iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian

about A.D. 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question. According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (_Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 864), wrote about 160 (_op. cit._ p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin _Actus Vercellenses_ (which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the [Greek: Praxeis Petrou]) with the Acts of John and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse.

For the relation of the _Actus Vercellenses_ to the "Martyrdom of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (_Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i. 118-177) and to the "Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (_Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i. 178-234) see Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The "Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena," first edited by James (_Texts and Studies_, ii. 3. 1893), and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well as the "Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus, bishop of Mesopotamia, and the Heresiarch Manes" ("Acta Disputationis Archelai Episcopi Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarchae," in Routh's _Reliquiae Sacrae[2]_, v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work.

The text of the _Actus Vercellenses_ is edited by Lipsius, _Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the "Martyrdom of Peter" is published by Lipsius (_op. cit._ i. 1-22), _Martyrium beati Petri Apostoli a Lino episcopo conscriptum_. On the Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original constituent of these Acts, see that writer's work: _Die alten Petrusakten im Zusammenhang der apokryphen Apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten Fragment_, and _Texte und Untersuch_. N.F. ix. 1 (1903). For the literature see Hennecke, _Neutestamentliche Apokryphen Handbuch_, 395 sqq.

_Preaching of Peter._--This book ([Greek: Petrou Kerygma]) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, _In Evang. Johann._ t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (_De Prin._ Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschutz, as 100-110; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.

They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: _Nov. Test. extra Can._, 1884, iv. 51-65, and by von Dobschutz, _Das Kerygma Petri_, 1893. Salmon (_Dict. Christ. Biog._ iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger work, _A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul_, implied in a statement of Lactantius (_Inst. Div._ iv. 21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ iv. 776.

_Acts of Thomas._--This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, _Haer._ xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, _Contra Faust_. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (_Journ. of Theol. Studies_, i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Noldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the Greek also by James, _Apoc. Anec._ ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright (_Apocr. Acts of the Gospels_, 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus--therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, _Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_, i. 225-347; Hennecke, _N.T. Apokryphen_, 473-480.)

_Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (Didache).--This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff's and in Harnack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document, which forms the basis also of the _Epistle of Barnabas_. The second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 120-165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in _Dict. of Christ. Biog._ iv. 806-815, also article DIDACHE.)

_Apostolical Constitutions._--For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations--the Syriac _Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles_, &c.--see separate article.

(c) EPISTLES.--_The Abgar Epistles._--These epistles are found in Eusebius (_H.E._ i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should "cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people." Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See _Dict. Christ. Biog._ iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, _Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha_, 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also ABGAR.)

_Epistle of Barnabas._--The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further BARNABAS.)

_Epistle of Clement._--The object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (_Strom._ iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (_H.E._ iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, _Patr. Apost. Op._, 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot[2], 1890, Funk[2], 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, _Epp. of St Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac_, 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, _S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina antiquissima_, 1894.

"_Clement's_" _2nd Ep. to the Corinthians._--This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (_H. E_. iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians.

_Clement's Epistles on Virginity._--These two letters are preserved only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by Beelen, Louvain, 1856.

_Clement's Epistles to James._--On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's _Dict. of Christian Biography_, i. 559, 570, and Lehmann's monograph, _Die Clementischen Schriften_, Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information.

_Epistles of Ignatius._--There are two collections of letters bearing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, _Patr. Apost. Op_., 1876; Funk[2], _Die apostol. Vater_, 1901; Lightfoot[2], _Apostolic Fathers_, 1889.

_Epistle of Polycarp._--The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_, iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, i. 629-702; also POLYCARP.

_Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians_.--The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see _Colossians[3]_, 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, _op. cit_. ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592).

For the _Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians_, and _Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul_, see under "Acts of Paul" above. (R. H. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric tradition. Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the 24 books, it claimed the possession of an oral law handed down from Moses, and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain instances the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced the written in the regard of Judaism.

[2] See Porter in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ i. 113

[3] The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with several of the apocryphal books. Thus James i. 19 shows dependence on Sirach v. 11, Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26, Romans ix. 21 on Wisdom xv. 7, 2 Cor. v. 1, 4 on Wisdom ix. 15, &c.

[4] Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasses are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in Palestine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are classed under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic Enoch goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though most of it was written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.

[5] These editors have discovered (1907) a gospel fragment of the 2nd century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a chief priest--a Pharisee.

