Chapter 22

CLOTAIRE I. (d. 561) was one of the four sons of Clovis. On the death of his father in 511 he received as his share of the kingdom the town of Soissons, which he made his capital, the cities of Laon, Noyon, Cambrai and Maastricht, and the lower course of the Meuse. But he was very ambitious, and sought to extend his domain. He was the chief instigator of the murder of his brother Clodomer's children in 524, and his share of the spoils consisted of the cities of Tours and Poitiers. He took part in the various expeditions against Burgundy, and after the destruction of that kingdom in 534 obtained Grenoble, Die and some of the neighbouring cities. When Provence was ceded to the Franks by the Ostrogoths, he received the cities of Orange, Carpentras and Gap. In 531 he marched against the Thuringi with his brother Theuderich (Thierry) I., and in 542 with his brother Childebert against the Visigoths of Spain. On the death of his great-nephew Theodebald in 555, Clotaire annexed his territories; and on Childebert's death in 558 he became king of all Gaul. He also ruled over the greater part of Germany, made expeditions into Saxony, and for some time exacted from the Saxons an annual tribute of 500 cows. The end of his reign was troubled by internal dissensions, his son Chram rising against him on several occasions. Following Chram into Brittany, where the rebel had taken refuge, Clotaire shut him up with his wife and children in a cottage, to which he set fire. Overwhelmed with remorse, he went to Tours to implore forgiveness at the tomb of St Martin, and died shortly afterwards.

CLOTAIRE II. (d. 629) was the son of Chilperic I. On the assassination of his father in 584 he was still in his cradle. He was, however, recognized as king, thanks to the devotion of his mother Fredegond and the protection of his uncle Gontran, king of Burgundy. It was not until after the death of his cousin Childebert II. in 595 that Clotaire took any active part in affairs. He then endeavoured to enlarge his estates at the expense of Childebert's sons, Theodebert, king of Austrasia, and Theuderich II., king of Burgundy; but after gaining a victory at Laffaux (597), he was defeated at Dormelles (600), and lost part of his kingdom. After the war between Theodebert and Theuderich and their subsequent death, the nobles of Austrasia and Burgundy appealed to Clotaire, who, after putting Brunhilda to death, became master of the whole of the Frankish kingdom (613). He was obliged, however, to make great concessions to the aristocracy, to whom he owed his victory. By the constitution of the 18th of October 614 he gave legal force to canons which had been voted some days previously by a council convened at Paris, but not without attempting to modify them by numerous restrictions. He extended the competence of the ecclesiastical tribunals, suppressed unjust taxes and undertook to select the counts from the districts they had to administer. In 623 he made his son Dagobert king of the Austrasians, and gradually subdued all the provinces that had formerly belonged to Childebert II. He also guaranteed a certain measure of independence to the nobles of Burgundy, giving them the option of having a special mayor of the palace, or of dispensing with that officer. These concessions procured him a reign of comparative tranquillity. He died on the 18th of October 629, and was buried at Paris in the church of St Vincent, afterwards known as St Germain des Prés.

CLOTAIRE III. (652-673) was a son of King Clovis II. In 657 he became the nominal ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms, but was deprived of Austrasia in 663, retaining Neustria and Burgundy until his death.

CLOTAIRE IV. (d. 719) was king of Austrasia from 717 to 719. (C. PF.)

CLOTH, properly a covering, especially for the body, clothing, then the material of which such a covering is made; hence any material woven of wool or hair, cotton, flax or vegetable fibre. In commercial usage, the word is particularly applied to a fabric made of wool. The word is Teutonic, though it does not appear in all the branches of the language. It appears in German as _Kleid_, dress (_Kleidung_, clothing), and in Dutch as _kleed_. The ultimate origin is unknown; it may be connected with the root _kli-_ meaning to stick, cling to, which appears in "clay," "cleave" and other words. The original meaning would be either that which clings to the body, or that which is pressed or "felted" together. The regular plural of "cloth" was "clothes," which is now confined in meaning to articles of clothing, garments, in which sense the singular "cloth" is not now used. For that word, in its modern sense of material, the plural "cloths" is used. This form dates from the beginning of the 17th century, but the distinction in meaning between "cloths" and "clothes" is a 19th-century one.

