c. Heat-metals; the easily fused, ignoble and frequently volatile

Chapter 823,837 wordsPublic domain

metals, e. g. Lead, Tin, Antimony, Zinc, Arsenic, &c.

509. The _Inflammables_ divide under a chemical point of view into two groups--into the varieties of Coal and Sulphur, whereof the Earthy lies at the basis of the former which is non-fusible; the Aerial at that of the latter. They do not admit of being divided, unless a mean betwixt the two be taken, the combinations of carbon and hydrogen in the resins.

510. The _Salts_ admit of a better dismemberment. Their constituent parts are alkalies and acids, the former the Earthy, the latter the Aqueous. The mean condition is exhibited by the neutral salts, so that three orders are the result.

511. Now by the philosophical view we have first attained to the very remarkable import of the acids. They are forsooth nothing else than oxydized elements and mineral classes. In the nitric acid it is evident that, as the acid of nitrogen, it is the _aerial acid_; as sulphuric acid is the _inflammable acid_; arsenic acid the _metallic acid_. Upon this ground we may expect that the other acids also have a similar origin. Without much hesitation hydrochloric acid may be viewed as the _aqueous acid_, which is associated with the sea; the carbonic acid as _æther-_ or _igneous-acid_, as well on account of its constituent parts and gaseous character, as chiefly on account of its general diffusion. There remain then only two that have been called mineral acids, the fluoric and boracic acids, the first of which, as conqueress of the earths is the _earth acid_, the last being thus the acid of the _salts_. We have accordingly--

a. _Elemental acids._

1. The oxydized æther is Carbonic acid. 2. The oxydized air Nitric acid. 3. The oxydized water Hydrochloric acid.

b. _Mineral acids._

4. The oxydized earth is Fluoric acid. 5. The oxydized salt Boracic acid. 6. The oxydized inflammable Sulphuric acid. 7. The oxydized metal Arsenic acid.

512. The vegetable and animal acids are none other than repetitions of the elemental and mineral acids. They may perhaps be parallelized in the following manner.

Fire-acid (Carbonic acid) Acetic acid Hæmatosine. Air-acid (Nitric acid) Malic acid Lactic acid. Water-acid (Hydrochloric acid) Saccharine acid Mucic acid. Earth-acid (Fluoric acid) Tartaric acid Phosphoric ac. Salt-acid (Boracic acid) Tannic acid Uric acid. Inflammable-acid (Sulphuric acid) Succinic acid Sebacic acid. Ore-acid (Arsenic acid) Indic acid Formic acid.

All the remaining acids must be viewed as subordinate to, or as kinds of these.

513. The _alkalies_ appear to follow the same course, though it does not admit of being so completely demonstrated.

Fire-alkali Ammonia Vegetable, and Animal alkalies. Air-alkali Potash Alcaloids Alcaloids. Water Soda Urea. Earth Lithium Bile, &c. Salt Inflammable Ore-alkali

514. The earths proper do not consist of two principles, and do not, therefore admit of being chemically divided.

515. This division is only incorrect in a naturo-historical sense, because it has no reference to the totality. Inasmuch as every mineral class is viewed as having originated out of only one or two elements, it divides by the chemical method only into constituent parts or fractions, as the acids and alkalies, which are obviously only moieties, and taken in a strict sense are not true minerals.

b. _Genetic Division of the Classes._

516. The total division only is genetic and consequently correct.

517. As the classes have originated through that which directly preceded them, namely, the elements; so must the divisions of the classes be determined by the other classes. Such divisions are called orders. Every class necessarily divides into four orders.

Order 1. Earths. 2. Salts. 3. Inflammables. 4. Ores.

_CLASS I._

EARTHS.

518. There must be therefore pure earths, haloid or salt-earths, inflammable earths and metallic earths or ores.

1. The Earth-earths must have neither saline, nor inflammable nor metallic properties, and thus also be insoluble in acids. Such is the case with the _Silicious earths_.

2. The Haloid-earths must have saline properties, dissolve in acids, but not fall to pieces when exposed to air and fire. Such is the behaviour of _Argillaceous earth_; it admits besides of combining with water, that antetype of the salts.

3. The Inflammable earths must be soluble in acids and exhibit electric or aerial properties. Such is the behaviour of the _Talcose earths_; its minerals are unctuous, fall when exposed to the air into electric lamellæ, and burn brittle.

4. The Metallic earths must undergo change in acids, air and fire. The _calcareous earth_ dissolves in all acids, burns corrosive and becomes almost a metallic calx. The Orders of earth are consequently:

1. Earth-earths _Silica_; Quartz, &c. 2. Haloid-earths _Clays_; Felspar, &c. 3. Inflammable-earths _Talcs_; Mica, &c. 4. Metallic-earths or Ores _Calx_.

519. Nature does not produce any so-called pure calcareous earth, but only this earth in an _oxydated_ condition. Carbonic acid is the oxygen of the earth that has become free, and the corroding calx is the Metallic, the other constituent part of the Earthy, which has obtained some oxygen, but lost the Aqueous by the carbonic acid and thereby has become corrosive.

520. The carbonate calcareous earth is the whole earth, not the corrosive. This is only the half of the earth-element, only its basic or phlogistic principle. What has been called pure calcareous earth is a half earth; the perfect or naturo-historical earth is just that which is chemically impure.

521. The calcareous earth is not, however, perfected with one position. It still exhibits several stages of development which appear to be approximations to the salt, e. g. Strontian and Baryta.

522. The silicious earth, which principally represents the Earthy, holds its principles more firmly together. No separation occurs there in the carbonic acid and the basic or corroding body of earth; no association with water, no great activity, no direct participation in the highest evolutions of the planet; but it continues to lie in an extreme state of contraction, and in a state of indifference in the non-differencing darkness.

523. This pure earth is the basis, the pedestal of all the other earths, and the foundation of the planet; for it alone is the earth proper, the earth-abiding earth-element, while the other masses of earth, divided in their principles, have pitched themselves in outward opposition to the sun and other elements. The silicious earth is in every respect the centre of all earthy productions, these being only digressions from it. The Zircon earth is only a removal or displacement of the silicious toward the argillaceous earth.

524. The argillaceous earth also is not dissevered into its principles; it is not found as a carbonate. On the contrary, it is at once shown to be far more pliable by its capacity for being kneaded and moulded in water, and by its hardening when exposed to air and fire. It is also seized upon and dissolved, i. e. reduced to the aqueous condition, by all acids. Its kindred earths are the Glucine and Yttria, verging towards the talcose earths.

525. The first dismemberment of principles is shown by the talcose earth. Where it appears uncombined with the former earths it is carbonate, yet still feebly corrosive.

526. These three principal earths together make up the body of the earth, while the calcareous earth is only spread over them like a mantle or crust.

527. As no earth is in its totality corrosive, and none such occurs in nature or has at least not been originally produced from it, so may the insolubility of the earths in water be set up as an essential and thoroughly valid characteristic of the earths. Their distinctive characters have been sedulously rendered fluctuating, by having been drawn not from nature, but the products of art. That the corrosive chalk is soluble in water, and may therefore be a salt is true; but it has not issued thus out of the womb of nature. Mineralogy knows nothing of a corrosive calcareous earth. The earths are sufficiently separated from the salts by their insolubility in water. They are separated from the ores by their incombustibleness, or, if they have been already burnt, by their incapacity for reduction. As both of these qualities are imparted by fire, so the earths are distinguished by their immutability in fire, whereby is naturally understood not the scoriation, but change of the earthy character. They differ also in the same manner from the Inflammables. Nature does not undertake the artificial reductions of earths to Metalloids, at least not so, that they may become again of themselves earths. The metals are permanent reductions.

528. Earth is thus the body, which is mutable neither in water, air, nor fire. _Earth is a water-, air-, and fire-proof body._ This is the brief, rigid, wholly exclusive, and significantly expressive definition, which a so-called empirical science could never, but philosophy alone, bestow.

529. The Ore is not soluble in water, nor mutable in air; on the contrary, it is fusible, oxydizable, or reducible in fire. _Ore is a water-and air-, but not fire-proof body._

530. The Inflammable is immutable in water, but mutable in air and fire. _The Inflammable is a water-proof, but not air-and fire-proof body._

531. The Salt is soluble in water, and decomposible in fire, but immutable in air. _Salt is an air-, but not water-and fire-proof body._ The legitimate series of gradations comprised in the above four definitions cannot escape the attentive reader, nor moreover that the properties of the earths are all affirmative. Nature has not employed such insignificant means of distinction as our mineralogy has done; has nowhere used an acid in order to distinguish the metals from the earths, nor savour to separate the salts from the earths; but she selects universal reagents which are the elements themselves. So simple is Nature, if we do not violate her by art.

DIVISION OF THE EARTHS.

532. There is not merely a single silicious mineral, but many such, just as in clay, talc, and calx. How, then, do differences occur in these earths? When we survey the science of Mineralogy we remark that most minerals are composed of several earths; with them also metals, coal, sulphur, alkalies and acids are frequently associated. It follows thereupon that the further distinctions are no longer of an _internal_ kind, namely, alterations of substance; but proceed from combinations and thus indicate stöchiometric bodies. The next division of the orders I call _Families_.

Order 1. _Silicious_ minerals. *

533. With how many bodies now can the silicious earth combine? It will first of all appear in a pure condition, as in quartz; then, in the next place, combine with the other earths, thus with clay, talc and calx. We have thus four families of _Earth-silices_.

Fam. 1. Pure-Silex Quartz. 2. Argillaceo-Silex Zircon. 3. Talco-Silex Emerald. 4. Calcareo-Silex Leucite.

534. Thus the hardest minerals or the silicious precious stones are here placed. But these are obviously not exhausted with the above four combinations, but more of the latter must still be sought for. Those bodies which rank next to the earths, and can therefore enter into the following combinations are the other mineral classes, such as the salts, Inflammables, and metals; and we accordingly obtain the following _silicious_ minerals, as constituting _classes_.

Fam. 5. Salt-Silex Topaz. 6. Inflammable-Silex Diamond. 7. Ore-Silex Garnet.

535. Still all the silicious minerals are not exhausted with these combinations. But now the silicious earth can combine with nothing more than the _elements_, whence three families originate.

Fam. 8. Water-Silex Hornstone, Silicious schist, Jasper, Flint, Opal. 9. Air-Silex Silicious sinter, as Tripoli and Polierschiefer. 10. Fire-Silex Obsidian with Pitchstone, Pearlstone and Pumice.

536. Upon casting a glance at this series, it is shown, that the first seven families occur in a crystalline, but the last three only in a compact or structureless condition. The latter occur at the same time in large masses, the former, on the contrary, but scantily dispersed. The first family or the quartz, occurs as well in a compact and massive state as crystallized; the others, on the contrary, taken collectively, are only crystallized, and scarcely form small rocks here and there, but never mountain-chains. They are the precious stones proper, both on account of their hardness, as also their rarity. Precious stones are thus only combinations of silex with other earths, and with the classes; on the contrary, the elemental silices only, viz. the earth-, water-, air-and fire-silices, are massive.

537. It is here shown, that freedom finds a place also in dead nature. Quartz only is necessary as the earth in general. Its marriages with the other earths, &c., to form precious stones are not necessary, but free or accidental, and may therefore happen for the first time in the laboratory.

538. If we now proceed to the arrangement of the Clay, we find exactly the same law to prevail in the genesis of its minerals i. e. stöchiometric combinations with other orders, classes, and elements. We have likewise--

A.--_Earth-Clays._

Fam. 1. Silicious clays Felspar. 2. Argillaceous clays Sapphire. 3. Talcose clays Ruby. 4. Calcareous clays Epidote.

B.--_Class-Clays._

5. Salt-clays Schorl. 6. Inflammable clays Azurite. 7. Ore-clays Harmotome.

C.--_Elemental-Clays._

8. Water-clays Clay-slate. 9. Air-clays Potter's-clay, Clay-stone. 10. Fire-clays Lavas, Phonolite, Toad-stone.

The water-clays are hydrates; the air-clays volatilized hydrates; the fire-clays are clay fused or transmuted by heat. Here also the first 7 families only are crystallized; the 3 last, on the contrary, as well as the first in part, occur only in a compact state and in large masses.

539. The Talcs follow the same laws, and we have--

A.--_Earth-Talcs._

Fam. 1. Silicious talcs Mica. 2. Argillaceous talcs Sapphirine. 3. Talcose talcs Talc, Chlorite. 4. Calcareous talcs Augite.

B.--_Class-Talcs._

5. Salt-talcs Hornblende. 6. Inflammable-talcs Asbestus. 7. Ore-talcs Olivine.

C.--_Elemental-Talcs._

Fam. 8. Water-talcs Serpentin, Steatite. 9. Air-talcs Lithomarge, Fuller's-earth, Bole. 10. Fire-talcs Basalt.

Here also the first 7 families only are crystallized and occur for the most part in a scattered manner; but the aqueous, aerial, and igneous families, as well as the first family in part, are merely compact and mountainous masses.

540. The fourth order or that of the Calcareous earths is developed likewise according to the same laws. As, however, it approximates the salts, and therefore combines with acids, it presents many anomalous varieties, of which account cannot be taken in every instance. These minerals are soft throughout, change by fire and admit of being wholly or partially dissolved in acids. Here belong the zeolites, or combinations of the calcareous earths with the other earths.

A.--_Calcareous earths, Zeolites._

1. Silicio-calcareous earths Lapis lasuli, Scapolite. 2. Argillaceo- " Mesotype, Analcime, Stilbite. 3. Talco- " Stellite. 4. Calcareo- " Tabular spar.

B.--_Classes of Calcareous earths._

5. Halo-calcareous earths Boracite. 6. Inflammable- " Phosphate of lime, Fluorspar? 7. Ore- " Titanite, Tungsten.

C.--_Elemental-Calcareous earths._

8. Water calcareous earth Hydrophyllite? Wavellite. 9. Air- " Gypsum, Heavy-spar, Celestine. 10. Fire- " Limestone.

Here also the first 7 tribes only occur crystallized, the 3 last, in a great measure, compact, and as mountainous masses.

_CLASS II._

WATER-EARTHS. SALTS.