APODICTIC (Gr. [Greek: apodeiktikos], capable of demonstration), a logical term, applied to judgments which are necessarily true, as of mathematical conclusions. The term in Aristotelian logic is opposed to dialectic, as scientific proof to probable reasoning. Kant contrasts apodictical with problematic and assertorical judgments.

APOLDA, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the river Ilm, 9 m. E. by N. from Weimar, on the main line of railway from Berlin via Halle, to Frankfort-On-Main. Pop. (1900) 20,352. It has few notable public buildings, but possesses three churches and monuments to the emperor Frederick III. and to Christian Zimmermann (1759-1842), who, by introducing the hosiery and cloth manufacture, made Apolda one of the most important places in Germany in these branches of industry. It has also extensive dyeworks, bell foundries, and manufactures of steam engines, boilers and bicycles.

APOLLINARIS, "the Younger" (d. A.D. 390), bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He collaborated with his father Apollinaris the Elder in reproducing the Old Testament in the form of Homeric and Pindaric poetry, and the New after the fashion of Platonic dialogues, when the emperor Julian had forbidden Christians to teach the classics. He is best known, however, as a warm opponent of Arianism, whose eagerness to emphasize the deity of Christ and the unity of His person led him so far as a denial of the existence of a rational human soul ([Greek: nous]) in Christ's human nature, this being replaced in Him by a prevailing principle of holiness, to wit the Logos, so that His body was a glorified and spiritualized form of humanity. Over against this the orthodox or Catholic position maintained that Christ assumed human nature in its entirety including the [Greek: nous], for only so could He be example and redeemer. It was held that the system of Apollinaris was really Docetism (see DOCETAE), that if the Godhood without constraint swayed the manhood there was no possibility of real human probation or of real advance in Christ's manhood. The position was accordingly condemned by several synods and in particular by that of Constantinople (A.D. 381). This did not prevent its having a considerable following, which after Apollinaris's death divided into two sects, the more conservative taking its name (Vitalians) from Vitalis, bishop of Antioch, the other (Polemeans) adding the further assertion that the two natures were so blended that even the body of Christ was a fit object of adoration. The whole Apollinarian type of thought persisted in what was later the Monophysite (q.v.) school.

Although Apollinaris was a prolific writer, scarcely anything has survived under his own name. But a number of his writings are concealed under the names of orthodox Fathers, e.g. [Greek: He kata meros pistis], long ascribed to Gregory Thaumaturgus. These have been collected and edited by Hans Lietzmann.

He must be distinguished from the bishop of Hierapolis who bore the same name, and who wrote one of the early Christian "Apologies" (c. 170). See A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_, vols. iii. and iv. _passim_; R.L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_; G. Voisin, _L'Apollinarisme_ (Louvain, 1901); H. Lietzmann, _Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine Schule_ (Tubingen, 1905).

APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS, a learned grammarian of Carthage, who flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He taught Pertinax--himself a teacher of grammar before he was emperor,--and Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in the highest terms (iv. 17). He is the reputed author of the metrical arguments to the _Aeneid_ and to the plays of Terence and (probably) Plautus (J.W. Beck, _De Sulpicio Apollinari_, 1884).

APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS (c. 430-487 or 488), Christian writer and bishop, was born in Lyons about A.D. 430. Belonging to a noble family, he was educated under the best masters, and particularly excelled in poetry and polite literature. He married (about 452) Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was consul and afterwards emperor. But Majorianus, in the year 457, having deprived Avitus of the empire and taken the city of Lyons, Apollinaris fell into the hands of the enemy. The reputation of his learning led Majorianus to treat him with the greatest respect. In return Apollinaris composed a panegyric in his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus), which won for him a statue at Rome and the title of count. In 467 the emperor Anthemius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had written in honour of him by raising him to the post of prefect of Rome, and afterwards to the dignity of a patrician and senator. In 472, more for his political than for his theological abilities, he was chosen to succeed Eparchius in the bishopric of Arverna (Clermont). On the capture of that city by the Goths in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active part in its defence; but he was afterwards restored by Euric, king of the Goths, and continued to govern his bishopric as before. He died in A.D. 487 or 488. His extant works are his _Panegyrics_ on different emperors (in which he draws largely upon Statius, Ausonius and Claudian); and nine books of _Letters_ and _Poems_, whose chief value consists in the light they shed on the political and literary history of the 5th century. The _Letters_, which are very stilted, also reveal Apollinaris as a man of genial temper, fond of good living and of pleasure. The best edition is that in the _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (Berlin, 1887), which gives a survey of the manuscripts.