CLOTHIER, a manufacturer of cloth, or a dealer who sells either the cloth or made-up clothing. In the United States the word formerly applied only to those who dressed or fulled cloth during the process of manufacture, but now it is used in the general sense, as above.

CLOTILDA, SAINT (d. 544), daughter of the Burgundian king Chilperic, and wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. On the death of Gundioc, king of the Burgundians, in 473, his sons Gundobald, Godegesil and Chilperic divided his heritage between them; Chilperic apparently reigning at Lyons, Gundobald at Vienne and Godegesil at Geneva. According to Gregory of Tours, Chilperic was slain by Gundobald, his wife drowned, and of his two daughters, Chrona took the veil and Clotilda was exiled. This account, however, seems to have been a later invention. At Lyons an epitaph has been discovered of a Burgundian queen, who died in 506, and was most probably the mother of Clotilda. Clotilda was brought up in the orthodox faith. Her uncle Gundobald was asked for her hand in marriage by the Frankish king Clovis, who had just conquered northern Gaul, and the marriage was celebrated about 493. On this event many romantic stories, all more or less embroidered, are to be found in the works of Gregory of Tours and the chronicler Fredegarius, and in the _Liber historiae Francorum_. Clotilda did not rest until her husband had abjured paganism and embraced the orthodox Christian faith (496). With him she built at Paris the church of the Holy Apostles, afterwards known as Ste Geneviève. After the death of Clovis in 511 she retired to the abbey of St Martin at Tours. In 523 she incited her sons against her uncle Gundobald and provoked the Burgundian war. In the following year she tried in vain to protect the rights of her grandsons, the children of Clodomer, against the claims of her sons Childebert I. and Clotaire I., and was equally unsuccessful in her efforts to prevent the civil discords between her children. She died in 544, and was buried by her husband's side in the church of the Holy Apostles.

There is a mediocre _Life_ in _Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script. rer. Merov._, vol. ii. See also G. Kurth, _Sainte Clotilde_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1897). (C. PF.)

CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as "clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon _cl[=u]d_ is only used in the sense of "a mass of rock," _wolcen_ being used for "cloud"), a mass of condensed vapour hanging in the air at some height from the earth.

_Classification of Clouds._--The earliest serious attempt to name the varieties of cloud was made by J.B. Lamarck in 1801, but he only used French terms, and those were not always happily chosen. The field was therefore still clear when in 1803 Luke Howard published, in _Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine_, an entirely independent scheme in which the terms were all Latin, and were applied with such excellent judgment that his system remains as the broad basis of those in use to-day. He recognized three primary types of cloud--Cirrus, Cumulus and Stratus--and four derivative or compound forms,--Cirro-cumulus, Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus.

His own definitions were:--

(1) _Cirrus._--Parallel, flexuous or diverging fibres, extensible in any or all directions.

(2) _Cumulus._--Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from a horizontal base.

(3) _Stratus._--A widely-extended continuous horizontal sheet, increasing from below.

(4) _Cirro-cumulus._--Small, well-defined, roundish masses, in close horizontal arrangement.

(5) _Cirro-stratus._--Horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a part or the whole of their circumferences, bent downward, or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of small clouds having these characters.

(6) _Cumulo-stratus._--The cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus, and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter or superadding a widespread structure to its base.

(7) _Cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus._--The rain-cloud: a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling. It is a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally and from beneath.

This system was universally adopted, and apart from some ambiguity in the definitions of cumulo-stratus and nimbus, it was sufficiently detailed for many purposes, such as the general relations between clouds and the movements of the barometer. When, however, such questions as the mode of origin of particular forms of cloud came to be investigated, it was at once felt that Howard's classes were too wide, and something much more detailed was required. The result has been the promulgation from time to time of revised schemes, most of these being based on Howard's work, and differing from him by the introduction of new terms or of subdivisions of his types. Some of these new terms have come more or less into use, such as A. Poëy's _pallium_ to signify a uniform sheet, but as a general rule the proposals were not accompanied by a clear enough exposition of their precise meaning for others to be quite sure of the author's intention. Other writers not appreciating how fully Howard's names had become established, boldly struck out on entirely new lines. The most important of these were probably those due respectively to (1) Poëy, published in the _Annuaire de la société météorologique de France_, 1865, (2) M. l'Abbé Maze, published in the _Mémoires du congrès météorologique international_, 1889, and (3) Frederic Gaster, _Quart. Jour. R. Meteorological Society_, 1893. In all of these Howard's terms are used, but the systems were much more elaborate, and the verbal descriptions sometimes difficult to follow.

In his book _Cloudland_ (1894) Clement Ley published a novel system. He grouped all clouds under four heads, in accordance with the mode in which he believed them to be formed.

I. _Clouds of Radiation._

Nebula Fog. Nebula Stillans Wet fog. Nebula Pulverea Dust fog.

II. _Clouds of Interfret._

Nubes Informis Scud. Stratus Quietus Quiet cloud. Stratus Lenticularis Lenticular cloud. Stratus Maculosus Mackerel cloud. Stratus Castellatus Turret cloud. Stratus Precipitans Plane shower.

III. _Clouds of Inversion._

Cumulo-rudimentum Rudiment. Cumulus Heap cloud. Cumulo-stratus Anvil cloud. Cumulo-stratus Mammatus Tubercled anvil cloud. Cumulo-nimbus Shower cloud. Cumulo-nimbus Nivosus Snow shower. Cumulo-nimbus Grandineus Hail shower. Cumulo-nimbus Mammatus Festooned shower cloud. Nimbus Rainfall cloud. Nimbus nivosus Snowfall. Nimbus grandineus Hailfall.

IV. _Clouds of Inclination._

Nubes Fulgens Luminous cloud. Cirrus Curl cloud. Cirro-filum Gossamer cloud. Cirro-velum Veil cloud. Cirro-macula Speckle cloud. Cirro-velum Mammatum.[1] Draped veil cloud.

It will be seen that Ley's scheme is really an amplification of Howard's. The term "Interfret" is defined as the interaction of horizontal currents of different velocities. Inversion is a synonym for vertical convection, and Inclination is used to imply that such clouds consist of sloping lines of falling ice particles.

While Ley had been finishing his work and seeing it through the press, H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and R. Abercromby had devised another modification which differed from Howard's chiefly by the introduction of a new class, which they distinguished by the use of the prefix _Alto_. This scheme was formally adopted by the International Meteorological Conference held at Munich in 1891, and a committee was appointed to draw up an atlas showing the exact forms typical of each variety considered. Finally in August 1894 a small sub-committee consisting of Messrs H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson, A. Riggenbach-Burckhardt and Teisserenc de Bort was charged with the task of producing the atlas. Their task was completed in 1896, and meteorologists were at last supplied with a fairly detailed scheme, and one which was adequately illustrated, so that there could be no doubt of the authors' meaning. It is as follows:--

_The International Classification._

(a) Separate or globular masses (most frequently seen in dry weather).

(b) Forms which are widely extended, or completely cover the sky (in wet weather).

A. _Upper clouds_, average altitude 9000 metres.[2]

a. 1. Cirrus. b. 2. Cirro-stratus.

B. _Intermediate clouds_, between 3000 m. and 7000 m.

a. 3. Cirro-cumulus. 4. Alto-cumulus. b. 5. Alto-stratus.

C. _Lower clouds_, 2000 m.

a. 6. Strato-cumulus. b. 7. Nimbus.

