Part 27

During the abbacy of Peter the Venerable (1122-1157) it became clear that, after a lapse of two centuries, a renewal of the framework of the life and a revival of its spirit had become necessary. Accordingly he summoned a great chapter of the whole order whereat the priors and representatives of the subject houses attended in such numbers that, along with the Cluny community, the assembly consisted of 1200 monks. This chapter drew up the 76 statutes associated with Peter's name, regulating the whole range of claustral life, and solemnly promulgated as binding on the whole Cluniac obedience. But these measures did not succeed in saving Cluny from a rapid decline that set in immediately after Peter's death. The monarchical status of the abbot was gradually curtailed by the holding of general chapters at fixed periods and the appointment of a board of definitors, elected by the chapter, as a permanent council for the abbot. Owing to these restrictions and still more to the fact that the later abbots were not of the same calibre as the early ones, their power and influence waned, until in 1528 (if not in 1456) the abbey fell into "commendam." The rise of the Cistercians and the mendicant orders were contributory causes, and also the difficulties experienced in keeping houses in other countries subject to a French superior. And so the great system gradually became a mere congregation of French houses. Of the commendatory abbots the most remarkable were Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who both initiated attempts to introduce reforms into the Cluny congregation, the former trying to amalgamate it with the reformed congregation of St Maur, but without effect. Martène tells us that in the early years of the 18th century in the monastery of Baume, one of Berno's original group of Cluny houses--indeed the parent house of Cluny itself--no one was admitted as a monk who had not sixteen quarterings in his coat of arms. A reform movement took root in the Cluny congregation, and during the last century of its existence the monks were divided into two groups, the Reformed and the Unreformed, living according to different laws and rules, with different superiors, and sometimes independent, and even rival, general chapters. This most unhappy arrangement hopelessly impaired the vitality and work of the congregation, which was finally dissolved and suppressed in 1790, the church being deliberately destroyed.

Cluniac houses were introduced into England under the Conqueror. The first foundation was at Barnstaple; the second at Lewes by William de Warenne, in 1077, and it counted as one of the "Five Daughters of Cluny." In quick succession followed Thetford, Montacute, Wenlock, Bermondsey, and in Scotland, Paisley; a number of lesser foundations were made, and offshoots from the English houses; so that the English Cluniac dependencies in the 13th century amounted to 40. It is said that in the reign of Edward III. they transmitted to Cluny annually the sum of £2000, equivalent to £60,000 of our money. Such a drain on the country was naturally looked on with disfavour, especially during the French wars; and so it came about that as "alien priories" they were frequently sequestered by the crown. As the communities came to be composed more and more of English subjects, they tended to grow impatient of their subjection to a foreign house, and began to petition parliament to be naturalized and to become denizen. In 1351 Lewes was actually naturalized, but a century later the prior of Lewes appears still as the abbot of Cluny's vicar in England. Though the bonds with Cluny seem to have been much relaxed if not wholly broken, the Cluniac houses continued as a separate group up to the dissolution, never taking part in the chapters of the English Benedictines. At the end there were eight greater and nearly thirty lesser Cluniac houses: for list see Table in F. A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_; and _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Cluny."

The history of Cluny up to the death of Peter the Venerable may be extracted out of Mabillon's _Annales_ by means of the Index; the story is told in Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 18, 19. Abridged accounts, with references to the most recent literature, may be found in Max Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. § 20; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cluni" (Grutzmacher); and Wetzer und Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art. "Clugny" (Hefele). The best modern monograph is by E. Sackur, _Die Cluniacenser_ (1891-1894). In English a good account is given in Maitland, _Dark Ages_, §§ xviii.-xxvi.; the Introduction to G. F. Duckett's _Charters and Records of Cluni_ (1890) contains, besides general information, a description of the church and the buildings, and a list of the chief Cluniac houses in all countries. The story of the English houses is briefly sketched in the second chapter of F. A. Gasquet's _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (the larger ed., 1886). (E. C. B.)

CLUSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL (1823-1900), French soldier and politician, was born at Paris. He was an officer in the _garde mobile_ during the revolution of 1848. He took part in several expeditions in Algeria, joined Garibaldi's volunteers in 1860, and in 1861 resigned his commission to take part in the Civil War in America. He served under Frémont and McClellan, and rose to the rank of general. Then, joining a band of Irish adventurers, he went secretly to Ireland, and participated in the Fenian insurrection (1866-67). He escaped arrest on the collapse of the movement, but was condemned to death in his absence. On his return to France he proclaimed himself a Socialist, opposed militarism, and became a member of the _Association Internationale des travailleurs_, a cosmopolitan Socialist organization, known as the "_Internationale_." On the proclamation of the Third Republic in 1871 he set to work to organize the social revolution, first at Lyons and afterwards at Marseilles. His energy, his oratorical gifts, and his military experience gave him great influence among the working classes. On the news of the communist rising of the 18th of March 1871 he hastened to Paris, and on the 16th of April was elected a member of the commune. Disagreements with the other communist leaders led to his arrest on the 1st of May, on a false charge of betraying the cause. On the 24th of the same month the occupation of Paris by the Versailles troops restored him to liberty, and he succeeded in escaping from France. He did not return to the country till 1884. In 1888 and 1889 he was returned as a deputy to the chamber by Toulon. He died in 1900. Cluseret published his _Mémoires_ (of the Commune) at Paris in 1887-1888.

CLUSIUM (mod. _Chiusi_, q.v.), an ancient town of Italy, one of the twelve cities of Etruria, situated on an isolated hill at the S. end of the valley of the Clanis (China). It was according to Roman tradition one of the oldest cities of Etruria and indeed of all Italy, and, if Camars (the original name of the town, according to Livy) is rightly connected with the Camertes Umbri, its foundation would go back to pre-Etruscan times. It first appears in Roman history at the end of the 7th century B.C., when it joined the other Etruscan towns against Tarquinius Priscus, and at the end of the 6th century B.C. it placed itself, under its king Lars Porsena, at the head of the attempt to re-establish the Tarquins in Rome. At the time of the invasion of the Gauls in 391 B.C., on the other hand, Clusium was on friendly terms with Rome; indeed, it was the action of the Roman envoys who had come to intercede for the people of Clusium with the Gauls, and then, contrary to international law, took part in the battle which followed, which determined the Gauls to march on Rome. Near Clusium too, according to Livy (according to Polybius ii. 19. 5, [Greek: en tê Kamertiôn chôra], i.e. in Umbria near Camerinum), a battle occurred in 296 B.C. between the Gauls and Samnites combined, and the Romans; a little later the united forces of Clusium and Perusia were defeated by the Romans. The precise period at which Clusium came under Roman supremacy is, however, uncertain, though this must have happened before 225 B.C., when the Gauls advanced as far as Clusium. In 205 B.C. in the Second Punic War we hear that they promised ship timber and corn to Scipio. The Via Cassia, constructed after 187 B.C., passed just below the town. In the first civil war, Papirius Carbo took up his position here, and two battles occurred in the neighbourhood. Sulla appears to have increased the number of colonists, and a statue was certainly erected in his honour here. In imperial times we hear little of it, though its grain and grapes were famous. Christianity found its way into Clusium as early as the 3rd century, and the tombstone of a bishop of A.D. 322 exists. In A.D. 540 it is named as a strong place to which Vitiges sent a garrison of a thousand men.