Apollinaris Sidonius (the names are commonly inverted by the French) is the subject of numerous monographs, historical and literary. See, for bibliography, A. Molinier, _Sources de l'histoire de France_, no. 136 (vol. i.). S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Fifth Century_, and T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (vol. vii.), contain interesting sections on Apollinaris. See also Teuffel and Ebert's histories of Latin literature.

APOLLO (Gr. [Greek: Apollon, Apellon]), in Greek mythology, one of the most important and many-sided of the Olympian divinities. No satisfactory etymology of the name has been given, the least improbable perhaps being that which connects it with the Doric [Greek: apella] ("assembly")[1] so that Apollo would be the god of political life (for other suggested derivations, ancient and modern, see C. Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_). The derivation of all the functions assigned to him from the idea of a single original light- or sun-god, worked out in his _Lexikon der Mythologie_ by Roscher, who regards it as "one of the most certain facts in mythology," has not found general acceptance, although no doubt some features of his character can be readily explained on this assumption.

In the legend, as set forth in the Homeric hymn to Apollo and the ode of Callimachus to Delos, Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto. The latter, pursued by the jealous Hera, after long wandering found shelter in Delos (originally Asteria), where she bore a son, Apollo, under a palm-tree at the foot of Mount Cynthus. Before this, Delos--like Rhodes, the centre of the worship of the sun-god Helios, with whom Apollo was wrongly identified in later times--had been a barren, floating rock, but now became stationary, being fastened down by chains to the bottom of the sea. Apollo was born on the 7th day ([Greek: Ebdomagenes]) of the month Thargelion according to Delian, of the month Bysios according to Delphian, tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. In Homer Apollo appears only as the god of prophecy, the sender of plagues, and sometimes as a warrior, but elsewhere as exercising the most varied functions. He is the god of agriculture, specially connected with Aristaeus (q.v.), which, originally a mere epithet, became an independent personality (see, however, Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iv. 123). This side of his character is clearly expressed in the titles _Sitalcas_ ("protector of corn"); _Erythibius_ ("preventer of blight"); _Parnopius_ ("destroyer of locusts"); _Smintheus_ ("destroyer of mice"), in which, however, some modern inquirers see a totemistic significance (e.g. A. Lang, "Apollo and the Mouse," in _Custom and Myth_, p. 101; against this, W.W. Fowler, in _Classical Review_, November 1892); _Erithius_ ("god of reapers"); and _Pasparius_ ("god of meal"). He is further the god of vegetation generally--_Nomios_, "god of pastures" (explained, however, by Cicero, as "god of law"), _Hersos_, "sender of the fertilizing dew." Valleys and groves are under his protection, unless the epithets _Napaeus_ and _Hylates_ belong to a more primitive aspect of the god as supporting himself by the chase, and roaming the glades and forests in pursuit of prey. Certain trees and plants, especially the laurel, were sacred to him. As the god of agriculture and vegetation he is naturally connected with the course of the year and the arrangement of the seasons, so important in farming operations, and becomes the orderer of time (_Horomedon_, "ruler of the seasons"), and frequently appears on monuments in company with the Horae.

Apollo is also the protector of cattle and herds, hence _Poimnius_ ("god of flocks"), _Tragius_ ("of goats"), _Kereatas_ ("of horned animals"). _Carneius_ (probably "horned") is considered by some to be a pre-Dorian god of cattle, also connected with harvest operations, whose cult was grafted on to that of Apollo; by others, to have been originally an epithet of Apollo, afterwards detached as a separate personality (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 131). The epithet _Maleatas_, which, as the quantity of the first vowel (a) shows,[2] cannot mean god of "sheep" or "the apple-tree," is probably a local adjective derived from Malea (perhaps Cape Malea), and may refer to an originally distinct personality, subsequently merged in that of Apollo (see below). Apollo himself is spoken of as a keeper of flocks, and the legends of his service as a herdsman with Laomedon and Admetus point in the same direction. Here probably also is to be referred the epithet _Lyceius_, which, formerly connected with [Greek: luk-] ("shine") and used to support the conception of Apollo as a light-god, is now generally referred to [Greek: Lukos] ("wolf") and explained as he who keeps away the wolves from the flock (cf. [Greek: Lukoergos, Lukoktonos]). In accordance with this, the epithet [Greek: Lukogenes] will not mean "born of" or "begetting light," but rather "born from the she-wolf," in which form Leto herself was said to have been conducted by wolves to Delos. The consecration of the wolf to Apollo is probably the relic of an ancient totemistic religion (Farnell, _Cults_, i. 41; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., 1894, p. 226).

With the care of the fruits of the earth and the lower animals is associated that of the highest animal, man, especially the youth on his passage to manhood. As such Apollo is [Greek: kourotrophos] ("rearer of boys") and patron of the palaestra. In many places gymnastic contests form a feature of his festivals, and he himself is proficient in athletic exercises ([Greek: enagonios]). Thus he was supposed to be the first victor at the Olympic games; he overcomes Hermes in the foot-race, and Ares in boxing.

The transition is easy to Apollo as a warlike god; in fact, the earlier legends represent him as engaged in strife with Python, Tityus, the Cyclopes and the Aloidae. He is _Boedromios_ ("the helper"), _Eleleus_ ("god of the war-cry"), and the Paean was said to have been originally a song of triumph composed by him after his victory over Python. In Homer he frequently appears on the field, like Ares and Athene, bearing the aegis to frighten the foe. This aspect is confirmed by the epithets _Argyrotoxos_ ("god of the silver bow"), _Hecatebolos_ ("the shooter from afar"), _Chrysaoros_ ("wearer of the golden sword"), and his statues are often equipped with the accoutrements of war.[3]

The fame of the Pythian oracle at Delphi, connected with the slaying of Python by the god immediately after his birth, gave especial prominence to the idea of Apollo as a god of prophecy. Python, always represented in the form of a snake, sometimes nameless, is the symbol of the old chthonian divinity whose home was the place of "enquiry" ([Greek: pythesthai]). When Apollo Delphinius with his worshippers from Crete took possession of the earth-oracle Python, he received in consequence the name Pythius. That Python was no fearful monster, symbolizing the darkness of winter which is scattered by the advent of spring, is shown by the fact that Apollo was considered to have been guilty of murder in slaying it, and compelled to wander for a term of years and expiate his crime by servitude and purification. Possibly at Delphi and other places there was an old serpent-worship ousted by that of Apollo, which may account for expiation for the slaying of Python being considered necessary. In the solar explanation, the serpent is the darkness driven away by the rays of the sun. (On the Delphian cult of Apollo and its political significance, see AMPHICTYONY, DELPHI, ORACLE; and Farnell, _Cults_, iv. pp. 179-218.) Oracular responses were also given at Claros near Colophon in Ionia by means of the water of a spring which inspired those who drank of it; at Patara in Lycia; and at Didyma near Miletus through the priestly family of the Branchidae. Apollo's oracles, which he did not deliver on his own initiative but as the mouthpiece of Zeus, were infallible, but the human mind was not always able to grasp their meaning; hence he is called _Loxias_ ("crooked," "ambiguous"). To certain favoured mortals he communicated the gift of prophecy (Cassandra, the Cumaean sibyl, Helenus, Melampus and Epimenides). Although his favourite method was by word of mouth, yet signs were sometimes used; thus Calchas interpreted the flight of birds; burning offerings, sacrificial barley, the arrow of the god, dreams and the lot, all played their part in communicating the will of the gods.

Closely connected with the god of oracles was the god of the healing art, the oracle being frequently consulted in cases of sickness. These two functions are indicated by the titles _Iatromantis_ ("physician and seer") and _Oulios_, probably meaning "health-giving" (so Suidas) rather than "destructive." This side of Apollo's character does not appear in Homer, where Paieon is mentioned as the physician of the gods. Here again, as in the case of Aristaeus and Carneius, the question arises whether Paean (or Paeon) was originally an epithet of Apollo, subsequently developed into an independent personality, or an independent deity merged in the later arrival (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 234). According to Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in his edition of Isyllus, the epithet Maleatas alluded to above is also connected with the functions of the healing god, imported into Athens in the 4th century B.C. with other well-known health divinities. In this connexion, it is said to mean the "gentle one," who gave his name to the rock Malion or Maleas (O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. 1442) on the Gortynian coast. Apollo is further supposed to be the father of Asclepius (Aesculapius), whose ritual is closely modelled upon his. The healing god could also prevent disease and misfortune of all kinds: hence he is [Greek: alexikakos] ("averter of evil") and [Greek: apotropaios]. Further, he is able to purify the guilty and to cleanse from sin (here some refer the epithet [Greek: iatromantis], in the sense of "physician of the soul"). Such a task can be fitly undertaken by Apollo, since he himself underwent purification after slaying Python. According to the Delphic legend, this took place in the laurel grove of Tempe, and after nine years of penance the god returned, as was represented in the festival called Stepterion or Septerion (see A. Mommsen, _Delphika_, 1878). Thus the old law of blood for blood, which only perpetuated the crime from generation to generation, gave way to the milder idea of the expiatory power of atonement for murder (cf. the court called [Greek: to epi Delphinio] at Athens, which retained jurisdiction in cases where justifiable homicide was pleaded).

The same element of enthusiasm that affects the priestess of the oracle at Delphi produces song and music. The close connexion between prophecy and song is indicated in Homer (_Odyssey_, viii. 488), where Odysseus suggests that the lay of the fall of Troy by Demodocus was inspired by Apollo or the Muse. The metrical form of the oracular responses at Delphi, the important part played by the paean and the Pythian nomos in his ritual, contributed to make Apollo a god of song and music, friend and leader of the Muses ([Greek: mousagetes]). He plays the lyre at the banquets of the gods, and causes Marsyas to be flayed alive because he had boasted of his superior skill in playing the flute, and the ears of Midas to grow long because he had declared in favour of Pan, who contended that the flute was a better instrument than Apollo's favourite, the lyre.

A less important aspect of Apollo is that of a marine deity, due to the spread of his cult to the Greek colonies and islands. As such, his commonest name is _Delphinius_, the "dolphin god," in whose honour the festival Delphinia was celebrated in Attica. This cult probably originated in Crete, whence the god in the form of a dolphin led his Cretan worshippers to the Delphian shore, where he bade them erect an altar in his honour. He is _Epibaterius_ and _Apobaterius_ ("embarker" and "disembarker"), _Nasiotas_ ("the islander"), _Euryalus_ ("god of the broad sea"). Like Poseidon, he looks forth over his watery kingdom from lofty cliffs and promontories ([Greek: aktaios], and perhaps [Greek: akritas]).

These maritime cults of Apollo are probably due to his importance as the god of colonization, who accompanied emigrants on their voyage. As such he is [Greek: agetor] ("leader"), [Greek: oikistes] ("founder"), [Greek: domatites] ("god of the home"). As _Agyieus_ ("god of streets and ways"), in the form of a stone pillar with painted head, placed before the doors of houses, he let in the good and kept out the evil (see Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 150, who takes Agyieus to mean "leader"); on the epithet _Prostaterius_, he who "stands before the house," hence "protector," see G.M. Hirst in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. (1902). Lastly, as the originator and protector of civil order, Apollo was regarded as the founder of cities and legislation. Thus, at Athens, Apollo _Patroos_ was known as the protector of the lonians, and the Spartans referred the institutions of Lycurgus to the Delphic oracle.

It has been mentioned above that W.H. Roscher, in the article "Apollo" in his _Lexikon der Mythologie_, derives all the aspects and functions of Apollo from the conception of an original light-and sun-god. The chief objections to this are the following. It cannot be shown that on _Greek_ soil Apollo originally had the meaning of a sun-god; in Homer, Aeschylus and Plato, the sun-god Helios is distinctly separated from Phoebus Apollo; the constant epithet [Greek: Phoibos], usually explained as the brightness of the sun, may equally well refer to his physical beauty or moral purity; [Greek: lykegenes] has already been noticed. It is not until the beginning of the 5th century B.C. that the identification makes its appearance. The first literary evidence is a fragment of Euripides (_Phaethon_), in which it is especially characterized as an innovation. The idea was taken up by the Stoics, and in the Roman period generally accepted. But the fact of the gradual development of Apollo as a god of light and heaven, and his identification with foreign sun-gods, is no proof of an original Greek solar conception of him. Apollo-Helios must be regarded as "a late by-product of Greek religion" (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 136; Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopadie_). For the manner in which the solar theory is developed, reference must be made to Roscher's article, but one legend may here be mentioned, since it helps to trace the spread of the cult of the god. It was said that Apollo soon after his birth spent a year amongst the Hyperboreans, who dwelt in a land of perpetual sunshine, before his return to Delphi. This return is explained as the second birth of the god and his victory over the powers of winter; the name Hyperboreans is explained as the "dwellers beyond the north wind." This interpretation is now, however, generally rejected in favour of that of H.L. Ahrens,--that Hyperborei is identical with the Perpherees ("the carriers"), who are described as the servants of Apollo, carriers of cereal offerings from one community to another (Herodotus iv. 33). This would point to the fact that certain settlements of Apolline worship along the northernmost border of Greece (Illyria, Thrace, Macedonia) were in the habit of sending offerings to the god to a centre of his worship farther south (probably Delphi), advancing by the route from Tempe through Thessaly, Pherae and Doris to Delphi; while others adopted the route through Illyria, Epirus, Dodona, the Malian gulf, Carystus in Euboea, and Tenos to Delos (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 100).

