Chapter 1

Cincinnatus to Cleruchy

Articles in This Slice:

CINCINNATUS LUCIUS QUINCTIUS CLARINA CINDERELLA CLARINET CINEAS CLARK, SIR ANDREW CINEMATOGRAPH CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD CINERARIA CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS CINGOLI CLARK, SIR JAMES CINNA (Roman family) CLARK, JOHN BATES CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER CINNABAR CLARK, THOMAS CINNAMIC ACID CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE CINNAMON CLARKE, ADAM CINNAMON-STONE CLARKE, SIR ANDREW CINNAMUS CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN CINNOLIN CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL CINO DA PISTOIA CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE CINQ-MARS, D'EFFIAT CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN CINQUE CENTO CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER CINQUE PORTS CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP CINTRA CLARKE, MARY ANNE CIPHER CLARKE, SAMUEL CIPPUS CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE CIRCAR CLARKSON, THOMAS CIRCASSIA CLARKSVILLE CIRCE CLASSICS CIRCEIUS MONS CLASSIFICATION CIRCLE CLASTIDIUM CIRCLEVILLE CLAUBERG, JOHANN CIRCUIT CLAUDE, JEAN CIRCULAR NOTE CLAUDE OF LORRAINE CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN CIRCUMCISION CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF CLAUDIUS (Nero Germanicus) CIRCUS CLAUDIUS (famous Roman gens.) CIRENCESTER CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS CIRILLO, DOMENICO CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS CIRQUE CLAUSEL CIRTA CLAUSEN, GEORGE CISSEY, ERNEST COURTOT DE CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON CISSOID CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF EMMANUEL CIS-SUTLEJ STATES CLAUSTHAL CIST CLAVECIN CISTERCIANS CLAVICEMBALO CITATION CLAVICHORD CÎTEAUX CLAVICYTHERIUM CITHAERON CLAVIE, BURNING THE CITHARA CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE CITIUM CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE CITIZEN CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ CITOLE CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS CITRIC ACID CLAY, CHARLES CITRON CLAY, FREDERIC CITTADELLA CLAY, HENRY CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE CLAY (substance) CITTÀ DI CASTELLO CLAY CROSS CITTÀ VECCHIA CLAYMORE CITTERN CLAYS, PAUL JEAN CITY CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON CIUDAD BOLÍVAR CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY CIUDAD DE CURA CLAY-WITH-FLINTS CIUDAD JUAREZ CLAZOMENAE CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ CLEANTHES CIUDAD REAL (province of Spain) CLEARCHUS CIUDAD REAL (city in Spain) CLEARFIELD CIUDAD RODRIGO CLEARING-HOUSE CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO CLEAT CIVET CLEATOR MOOR CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI CLEAVERS CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS CLEBURNE CIVILIZATION CLECKHEATON CIVIL LAW CLEETHORPES CIVIL LIST CLEFT PALATE CIVIL SERVICE CLEISTHENES CIVITA CASTELLANA CLEITARCHUS CIVITA VECCHIA CLEITHRAL CLACKMANNAN CLEITOR CLACKMANNANSHIRE CLELAND, WILLIAM CLACTON-ON-SEA CLEMATIS CLADEL, LÉON CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO CLAIRAULT CLEMENT (popes) CLAIRON, LA CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA CLAIRVAUX CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS CLAIRVOYANCE CLÉMENT, JACQUES CLAMECY CLEMENTI, MUZIO CLAN CLEMENTINE LITERATURE CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Earl) CLEOBULUS CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Marquess) CLEOMENES CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS CLEON CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS CLEOPATRA CLAPPERTON, HUGH CLEPSYDRA CLAQUE CLERESTORY CLARA, SAINT CLERFAYT CLARE (English family) CLERGY CLARE, JOHN (English poet) CLERGY, BENEFIT OF CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON CLERGY RESERVES CLARE (county in Ireland) CLERK CLAREMONT CLERKE, AGNES MARY CLARENCE, DUKES OF CLERKENWELL CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS CLERMONT-FERRAND CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF CLERMONT-L'HERAULT CLARES, POOR CLERMONT-TONNERRE (French family) CLARET CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS CLARETIE, JULES ARNAUD CLERUCHY CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA

CINCINNATUS,[1] LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of the heroes of early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and simplicity. A persistent opponent of the plebeians, he resisted the proposal of Terentilius Arsa (or Harsa) to draw up a code of written laws applicable equally to patricians and plebeians. He was in humble circumstances, and lived and worked on his own small farm. The story that he became impoverished by paying a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the needy position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from the plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458 he defeated the Aequians in a single day, and after entering Rome in triumph with large spoils returned to his farm. The story of his success, related five times under five different years, possibly rests on an historical basis, but the account given in Livy of the achievements of the Roman army is obviously incredible.