Of pre-Roman or Roman buildings in the town itself there are few remains, except for some fragments of the Etruscan town walls composed of rather small rectangular blocks of travertine, built into the medieval fortifications. Under it, however, extends an elaborate system of rock-cut passages, probably drains. The chief interest of the place lies in its extensive necropolis, which surrounds the city on all sides. The earliest tombs (_tombe a pozzo_, shaft tombs) are previous to the beginning of Greek importation. Of _tombe a fosso_ there are none, and the next stage is marked by the so-called _tombe a ziro_, in which the cinerary urn (often with a human head) is placed in a large clay jar (_ziro_, Lat. _dolium_). These belong to the 7th century B.C., and are followed by the _tombe a camera_, in which the tomb is a chamber hewn in the rock, and which can be traced back to the beginning of the 6th century B.C. From one of the earliest of these came the famous François vase; another is the tomb of Poggio Renzo, or della Scimmia (the monkey), with several chambers decorated with archaic paintings. The most remarkable group of tombs is, however, that of Poggio Gaiella, 3 m. to the N., where the hill is honeycombed with chambers in three storeys (now, however, much ruined and inaccessible), partly connected by a system of passages, and supported at the base by a stone wall which forms a circle and not a square--a fact which renders impossible its identification with the tomb of Porsena, the description of which Pliny (_Hist. Nat._ xxxvi. 91) has copied from Varro. Other noteworthy tombs are those of the Granduca, with a single subterranean chamber carefully constructed in travertine, and containing eight sarcophagi of the same material; of Vigna Grande, very similar to this; of Colle Casuccini (the ancient stone door of which is still in working order), with two chambers, containing paintings representing funeral rites; of Poggio Moro and Valdacqua, in the former of which the paintings are almost destroyed, while the latter is now inaccessible.

A conception of the size of the whole necropolis may be gathered from the fact that nearly three thousand Etruscan inscriptions have come to light from Clusium and its district alone, while the part of Etruria north of it as far as the Arno has produced barely five hundred. Among the later tombs bilingual inscriptions are by no means rare, and both Etruscan and Latin inscriptions are often found in the same cemeteries, showing that the use of the Etruscan language only died out gradually. A large number of the inscriptions are painted upon the tiles which closed the niches containing the cinerary urns. The urns themselves are small, often of terra-cotta, originally painted, though the majority of them have lost their colour, and rectangular in shape. This style of burial seems peculiar to a district which E. Bormann (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi., Berlin, 1887, p. 373) defines as a triangle formed by the Clanis (with the lakes of Chiusi and Montepulciano, both small, shallow and fever-breeding), on the E., the villages of Cetona, Sarteano, Castelluccio and Monticchiello on the W., and Montepulciano and Acquaviva on the N. In Roman times the territory of Clusium seems to have extended as far as Lake Trasimene. The local museum contains a valuable and important collection of objects from the necropolis, including some specially fine _bucchero_, sepulchral urns of travertine, alabaster and terra-cotta, painted vases, stone _cippi_ with reliefs, &c.

Two Christian catacombs have been found near Clusium, one in the hill of S. Caterina near the railway station, the inscriptions of which seem to go back to the 3rd century, another 1 m. to the E. in a hill on which a church and monastery of S. Mustiola stood, which goes back to the 4th century, including among its inscriptions one bearing the date A.D. 303, and the tombstone of L. Petronius Dexter, bishop of Clusium, who died in A.D. 322. The total number of inscriptions known in Clusium is nearly 3000 Etruscan (_Corp. Inscr. Etrusc._, Berlin, 475-3306) and 500 Latin (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. 2090-2593). To the W. and N.W. of Chiusi--at Cetona, Sarteano, Chianciano and Montepulciano--Etruscan cemeteries have been discovered; the objects from them formed, in the latter half of the 19th century, interesting local collections described by Dennis, which have since mostly passed to larger museums or been dispersed.

See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London,1883), ii. 290 seq.; L. Giometti, _Guida di Chiusi_ (Poggibonsi, 1904). (T. AS.)

CLUWER (CLUVER, CLUVIER, CLUVERIUS), PHILIP (1580-1623), German geographer and historian, was born at Danzig in 1580. After travelling in Germany and Poland (where he learnt Polish), he began the study of law at Leiden, but he soon turned his attention to history and geography, which were then taught there by Joseph Scaliger. After campaigning in Bohemia and Hungary, suffering imprisonment, and travelling in England, Scotland and France, he finally settled in Holland, where (after 1616) he received a regular pension from Leiden Academy. In 1611 he began to publish his works. He died at Leiden in 1623. His principal writings are: _Germania Antiqua_ (1616), _Siciliae Antiquae libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antiqua_ (1619), and the posthumous _Italia Antiqua_ (1624) and _Introductio in Universam Geographiam_ (1629).

CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863), British soldier, was born at Glasgow on the 20th of October 1792. He received his education at the Glasgow high school, and when only sixteen years of age obtained an ensigncy in the 9th foot, through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his maternal uncle. The youthful officer had an early opportunity of engaging in active service. He fought under Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, took part in the retreat of Sir John Moore, and was present at the battle of Corunna. He shared in all the fighting of the Peninsular campaigns, and was severely wounded while leading a storming-party at the attack on San Sebastian. He was again wounded at the passage of the Bidassoa, and compelled to return to England, when his conspicuous gallantry was rewarded by promotion without purchase. Campbell held a command in the American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the following year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection in Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by purchase, In 1832 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 98th foot, and with that regiment rendered distinguished service in the Chinese War of 1842. Campbell was next employed in the Sikh War of 1848-49, under Lord Gough. At Chillianwalla, where he was wounded, and at the decisive victory of Gujrat, his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the British arms; and his "steady coolness and military precision" were highly praised in official despatches. He was made a K.C.B. in 1849, and specially named in the thanks of parliament.

After rendering important services in India Sir Colin Campbell returned home in 1853. Next year the Crimean War broke out, and he accepted the command of the Highland brigade, which formed part of the duke of Cambridge's division. The brigade and its leader distinguished themselves very greatly at the Alma; and with his "thin red line" of Highlanders he repulsed the Russian attack on Balaklava. At the close of the war Sir Colin was promoted to be knight grand cross of the Bath, and elected honorary D.C.L. of Oxford. His military services, however, had as yet met with tardy recognition; but, when the crisis came, his true worth was appreciated. The outbreak of the Indian Mutiny (q.v.) called for a general of tried experience; and on the 11th of July 1857 the command was offered to him by Lord Palmerston. On being asked when he would be ready to set out, the veteran replied, "Within twenty-four hours." He was as good as his word; he left England the next evening, and reached Calcutta on the 13th of August. After spending upwards of two months in the capital to organize his resources, he started for the front on the 27th of October, and on the 17th of November relieved Lucknow for the second time. Sir Colin, however, considered Lucknow a false position, and once more abandoned it to the rebels, retaking it in March 1858. He continued in charge of the operations in Oudh until the embers of the revolt had died away. For these services he was raised to the peerage, in 1858, as Lord Clyde; and, returning to England in the next year, he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament and a pension of £2000 a year. He died on the 14th of August 1863.

Though not a great general, and lacking in the dash which won England so many victories in India, Lord Clyde was at once a brave soldier and a careful and prudent leader. The soldiers whom he led were devotedly attached to him; and his courteous demeanour and manly independence of character won him unvarying respect.

See Sir Owen Tudor Burne, _Clyde and Strathnairn_ ("Rulers of India" series, 1891); and L. Shadwell, _Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde_ (1881).

CLYDE (Welsh, _Clwyd_, "far heard," "strong," the _Glotta_ of Tacitus), the principal river of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is also the name of the estuary which forms the largest and finest firth on the west coast.

1. _The River._--Daer Water, rising in Gana Hill (2190 ft.) on the borders of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, after a course of 10½ m., and Potrail Water, rising 3 m. farther W. in the same hilly country (1928 ft.), after running N.N.E. for 7 m., unite 3½ m. S. of Elvanfoot to form the Clyde, of which they are the principal headstreams, though many mountain burns in these upland regions are also contributory. The old rhyme that "Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise a' out o' ae hillside" is not true, for Little Clyde Burn here referred to, rising in Clyde Law (2190 ft.), is only an affluent and not a parent stream. From the junction of the Daer and Potrail the river pursues a direction mainly northwards for several miles, winding eastwards around Tinto Hill, somewhat north-westerly to near Carstairs, where it follows a serpentine course westwards and then southwards. From Harperfield, a point about 4 m. above Lanark, it assumes a north-westerly direction, which, roughly, it maintains for the rest of its course as a river, which is generally held to end at Dumbarton, where it merges in the Firth. Its principal tributaries on the right are the Medwin (16 m. long), entering near Carnwath, the Mouse (15 m.), joining it at Lanark, the South Calder (16 m.) above Bothwell, the North Calder (12 m.) below Uddingston, the Kelvin (21 m.) at Glasgow, and the Leven (7 m.) at Dumbarton. The chief left-hand affluents are the Elvan (8 m.), entering at Elvanfoot, the Duneaton (19 m.), joining a few miles above Roberton, the Garf (6½ m.) below Lamington, the Douglas (20 m.) above Bonnington, the Nethan (12 m.) at Crossford, the Avon (28 m.) at Hamilton, the Rotten Calder (10 m.) near Newton, and the Cart (1 m.), formed by the junction of the Black Cart (9 m.) and the White Cart (19 m.), below Renfrew.

The total length of the Clyde from the head of the Daer to Dumbarton is 106 m., and it drains an area estimated at 1481 sq. m. It is thus the third longest river in Scotland (being exceeded by the Spey and Tay), but in respect of the industries on its lower banks, and its sea-borne commerce, it is one of the most important rivers in the world. Near Lanark it is broken by the celebrated Falls, four in number, which are all found within a distance of 3¾ m. Bonnington Linn, the most graceful, 2 m. above Lanark, is divided into two parts by a mass of tree-clad rocks in mid-stream, and has a height of 30 ft. From this spot the river runs for half a mile through a rugged, red sandstone gorge till it reaches Corra Linn, the grandest of the Falls, where in three leaps, giving it the aspect of a splendid cascade, it makes a descent of 84 ft., which, however, it accomplishes during flood at a single bound. Almost ¾ m. below Corra Linn, Dundaff Linn is reached, a fall of only 10 ft. Farther down, 1¾ m. below Lanark, at Stonebyres Linn, reproducing the characteristic features of Corra Linn, the river descends in ordinary water in three leaps, and in flood in one bold drop of 80 ft. Within this space of 3¾ m. the river effects a total fall of 230 ft., or 61-1/3 ft. in the mile. From Stonebyres Linn to the sea the fall is practically 4 ft. in every mile. The chief villages and towns on or close to the river between its source and Glasgow are Crawford, Lamington, New Lanark, Lanark, Hamilton, Bothwell, Blantyre and Uddingston. At Bowling (pop. 1018)--the point of transhipment for the Forth and Clyde Canal--the river widens decidedly, the fairway being indicated by a stone wall continued seawards as far as Dumbarton. Dunglass Point, near Bowling, is the western terminus of the wall of Antoninus, or Grim's Dyke; and in the grounds of Dunglass Castle, now a picturesque fragment, stands an obelisk to Henry Bell (1767-1830), the pioneer of steam navigation in Europe.

As far down as the falls the Clyde remains a pure fishing stream, but from the point at which it begins to receive the varied tribute of industry, its water grows more and more contaminated, and at Glasgow the work of pollution is completed. Towards the end of the 18th century the river was yet fordable at the Broomielaw in the heart of Glasgow, but since that period, by unexampled enterprise and unstinted expenditure of money, the stream has been converted into a waterway deep enough to allow liners and battleships to anchor in the harbour (see GLASGOW).

Clydesdale, as the valley of the upper Clyde is called, begins in the district watered by headstreams of the river, the course of which in effect it follows as far as Bothwell, a distance of 50 m. It is renowned for its breed of cart-horses (specifically known as Clydesdales), its orchards, fruit fields and market gardens, its coal and iron mines.