The most usual attributes of Apollo were the lyre and the bow; the tripod especially was dedicated to him as the god of prophecy. Among plants, the bay, used in expiatory sacrifices and also for making the crown of victory at the Pythian games, and the palm-tree, under which he was born in Delos, were sacred to him; among animals and birds, the wolf, the roe, the swan, the hawk, the raven, the crow, the snake, the mouse, the grasshopper and the griffin, a mixture of the eagle and the lion evidently of Eastern origin. The swan and grasshopper symbolize music and song; the hawk, raven, crow and snake have reference to his functions as the god of prophecy.

The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the Carneia, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia (see separate articles).

Among the Romans the worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphian oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, and in 430 a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence, and during the Second Punic War (in 212) the _Ludi Apollinares_ were instituted in his honour. But it was in the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, that his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoil to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace composed his _Carmen Saeculare_, to Apollo and Diana.

Apollo was represented more frequently than any other deity in ancient art. As Apollo Agyieus he was shown by a simple conic pillar; the Apollo of Amyclae was a pillar of bronze surmounted by a helmeted head, with extended arms carrying lance and bow. There were also rude idols of him in wood (_xoana_), in which the human form was scarcely recognizable. In the 6th century, his statues of stone were naked, stiff and rigid in attitude, shoulders square, limbs strong and broad, hair falling down the back. In the riper period of art the type is softer, and Apollo appears in a form which seeks to combine manhood and eternal youth. His long hair is usually tied in a large knot above his forehead. The most famous statue of him is the Apollo Belvidere in the Vatican (found at Frascati, 1455), an imitation belonging to the early imperial period of a bronze statue representing him, with aegis in his left hand, driving back the Gauls from his temple at Delphi (279 B.C.), or, according to another view, fighting with the Pythian dragon. In the Apollo Citharoedus or Musagetes in the Vatican, he is crowned with laurel and wears the long, flowing robe of the Ionic bard, and his form is almost feminine in its fulness; in a statue at Rome of the older and more vigorous type he is naked and holds a lyre in his left hand; his right arm rests upon his head, and a griffin is seated at his side. The Apollo Sauroctonus (after Praxiteles), copied in bronze at the Villa Albani in Rome and in marble at Paris, is a naked, youthful, almost boyish figure, leaning against a tree, waiting to strike a lizard climbing up the trunk. The gigantic statue of Helios (the sun-god), "the colossus of Rhodes," by Chares of Lindus, celebrated as one of the seven wonders of the world, is unknown to us. Bas-reliefs and painted vases reproduce the contests of Apollo with Tityus, Marsyas, and Heracles, the slaughter of the daughters of Niobe, and other incidents in his life.

AUTHORITIES.--F.L.W. Schwartz, _De antiquissima Apollinis Natura_ (Berlin, 1843); J.A. Schonborn, _Uber das Wesen Apollons_ (Berlin, 1854); A. Milchhofer, _Uber den attischen Apollon_ (Munich, 1873); T. Schreiber, _Apollon Pythoktonos_ (Leipzig, 1879); W.H. Roscher, _Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer_, i. (Leipzig, 1873); R. Hecker, _De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu_ (Leipzig, 1879); G. Colin, _Le Culte d'Apollon pythien a Athenes_ (1905); L. Dyer, _The Gods in Greece_ (1891); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, W.H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; L. Preller, _Griechische und romische Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C. Robert); J. Marquardt, _Romische Staalsverwaltung_, iii.; G. Wissowa _Religion und Kultus der Romer_ (1902); D. Bassi, _Saggio di Bibliografia mitologica_, i. _Apollo_ (1896); L. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iv. (1907); O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte_, ii. (1906). In the article GREEK ART, fig. 9 represents a bearded Apollo, playing on the lyre, in a chariot drawn by winged horses; fig. 55 (pl. ii.) Apollo of the Belvidere; fig. 76 (pl. v.) a nude and roughly executed colossal figure of the god. (J. H. F.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Hesychius; who also gives the explanation [Greek: sekos] ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.

[2] The authority for the quantity is Isyllus.

[3] Hence some have derived "Apollo" from [Greek: apollunai], "to destroy."