541. The chief distinctions of the salts consist also in their combination with the other classes, and we have therefore 4 orders--

1. Earth-Salts Double-salts. 2. Saline-Salts Neutral-salts. 3. Inflammable-Salts Saponaceous-compounds. 4. Metallic-Salts Vitriols.

The same will hold good without doubt of the orders, as in the case of the earths. They form as many families as there are principal masses of them present, with which they may combine. As the acids, from being the children or offspring of water, play the chief part in the water minerals, and are themselves nothing else than oxydized and outwardly lying masses, they carry consequently within themselves the number and import of the families; thus it is they which determine indeed the division. If the bases were to be taken as the groundwork of arrangement, there would be only earths and alkalies, and on the other hand numerous metals, by which step the mineralogist would fall into the unprincipled method of classification adopted by empirics. Here also the philosophy of nature shows, and that indeed upon sound reasoning, that the acids and not the bases afford the principle of a natural classification. A somewhat different opinion is held by the chemist, who must characterize the salts according to both series; but this is by no means the course taken by the historian of nature.

ORDER I.

_Earth-Salts--Double Salts._

(Combinations of acids with earths.)

Fam. 1-4. Earthy-acids or Fluoric-acid earths; here also belong Bromic, Iodic, and Cyanic acids. 5. Salt or Boracic-acid. 6. Inflammable or Sulphuric-acid--Alum, Sulphate of magnesia. 7. Metallic or Arsenic-acid. 8. Water or Hydrochloric-acid--the earths Barytes, Strontian, and Lime; Murias ammoniæ, Chloride of Calcium. 9. Air or Nitric-acid--Strontium, Nitrate of lime. 10. Fire or Carbonic-acid--Vegetable-acid earths.

Order II.

_Salt-Salts--Neutral Salts._

(Combinations of acids with alkalies.)

1-4. Fluoric-acid 5. Boracic-acid Borax. 6. Sulphuric-acid Sulphate of soda, Sulphate of potash. 7. Arsenic-acid. 8. Hydrochloric-acid Rock-salt, Muriate of soda, Sal-ammoniacum or salmiac. 9. Nitric-acid Nitrate of potash or saltpetre, Cream of tartar. 10. Carbonic-acid Soda, Subcarbonate of potash, Binoxalate of potash, Acetate of potash.

ORDER III.

_Inflammable-Salts--Saponaceous-compounds._

(Soluble, and at the same time combustible bodies.)

1-4. Earth-Soaps Calcareo-sulphuret of potash. 5. Salt-Soaps Common sulphuret of potash. 6. Inflammable-Soaps Fatty or soft soaps. 7. Metallic-Soaps Metallic Soaps. 8. Water-Soaps Animal mucilages. 9. Air-Soaps Saccharum or sugar. 10. Fire-Soaps Vegetable extracts.

ORDER IV.

_Ore-Salts--Vitriols._

(Combinations of acids with metals.)

1-4. Fluoric-acid 5. Boracic-acid 6. Sulphuric-acid Iron, Copper, Zinc, Vitriol. 7. Arsenic-acid White arsenic. 8. Hydrochloric-acid Calomel, Corrosive sublimate. 9. Nitric-acid Nitrate of silver. 10. Carbonic-acid Sugar of lead.

_CLASS III._

AIR-EARTHS--INFLAMMABLES.

542. It is very difficult to arrange this class, because it has been wholly neglected by mineralogists, and is, properly speaking, quite unknown to them, because they have had recourse only to those combustible bodies which occur accidentally in the earth, while according to philosophical principles everything belongs to the province of natural history, that has originated or may originate in nature, so that its situation is a matter of complete indifference. If we follow the same laws according to which the earths and salts have been so excellently arranged, we must here also adopt four orders, namely, combustible things which bear a resemblance to earths, others to salts, others to metals; finally, others which represent combustibility in a pure state, and thus we obtain--

1. Earth-Inflammables Coals. 2. Salt-Inflammables Fats. 3. Inflammable-Inflammables Resins. 4. Ore-Inflammables Colouring matters.

The Earth-inflammables will be such as are solid and burn, without becoming fluid, e. g. Common Coal. The Salt-inflammables will either be or become fluid before they undergo combustion, and are readily converted of themselves into acids, e. g. Animal and Vegetable Fats. The Inflammable-inflammables will be of a sulphurous character, solid or fluid, fragile, electric, fetid and fluid before they burn. These properties are found in the Resins. The Ore-inflammables are those which, independently of their combustibility, possess pre-eminently one property of metals, namely their non-transparency, or coloration, e. g. the Pigments or colouring matters from the organic kingdoms.

ORDER I.

_Earth-Inflammables--Coals._

1-4. Earth-Coals Common-coal, a mixture of coal and earths. 5. Salt-Coals Gunpowder, viz. a combination of charcoal with a salt. 6. Inflammable-Coals Glance-coal, viz. carbon without earths. 7. Ore-Coals Black-lead, or carburet of iron. 8. Water-Coals Peat-bog and brown or Common coal? 9. Air-Coals Lignite or wood-coal? 10. Fire-Coals Animal carbon, fibrine.

ORDER II.

_Salt-Inflammables--Adipaceous or Unctuous bodies._

1-4. Earth-fats Spermaceti? Tallow. 5. Salt-fats Lard and Train-oil? 6. Inflammable-fats Butter? 7. Ore-fats Wax? 8. Water-fats Vegetable oils? 9. Air-fats Desiccative or drying oils. 10. Fire-fats Greasy oils.

ORDER III.

_Inflammable-Inflammables--Resins._

1-4. Earth-resins Sulphur, Phosphorus. 5. Saline-resins Chloride of sulphur, Chlorate of Sulphur. 6. Inflammable-resins Mineral-pitch, Amber, Turpentine. 7. Ore-resins Balsams. 8. Water-resins Gum-resins. 9. Air-resins Ætherial oils. 10. Fire-resins Alcohol, Æther.

ORDER IV.

_Ore-Inflammables--Pigments._

1-4. Earth-pigments Ochre-pigments. 5. Salt-pigments Soluble-pigments from roots and wood, such as Krapp and Dier's-weed. 6. Inflammable-pigments Retinoid-pigments from roots and wood, such as Dragon's-blood, Turmeric. 7. Ore-pigments Indigo or devil's-dye. 8. Water-pigments Sap-colours, such as Sap-green, Oak-gall. 9. Air-pigments Flower colours, such as Saffranon and Saffron. 10. Fire-pigments Animal colours, as Scarlet and Blood-red.

_CLASS IV._

FIRE-EARTHS--ORES.

543. The metals are again easier of arrangement, because they have a resemblance to earths and have been better worked out both in chemistry and mineralogy. They divide very naturally into--

1. Earth-Ores Ochres, combinations of metals with oxygen. 2. Salt-Ores Haloids, insoluble combinations of metals with acids. 3. Inflammable-Ores Blendes, combinations of metals with Sulphur, Phosphorus, and Selenium. 4. Metallic-Ores Pure metals.

The principles of this arrangement which has been at present pretty generally followed, were first published in my essay 'Das naturliche System der Erze,' 1809. In order to gain a proper insight into the serial gradation of all the families we must first regard the 4th order.

ORDER I.

_Earth-Ores--Ochres._

1. Silicious-Ochres Metallic calces with silicious earth, as Lierite, Dioptase, Electric calamine. 2. Argillaceous-Ochres Clay-iron-stone. 3. Talcose-Ochres Blue-iron-stone. 4. Calcareous-Ochres Black oxyde of manganese. 5. Salt-Ochres Calces not peroxydized. Bog-iron. 6. Inflammable-Ochres Pure calces without metallic lustre, as Wolfram, Protoxide of Uranium, Rutile, Tin-stone. 7. Ore-Ochres Oxydulated, as Iron-glance, Red oxyd of Copper. 8. Water-Ochres Hydrates, as Brown-iron-stone-ore, Gray ore of manganese. 9. Air-Ochres Malm-rocks; volatilized Ochres of the difficultly fusible metals, as Umbra, Yellow earth, Earthy manganese, Black cobalt. 10. Fire-Ochres Slags, volatilized calces of the difficultly fusible metals, as oxyde of or White antimony, Protoxide of Arsenic.

ORDER II.

_Salt-Ores--Haloids._

Fam. 4. Earth-Haloids Fluoric-acid. 5. Salt-Haloids Boracic-acid. 6. Inflammable-Haloids Sulphuric-acid, as Sulphate of lead, Phosphoric-acid as Green and Blue phosphates of iron, Diarsenate of iron, Uran-glance, Green phosphate of Lead. 7. Ore-Haloids Chromic-acid, as Chromate of lead, Arsenic-acid, as Cube-ore, Arseniate of iron, Olivenite, Cobalt-bloom. 8. Water-Haloids Hydrochloric-acid, as Muriate of copper, Horn-silver. 9. Air-Haloids Nitric-acid. 10. Fire-Haloids Carbonic-acid, as Iron-spar, Red manganese-ore, Earthy blue-copper, Malachite, Carbonate of lead.

ORDER III.

_Inflammable-Ores--Blendes._

1. Silicious-Blendes Zinc-blendes, Cinnabar, Red antimony and Ruby-silver-ore. 2. Argillaceous-Blendes Iron and Copper pyrites. 3. Talcose-Blendes Sulphuret of Titanium, Chrome, Uranium. 4. Calcareous-Blendes Sulphuret of Molybdena. 5. Salt-Blendes Copper-glance, Gray copper. 6. Inflammable-Blendes Nickel-glance, Cobalt-glance. 7. Ore-Blendes Sulphuret of Platinum. 8. Water-Blendes Gray antimony, Galena. 9. Air-Blendes Bismuth-glance, Arsenical pyrites. 10. Fire-Blendes Silver-glance-ore.

ORDER IV.

_Metallic-Ores.--Metals._

(Pure or reduced metals.)

544. The classification of metals is one of the most difficult, because no natural arrangement of them has been as yet attempted, and their signification is also so mysterious that we can only get at it, by clinging fast to the laws of development. Thus assuming, that they likewise arrange themselves according to the elements, classes and orders of the earths, we have at once the _Elemental metals_. The earth-metals are without doubt the difficultly fusible, ignoble or oxydized, such as iron with its congeners. Then the air-metals present themselves with their peculiar character of volatility, as Arsenic with its congeners. These being once rendered solid, the easily fusible but non-volatile will correspond to water, such as Lead with its congeners. The noble metals consequently as Gold, Silver, &c., must doubtless be regarded as fire-metals. Having once separated these 4 groups, the _Class-metals_ admit of being more readily brought into their place. There is one metal, which subjected to moisture is readily converted into a salt, namely copper. This is consequently the representative of the salts among the metals. Ore-metals are, without doubt, those resembling iron, which do not, however, occur in an oxydized condition and are therefore noble Irons. Of this kind are Platinum with its retinue. Between Copper and Platinum nothing else can be introduced but Nickel and Cobalt, as they are likewise difficultly fusible and tolerably noble. They are thus the Inflammable metals. After all these separations a great group is still left of the earth-metals or the difficultly fusible and ignoble. They divide therefore without doubt according to the 4 earths. If now iron approximates the argillaceous-earths, so will those metals whose oxydes are distinguished by a striking colour be regarded as talc-metals. Of this kind are Titanium, Chromium, Uranium, which crystallize moreover into spiculæ like hornblende, or into lamellæ like mica. These again being separated the silicious and calcareous-metals remain for investigation. The former are those which scarcely admit of being reduced; the latter, on the contrary, those which approximate to the noble, difficultly fusible metals, namely to platinum. It can hardly be doubted that Tantalum is the silicious-metal. For the calcareous-metals Sulphuret of Molybdenum is left, to which Osmium seems to approximate. We have accordingly the following genetic arrangement:

A.--_Earth-Metals._

(Difficultly fusible and ignoble.)

1. Silicious-Metals Tantalium. 2. Argillaceous-Metals Wolfram, Cerium, Manganese, Iron. 3. Talcose-Metals Titanium, Chromium, Uranium, Vanadium. 4. Calcareous-Metals Molybdenum, Osmium.

B.--_Class-Metals._

(Difficultly fusible and noble.)

5. Salt-Metals Copper. 6. Inflammable-Metals Nickel, Cobalt. 7. Ore-Metals Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium.

C.--_Element-Metals._

(Easily fusible or noble.)

8. Water-Metals Antimony, Lead, Tin 9. Air-Metals Zinc, Cadmium, Bismuth, Arsenic. 10. Fire-Metals Tellurium, Mercury, Silver, Gold.

Every one will easily see that these groups of metals agree with their antetypes in properties, as also that this arrangement is more natural than any that has hitherto been advanced. Glancing at it, it must strike the reader that in several of the families 4 metals are present, and that none exceed this number. There are 4 sideroid, 4 titanoid, 4 platinoid, 4 arsenicoid and 4 argyroid metals. Now, as they are to be viewed as deoxydized earths, it must be assumed that in each family they are mindful of their origin, and everywhere represent the 4 earths along with the character of their family. They are earths divided unto the last members, or reduced in a primo-chemical manner. In order to recognize the parallelism of the classes, orders and families, we have only to compare the adjoining table. We cannot expect to find all the minerals ranging there in their proper place. For we are treating the subject at present only as regards its principles.

Table A FIRST CLASS.

EARTH-EARTHS--EARTHS.

SECOND CLASS.

WATER-EARTHS--SALTS.

THIRD CLASS.

AIR-EARTHS--INFLAMMABLES.

FOURTH CLASS.

FIRE-EARTHS--ORES.

II.--_GEOLOGY_.

545. Geology is the history of the formation of the planet. It is the doctrine which comprises the structure and thus the form, with the organs or members of the planet, if we would compare the latter with an organic body.

1. _Form of the Planet._

546. Crystallization belongs to the essence of the earth as the globular form does to that of water. The life of the earth consists in the formation of crystals. The being of the earth and of the crystal are identical. The solid planet earth, has originated also according to the laws of crystallization.

547. It is not, however, a single large crystal, the structure of which appears to be homogeneous; but it is crystallized in its smallest parts; it is an accumulation of crystals, which its atoms, integral parts, or _constituent forms_ present for our examination. If a schorl or feldspar were extended to the size of the whole earth, its integral parts, though undiscoverable before by the microscope, would then become visible. Crystals would be exhibited therein of silicious, argillaceous, talcose, and calcareous earths, of iron, boracic acid, &c. In short it would prove a complex _kind_ of _rock_ or _mountain_. The fundamental or principal mass of the planet is thus a granular _kind_ of _rock_ or _mountain_, probably like granite. Each of these constituent forms is crystallized for itself out of the fluid-mass according to the laws developed in the theory of crystallization, in every point of the fluid a globe of crystallizing forces being constituted, that generated the constituent forms.

548. The earth (regarded as planet, not as element) has during its coagulation into a solid nucleus, generated an infinity of polar spheres, as every polar line consists of an infinite vicissitude of poles.

549. These integral crystals have originated only in drops of water; for then only was an infinite multitude of polar axes and polar radii separated from each other. Water in infinitely numerous drops is rain. In the primary rain each drop crystallized, and each fell towards the centre, because the primary water ranged over a vast extent. The granular rock has originated in and out of rain. It is crystallized _rain_.

550. It does not follow from this, that the earth should be an accidental accumulation of small crystals, which, by the rotation of the planet, formed themselves mechanically into a spheroid. As in small crystals the infinity of poles reunites to constitute some principal polarities, so also is this the case with the globe of the earth; this results from its genesis whereby it is present in a definite space, and hence coheres or hangs together as _one_ piece. The earth is only _one_ small punctule of contraction wrought in æther-space by the agency of light. Again, it was without doubt a single central tension, which, occurring upon a large scale, attracted together all the particles of æther, and from that circumstance arranged them also. It was probably magnetism, which is so intimately connected with the rotation of the earth's axis, or the conflict of magnetism in its interior with the electricity upon its surface, which was active in the condensation and arrangement of the masses.

551. This arrangement of the parts of the earth, upon a large scale, is a regulation of its constituent forms. The adjusting forces are, however, those that operate through the whole sphere, and are thus linear and spherical at one and the same time. By these the laminæ of the nucleus were determined. The constituent forms of the earth are consequently arranged in laminæ. What in the crystal is called the cleavage of the laminæ, is in the earth _stratification_. The strike of the strata combined with their dip determines the crystal nucleus of the earth.

552. The strike and dip of the strata happened without doubt according to definite laws of crystallization, and has by no means been resigned to elevating force, mechanical dislocation, or even to chance.

553. On this very account the two directions of the earth's laminæ cannot have a similar bearing over the whole earth. They can only have a long tract extending in the same direction in individual mountain-chains. This does not, however, exclude a parallel strike and dip occurring in some wholly different quarter of the world; it must indeed occur, and in such instances we meet with the opposing sides or edges of the earth's nucleus.

554. The earth has without doubt originated according to the laws of the polyhedron, which represents in the nearest manner the globe. The polyhedron of the globe is the rhomboidal dodecahedron.

555. The land cannot therefore have an equal elevation everywhere above the water, because the crystal consists of edges, angles, and surfaces or sides. The mountain tops are probably the angles, the mountain ridges or chains the edges, the plains the lateral surfaces of the crystal.

556. Several mountain-chains run parallel, but interrupted, with the equator. This parallelism extends to the most temperate zones. Then follow oblique mountain-chains, as the Carpathian, Alps, Pyrenees. Lastly, mountain-chains pass from the poles to the equator, as the Sewo, Ural and Altai mountains. Subordinate mountain-chains unite the latter transversely and the former in the direction of the meridian. The earth is probably a _regular_ net of crystal edges and angles, and thus of crystal surfaces also.

PRIMARY VALLEYS.

557. Although the earth may be regarded as originally a crystal, that consists of level surfaces, edges and angles, wide fissures may still have originated between its laminæ, such as we see in large crystals of felspar. These fissures or gaps are the primary valleys.

558. There must be therefore valleys or parallel valleys, which probably extend for hundreds of miles, and are many miles deep--Longitudinal valleys.

559. The laminæ of the earth had without doubt transverse fissures, which have been called hidden passages. These transverse fissures are the transverse valleys, which are consequently less long and deep.

560. The mountains originate of themselves. They do not properly originate, but valleys only originate, and the ridges of the crystal laminæ afford the mountains. The mountains have not been originally upheaved above the surface of the earth, nor the valleys depressed. A valley, which is several miles broad, must originally have been several miles deep, and the mountain wall consequently several miles high. The earth at its origin was a cloven and jagged polyhedron, a polyhedric star, such as the moon is still.

561. The mountains are not therefore large crystals, which crystallized above the surface of the earth. They are only crystal laminæ, and may be as irregular as possible in form; for they are ruptured crystals.

562. The water, which from the beginning had covered the polyhedron, now sunk into the primary valleys. From the water resulted new and final crystallizations, and these deposited themselves in the valleys, upon the level ground and the flanks of the mountains; and thus the fathomless primary valleys have been in part filled up. There are no longer any primary valleys upon the earth.

563. After the water was once confined in narrow canals, it must begin to flow, and by the force of its current many a steep primary wall must have fallen in, been crumbled into ruins, and either been left upon the spot or washed away--Diluvial drift rocks (Trümmersteine), Nagelfluhe, Stratified rocks.

564. The principal direction of the water was formerly, as it is even now, determined by the rotation of the earth; it flowed therefore from east to west under the equator, from north-east to south-west in our temperate zones, and pretty well from the north or from the poles toward the equator in the frigid zones.

565. The primary valleys, which had originated in these directions, were more excavated by aqueous agency than those which ran in other directions, new valleys being also produced; the mountain chains therefore upon the earth agree in the main with the water courses, and, though not generated from, have been certainly changed in character by, the latter. Such must be our conclusion, if in the formation of the earth nothing but crystallization be taken into consideration. Condensation alone brings yet other phenomena along with it.

566. The first and most important of these is the elevation of temperature. We cannot think otherwise than at the first precipitation of the earthy a number of huge cavities remained in the interior of the earth, which were filled with water. This being heated, was converted into steam, which thrust up the superincumbent rock, and converted it into new mountains or mountain-chains. These agencies of heat may be called primary volcanoes, although they are not to be confounded with volcanoes proper.

567. The igneous cavities were probably placed in a certain order, according with the original edges and angles of the earth's body. They may have therefore thrown up mountain tops and chains.

568. But the cavities, besides raising mountain chains, could just as well depress or allow them to sink in, and thus produce valleys. By these means the seas have probably been formed. Like the seas so also have the inland seas or lakes originated.

569. Lastly, a similar origin must be ascribed to the world-sea or ocean. Many earthquakes arose, with all their concomitant phenomena, by partial and sudden falling in of the deep descending cavities of the earth. Frequently that which fell in was again driven out by the expansive force of the suddenly compressed air.

2. _Organs of the Planet._

570. The principal mass or body of the planet is formed by the earths proper, as being the typical or genuine representatives of the earth-element. The other classes, as the metallic minerals or ores, the Inflammables, and salts, are to be regarded only as viscera of this body. If we take a circumspective glance at the planet, we cannot fail to recognize this remarkable relation, that it is properly the elemental families only of the earths that form the mountain masses, while the other families are only scattered within them, like the glands in an animal body. Let us again place the Families in tabular contrast with each other.

SILICIOUS, ARGILLACEOUS, TALCOSE and CALCAREOUS-EARTHS.

A. Earth-silices. Earth-clays. Earth-talcs. Earth-calces.

Fam. 1. Quartz. 1. Felspar. 1. Mica. 1. Lapis-lazuli. 2. Zircon. 2. Sapphire. 2. Sappharine. 2. Mesotype. 3. Emerald. 3. Ruby. 3. Talc. 3. Stellite. 4. Leucite. 4. Epidote. 4. Angite. 4. Tabular-spar. 5. Topaz. 5. Schorl. 5. Hornblende. 5. Boracite. 6. Diamond. 6. Azurite. 6. Asbestus. 6. Phosphorite. 7. Garnet. 7. Harmotone. 7. Olivine. 7. Titanite.

B. Water-silices. Water-clays. Water-talcs. Water-calces. 8. Hornstone. 8. Clay-slate. 8. Serpentine. 8. Hydrophyllite.

C. Air-silices. Air-clays. Air-talcs. Air-calces. 9. Tripoli. 9. Clay-stone. 9. Lithomarge. 9. Gypsum.

D. Fire-silices. Fire-clays. Fire-talcs. Fire-calces. 10. Obsidian. 10. Lava. 10. Basalt. 10. Limestone.

571. Now we here observe that only Quartz, Hornstone, Tripoli and Obsidian, occur as mineral aggregates in large masses, while all the others are only rare precious stones. Among the Clays, only Felspar, Clay-Slate, Hornstone and Lava. Among the Talcs, only Mica, Serpentine, Lithomarge, and Basalt. Among the Calcareous-earths, which incline towards the nature of salts, all the first families are of rare occurrence, and the latter only appear as mineral masses. This regularity speaks moreover retrospectively in favour of the correctness of the classification. The families have thus the same import or value in Geology as in Oryctognosy.

A.--_EARTHS_.

572. The proper organs of the planet are the mineral aggregates or rocks. These are either presented to us as they have originally been precipitated from water by chemical process, or as they have been changed by the co-operation of the other elements. There are thus _genetic_ and _metamorphosed_ kinds of rock. The former were crystallized previous to the current of the water--_Primary rocks_. These rocks are changed either--

1. By water--Transition-rocks, or 2. By air--Trappean-rocks. 3. By fire--Volcanic-rocks.

There are properly four kinds of rock formations--

1. Earth-formation, masses that have originated through the crystallizing force of the earth-element itself--Primary-rocks. 2. Aqueous-formation--Transition-rocks. 3. Aerial-formation--Trappean-rocks. 4. Igneous-formation--Volcanic-rocks.

The stratified rocks, having originated for the most part mechanically, are only the object of Physio-philosophy, in so far as chemical precipitations partly occur amongst them.

573. The earth-formation is represented by the crystallized primary rocks.

a. _Earth-Formation._

574. The earths can only be precipitations from the element that immediately precedes them, and thus from water. They have been enveloped in the water, as this has been in the air, and the latter again in the æther, but not mechanically, as we at present dissolve clay in water, nor chemically either, as lime dissolves by corrosion in water, but dynamically. The water did not exist from the beginning as water in the air, but only its principles, which became for the first time water, when they had combined by electricity.

575. Even so was it the case with the earths. The primary water, which was present prior to the solid nucleus of the earth, is not the water, with which we are at present acquainted; it had still the earthy principles, the basic in itself, which being separated by a differencing act from the oxygenous of the water, was deposited as carbon specially produced. No calcareous, argillaceous, and silicious earth was imbedded in the primary water. How then could they have been dissolved in it? Some say, by a great quantity of acids which prevailed at that time; but from whence then did these acids come? The largest quantity of them resides in lime, gypsum, and common salt; but how could this quantity, which has not so much as acidified all the calcareous earth, have held the rest of the earths in solution? And then again are all the earths soluble by the process of acidification? We cannot reason in geogeny, as we would of a common chemical precipitation, where we precipitate earths that have been dissolved by elective affinities.

576. The earths _originated_ for the first time, when they were separated from the primary water. The instant of their precipitation was also the instant of their generation, even as rain is, or rather was, a production of the water. It is easy to say that the earths had been dissolved in the water, and were then precipitated by elective affinities. But it is absurd to rest content with such an assertion. The chief question still remains; how did the earthy originate, before the earth was? Every one can say how that which had already originated, and was only suspended in water, was precipitated. But we are in the habit of distinguishing the several earths, before having taken a survey of matters and inquired if earths then existed.

577. It must not, however, be thought, that all had happened in a gradual manner; that air was first converted into water, and lastly, after a lapse of some thousand years, the latter again into earth, without with the one element the principles conducting to the others being already and necessarily imparted. No, everything has been granted and determined at _one_ stroke, even as with the impregnation of the ovum all the organs of the future embryo are determined, although they first develop themselves gradually. The same agent, which creates the air solicits also its two principles unto combustion in the water; and the same act, which separates the oxygen gas out of the air as water, separates also the carbon from it to constitute earth. Not one can be posited, without the other being codetermined.

578. The analysing principle cannot be a something internal residing in the planet itself. But all that it is, it is through antagonism with the sun. This antagonism is light. This it is that divorces or separates the elements from their matrix; it is light, which has sundered the æther into the twofold air, and the air again into the denser elements, water and earth, separating the oxygen from the nitrogen and later on from the carbon, which must be taken up in water as an oxide.

579. At the commencement of the separation the fluid must be the first to emerge, because the cohesion or fixation of the poles is possible only in a successive manner, yet not as if water were according to its determination to be the first and the Earthy the second in the order of production. As the oxygen separated from the air to create water, so also must the carbon that was left have been precipitated from the water and metamorphosed into earth. Thence and thence only may we venture to say, that the earths originated out of water; for, properly speaking, they arose as absolutely for themselves as air and water; but as air succeeded æther, and water air, so did the earth the water.

580. Whatever be the bulk of the mass of water, to the same extent is the Earthy, or the germ of the Earthy, diffused throughout it. The whole is a fluid mass of earth. Light, however, penetrates the mass of water as a transparent body. As translucency is not a mechanical but a dynamic act, or process of differentialization in matter; so does this earth-water become separated into a mass of oxygen and carbon, or into ordinary water and into the earth-element.

581. The genesis of the earths is a process of conduction of light. All transparency is a formation of earth; for it is a separation of the Aqueous from the body of gravity. Where non-transparency exists, there has earth been already formed.

582. As the conducting process of light is an act of deoxydation, so are the earths at the same time also deoxydized by precipitation, and this in four stages which indicate the elements whereby light operates upon the Basic in water; or it might be said, by the four colours of, or by coloured, light. We already know that the earth, which presents in itself the most dismembered character is the calcareous earth; but that those which have preserved a more identical character in themselves are the silicious, argillaceous, and talcose earths. These earths may be viewed as those in which the lime has absorbed a proportion of oxygen, which has in it become carbonic acid. There is indeed only _one_ earth-substance in water. In this substance, which is neither silex nor calx, the polar principle has distributed itself, and that very portion, which has obtained the most thereof, has become calcareous earth.

583. The calcareous earth has originated in the upper parts of the aqueous globe, the other earths, however, in the depths, in the middle of that globe; for in the upper regions of the water, the light can exert a greater polarizing influence, and therefore that very earth is generated which stands nearest to the æther or to the light, viz. the different calcareous earth. But in the depths of the water, the light loses its energy, and is no longer in a condition to elicit the Oxygenous in the Basic; thereby identical and more fixed earths originate.

GRANULAR ROCK OR GRANITE.

584. The differenced calcareous earth has been associated with the differential water, remained for a longer period identical with and dissolved in it, and was therefore the last to be precipitated from it. The silicious earth with its neighbours must necessarily have been the first to separate from the water, as it is in a proper sense, that earth from which all water has been withdrawn. Two periods of precipitation exist therefore in geogeny, one that of the identical or fundamental earths, and one of the internally subdivided calcareous earths.

585. The silicious, argillaceous, and talcose earths must occupy, from their having been first precipitated, the middle of the planet. The water being earthy everywhere, had everywhere the capacity to become earth; but different earths originated, where the light was different in the fluid mass of earth. In pure light, or that upon the surface, the Earthy dualized itself into calcareous earth; in situations, where the light exercised less influence, the Earthy became talcose, still deeper argillaceous earth; lastly, at such a depth where the light could scarcely reach, the Earthy became a pure Earthy or silicious earth.

586. Precipitation, both upon a large and small scale, is a process of crystallization; the integral parts of the planet originate, like the nucleus and the perfected crystal, through central action and polar action. The integral forms of the planet impart the crystalline granule or its joints.

587. The integral forms of the three fundamental earths crystallized with and through each other into _one_ mass, or, in other words, the nucleus of the earth consists of a crystalline mass of the three fundamental earths. The solid nucleus of the earth consists of crystals upon a small scale of silex, clay, and talc.

588. As, however, no pole is produced of perfect purity in nature, so are the integral forms not perfectly pure fundamental earths, but other and later factors enter also into their composition, e. g. calcareous earth, with even ores and salts. The silicious earth is crystallized as quartz, the argillaceous as feldspar, the talc as mica.

589. The mixture of the three crystallized fundamental earths, which composes the nucleus of the earth, and upon which the polarized masses of soil have been supported, is therefore a definite species of rock, which has all the properties of _Granite_, although that which has been extruded from the earth may have been altered by heat.

590. As the mass of the earth is about five times denser than water; so must the planet, before the Earthy was separated, have been much denser than at present. With its separation the fluid must have suddenly diminished, and moved towards the middle point of the planet. During the descent of water for many miles in extent, it must separate in drops. The separation of the earths was combined with rain.

591. In every falling drop the three fundamental earths, which are insoluble in water, crystallized. The first crystals therefore are only of the size of drops. It is only by this mode of origin that the crystallization into one another of the three constituent parts of granite without any cementing substance can be comprehended. Granite is an earthy hail-storm. The hail-stones crystallized during their fall in a similar manner with each other.

592. Upon the whole the silicious character predominates in granite, as the primary formation of the planet, and must do so, for silicious earth is the primary earth, the principal earth of this precipitation, and one from which clay and talc subsequently proceed, being higher heterogynisms produced by light. Properly speaking only two perfectly different characters of earth exist, the silicious earth as the pure separation of the Earthy, and the calcareous earth, as the last separation of the water from the Earthy. It may also be said that in the calcareous earth fire, in the talcose earths the air, in the argillaceous earth water has exercised its influence and displaced the Earthy. Not only quartz is silicious earth, but feldspar and mica consist in a great measure of the same. Still, however, these last two constituent forms are wholly different from quartz, and very far removed from the nature of silex; the feldspar obviously forming the transition to clay by its resolution into porcellanic earths, but the mica passing over into talc.

593. There does not exist in nature an order of silex, clay, or talc, so soon as we take up these earths in a simply chemical manner. Nature instead of silex produces quartz, instead of clay feldspar, instead of talc mica; and these must be the earths, that determine this part of the mineral system; they are the characters of orders; there is thus properly no order of silex but of quartz, none of clay but of feldspar, none of talc but of mica, at least according to their signification.

594. The points of origin for this division of the mineral system or that formed by the fundamental earths are the three fundamental crystallizations, and upon these _everything_ that does not belong to the calcareous earth must and does naturally arrange itself. The mineral system is only the developed and separated granite. The fact cannot rest unobserved, that mica has only one laminar cleavage, feldspar two, quartz three, this being for the first time a perfect crystal, a double tetrahedron with one column.

595. With granite and with it alone the solidity, the body and form of the earth has been given; it is the homogeneous fundamental mass of the planet, and is therefore crystallized throughout to the finest degree in its three constituent forms.

GNEISS AND MICA-SCHIST.

596. If, in addition to granite, several formations are displayed which bear traces of the same mode of origin, of the same component parts and the same aggregation, it may be inferred that they are only metamorphoses of the same precipitate. Granite is the basis of geogeny.

597. Granite is a totality for the earth, it is a representation of the three terrestrial elements under the form of identical earth; it is the earth represented in silex, water in clay, and air in talc; it is an universe represented individually in the earth-elements.

598. The granite can undergo metamorphosis in only three ways; for its essence is indeed only trinity. Nothing can individualize itself from granite but quartz, feldspar, and mica. All the formations of this period are thus _quartz_, _feldspar_, or _mica formations_. The granite appears under a threefold form as quartz, feldspar, and mica-granite.

599. The first quartz formation is properly the granite itself, and its character will be also the determinant for all the metamorphoses of quartz--quartz-granite.

600. The first structure, in which the character of feldspar as regards its laminated form and its more argillaceous nature obtains the preponderance, is _Gneiss_--Feldspar-granite.

601. The first structure in which mica is the predominant character, is the _Mica-schist_--Mica-granite.

602. All rocks that do not belong to the calcareous formation come under these three forms. The progressive formation of the earth takes a threefold course, since it begins in a threefold and yet single manner in granite.

603. The gneiss and mica-schist precipitations followed subsequently to the completion of granite. For all precipitation is a true process, in which water has a certain tension peculiar to this process, by virtue of which this form of earth and no other has been produced.

604. By granite the silicious principally came out of water, but what was argillaceous and talcose remained behind.

605. Gneiss and mica-schist are indeed subdivided granite, but not in the sense of the already perfected granite having been again stirred up and dissolved, but as already separated in principles, in the primary water.

606. Gneiss and mica-schists are products of a more mighty operation of light than granite. They are nearer to the upper layers of water.

607. After the granitic rain, or after the formation of granite, the sphere of water was no longer perfectly transparent; but water was now found also in the primary valleys, in which the light had more power, and thus greater capacity for splitting. During the formation of granite the water has only become polar by light; but, as it was there wholly transparent without opposition, it could never attain to a perfect dualization. In the second earth-rain and in the valleys, the light on the contrary produces dualization of the fundamental earths, since the sides of the mountains afford opposition to the light, become themselves polar against the water, and at the same time heat is produced.

608. Gneiss and mica-schist enter into a polar relation with gravity, and that indeed as a Different to an Identical, as periphery to centre or as light to gravity.

609. Now the falling granite had in part lost its quartz and obtained a predominance of feldspar. Furthermore as the water-globe was already greatly collapsed, the crystals thus originated in larger drops, and occurred besides in water already stagnant or flowing. The schistose gefüge must have emerged as well through the preponderance of the laminar felspar, as by the flowing of water and the attraction of the granite-walls. This schistose granite is _gneiss_.

610. When the gneiss was thrown down the talc predominated in the water; it now fell in the same manner with less quartz and feldspar, and was deposited in a still more schistose form than mica-schist.

611. Granite, gneiss and mica-schist are the first that together form a Whole, each factor whereof has been evolved in an equally perfect manner.

LAMINATION.

612. By this active antagonism of granite to gneiss and mica-schist the _Lamination_ of the latter is determined. Every particle of gneiss is attracted from the granite-wall and placed in a definite direction, corresponding to the polar operation of granite; the particles of gneiss already deposited attract the coming ones, and so on. The parts of the gneiss and mica-schist are not deposited upon the granite by virtue of their dead or inert gravity, but by virtue of living polar attraction. They are not therefore deposited in the depth of the primary valleys, nor do they fill up the latter; but they are attracted by the granite-walls and deposited to a greater or less extent like laminæ of crystallization, in large perpendicular layers.

613. By these two precipitations the primary valleys were in part filled up, and partly narrowed by the polar attraction of the walls. The primary valleys therefore are no longer present upon the earth, unless everything be called a primary valley that has not arisen or been excavated by the current of water.

614. Gneiss and mica-schist have indeed taken part in the primary crystallization, yet are, however, only its last movements, as the water had already met with resistance, and was partly stagnant; their mass therefore is not so purely crystallized as granite. They are not parts of the earth's nucleus, but lie only like a crust upon it like hollow crystals.

615. It may be said that gneiss and mica-schist originated only because there were fathomless valleys in the granite, in which the dissevering actions were inclosed, and extended themselves from one mountain-wall to another, while the light could be reflected in them and heat the earth.

616. So long as the granite was devoid of valleys, so long also did no other formation originate. This is proved by the fact that upon the highest mountains the granite is bare and uncovered, while this is not the case upon its lateral walls. It is therefore the second and third earth-rain that first originated, after the earth was heated. Gneiss and mica-schist are, so to speak, precipitated by reflected light.

617. The principal valleys of gneiss and mica-schist have not originated by themselves, but have been modelled according to the form of the granitic valleys. The valleys of those earth-precipitates are properly only subsequent valleys.

618. The lamination is not everywhere a mechanical phenomenon, but without doubt also a polar. It is exactly the same law, which determines the lamination of crystals, that does that of the strata of the earth, and operates also in producing their lamination.

PRIMARY LIMESTONE.

619. The earths must be viewed as _one_ mass, the component parts of which observe a mutual relation. Now, after the silex, clay and talc had been precipitated, a proportionate abundance of lime became free, which was then thrown down at the end of this period of precipitation, as _Primary limestone_.

620. The calcareous mass may be viewed as corrosive earth, from which a certain quantity of carbon has been set free. As such, and combined with the oxygen developed out of the water by the influence of light to form carbonic acid, the lime was insoluble and was precipitated.

621. The primary limestone has also not been mechanically deposited. It has a crystalline texture, is a calcareous granite, and generally succeeds the mica-schist formation.

b. _Water-Formation--Transition-Rocks._

METAMORPHOSIS OF THE PRIMARY PRECIPITATIONS.

622. The metamorphosis of the granite did not terminate with these precipitations. They are only the starting points for the metamorphosis, in which the effort was first manifested to free themselves from the primary combination. In the metamorphosis of earths, the fundamental earths, or the constituent parts of granite, strove to become each for itself a particular rock. They were all identified in quartz; in granite they for the first time parted company with each other, yet still formed a common sphere; lastly, in gneiss and mica-schist they all separated into three spheres, but which still did not differ in mass from granite.

623. Individualization had not yet been attained. The gneiss had still all the constituent parts of the granite, as well as the mica-schist; both are only a more peripheric, slaty granite, the one having a preponderance of the Argillaceous, the other of the Talcose. With these formations, however, Geogeny cannot remain stationary; for verily the law of the development of the world is individualization. Instead of granite, simply quartz, instead of gneiss simply clay, instead of mica-schist simply talc must be separated; and then the termination of this period is attained, the trinity of the simple earths has been completely represented.

624. All the Earthy could not have been separated from the water by the first storm of precipitation. For the water now rested very much collapsed upon the earth's nucleus, and could no longer therefore assume the form of rain. That therefore which was now precipitated could no longer be thoroughly crystallized, but must follow the current and disquietude of the water, and thus emerge from it in a slaty or massive condition.

625. The quartz of the granite endeavours to set itself free from the clay and talc, or it becomes freed by the latter removing from it in virtue of its polar behaviour. There is therefore one series of rocks, in which the granite is constantly rejecting the feldspar and mica more and more, and at last subsists as quartz simply, which _quartzose rocks_ as forming entire mountains are for intelligible reasons not of frequent occurrence.

626. The completion of the gneiss in its entire separation from the granite, and the evolution of feldspar upon a large scale constitutes the _clay-slate_, and finally clay-stone and clay-porphyry. This yields us a new series of formations, in which the gneiss gradually attains to being divested of quartz and mica and to a pure position as feldspar. The clay-slate is a true gneiss, that has lost the definite particles of quartz and mica.

627. The position of mica-schist constitutes in its purity the talc-formation, talc-slate, chlorite-slate, hornblende-slate.

628. After these several precipitations, the calcareous mass remains behind in the water, and now, as in the first periods of crystallization, is charged with carbonic acid, and is precipitated as transitionary calx under the form of _mountain limestone_.

629. These formations are found upon the whole to be arranged on the earth, in the order of time at which they were precipitated from the water. In the middle of the loftiest mountains is granite, then gneiss and mica-schist; then follow quartzose rocks, clay-slate or porphyry, talcose rocks, and lastly on the edge of all these runs the chain of alpine or mountain limestone. In the last of these formations are found fossil remains of corals and molluscous animals. For these formations fell first of all after the water had a solid bottom, and the granitic mountains projected above it.

SEDIMENTARY OR STRATIFIED ROCKS.

630. The period had now arrived in which the fundamental earths, being upon the whole completed, predominate. That which was separated in a chemical way from the Earthy out of water, has been in great part precipitated. This period, however, although the first and most extensive, indicates but the half of Geogeny, or as yet only one pole in the genesis, which requires the other. In the beginning both poles were in the water, that of the fundamental earths as well as that of the calcareous earth; the light shone upon, dissevered them, and earths, the most heterogeneous in respect to water, were first of all precipitated.

631. While the fundamental earths were precipitated, the calcareous earth was repelled and retained, on account of its homogeneity, in water, because the acid half continued longer fluid than the basic. The water was thus after its separation from these substances a true limewater.

632. Through this separation, however, the great antagonism in the water ceased; and subordinate antagonisms now made their appearance, which were kept united by the former. The calcareous earth is now occupied no more as one pole, but is the whole water itself, upon which, as it is less deep, the light acts anew and with greater force.

633. The dispersions of earths began just at this period to multiply themselves, from the only fettering agent, namely gravity, having betaken itself to rest; every earthy now emerges from its connexions, the factors falling wholly asunder into alkalies and acids, which combine in a multifarious manner.

634. These dispersions associated with the torrents of water that were now everywhere present prevented crystallization from taking place upon a large scale; they moreover mingled with the mechanically water-borne and crumbling débris of the earlier species of rocks; their laminations therefore resemble rather a mechanical deposit from water. They are the _Stratified rocks_.

635. As the first period must include the calcareous earth, so also in the period of strata or in the dualized period this earth is not without a slight antagonism of the fundamental earths; and this it is which for the first time becomes distinct, but always with a preponderance of the calcareous over the fundamental earths, while in the primary periods this relative proportion of the two was the reverse.

636. The primary period repeats itself again in the second, and thus strata consisting of the fundamental earths originate, as we have seen exemplified in the primary and transition formations of limestone. The precipitation of strata is divided also into four formations, into silicious, argillaceous, talcose and calcareous strata, close to which range also the strata of ores, Inflammables and salts.

637. In other respects the chemical deposits of this period are so blended with the mechanical, that their mode of origin seems for the most part to have happened in both ways.

638. The silicious formation returning in the stratified periods is chiefly under the condition of _sandstone_. Apart from that, which has originated through the detritus of the older kinds of rocks, it may be assumed, that the prevailing lime still held some silicious earth in a state of moisture within itself, and that this during its separation was precipitated as a fine alcohol, namely, as sand. If, however, sand fell, so also must a proportionate quantity of lime fall, by combining itself with an acid. Sand and lime therefore usually accompany each other. If the two be regarded also as only floated freely and suspended in water, still the chemical antagonism manifests itself between them as if they were in a mortar, and they have been precipitated in layers alternating with each other. The sandstone is as a rule therefore imbedded in the lime; it is a mortar containing but little lime. The mechanical silicious deposits are exemplified in the Nagelfluh, old red sandstone, Grauwacke, sandstone and drift-sand.

639. The stratified clay appears to have been deposited as clay-stone; it passes over into slate and potters' clay. The talcose strata pass by serpentine and potters' stone into steatite and meerschaum.

STRATIFIED LIMESTONE.

640. The pole which had operated continuously from the fundamental earths contained in the Earthy has now separated from it, and the tension is again extinguished. The Earthy is now contained in a pure state in water without continuance of the silicious pole; the influx of water has now obtained the preponderance. So soon, however, as the antagonism of this water to the stratified silex, clay and talc ceases, the more internal, hitherto restrained by the feebler antagonism, becomes awakened, as it did after the precipitation of the fundamental earths.

641. The principles are necessarily combined more firmly in the fundamental than in the calcareous earths. In this both the oxygenic and basic earth-principle must each attain for itself completion, and represent the two primary bodies in the earth with the same capacity for separation and activity.

642. The production of earths results from a constant antagonism subsisting between them and water. The more the Basic is thrown down, by so much does the Oxygenous preponderate to a greater degree in water. The water becomes oxydized and seeks to divide into its two principles, into oxygen and hydrogen.

643. By this contest tension is also excited in the earth-principles, namely, oxygen and carbon, and they begin in themselves to separate. The metallic basis of the earths strives to become free. During the separation, however, the oxygen snatches as it were some carbon along with it and appears as carbonic acid; but the carbon of the earthy lays claim to some of the hydrogen and oxygen to combine with it and appears as corrosive or calcareous earth.

644. The acid is therefore a half of the earth, which passes over into water, and the corrosive earth is also a half of the earth that has lost its Aqueous. The former is the Aqueous in the earths, the latter the Earthy itself separated from the former.

645. The corrosive force is therefore no peculiar action in nature, but only the effort made by the earths to complete themselves and imbibe water or acid. The corrosive force is no synthesis, but a moiety.

646. A total earth may be therefore regarded as a combination of acid and corrosive body. These two component parts are separable in the calcareous and talcose earths; but in the argillaceous and silicious earths they are so intimately dissolved, that they can not be separated from each other.

647. Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, but not oxygen, fall or range upon the corrosive side of the earth in question.

648. Regarded in this general manner the corrosive principle stands opposite to the principle of combustion, and what is combustible, is in idea corrosive. The corrosive power is, however, but feeble in the gaseous nitrogen, stronger in hydrogen and finally strongest in the body of earth. The earthy carbon is the proper corrosive principle. The direct antagonism is not therefore between the corrosive body and oxygen, but between it and the carbonic acid, and therefore between it and all the acids, or acidity generally. The last earthy antagonism is that between the corrosive body and acid.

649. The corrosive body regarded specially as simply a pure earthy body, must stand opposite to the two moveable elements. The corrodent is therefore constantly striving to draw water and air into itself, and upon this depend also the effects produced by the corroding matters. The corrosive calcareous earth acts in a destructive manner, it abstracts water and air from bodies. The action of the corrosive body is a deprivation of water and air, and hence the elevated temperature of burnt lime in water. If again the corrosive lime be full of water and air, it is neutralized. It is now forsooth again a total earth, in a mechanical sense being again provided with water and acid. All earths are an equal or identical mixture. Acids and alkalies are thus to be regarded in this respect as moieties, and thereupon their chemical relation appears to depend. The elemental bodies are desirous to complete themselves. If therefore a base stands in corresponding import with a certain acid, it will thus have a greater affinity for the latter, tending to separate it from some other combination. Upon this principle, which has indeed been hitherto unknown to exist, the grades of affinity appear to depend.

650. As regards the mode of occurrence of the calcareous earth, it also is not of so mechanical a nature as is generally supposed. Its legitimate relation to sandstone and other precipitations, speak against that. But crystallization has for the most part disappeared in it; and it is only in cavities that crystals shoot out, like the ores in metallic veins. In granite the commencement is crystal, but in lime it is the termination; crystallization determines the character in granite, in calx or lime, however, the crystals are only blossoms.

651. The calcareous earth multiplies itself as a reduction of the earth of gravity and that indeed three times. There exists, so to speak, a corrosive silicious as also argillaceous and talcose earth. The three corrosive earths are calcareous earth, strontian and baryta, or it may be said that the first would be salt, the second Inflammable, and the third, metal.

652. Still a polar separation emerges in the stratified calx, while the two earth-principles become more individualized. The carbonate of lime ranks on the lowest stage. In this, however, the differencing process of light had not remained stationary, but elevated the carbon to a higher grade; carburetted hydrogen and sulphur originate in the calcareous earth combined as gypsum, with oxygen.

653. It may be said, that calx were decomposed into alkali and carbon; water into oxygen and acid. Carbon and oxygen become carbonic acid in limestone. Carbons and hydrogen become sulphur, combined with oxygen sulphuric acid in gypsum. Hydrogen and oxygen become hydrochloric acid in common salt.

654. Gypsum is to be regarded as a calcareous earth, which is inflammable in character, as the fundamental earths were metallic. The philosophical essence of gypsum consists not in its oxydation by sulphuric acid, but in the combination of calcareous earth with sulphur, as occurs in that of iron-spar with iron; in this combination, however, the carbonic acid has still remained, whereby the sulphur became acid. The gypsum was therefore a carbonaceo-sulphate of lime, an oxydized metal with a very large proportion of calcareous earth.

655. Gypsum and chalk are related polarwise to each other, separate during the general precipitation, and are deposited opposite to, or alternately upon, each other.

656. In fluor-spar, apatite and boracite the last differentialization of lime and carbonic acid is lost. The principal masses are the carbonate and sulphate of lime.

657. The strata of the Inflammables, such as of pit-coal, and of the ores, as of iron, calamine, appear to have originated in simply a mechanical manner.

REPEATED SEDIMENTARY PRECIPITATIONS.

658. The precipitating process is a process of polarization, which comprises several stages. In it there are moments of time.

659. If the fluid mass be large, this polarization will then require considerable time to penetrate throughout it.

660. The polarizing process will issue from a definite point, which is different from water, and thus form the point upon which the light operates with greatest force.

661. This is solid ground. During the calcareous precipitation, there was no other ground present save that of the mountain tops. It was thus from these that the calcareous precipitation set out.

662. With each precipitation a greater number of mountain tops made their appearance, because the water sank; for the calcareous earth is about three times denser than water.

663. Such being the conditions belonging to the sedimentary periods, several consecutive centuries characterized by precipitations with repeated recessions and elevations of the water, elapsed and have left evidence of the time thus consumed.

664. The recession of the water was not always an ebbing or sinking in, but a diminution or disappearance of the same, like the water in a glass lessens in quantity, or becomes thoroughly solid, if salt crystallizes therein.

665. By such precipitations whole basins of land became dry or freed from sea-water. Streams therefore of fresh water originated, and with them corresponding organizations.

666. These streams gradually filled the basins and formed seas. As the seas coalesced by the constantly descending water, an inland sea arose.

667. This inland sea became again salidified, and that indeed of itself by the influence of light and the dissolution of the salt-banks, which were not overflown. Such is still the Caspian sea and others of that kind. In these marine plants and animals could again originate.

668. Thereupon new precipitations of salt succeeded, the gypsum and calx being again dissolved, and consequently diminutions also of water, whereby rivers again originated. One and the same basin of land was alternately covered with fresh and saline water.

669. Marine and fresh-water animals could therefore originate and perish alternately. And this is the explanation of the fact why banks inclosing both kinds of animals are found above and below each other.

670. An alternating ingress of the sea is not therefore necessary in all cases to explain the occurrence of marine fossil remains. Such an assumption is also wholly inconceivable. Nor is alternating elevation and depression of the soil necessary to the explanation of this phenomenon.

671. During the time of precipitation the temperature of the water and consequently of the earth and air also was necessarily raised. All creatures, which then originated, must correspond therefore to those of warmer climates.

672. The fossil remains do not require the assumption of a change having taken place in the inclination or bearing of the earth's axis; nor of a heating of the surface by a fiery interior.

673. With every later precipitation other animals and plants must originate, because the temperature and also the mixture of water was changed. The fossils therefore indicate the age of the sedimentary strata.

674. During the last precipitations the creatures of colder climates must have originated.

675. Land animals cannot, or but rarely, be found in the sedimentary strata, if even they had already been in existence prior to their formation. For the inundations did not break in suddenly, but the water rose by degrees. They had time therefore to retire to the high grounds.

676. Land plants may, on the contrary, lie in the sedimentary strata, because of their inability to escape.

677. The bones of birds and men must be found least of all fossilized, because a retreat by them was most easily effected. It does not follow, from our not finding them, that they have not existed.

678. The different fossil remains have therefore not simply lived, where they are found, but originated there also. Some of course may have been floated also to these localities.

679. The inundations of water were in general necessary, because basins of land and precipitations were everywhere present; but not all on that account at the same time.

680. In this sense there was a general flood, a deluge, namely, for every land.

c. _Air-formation._

TRAP-ROCKS.

681. Vapours and gases of different kinds may be contained in the interior of the earth in two ways, either chemically combined as carbonic acid, or mechanically inclosed in cavities of the earth. Both may be developed, or expanded by calefaction, and the latter by diminution of pressure.

682. If those that are chemically combined be developed by calefaction, they then form vesicular spaces in the masses of earth whereby the latter are extended and raised above the surface; such as amygdaloid, basalt and others of this kind.

683. Warm springs may originate by subterraneous processes, chemical or volcanic; probably, too, by the compression of air that has forced its way into these situations.

684. Earthquakes may indeed originate in different ways; as in addition to the falling in of cavities, by the chemical development also of gases, by their subjection to heat, by aqueous vapours, and also by the sudden diminution of pressure upon these incarcerated gases.

685. This diminution of pressure proceeds from sudden rarefaction of the atmosphere--due probably to the disappearance of air in a particular place, or resulting from a change of the wind, or the formation of heavy rain. Earthquakes can therefore extend through many countries, without requiring to depend upon each other or on a common focus of action.

686. The silicious trap is silicious sinter, tripoli and polierschiefer.

687. The argillaceous trap, amygdaloid, clinkstone, several porphyries.

688. The talcose trap, basalt.

689. The calcareous trap, probably chalk.

d. _Fire-formation._

VOLCANIC-ROCKS.

690. Volcanoes are secondary combustions of masses that have originated through the primary combustion, and are therefore only of local occurrence. Such combustible masses are without doubt bodies belonging to the class of Inflammables, and thus carbons, sulphur, sulphuretted metals. Simply burning gases would throw up on high the masses of earth, but not heat them to the degree of fusion.

691. By the heat of these combustions the masses of earth have been fused, forming lavas. The silicious lavas are obsidian, pitch-stone. The argillaceous lavas are the kinds usually met with. Next come the talcose lavas. The calcareous lavas are probably dolomite.

B.--_METALLIC ORES AND INFLAMMABLES._

692. Metallic-ores and Inflammables are products of the planet, when completed, and have not originated along with the origin of the latter, like the earths. The question accordingly arises, what have been the forces by which the metals and Inflammables were produced.

a. _METALLIC VEINS._

693. Fissures in rocks, so narrow that they cannot be illuminated by the sun, are called passages or _veins_. They are rarely found in granite, appear generally for the first time in gneiss, more rarely in the later kinds of rocks, and almost cease to be met with in the stratified chain of mountains. They are found principally in mountains, and thus in masses of earth which project above the level land. We must thus arrive at the conclusion that they have there originated by actual fissure, and that indeed for this reason, that masses which project or stand freely out would admit of yielding asunder more easily than the masses of the plains. This fissure may take place by mechanical disruption, by land-slips, or even also by desiccation.

694. The veins are not prolonged into the kind of rock that underlies them, as e. g. gneiss veins into granite, and so on; they have hence originated from above.

695. They are open and wider above and strike out below; they have not therefore originated by a force acting from beneath.

696. In the schistose rock they form generally transverse fissures.

697. There was a time in which the veins stood empty, as well as a time in which the primary valleys were empty, namely unreplenished with gneiss, mica-schist, and such like minerals.

b. PRODUCTION OF ORE.

698. Geogeny takes two directions; the one passes upon the periphery into the splitting action of light, the other into the abyss, where darkness reigns.

699. The valleys were the condition that conduced to the differentialization of the earths, because in them light had power to produce the highest polarity. By the valleys the Earthy has been separated into its principles; silex has separated into clay and talc, to which finally carbonate calcareous earths and salts succeeded.

700. The Earthy cannot subsist in its identity in the broad valleys; the earth cannot be represented as the pure symbol of gravity. All bodies that have originated upon the _surface_ of the planet are oxydes or salts.

701. If the earth-difference be generated in the illumined valleys, so must the earth-identity be produced in the dark valleys; for it is the absence of light alone that allows the purely Basic to subsist. This earth generated out of gravity is the ore.

702. The ore is a child and a treasure of darkness; where light is, it must vanish; it cannot endure its gaze. Metal when exposed to day is given up to annihilation, to oxydation.

703. Darkness is, however, no power, and can consequently be only the opportunity, not the cause of anything's happening. Other forces, instead of that of light, must have therefore operated in the production of ores. In order to discover these forces the relations of the ores must be carefully weighed or considered.

704. The ore is in a philosophic sense a reduced earth, and so reduced indeed that the basic principle has obtained the preponderance over the oxygenic or supporter of combustion, and attained unto substantiality.

705. In light, in the water forsooth when illuminated, the two earth-principles were already divided internally, but not completely separated; salt only originated, namely an acid and alkali.

706. The ore is, however, a salt wholly reduced, and indeed the reduced alkali has become metal, the reduced acid with the basis of hydrogen, Inflammable, namely, coal or sulphur.

707. Now as light was not able to produce such a separation in the free or full sense of the term, forces must thus have been present in the dark passages, which completed this separation.

708. Ore and Inflammable are the total salt dissevered, and this is the dissolution of the two; the former are blue and yellow, the latter is the compound green.

709. The processes of the formation of salt and of ore are both indeed processes of separation, but yet they stand opposite to, or rather transcend each other. Both mutually conditionate each other.

710. While the earths submitted to the action of light upon the surface of the planet are converted into salt, the process of the formation of ore takes place in the dark or under the earth; or while above the oxygen is predominant, the basic body is that below. The ore imparts upon a large scale its oxygen to the salt, and the salt bestows its basic body on the ores.

711. No ores could originate in the middle of the earth were light even to have no access thereunto. For not merely do earth and darkness belong to the genesis of the ore, but earthy water like as unto salt.

712. The ore is not a conversion of earths that have already existed, or been actually separated; but it originates first of all during the process of separation. Where ore is, fluid has thus been, and polarity, which is not directly derived from light. The ore is a mere child of the planet, a pure terrestrial essence generated without the joint assistance of the heaven, and therefore the highest substantiality of the planet, the spirit of the earth.

713. What gneiss and mica-schist, calx and salt, are in the bright valleys, such is the ore in the dark valleys; the former are the differenced ore, and this is their identification.

714. There is no peculiar metallic body or seed, which had already existed in the primary creation as something special or peculiar, and which by one process only, as perhaps even by its gravity, was precipitated or posited from the fluid mass. One and the same substance, if found exposed in a valley to the light, becomes earth; but ore when it is in a dark passage.

715. Of a certainty neither clay, sand, talc, or calx become metal. For these are at once definitions of the spirit, words that have been already completed and expressed, and cannot be recalled; so also the ore will not again become clay, even if it be submitted to light. The indeterminate substance only, which under other conditions might have become clay, becomes in the darkness ore.

716. What is not in idea, prior to the adjustment or fixation of a pole, reduced to ore, can on no account become that out of an already finished mass of earth. Conversions of earth into ore by chemical arts are labours bestowed in vain.

717. Yet if ores do originate, they originate only out of the indefinite Basic, which is still in the water, just as trap stones originate not from a stony dust that pre-existed, but out of the pure indifferent substance of the air.

718. The veins and the formation of ore are one, as are the valleys with the calcareous and salt formations; and he who asks how has the ore originated, must forthwith inquire as to what is the essence of the veins.

719. The ore has not originated externally to the veins and been at some time or other conducted into them by means of water. For how should it thus originate? The reply is, a specific action must have been at work in the fluid, which determined it to separate ore and nothing else. But where is this ore-forming action in the free space of water? Nowhere. And if also the ore had been separated or diffused throughout the whole mass of water, what a world-wonder is it that it merely flowed into the veins and some stockworks? What prevented it from filling in large masses the broader valleys? The mechanical theorist upon metallic veins must assume an attraction on the part of the veins for the ore-particles in water; but how could this attraction have drawn these particles for miles in extent out of the water? and were this action strong enough, it must still be gifted with greater power to produce or at least separate the ore out of the water, that is found in the empty spaces formed by the veins.

720. Since ore has on a large scale separated from the calcareous and salt formations like the Identical from the Different, it has done so also upon a small scale in the veins. There the same process of separation has preceded it.

721. Now, however, nothing can be separated, i. e. nothing be reduced, without the oxygen accumulating upon something else. The Earthy must therefore separate during the formation of metal into the Reduced and Peroxydized.

722. The reduced earthy is the metal or inflammable; the peroxydized, however, an earth proper. This earth is called _vein-stone_.

723. The ore has _only_ originated in opposition to the vein-stone, and when this has taken the Different of the Earthy into itself. Therefore the vein-stones are also different from the kind of rock in which they occur, and that through greater differentialization; they have even receded for the most part into acid and alkaline poles, as calc-spar, fluor-spar, heavy-spar, which are the usual vein-stones. All vein-stones are oxyds and as a rule, those in which the oxygen is freely manifested, namely as acid. The vein-stones were the sheath of the ore, which could first appear when this sheath had withdrawn itself.

724. The metal stands in relation to the vein-stone. Thus in argillaceous vein-stones we commonly meet with iron, manganese; in the quartzoze with gold; in the calcareous with lead, &c. There are here also extremes. There are vein-stones, called sterile veins, in whose antagonism no metal has been formed; and there are veins, that are merely filled with metal, such as the Stockwerke, Lager.

725. Since the ore and the vein-stones thus originate together, and in such a manner that they conditionate each other; their fundamental mass must have been one, and a separating force, which is not light, must have operated upon them.

726. Moreover, as the ores occur only in narrow spaces with their vein-stones and both form alternating tables upon the walls of the veins, they must have been attracted by the latter.

727. The walls of the vein consequently exert a polar influence upon the ore and vein-stone. Now, if this be their mode of action, they must be in a condition to separate the fundamental mass.

728. It is thus the vein themselves, which, by a vital force, produce the metals; they are thus a living womb, or matrix as it has been emphatically termed.

729. Two walls in close juxtaposition are requisite for the production of metal. Upon a freely exposed wall or face of rock no metals are found.

730. By this separation, however, two kinds of minerals originate, Inflammables, and ores proper or metals. The action of the walls must be therefore of a twofold nature.

731. But two cases also are conceivable, in accordance wherewith this polarity of the vein admits of being divided. It subsists either quite alone between the two walls, as surface-polarity or electricity; or it subsists between the mediate point of the earth and the walls, constituting centroperipheric polarity or magnetism.

732. The product of the surface polarity are the Inflammables, of the radial polarity the metals.

733. Since no more metals and Inflammables originate at the present day, although magnetism and electricity are in continual operation; a third influence moreover must have been in constant activity. Now this cannot be thought of as any other than _heat_. The metals must thus have originated while the earth was still in a glowing state, and when thus also magnetism and electricity could operate more powerfully towards effecting a reduction of the mass. By heat the mass in the veins was probably converted into gas, through which its separation by means of magnetism and electricity into ore and transition earth could more easily take place. The metals are thus sublimations, which were first deposited, when the earths or rather the mountain-stock began to cool. Thus also zeolithic crystals were deposited in the upper stores of mines. Metals are thus the children of heat, of magnetism and electricity; the heat renders the mass in a fit state for being separated in the next place by the polar forces.

734. Metal is carbon completely reduced, which contains nothing more of the other elements in itself, namely, neither hydrogen nor oxygen. It is consequently the Basic of the earth-element without material admixture, and thus is earth with the properties of its prototype, of fire or of gravity, of light and of heat.

735. In accordance with this interpretation metal can be produced by no other process than the centro-peripheric. Its occurrence in fissures of the earth that are mostly perpendicular likewise proves this.

736. In the deeply situated veins, therefore, the more identical or purer formations of ore must occur; while, on the contrary, in those situated higher up or exposed to the day, i. e. in closer proximity to the water, air and light, the more different or compound formations of ore must be produced.

737. The four classes of ores occupy a position in the veins tolerably accordant with these relations; an additional proof that they have originated in the vein and not been floated into it by the action of water.

738. The production of ore which occurs in the _upper_ parts of the veins, furnishes us with the saline ores; for here the water, air and earth are principally active. In the upper depths are found most frequently the oxygenized metals, or as they are called mineral spars, as spathic-iron, malachite, calamine, lead-spar, pyromorphite, &c. Finally, the metallic or ore-spars actually pass over into salts, and by the horn-silver ores into the vitriols. They are for the most part crystallized.

739. The salt-formation of the ores has always decreased in proportion to the light having less access to it, and hence in greater depths, or in wholly mountainous masses. There the ore has not been deposited as a light-difference, but only as a Terrestrial, just as the earths, especially the calcareous earth, have obtained the same. It has not attained to a complete evolution of the polar body so as to constitute an acid, but the two principles have only emerged opposite to each other. They are oxydized ores, consequently those among the ores, that represent the character of earths, namely, the ochres. They are frequently uncrystallized.

740. So far the appearance of these ores is thoroughly earthy and devoid for the most part of metallic lustre; finally, the genesis of the ore turns upon the side of the identity, the principle of gravity having secured itself wholly in the depths, previous to the adverse accession of water and light. In such situations nothing more than heat and the centro-peripheric polarity of the vein-wall operates. The Metallic recedes wholly from the salt and from the earth. The oxygen disappears, but in its place comes sulphur, and the sulphuretted ores originate, e. g. the bi-sulphurets of iron, blendes, glance-ores.

741. Lastly, every combination or influence of the other elements and mineral-classes vanishes; acids, oxygen and sulphur are no longer generated in the perfectly dark depths, and the ore stands there in its entire identity, homogeneous, resplendent and heavy as the sterling metal. The same results from sublimation. The heavier metals remain below, the lighter ones and the sulphur ascend.

742. As the orders of earth are placed in the veins, so also are the different metals themselves; for the cause of genesis is alike in both.

743. The earth-like metals, as iron, manganese, &c. which occur constantly oxydized, are usually found upon the surface of the planet; the hydroid or water-like, as lead, tin, lie usually deeper; the aeroid or air-like, as arsenic, zinc, exhibit pretty nearly the same relations as the sulphur metals; lastly, the pyroid or fire-like, e. g. the noble metals such as gold and silver occur frequently in great depths and not unfrequently in granite; the two preceding metals generally occur in gneiss, but the first even in younger or more recently formed rocks.

744. As a certain regularity prevails in the arrangements of ores and of metals in the veins, so also does this hold good in respect to their distribution over the planet.

745. The more the polar earths are separated and deposited in the broad valleys exposed to light, by so much the more in quantity and of greater purity is the ore produced in its own valleys of darkness. The first effect, however, happens through the power of the sun; the more powerful therefore its influence, although indirect, so much the greater in quantity and purity is ore produced in the depths. The greatest quantity of ore and that of the noblest kind was inevitably generated beneath the equator. There also more lime as well as more salt are probably found upon the surface of the water; towards the north the oxydized metals, or the whole series of iron-metals, were produced. In the Temperate Zones we find more lead, zinc, bismuth and arsenic.

746. Thus the theory itself of ores furnishes us with a proof, such as the theory of the earth that has been hitherto entertained could not afford, that the equator forsooth has since the formation of the metals not been displaced. The metals formed themselves cotemporaneously with the gneiss, and have thus begun to form prior to the existence of the organic world. It is therefore a vague opinion, devoid also of foundation, that since the earth has been inhabited by animals, even by the higher or hair-clothed vertebrata, its axis has been changed.

747. No earthly phenomenon speaks so clearly and loudly against the mechanical theories in the natural sciences as ore. Not only has the whole planet been included in the ore, but also the whole of science, the whole of philosophy.

748. The first transition of the Earthy into the metallic character is indicated by iron. Iron ranks next to earth, especially to the argillaceous earth, is everywhere associated with it and is most generally distributed, being mixed with almost every earth and even all organic bodies, to their very elements.

749. The whole series of metals has but _one_ root. What the primary earth is for the metamorphosis of earths, that is iron for the metals: it is their silicious earth.

750. The iron as being the first transition from the Earthy into the Metallic has the highest grade of fusion, and all metals which approximate to this, belong to the retinue of iron. This grade may be set down as 20,000F.

751. As iron is the root of all metals, so every division or group of ore has a principal metal, which occurs in more considerable quantity than the rest and characterizes the division. Among the saline ores, copper under the form of malachite is the principal metal. Its fusing point is 6000F. Among the sulphurous ores, _lead_ is the chief metal; it has with its neighbours the lowest grade of fusion, which may be set down in round numbers as 600F. Among the volatile, arsenic is the principal metal.

752. Among the standard metals, silver is the principal metal; it has with its affinities a fusing point, which ranges midway between that of iron and lead, being probably about 5000F.

753. There are four grades of fusion of the metals, which are removed from each other by very wide intervals, between which no metal is situated. Quicksilver is fluid at the temperature of the air and becomes volatile like arsenic. Moreover the artificial metals are associated with the alkalies and acids. Lead, with its congeners, melts at 500F.; silver with gold and copper at 5000; iron, platinum and such like at 20,000.

754. There are four metallic characters, which are shown to be peculiar in all their relations, in their affinities for oxygen, acid, and sulphur, in respect to specific gravity, fusibility, extensibility, in their electric relation, in mode of fracture, in occurrence, age, and geographical distribution, &c.

c. POISON.

755. It is a remarkable fact that the principal metal of the elemental metals, obtains mostly by oxydation or acidification poisonous properties, while the proper earth-metal, iron, acts beneficially upon the animal organization. Among the water-metals lead becomes poisonous by acidification; among the fire-metals mercury. Among the air-metals arsenic ranks highest, becoming poisonous by mere oxydation. Among the earth-metals, only one among the salt-metals is poisonous, and that is copper.

756. The metals thus appear to become poisonous, when they enter into or put on the character of salt, or of water.

757. The above are also those very metals, which unite most readily with the others, to form alloys, amalgams or metallic compounds. Copper is very readily alloyed; lead almost always contains silver; mercury is susceptible of amalgamation; arsenic metallizes the others almost like sulphur.

758. The air-metals appear to have lost for the most part the metallic character; arsenic therefore destroys also magnetism.

759. The essence of metallic poison thus appears to reside in the endeavour on the part of the metals to suppress the metallic character and convert themselves into the formless elements. The metallic poison is the direct opponent of the metals themselves, and through this, of everything that has form, and thus of the Organic also.

d. MAGNETISM.

760. Two actions are necessarily manifested in iron, one clearing or dividing in so far as it is earth, and one to be identifying, in so far as it is metal. Iron is the fluctuation between oxydation and reduction, between light and gravity, and this conflict of the two latter is _Magnetism_. Magnetism is the spiritual function of the metals.

761. Magnetism belongs essentially to the metals only. What is not metal, is magnetic only according to idea or signification; it may be therefore aptly said, that such a body hath no magnetism, and that what has it, were metallic.

762. Magnetism is the direct property only of iron; this alone is the hybrid or heterogynous metal.

763. Magnetism appertains only to the other metals in as far as they are positions of iron; and is the more powerful, the nearer they stand in relation to iron. All metals are magnetic in idea, whether magnetism be manifested in them or not.

764. All metals have originated through magnetism, through the radial polarity, or the conflict of light and gravity. Magnetism is the action betwixt light and darkness, periphery and centre. Magnetism as being a metalgenerating action tends towards the centre of darkness of gravity. What in the earths and salts is the duplex tendency of crystallization, is in the metals the identifying magnetism, as an everlasting operation of attraction.

765. Magnetism is still, however, not identical with gravity. Gravity is the centre abstractedly from the periphery; but magnetism is the centre only in relation to the periphery or light.

766. Polarity belongs to the essence as well as the genesis of magnetism; the metal subsists only through a constant resistance against the universal process of oxydation, against the developmental process of the earth-principles, which the metal is always striving to conceal. The metal is altogether the most mysterious essence of the planet. This resistance to the disclosure of the Innermost of the earth is magnetism. Where magnetism has wholly attained this concealment, it renders the metal perfectly free and disappears, because it has become completely embodied. In the noble metals it has attained what it is still seeking in iron.

767. Magnetism is a linear action with two different extremities, like the primary radius. By one extremity magnetism runs towards the identical centre, by the other towards the partite, electrical periphery, towards the oxydized earths. One extremity will reduce, the other oxydize; one will become metal, the other earth. This is the difference between north and south pole, the former centre, the latter periphery.

768. There is no peculiar magnetic fluid, any more than there is a matter of light, heat and electricity. In magnetism the spirit only of the earth appears, as in light the spirit of heaven.

769. Magnetism is a constant process of excitation. This process of excitement is the process of imparting and of propagation. Magnetism has not been given, but excited. It breathes life into the iron bar, whereby the latter awakes, and that is magnetism.

770. Every action, which induces differences in a line of iron, renders it therefore magnetic; thus electricity, unequal calefaction and a blow, whereby it is thrown into a state of vibration. An iron bar planted perpendicularly becomes magnetic, because it is then a radius to the earth. From the same reason it becomes magnetic, if placed in the magnetic meridian.

e. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

771. If all metals are in idea magnetic; so must the metallic veins, as products of magnetism, be magnetic lines. Every vein has a north and a south pole.

772. As every vein is a magnetic line or magnetic needle upon a large scale; so must two veins abutting against each other represent likewise a magnetic tension. A mountain of ores is a net of numerous magnets interlacing each other. As one vein is related to the other, so must one metalliferous mountain be related to the other; and thus two mountains of this character stand in magnetic polarity with each other. The whole earth is surrounded by a magnetic net.

773. As every metal, every vein, every rock is in miniature a magnet, so must the earth be a magnet upon a large scale. There is a _Terrestrial magnetism_.

774. This magnetism belongs only to the earth only in so far as it possesses a metallic quality, for magnetism is only the spirit of the metals, not of the other terrestrial bodies, as the earths, Inflammables, and salts.

775. Magnetism is no general character of the earth, still less of the whole solar system, except in so far as the metallic principle lies at the basis of every thing earthy. Magnetism does not operate outwardly over the earth.

776. The determinants of terrestrial magnetism are the _metallic veins_, or the metallic beds in the crust of the earth.

777. Terrestrial magnetism has not been produced or determined by a magnetic nucleus; since a metal in the middle of the earth is a contradiction. All determinations of terrestrial magnetism depend upon the nature, character, distribution, number and direction of the metallic veins or beds.

778. Thus the direction of the magnetic axis of the earth, its mutability, the declination of the magnetic meridian, the inclination or dip of the needle, in short every phenomenon without distinction that concerns magnetism, must be derived from the nature of the metallic veins. Another momentum does not indeed exist for magnetism.

779. Terrestrial magnetism can only be based upon the polarity of metallic veins, and this upon the ores they contain. It must therefore accommodate itself to the distribution of the chief masses of metals, especially of the idiomagnetic metal. Now it has been ascertained, that the noble metals are accumulated about the equator, such as gold, silver, copper, which may be regarded as non-magnetic. In the northern temperate zones, the mountains contain for the most part metals that are non-magnetic and semi-noble, as lead, zinc, antimony, which are usually combined as ores with sulphur. Iron, on the contrary, being the only magnetic metal, (a fact which is also determined chiefly by the magnetic needle in terrestrial magnetism) is accumulated in greater quantity towards the north-pole and becomes always rarer in occurrence towards the equator. The southern hemisphere of the earth, is indeed less known in this respect; but, that towards the south-pole iron reincreases in quantity, is rendered evident by the magnetic needle when conveyed beyond the equator, inclining to the south-pole. If the cause of the inclination upon the northern hemisphere be sought for in the presence of iron, the same must be done in regard to the southern. The arrangement of the metallic groups from north-to south-pole is thus; iron, lead, silver, lead, iron.

780. Iron has been deposited at both poles and this in accordance with the genesis of metals, for iron is a half reduced metal, and must consequently be subjected to the demi-action only of light. At or beneath the equator the Ferrogeneous is wholly reduced, and becomes noble.

781. There is obviously, however, less iron at the south-than the north-pole, because the greatest part of the planet is there covered with water, and thus in general with less earth less metal also is to be found. From this alone it may be explained why the magnetic needle conveyed beyond the equator still remains horizontal and first inclines about the tenth degree of southern latitude towards the south-pole.

782. The north-pole is thus more energetic than the south-pole, so that the two poles must be also inversely related to each other. It is only from this antagonism of the two poles of the earth that we comprehend, why upon the southern hemisphere the south-pole of the needle dips towards the earth, and why the needle does not turn completely round. For if there was an equal quantity of iron in both hemispheres of the earth, the southern must have the same magnetic pole, and thus attract the north-pole of the needle; and under the equator the needle must have actually no direction. The cause of the direction and dip of the needle rests thus in the antagonism of the two poles of the earth, and this again in the unequal masses of iron.

783. The action of terrestrial magnetism does not reside in the iron formation alone, but in its antagonism to the reduced ores. The terrestrial magnetism is a tension between iron and silver. The lead imparts the poles.

784. As the earth is a globe, so are the two masses of iron situated nearer to its axis than the masses of silver and lead. If therefore the latter exert also any influence upon the direction of the magnetic needle, yet nevertheless the poles of magnetism must coincide nearly with the poles of the earth's axis, because the exciters of magnetism operate in this direction.

785. The magnetic meridian runs indeed in general from pole to pole, but as it is not the earth's axis, which determines the magnetism, but the metallic masses, so the direction of the meridian deviates from the earth's axis in accordance with these masses.

786. The magnetic needle can therefore assume a different direction on every part of the earth, according as its relative position is varied between two principal masses of metals, and even as is indicated by the movement of the compass with the change of geographical longitudes, it is removed from one metallic mass, approaches another, and by this becomes more powerfully attracted. Upon the whole, however, the direction must tend toward the poles. Such are the phenomena of _declination_ of the magnetic needle; and we can now comprehend why this is present.

787. But there must be also spots upon the earth, where the needle points straight to the north, probably, when it is between two metallic masses, or stands at a certain angle to them. These are the _lines without declination_, of which there are many as is well known, but which have not as yet been reduced to any law. Nor can they ever be so, because we shall never become acquainted with the metallic beds.

788. As the solid land, so far as it projects out of the water, forms a horse-shoe figure, of which the two Americas represent one leg, Europe with Asia and Africa the other leg, the sea being interposed between them; so must the lines without declination fall principally in the ocean, between the earth's crura. Moreover as both these crura of the earth are unequal in size, so must the one influence the needle more than the other, and in this respect also there can be therefore no regularity in the lines without declination. Thus everything co-operates, to the effect of rendering the direction of the magnetic needle unequal; such as the distribution of metalliferous mountains, of masses of iron, of the earth's hemispheres, of the earth's crura, and inversely the earth has probably obtained this horse-shoe form through magnetism. The cavities of the earth probably do not fall in there, because the ground, namely the mountains, is supported by metallic plates. On this account the earth probably maintains an oblique position in her course. In accordance with this the earth's axis had first changed, when the metals were generated. According to this also, the sea had rushed in first, when the metallic veins were present. Lastly, in accordance with this, the metals would be generated, when the whole earth was still covered, and the veins filled with water. Unto such conclusions the philosophy of nature can alone conduct us. The cause of a horse-shoe magnet acting more powerfully than any other shaped instrument, resides probably in the form of the earth's crura.

789. The magnetic meridian varies, however, not only according to places, but times also. This is explicable from the mutation of metals under the poles, as well as under the equator and in the temperate zones. Processes of oxydation and reduction are always occurring, the more too if the water recedes and tracts of land become dry. To this, culture, the clearing of woods, the draining of swamps and probably mining operations themselves conduce.

790. It must besides be clear to every one, who has learnt to look upon nature as a whole, that the numerous metallic masses of metal upon the earth are not indifferent to the genesis of metal, that they are not foreign to iron; but that they stand invariably in one relation to it, which can only be magnetic; for therein only are they metals.

791. Magnetism is an infinity of tensions spread over the whole earth, of which the tension towards the axis is but the principal, not the sole, tension. The expression hereof is the net of metallic veins.

792. Every magnetic line consists of an endless number of shifting poles; for every magnetic line can be but the metatype of terrestrial magnetism.

C.--_INFLAMMABLES._

_Electrism._

793. Coal and sulphur may be regarded as the representatives of the Inflammables, making their appearance in the carbonic acid of lime, and the sulphuric acid of gypsum, just as the metals did among the alkalies.

794. The Inflammables are accordingly associated with the acids or the salts, the ores with the earths. It may be said that the former are reduced acids, the latter reduced earths.

795. The Inflammables are consequently those that succeed next to the salts or water-minerals. Their determining element is in this respect also the air; that of the ores is therefore the fire.

796. The Inflammable, as being the reduced acid, must have the strongest affinity for oxygen. A body, which by its own force, attracts the oxygen from the air, so that it appears luminous, is called combustible.

797. The generating spirit of the Inflammables coincides with the spirit of air, and thus with electricity. The generating spirit of metals coincides with the light; it is the radial action in the Massive, or magnetism.

798. Electricity has become embodied in the Inflammable, i. e. idioelectric; in metal, light has become embodied, i. e. idiomagnetic.

799. Now, as the Inflammable exists under two forms, with the preponderance of the earth-nature as coal, and with that of the air-nature as sulphur, so must the electricity appear fixed chiefly in the latter. This fixation is the idioelectricity.

800. As electricity is in its essence a constantly dualized agent, so can only one pole belonging to it become fixed. In sulphur this is what has been called the _negative_ pole.

a. SULPHUR.

801. As the air stands opposed to the earth, so must sulphur to coal. The latter is thus endowed with positive electricity.

802. Coal is, however, the fundamental body of the metals. The metals are consequently related as positive electrics to sulphur. Sulphur is air-metal or idio-negative; metal is earth-or idiopositive sulphur. Sulphur therefore occurs almost solely with metals, as iron, pyrites, glance; yet frequently with arsenic, the metal that resembles it, e. g. in realgar.

803. Sulphur is the basis of all idioelectrism, and this property occurs only in bodies, in so far as they are positions of sulphur.

804. Magnetism and electrism are correlated, as iron and sulphur, as gravity and light, as centre and periphery. The same spirit, which when ruling in the dark, exhibits itself as magnetic, is manifested when it has attained to light in sulphur as electrical. Magnetism is only the electricity identified.

805. We may therefore speak of idiomagnetic metals as well as idioelectric bodies.

806. Magnetism therefore stands in accordance with these relations in opposition to electrism; they mutually change or annihilate each other.

807. Electrism has, in accordance with its signification, the power of manifesting itself with one pole accumulated or set free from the other, as e. g. the negative in a cake of resin; in magnetism, on the contrary, both poles are always together and inseparable. The radius is divided into two in every part of its length.

808. As the functions of metal and of sulphur are correlated, so also are their substances; they are opposed, and hence the metallization by means of sulphur with all its results. This antagonism is, however, dormant or concealed; that of the functions manifests itself much more clearly.

809. The metals, as being dense, central, and linear masses, must fall into a state of tension with electricity as with heat; this is called conduction. The metals are therefore conductors of electrism. In antagonism to the conducting power of the metals sulphur is naturally an _isolator_; for what is idioactive is virtually also isolating. Iron may be likewise called an isolator of magnetism. There is only _one_ series of bodies in nature, belonging to the peripheric and expansive functions, that conducts; the metals only are conductors. Isolation belongs to the essence of electricity. _Isolating action_ and _Electricity are one_; for electricity is the surface-function, wherein the line, which is the only conductor, disappears.

810. Electrism does not tend towards the metals, and can therefore have no definite direction in the earth; there is neither an electric meridian, nor an electric equator. There is only an electrical surface to the earth, and this is alike in all regions of the world.

811. The metals must accordingly stand opposed to sulphur as positive bodies, if not as idiopositive, yet as such when brought into collision with sulphur. The metals, when rubbed with sulphur, constantly become positive, and the sulphur remains negative.

812. The earths also become positive when rubbed with sulphur; in short, everything which, in the genesis of the earth, ranks below sulphur, is positive. Heated bodies rubbed with cold, and rough bodies with smooth, must become negative.

813. Bodies become positive with sulphur, simply because the essence of sulphur is of a negative character, or because, in other words, it is nothing else but negativity; the persistency of one pole and the counter-resistance to every other, is called _isolation_. The metals are conductors, because they stand opposed to sulphur.

814. Positive isolation only is evolved opposite to sulphur, in zinc, probably because this belongs to the air-metals.

815. What sulphur is in its series, that is _zinc_ in the metallic series; the isolating electric rod, with which the other bodies are associated; the one the positive, the other the negative isolator; in so far forsooth as one can isolate bodies that have arisen through linear action. With zinc the other metals become negative, because it can be nothing else than positive, as sulphur can be none other than negative. (That this does not hold good absolutely, we need scarcely be reminded).

816. Two fixations of electricity thus exist, and from these the electric phenomena must be derived. So long as we imagine that electrical proportions run in a continuous line, so long shall we never be able to avoid contradictions. Two rods stand firmly, and from out and around these two heaps of bodies form, which in reference to their electrical relation (according to the experiments hitherto performed) are naturally exhibited as only _one_ series.

817. Sulphur does not stand alone, but is associated with a series, especially of the higher Inflammables, bitumens or mineral-resins, ætherial oils and hydrogen gas. The higher the inflammability ascends, by so much the more energetic is the negative character, so that, finally, the sulphur itself becomes positive towards such matters.

818. If in every polar action it can be proved, that each polar line consists of infinitely numerous poles, and that each point in it can be alternately changing both polarities, in accordance with the mutation of the principal poles that exert their influence; so is it in electricity. There is scarcely a single body which cannot be positive as well as negative, if it only becomes displaced in its own series, or is transported into the other.

b. COAL.

819. During the electrical separation of the Basic of the earth, or during the communication of the aerial character to the Earthy, a body remains behind with positive character, or the _Coal_.

820. Coal may be regarded as volatilized metal, as a metal which can change by the action of water or acid upon it into air. Black-lead is a coal, which is directly associated with the metals.

821. Coal appears therefore less in particular places, than as expanded into entire rocky masses, as e. g. in the clay-slate and as carbonic-acid in lime.

822. The coal was, during the earth-formation, separated from the sea, yet not, or only rarely, by itself, but along with other masses of earth, while the sulphur rather accompanies the metals. Coal passes over into the earths, the sulphur into the metals.

823. The volatilized earth or coal, i. e. the earth that has ascended through water or salt unto air, is associated with a higher kingdom, and that indeed the general mass of the vegetable kingdom, as is the case in the pit-coals, which are reversions of plants.

824. As the earths and metals extend into pit-coals, so does sulphur lose itself in idioelectric, inflammable substances, which are likewise reversions of a sulphur that has escaped into a higher kingdom. Here belong the amber, mineral resins and naphthas.

825. There are thus two ways, by which the reduced earthy seeks to mount aloft; by the carbon, as belonging to the more inert earth; and the Resinous, as belonging to the more active air. The vegetable kingdom has its root in the simple earths, especially the hydroid argillaceous earths; the animal kingdom in the divided calcareous earths.

826. Sulphur is yellow, because it is the earthy that has come to light, the carbon is black, because it is sulphur volatilized, moistened in the gloom or darkness of the earth.

D.--_SALTS_.

_Salt-periods._

827. So long as the basis of the acid is an earthy, such as carbon or sulphur in the carbonic and sulphuric acids, does the earthy also obtain the preponderance, and the lime as well as the gypsum or sulphate of lime are precipitated as insoluble bodies.

828. It is only through the influence of light constantly becoming more powerful by reason of the solid land under the water that the oxydation of water rises to the highest degree, so that this element finally converts itself into an acid, or hydro-oxide. This process must be regarded as a decomposition of water, whereby a portion of the hydrogen forms sulphur with the carbon, the rest with the oxygen an hydro-oxide.

829. The hydro-oxide is hydrochloric acid. This acid must be regarded as peroxydized hydrogen. Its signification is thus that of being water itself, or a whole element with a preponderance of oxygen. It attains this rank by its constituent parts, namely, the two general gaseous primary bodies, by its distribution as a whole element around the earth; by its occurrence as an earth-formation in rock-salt; finally, by its presence in all vegetable and animal juices. Hydrochloric acid is the type of all acids, as the iron is of all metals. All acids are but imitations of the hydrochloric. All abide by the signification of water, or are conversions of elements or earths by oxydation into an hydroid condition.

830. Between the acidified water and the Earthy a higher antagonism now emerges. The Earthy separates a part of its carbon from the carbonic acid and sulphur, so that the rest remains behind peroxydized, and makes its appearance as an alkali.

831. The alkali is to be regarded as the last conversion of calcareous earth in respect to water. It is an earth, whose oxygen has converted itself with a portion of its carbon into acid and been set free; a salt halved upon the basic side. This general alkali, that has originated in water, is _soda_ or natrom.

832. Alkali and acid are the last antagonism in the earthy, moieties, which can never subsist without each other.

833. The alkali is corrosive, because it seeks water and acid, in order to perfect itself; acid is pungent to the taste, because it seeks earth or alkali.

834. Their antagonism is the highest antagonism between water and earth; it is also the representation of the antagonism between fire and the terrestrial elements, or also between light and gravity. Therefore this antagonism has a cosmic or universal signification.

835. The combination of this antagonism is the _sea_-or _common salt_.

836. Sea-salt is the universal salt. All other salts are to be regarded only as metamorphoses of it, as well as the acids only conversions of the acid of common salt, and the alkalies of soda.

837. The sea-salt is essential to water. It is the product of geogeny, has not entered the water from without, but been generated in it, and is constantly being regenerated, so long as light shines upon the sea. Properly speaking, sea-salt has been in the water from the beginning; but it was previously shrouded in the other earths, and could act substantially for the first time, when they had been separated from it. It has become salt, or water and earth-element by the agency of light.

838. The sea-salt has also been generated in opposition to the calcareous earths, and during its separation been rendered polar towards the latter. The salt mines are therefore associated with the last calcareous formation, the gypsum, and this it is also that determines their lamination.

839. As it may be said, that the metals separate into coal and sulphur, namely, pass over at their iron-extremity into coal, at their arsenical, into sulphur; so may it be said, that the earths separate into acids and alkalies; the one by the conversion of silica into fluoric acid, the other by that of calcareous earth into soda. Carbonic and sulphuric acid take possession of the calcareous earth; the hydro-oxide of the alkali.

840. The sea-salt has been the last to be separated from, because it was last generated in, the water. The salt beds belong to the last precipitation, by not having been mechanically thrown down, but as already observed and as their occurrence proves, by an alternating process of separation from the acidified lime. It is absurd to wish to explain the presence of common salt in the sea by a solution of saline beds. For where have the latter come from?

841. With the separation of the ore and the Inflammable out of the primary water and the confluence of the Earthy into marine salt, its metamorphosis upon the surface or when exposed to light is at an end. All forms of the planet have been successively developed out of the earth-element. It can attain no further to anything new, and if nature had not yet been concluded, that which in the sequel is still dynamically developed upon our earth, must be thus a product, which extends beyond the mineral kingdom.

842. As the fundamental earths lose themselves in pure carbon, in resin, and so in the vegetable world, so the series of corrosive earths resolves itself likewise in remnants of an organic, and that indeed the animal, kingdom. As the pit-coals and resins are associated with the metals and Inflammables, so are the fossil animal remains with the calcareous earth; and thus the voice of the organic world speaks already with force and clearness to those that hearken, from out the stones.

843. For the metamorphosis of the earths, nature has twice prepared herself, has planted at the same time two great points of origin, according to which all her action is directed, and which remain in constant correspondence with each other.

844. The main pole is granite. It is at once the primary pole, to which the second main pole, the lime, is directed. The granite brings the series through gneiss and mica-schist down to clay-and talc-slate, then makes a sudden transition to the ores, and terminates at a boundary, where pit-coals and resins conduct us into a new kingdom.

845. The lime rejects from itself the sand and sedimentary clay, progresses through barytes and strontian up to gypsum, makes a sudden bound or transition from thence to the salts, and terminates at a limit, where corals and molluscous animals conduct us into a new kingdom.

846. Salt concludes the growth of the earths; it is the eruption or breaking out of the soul, as the metal was the body of earths completed. Both finally pass into a higher world, the metal into the _corporeal_, the salt into the _psychical_.

CHEMISM.

847. The spiritual activity, the soul of the earth has declared itself in crystallization, the spirit of the metals in magnetism, that of the Inflammables in electrism. The calcareous epoch is also the manifestation of a peculiar activity, whose ultimate product is salt. It has been already shown what the functions of the latter are, but the signification of its acts has not yet been mentioned.

848. By the influence of light the water becomes elevated in its oxygen-action, enters thus into tension with itself, and this constitutes the tendency to solution which is the function of water. The oxygenous water solicits the basic principle in the earth; this issues forth, but still combined with its oxygen that has become free; the formerly identical earth is a calcareous earth in a state of tension with itself. What does not admit of being brought into a state of tension, is thrown down as fundamental earth. Hitherto this process was a mere process of solution, i. e. it had attained in the solid and fluid only to tension, not to disseverment of the poles.

849. But the light always renders the water more oxygenous, and therefore the earth always more basic; finally, the one portion of the basic in the water, namely the hydrogen, separates itself, and becomes peroxydized or the hydrochloric acid. A portion of the Basic in the Earthy, namely the metallic body or carbon, separates itself also, and the remainder becomes peroxydized or soda. As the calcareous earth was at first dissolved in, and therefore one mass with, water, so at present is the alkali also combined with the acid water; while both dissolved in each other constitute salt.

850. In this process therefore _whole_ elements have been taken only as _one_ primary body, and they have combined with each other like the two primary bodies. The water has no longer become an element or Equiponderant, but an Oxygenous, a true light-body; the earth has no longer continued a total earth of equal specific gravity, but by relative peroxydation has become an Aqueous, a Soluble. The salt has thus from the union of the two lower elements, seeing that each was of no more value than one primary body, become a _new_ element.

851. This process converts the elements again into their primary condition, creates new elements and thus actually new matters. It is therefore a struggle of the elements with their primary bodies, a separation and interchange of the same. Such a process is called _Chemism_. This is the essence or interpretation of chemism, viz. the creation of new elements out of the old, by the reduction of these to the nature of the primary bodies.

852. Chemism, which separates or combines, ranks a step higher than the process of solution, which has the power only of heterogynizing, but not of separating. Thus the electrical spark separates and combines in combustion, while the tension of air enforces only evaporation. Chemistry drives the elements to their utmost. In water the oxygen is the predominating; it becomes, however, perfect first in the acid of salt. In the earth the body of gravity prevails; but it becomes first of all predominant in soda.

853. The opposition of the two primary bodies has been represented in the two inferior elements as chemical tension, and the combination of these primary elements is a chemical product.

854. Chemism is moreover a process of combustion, in which, however, a whole element supplies the place of oxygen, and a whole element the place of the base. It is an elementary process of combustion.

855. Chemism is the metatype of primary creation, both from its being a material process of combustion, as from its creating new elements. It is the union of the antagonism between æther and terrestrial matter occurring within the circle of the terrestrial elements. Chemism is a true conversion of substances according to their fixation.

856. All chemism takes place only in water; not only because the particles can move therein, but because chemism is a process of combustion of the elements themselves. The inferior elements, however, such as water and earth, can only undergo combustion with each other, because the two are moreover related to each other as æther and mass; or as oxygen and base, for the two, so to speak, have become unipolar. Without Fluid and Solid we cannot think of chemism.

857. The chemism of air is in the beginning electricity and then the true process of combustion; both are similar, but different in position. In the process of combustion both elements are unipolar in the air, thus moieties; but in chemism two elements unite so as to constitute a Whole. The product of air-chemism is water, as the product of earth-chemism is salt. Water and salt fall into one position, but transcend each other, even as the process of combustion invades the province of chemism. The relation of electrism to chemism has now been expressed in the clearest manner. The one is chemical tension of air, but chemism is the electrical tension of earth and water.

858. Chemism is related to magnetism, as salt is to metal, as the sedimentary to the primary periods. The whole sedimentary period is a product of chemism, as the whole primary period is a product of magnetism; salt and metal are only the last evolution of these periods, and the products for whose sake all the preceding actions and formations have taken place; granite and lime with their ramifications, are but the stems, upon which metal and salt are borne as blossoms.

859. Magnetism and chemism are thus the creating agents for the solid nucleus of the earth, and through both is it completed. The process of earth-formation is a magneto-chemism.

860. Regarding the earth as an entire crystal, magnetism is the Determinant of its polar axes and polar radii, while chemism is the same in respect to its integral parts.

861. All terrestrial action is an interchange of these two functions or souls, which are none other than the living gravity and the living light upon the planet. The electricity, like the heat, only maintains them in eternal tension or extension.

862. Chemism is the process of space, density, quiescent heat; therefore the latent heat or the temperature must change in every chemical process. Chemism is related to magnetism, as heat is to gravity, to electricity like as to light. Crystallization is point, magnetism line, electrism surface, chemism cube, or expressed according to their powers: O⁰, O¹, O², O³.

863. Nothing can become solid without taking water into admixture with it. This water is the water of admixture. Nothing also can assume form, without taking water into itself--water of crystallization.

864. In so far as magnetism is active in crystallization, it renders the water identical, basic, and this therefore becomes solid; the water is not as water in a crystal, but it first becomes so by separation.

865. All chemical processes are based on the union of bodies, which are elements, but which, like acids and alkalies, have assumed the nature of the primary bodies.

866. The elective affinities are based upon the polarizibility or transmutability of the Fluid and the Solid into the primary bodies. That is decomposed and combined, which during admixture maintains the animation in the strongest degree unto the origin. What cannot be so reduced, is precipitated, as is silex. The chemism is a bin-elementary process, and therefore constitutes the termination of this period of creation, or of the mineral kingdom. So soon as a tri-elementary process originates, the products pass over into a new kingdom.