D. _Clouds of Diurnal Ascending Currents._

a. 8. Cumulus, apex 1800 m., base 1400 m. b. 9. Cumulo-nimbus, apex 3000 m. to 8000 m., base 1400 m.

E. _High Fogs_, under 1000 m.

10. Stratus.

_Explanations._

1. _Cirrus_ (Ci.).--Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous-looking, taking the form of feathers, generally of a white colour, sometimes arranged in belts which cross a portion of the sky in great circles and by an effect of perspective, converge towards one or two points of the horizon (the Ci.-S. and the Ci.-Cu. often contribute to the formation of these belts). See Plate, fig. 1.

2. _Cirro-stratus_ (Ci.-S.).--A thin, whitish sheet, at times completely covering the sky, and only giving it a whitish appearance (it is then sometimes called cirro-nebula), or at others presenting, more or less distinctly, a formation like a tangled web. This sheet often produces halos around the sun and moon. See fig. 2.

3. _Cirro-cumulus_ (Ci.-Cu.).--Small globular masses, or white flakes without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged in groups and often in lines. See fig. 3.

4. _Alto-cumulus_ (A.-Cu.).--Largish globular masses, white or greyish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so closely packed that their edges appear confused. The detached masses are generally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Cu.) at the centre of the group; at the margin they form into finer flakes (changing to Ci.-Cu.). They often spread themselves out in lines in one or two directions. See fig. 4.

5. _Alto-stratus_ (A.-S.).--A thick sheet of a grey or bluish colour, showing a brilliant patch in the neighbourhood of the sun or moon, and without causing halos, sometimes giving rise to coronae. This form goes through all the changes like Cirro-stratus, but according to measurements made at Upsala, its altitude is one-half as great. See fig. 5.

6. _Strato-cumulus_ (S.-Cu.).--Large globular masses or rolls of dark cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in winter, and occasionally giving it a wavy appearance. The layer is not, as a rule, very thick, and patches of blue sky are often seen through intervening spaces. All sorts of transitions between this form and Alto-cumulus are seen. It may be distinguished from nimbus by its globular or rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring rain. See fig. 6.

7. _Nimbus_ (N.), _Rain Cloud._--A thick layer of dark clouds, without shape and with ragged edges, from which continued rain or snow generally falls. Through openings in these clouds an upper layer of cirro-stratus or alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen. If the layer of nimbus separates up into shreds, or if small loose clouds are visible floating at a low level, underneath a large nimbus they may be described as _fracto-nimbus_ (Scud of sailors). See fig. 9.

8. _Cumulus_ (Cu.) _(Wool-pack Clouds)._--Thick clouds of which the upper surface is dome-shaped and exhibits protuberances while the base is horizontal. These clouds appear to be formed by a diurnal ascensional movement which is almost always observable. When the cloud is opposite the sun, the surfaces usually presented to the observer have a greater brilliance than the margins of the protuberances. When the light falls aslant, these clouds give deep shadows, but if they are on the same side as the sun they appear dark, with bright edges. See fig. 7.

The true cumulus has clear superior and inferior limits. It is often broken up by strong winds, and the detached portions undergo continual changes. These altered forms may be distinguished by the name of _Fracto-cumulus_.

9. _Cumulo-nimbus_ (Cu.-N.); _The Thunder-cloud; Shower-cloud._--Heavy masses of clouds, rising in the form of mountains, turrets or anvils, generally having a sheet or screen of fibrous appearance above (false cirrus) and underneath, a mass of cloud similar to nimbus. From the base there generally fall local showers of rain or snow (occasionally hail or soft hail). Sometimes the upper edges have the compact form of cumulus, rising into massive peaks round which the delicate false cirrus floats, and sometimes the edges themselves separate into a fringe of filaments similar to that of cirrus. This last form is particularly common in spring showers. See fig. 10.

The front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently presents the form of a large bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly brighter in colour.

10. _Stratus_ (S.).--A horizontal sheet of lifted fog. When this sheet is broken up into irregular shreds by the wind, or by the summits of mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-stratus. See fig. 8.

The scheme also provides that where a stratus or nimbus takes a lumpy form, this fact shall be described by the adjective _cumuliformis_, and if its base shows downward projecting bosses the word _mammato_ is prefixed.

Issued as it has been with the authority of an international congress of specialists, this scheme has been generally accepted, and must be regarded as the orthodox system, and for the great majority of observations it is quite detailed enough. But it does not give universal satisfaction. Cirrus clouds, for instance, exhibit many forms, and these so diverse that they must be due to very different causes. Hence for the minuter study of cloud forms a more elaborate scheme is still needed.

Hence in 1896 H. H. Clayton of the Blue Hill observatory, Massachusetts, published in the _Annals_ of the astronomical observatory of Harvard College a highly detailed scheme in which the International types and a number of subdivisions were grouped under four classes--_stratiforms_ or sheet clouds; _cumuliforms_ or woolpack clouds; _flocciforms_, including strato-cumulus, alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus; and _cirriforms_ or hairy clouds. The International terms are embodied and the special varieties are distinguished by the use of prefixes such as tracto-cirrus or cirrus bands, grano-cirro-cumulus or granular cirrus, &c.

Again in 1904 F. L. Obenbach of the Cleveland observatory devised a different system, published in the annual report, in which the International types are preserved, but each is subdivided into a number of species. In the absence of any atlas to define the precise meaning of the descriptions given, neither of these American schemes has come into general use.

Further proposals were put forward by A. W. Clayden in _Cloud Studies_ (1905). His scheme accepts the whole of the International names which he regards as the cloud genera, and suggests specific Latin names for the chief varieties, accompanying the descriptions by photographs. The proposed scheme is as follows.

_Genus._ _Species._

Cirrus Cirro-nebula Cirrus haze. Cirro-filum Thread cirrus. Cirrus Excelsus High " " Ventosus Windy " " Nebulosus Hazy " " Caudatus Tailed " " Vittatus Ribbon " " Inconstans Change " " Communis Common " Cirro-stratus Communis Common Ci. S. Nebulosus Hazy " Vittatus Ribbon " Cumulosus Flocculent Ci.-S. Cirro-cumulus Cirro-macula Speckle cloud. Nebulosus Hazy Ci. cu. Alto-clouds Alto-stratus " " maculosus Mackerel sky. " " fractus Alto-strato-cumulus Alto-cumulus informis " " nebulosus Alto-clouds Alto-cumulus castellatus Turret cloud. " " glomeratus High ball cumulus. " " communis " " stratiformis Flat alto-cum. Stratus Stratus maculosus " " radius Roll cloud. " " lenticularis Fall cloud. Strato-cumulus Cumulus Cumulus minor Small cumulus. " major Large cumulus. Cumulo-nimbus Storm cloud.

The term nimbus is to be applied to any cloud from which rain is falling, but if the true form of the cloud is visible the term should be used as a qualifying adjective. The prefix fracto- or the adjective fractus should be used when the cloud is undergoing disintegration or appears ragged or broken. Mammato- is used in the ordinary sense, and finally undatus or waved is to be added to the name of any cloud showing a wave-like or rippled structure. (A. W. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Varieties.

[2] 1 metre = 3.28 ft.

CLOUDBERRY, _Rubus Chamaemorus_, a low-growing creeping herbaceous plant, with stem not prickly, and with simple obtusely lobed leaves and solitary white flowers, resembling those of the blackberry, but larger--one inch across,--and with stamens and pistils on different plants. The orange-yellow fruit is about half an inch long and consists of a few large drupes with a pleasant flavour. The plant occurs in the mountainous parts of Great Britain, and is widely distributed through the more northerly portions of both hemispheres. In northern Denmark and Sweden the fruit is gathered in large quantities and sold in the markets.