See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, _Römische Geschichte_, bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of early Roman History_, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, _History of Rome_, i.; E. Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] I.e. the "curly-haired."

CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost universal fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted maiden whose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy of her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or other supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who falls in love with and marries her. In the English version, a translation of Perrault's _Cendrillon_, the _glass_ slipper which she drops on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of _pantoufle en vair_ (a _fur_ slipper), mistaken for _en verre_. It has been suggested that the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being the dawn, oppressed by the night-clouds (cruel relatives) and finally rescued by the sun (prince).

See Marian Rolfe Cox, _Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five Variants_ (1893); A Lang, _Perrault's Popular Tales_ (1888).

CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the most eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus from invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace. These terms, which are said by Appian (_De Rebus Samniticis_, 10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of all that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through the vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius Caecus the censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was demanded, and Cineas returned to his master with the report that Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings. Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations with Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities, and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for Pyrrhus's campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is said to have made an epitome of the _Tactica_ of Aeneas, probably referred to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cineas as the author of a treatise _De Re Militari_.

See Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12; Cicero, _Ad Fam._ ix. 25.

CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from [Greek: khinêma], motion, and [Greek: graphein], to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views representing closely successive phases of a moving object are exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to persistence of vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or "wheel of life," described by W.G. Horner about 1833, which consists of a hollow cylinder turning on a vertical axis and having its surface pierced with a number of slots. Round the interior is arranged a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently in motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography was afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a running horse by employing a row of cameras, the shutters of which were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris established a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar photographic methods.

The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a long sensitized film being moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place. Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen. For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly, either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.

Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by G.A. Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society of Arts, London, in December 1908, the number of colour records was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through each filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting the pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those made with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary shutter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate for the deficiency in those colours caused by the necessity of cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pictures, blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which were sensibly the same as those of the original.

The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures" of such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train at full speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail. Machines of this kind have been devised in enormous numbers and used for purposes of amusement under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph, &c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin words for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such words as [Greek: skopein], to see, [Greek: graphein], to depict; they have also been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer are simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme inflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in close proximity to a powerful source of light and heat, such as is required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen, precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the heat rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of films composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the attention of inventors.

See H.V. Hopwood, _Living Pictures_ (London, 1899), containing a bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is supplemented in the _Optician_, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugène Trutat, _La Photographie animée_ (1899), which contains a list of the French patents. For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: _Apparatus_.

CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated from a species of _Senecio_, _S. cruentus_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a native of the Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at Kew in 1777. It was known originally as _Cineraria cruenta_, but the genus _Cineraria_ is now restricted to a group of South African species, and the Canary Island species has been transferred to the large and widespread genus _Senecio_. Cinerarias can be raised freely from seeds. For spring flowering in England the seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained pots or pans, in soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with one-sixth sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the surface firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot them singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They should be grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so situated that the sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the day, they must be slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never allow them to get dry. When well established with roots, shift them into 6-in. pots, which should be liberally supplied with manure water as they get filled with roots. In winter remove to a pit or house, where a little heat can be supplied whenever there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should stand on a moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts. When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every alternate watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this way, will be in bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of from 40° to 45° at night, with a little more warmth in the day; and those sown in April and May will succeed them during the early spring months, the latter set of plants being subjected to a temperature of 38° or 40° during the night. If grown much warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its appearance in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a great pest on young plants, and can only be kept down by fumigating or vaporizing the houses, and syringing with a solution of quassia chips, soft soap and tobacco.

CINGOLI (anc. _Cingulum_), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by road, from the town of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio contains interesting works of art. The town occupies the site of the ancient Cingulum, a town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by Caesar's lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier village) in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.) made it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is heard of it. Under the empire it was a _municipium_.

CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The most prominent member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. After serving in the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had sworn to Sulla that he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took possession of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his vengeance, Marius died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's colleague, and on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo. In 84, however, Cinna, who was still consul, was forced to advance against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter Cornelia was the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L. CORNELIUS CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with the murderers of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.

The hero of Corneille's tragedy _Cinna_ (1640) was Cn. Cornelius Cinna, surnamed _Magnus_ (after his maternal grandfather Pompey), who was magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for conspiring against him.

CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian age. Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was the friend of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the suite of the praetor Memmius. The circumstances of his death have given rise to some discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, Appian and Dio Cassius all state that, at Caesar's funeral, a certain Helvius Cinna was killed by mistake for Cornelius Cinna, the conspirator. The last three writers mentioned above add that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, referring to the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna who was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity of Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet. The chief objection to this view is based upon two lines in the 9th eclogue of Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C. Here reference is made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance that Virgil deprecates comparison with him; it is argued that the manner in which this Cinna, who could hardly have been any one but Helvius Cinna, is spoken of implies that he was then alive; if so, he could not have been killed in 44. But such an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by no means absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a reference to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at Caesar's funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities. Cinna's chief work was a mythological epic poem called _Smyrna_, the subject of which was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or Myrrha) for her father Cinyras, treated after the manner of the Alexandrian poets. It is said to have taken nine years to finish. A _Propempticon Pollionis_, a send-off to [Asinius] Pollio, is also attributed to him. In both these poems, the language of which was so obscure that they required special commentaries, his model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.

See A. Weichert, _Poëtarum Latinorum Vitae_ (1830); L. Müller's edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are printed; A. Kiessling, "De C. Helvio Cinna Poëta" in _Commentationes Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen_ (1878); O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte der römischen Dichtung_, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Lit._ (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Plessis, _Poésie latine_ (1909).

CINNABAR (Ger. _Zinnober_), sometimes written cinnabarite, a name applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native vermilion, the common ore of mercury. The name comes from the Greek [Greek: kinnabari], used by Theophrastus, and probably applied to several distinct substances. Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of bright red colour, but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a metallic adamantine lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, and are generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and optical characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization, and A. Des Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the rotatory power of quartz (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). Cinnabar has higher refractive power than any other known mineral, its mean index for sodium light being 3.02, whilst the index for diamond--a substance of remarkable refraction--is only 2.42 (see REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is 3, and its specific gravity 8.998.

Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver, notably Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria (Austria), Landsberg, near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate, Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps (Tuscany), the mountain Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the province of Kweichow in China, whence very fine crystals have been obtained. Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from the hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat Springs, Nevada.

Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola, in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter.

Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this compound being dimorphous.

For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker's _Geology of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope_, U.S. Geol. Surv. Monographs, No. xiii. (1888). (F. W. R.*)

CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC ACID, C9H8O2 or C6H6.CH:CH.COOH, an acid found in the form of its benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in storax and in some gum-benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of phenyl propiolic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal malonic acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde in the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called "Perkin reaction"; the latter being the method commonly employed. In making the acid by this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate are heated for some hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made alkaline with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and acidified with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated, C6H5CHO+CH3COONa = C6H5CH:CH.COONa+H2O. It may be purified by recrystallization from hot water. Considerable controversy has taken place as to the course pursued by this reaction, but the matter has been definitely settled by the work of R. Fittig and his pupils (_Annalen_, 1883, 216, pp. 100, 115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown that the aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt of the fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of a dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or prisms, melting at 133° C; on reduction it gives _phenyl propionic acid_, C6H5.CH2.CH2.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and acetic acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic and acetic acids. Being an unsaturated acid it combines directly with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On nitration it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitrocinnamic acids, the former of which is of historical importance, as by converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. Baeyer was enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo (_q.v._). Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic acid, C6H4(NH2)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance, as it readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of cinnamic acid known as _allo-cinnamic acid_ is also known.

For the oxy-cinnamic adds see COUMARIN.

CINNAMON, the inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, a small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae, native to Ceylon. The leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape, and the flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a present fit for monarchs and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod.