally occurring organic substance found as irregular pieces of pale-yellow colour in the London clay at Highgate Hill. It has a resinous aromatic odour when freshly broken, volatilizes at a moderate temperature, and burns readily with a yellow, smoky flame, leaving scarcely any ash.

COPÁN, an ancient ruined city of western Honduras, near the Guatemalan frontier, and on the right bank of the Río Copán, a tributary of the Motagua. For an account of its elaborately sculptured stone buildings, which rank among the most celebrated monuments of Mayan civilization, see CENTRAL AMERICA: ARCHAEOLOGY. The city is sometimes regarded as identical with the Indian stronghold which, after a heroic resistance, was stormed by the Spaniards, under Hernando de Chaves, in 1530. It has given its name to the department in which it is situated.

COPARCENARY (_co-_, with, and _parcener_, i.e. sharer; from O. Fr. _parçonier_, Lat. _partitio_, division), in law, the descent of lands of inheritance from an ancestor to two or more persons possessing an equal title to them. It arises either by common law, as where an ancestor dies intestate, leaving two or more females as his co-heiresses, who then take as coparceners or parceners; or, by particular custom, as in the case of gavelkind lands, which descend to all males in equal degrees, or in default of males, to all the daughters equally. These co-heirs, or parceners, have been so called, says Littleton (§ 241), "because by writ the law will constrain them, that partition shall be made among them." Coparcenary so far resembles joint tenancy in that there is unity of title, interest and possession, but whereas joint tenants always claim by purchase, parceners claim by descent, and although there is unity of interest there is no entirety, for there is no _jus accrescendi_ or survivorship. Coparcenary may be dissolved (a) by partition; (b) by alienation by one coparcener; (c) by all the estate at last descending to one coparcener, who thenceforth holds in severalty; (d) by a compulsory partition or sale under the Partition Acts.

The term "coparcenary" is not in use in the United States, joint heirship being considered as _tenancy in common_.

COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897), American palaeontologist, descended from a Wiltshire family who emigrated about 1687, was born in Philadelphia on the 28th of July 1840. At an early age he became interested in natural history, and in 1859 communicated a paper on the Salamandridae to the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia. He was educated partly in the University of Pennsylvania, and after further study and travel in Europe was in 1865 appointed curator to the Academy of Natural Sciences, a post which he held till 1873. In 1864-67 he was professor of natural science in Haverford College, and in 1889 he was appointed professor of geology and palaeontology in the University of Pennsylvania. To the study of the American fossil vertebrata he gave his special attention. From 1871 to 1877 he carried on explorations in the Cretaceous strata of Kansas, the Tertiary of Wyoming and Colorado; and in course of time he made known at least 600 species and many genera of extinct vertebrata new to science. Among these were some of the oldest known mammalia, obtained in New Mexico. He served on the U.S. Geological Survey in 1874 in New Mexico, in 1875 in Montana, and in 1877 in Oregon and Texas. He was also one of the editors of the _American Naturalist_. He died in Philadelphia on the 12th of April 1897.

PUBLICATIONS.--Reports for U.S. Geological Survey on _Eocene Vertebrata of Wyoming_ (1872); on _Vertebrata of Cretaceous Formations of the West_ (1875); _Vertebrata of the Tertiary Formations of the West_ (1884); _The Origin of the Fittest: Essays on Evolution_ (New York, 1887); _The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution_ (Chicago, 1896). Memoir by Miss Helen D. King, _American Geologist_, Jan. 1899 (with portrait and bibliography); also memoir by P. Frazer, _American Geologist_, Aug. 1900 (with portrait).

COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873), English classical scholar, was born in Birmingham on the 28th of July 1818. He was educated at Ludlow and Shrewsbury schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which society he was elected fellow in 1842, having taken his degree in 1841 as senior classic. He was for many years lecturer at Trinity, his favourite subjects being the Greek tragedians, Plato and Aristotle. When the professorship of Greek became vacant, the votes were equally divided between Cope and B. H. Kennedy, and the latter was appointed by the chancellor. It is said that the keenness of Cope's disappointment was partly responsible for the mental affliction by which he was attacked in 1869, and from which he never recovered. He died on the 5th of August 1873. As his published works show, Cope was a thoroughly sound scholar, with perhaps a tendency to over-minuteness. He was the author of _An Introduction to Aristotle's Rhetoric_ (1867), a standard work; _The Rhetoric of Aristotle_, with a commentary, revised and edited by J. E. Sandys (1877); translations of Plato's _Gorgias_ (2nd ed ., 1884) and _Phaedo_ (revised by H. Jackson, 1875). Mention may also be made of his criticism of Grote's account of the Sophists, in the _Cambridge Journal of Classical Philology_, vols. i., ii., iii. (1854-1857).

The chief authority for the facts of Cope's life is the memoir prefixed to vol. i. of his edition of _The Rhetoric of Aristotle_.

COPE (M.E. _cape_, _cope_, from Med. Lat. _capa_, _cappa_), a liturgical vestment of the Western Church. The word "cope," now confined to this sense, was in its origin identical with "cape" and "cap," and was used until comparatively modern times also for an out-door cloak, whether worn by clergy or laity. This, indeed, was its original meaning, the _cappa_ having been an outer garment common to men and women whether clerical or lay (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.). The word _pluviale_ (rain-cloak), which the cope bears in the Roman Church, is exactly parallel so far as change of meaning is concerned. In both words the etymology reveals the origin of the vestment, which is no more than a glorified survival of an article of clothing worn by all and sundry in ordinary life, the type of which survives, e.g. in the ample hooded cloak of Italian military officers. This origin is clearly traceable in the shape and details of the cope. When spread out this forms an almost complete semicircle. Along the straight edge there is usually a broad band, and at the neck is attached the "hood" (in Latin, the _clypeus_ or shield), i.e. a shield-shaped piece of stuff which hangs down over the back. The vestment is secured in front by a broad tab sewn on to one side and fastening to the other with hooks, sometimes also by a brooch (called the morse, Lat. _morsus_). Sometimes the morse is attached as a mere ornament to the cross-piece. The cope thus preserves the essential shape of its secular original, and even the hood, though now a mere ornamental appendage, is a survival of an actual hood. The evolution of this latter into its present form was gradual; first the hood became too small for use, then it was transformed into a small triangular piece of stuff (13th century), which in its turn grew (14th and 15th centuries) into the shape of a shield (see Plate II., fig. 4), and this again, losing its pointed tip in the 17th century, expanded in the 18th into a flap which was sometimes enlarged so as to cover the whole back down to the waist. In its general effect, however, a cope now no longer suggests a "waterproof." It is sometimes elaborately embroidered all over; more usually it is of some rich material, with the borders in front and the hood embroidered, while the morse has given occasion for some of the most beautiful examples of the goldsmith's and jeweller's craft (see Plate II., figs, 5, 6).

The use of the cope as a liturgical vestment can be traced to the end of the 8th century: a _pluviale_ is mentioned in the foundation charter of the monastery of Obona in Spain. Before this the so-called _cappa choralis_, a black, bell-shaped, hooded vestment with no liturgical significance, had been worn by the secular and regular clergy at choir services, processions, &c. This was in its origin identical with the chasuble (q.v.), and if, as Father Braun seems to prove, the cope developed out of this, cope and chasuble have a common source.[1] Father Braun cites numerous inventories and the like to show that the cope (_pluviale_) was originally no more than a more elaborate _cappa_ worn on high festivals or other ceremonial occasions, sometimes by the whole religious community, sometimes--if the stock were limited--by those, e.g. the cantors, &c., who were most conspicuous in the ceremony. In the 10th century, partly under the influence of the wealthy and splendour-loving community of Cluny, the use of the cope became very widespread; in the 11th century it was universally worn, though the rules for its ritual use had not yet been fixed. It was at this time, however, _par excellence_ the vestment proper to the cantors, choirmaster and singers, whose duty it was to sing the _invitatorium_, _responses_, &c., at office, and the _introitus_, _graduale_, &c., at Mass. This use survived in the ritual of the pre-Reformation Church in England, and has been introduced in certain Anglican churches, e.g. St Mary Magdalen's, Munster Square, in London.

By the beginning of the 13th century the liturgical use of the cope had become finally fixed, and the rules for this use included by Pope Pius V. in the Roman Missal and by Clement VIII. in the _Pontificale_ and _Caeremoniale_ were consequently not new, but in accordance with ancient and universal custom. The substitution of the cope for the chasuble in many of the functions for which the latter had been formerly used was primarily due to the comparative convenience of a vestment opened at the front, and so leaving the arms free. A natural conservatism preserved the chasuble, which by the 9th century had acquired a symbolical significance, as the vestment proper to the celebration of Mass; but the cope took its place in lesser functions, i.e. the censing of the altar during the Magnificat and at Mattins (whence the German name _Rauchmantel_, smoke-mantel), processions, solemn consecrations, and as the dress of bishops attending synods.

It is clear from this that the cope, though a liturgical, was never a sacerdotal vestment. If it was worn by priests, it could also be worn by laymen, and it was never worn by priests in their sacerdotal, i.e. their sacrificial, capacity. For this reason it was not rejected with the "Mass vestments" by the English Church at the Reformation, in spite of the fact that it was in no ecclesiastical sense "primitive." By the First Prayer-book of Edward VI., which represented a compromise, it was directed to be worn as an alternative to the "vestment" (i.e. chasuble) at the celebration of the Communion; this at least seems the plain meaning of the words "vestment or cope," though they have been otherwise interpreted. In the Second Prayer-book vestment and cope alike disappear; but a cope was worn by the prelate who consecrated Archbishop Parker, and by the "gentlemen" as well as the priests of Queen Elizabeth's chapel; and, finally, by the 24th canon (of 1603) a "decent cope" was prescribed for the "principal minister" at the celebration of Holy Communion in cathedral churches as well as for the "gospeller and epistler." Except at royal coronations, however, the use of the cope, even in cathedrals, had practically ceased in England before the ritual revival of the 19th century restored its popularity. The disuse implied no doctrinal change; the main motive was that the stiff vestment, high in the neck, was incompatible with a full-bottomed wig. Scarlet copes with white fur hoods have been in continuous use on ceremonial occasions in the universities, and are worn by bishops at the opening of parliament.

The Papal mantum.

With the liturgical cope may be classed the red mantle (_mantum_), which from the 11th century to the close of the middle ages formed, with the tiara, the special symbol of the papal dignity. The _immantatio_ was the solemn investiture of the new pope immediately after his election, by means of the _cappa rubea_, with the papal powers. This ceremony was of great importance. In the contested election of 1159, for instance, though a majority of the cardinals had elected Cardinal Roland (Alexander III.), the defeated candidate Cardinal Octavian (Victor IV.), while his rival was modestly hesitating to accept the honour, seized the _pluviale_ and put it on his own shoulders hastily, upside down; and it was on this ground that the council of Pavia in 1160 based their declaration in favour of Victor, and anathematized Alexander. The _immantatio_ fell out of use during the papal exile at Avignon and was never restored.

The cappa magna.

It will be convenient here to note other vestments that have developed out of the _cappa_. The _cappa choralis_ has already been mentioned; it survived as a choir vestment that in winter took the place of the surplice, rochet or almuce. In the 12th century it was provided with arms (_cappa manicata_), but the use of this form was forbidden at choir services and other liturgical functions. From the hood of the _cappa_ was developed the almuce (q.v.). At what date the _cappa choralis_ developed into the _cappa magna_, a non-liturgical vestment peculiar to the pope, cardinals, bishops and certain privileged prelates, is not known; but mention of it is found as early as the 15th century. This vestment is a loose robe, with a large hood (lined with fur in winter and red silk in summer) and a long train, which is carried by a cleric called the _caudatarius_. Its colour varies with the hierarchical rank of the wearer:--red for cardinals, purple for bishops, &c.; or, if the dignitary belong to a religious order, it follows the colour of the habit of the order. The right to wear a violet _cappa magna_ is conceded by the popes to the chapters of certain important cathedrals, but the train in this case is worn folded over the left arm or tied under it. It may only be worn by them, moreover, in their own church, or when the chapter appears elsewhere in its corporate capacity.

The mozzetta.

Lastly, from the _cappa_ is probably derived the _mozzetta_, a short cape with a miniature hood, fastened down the front with buttons. The name is derived from the Italian _mozzare_, to cut off, and points to its being an abbreviated _cappa_, as the episcopal "apron" is a shortened cassock. It is worn over the rochet by the pope, cardinals, bishops and prelates, the colours varying as in the case of the _cappa magna_. Its use as confined to bishops can be traced to the 16th century.

See Joseph Braun, S. J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907); also the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS. (W. A. P.)

Plate I