Chapter 4
OF PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e, i, o, u; the rest consonants.
In explaining the powers of the letters, and of their several combinations, such obstacles lie in the way that complete success is not to be expected. In order to explain, in writing, the sounds of a particular language, the only obvious method is to represent them by the letters commonly employed to exhibit similar sounds in some well-known living language. But there are sounds in the Gaelic to which there are none perfectly similar in English, nor perhaps in any modern European tongue. Besides, the same combination of letters does not invariably represent the same sound in one age that it did in a former, or that it may do in the next. And this may be equally true of the letters of the Gaelic alphabet, whose powers are to be taught; and of the letters of any other language, by whose sounds the powers of the former are to be explained. A diversity of pronunciation is very distinguishable also in different districts of the Highlands of Scotland, even in uttering the same words written in the same manner. Though the powers of the letters, then, may be explained to a certain degree of accuracy, yet much will still remain to be learned by the information of the ear alone. {2}
Although the chief use of the vowels be to represent the _vocal sounds_ of speech, and that of the consonants to represent its _articulations_, yet, as in many languages, so in Gaelic, the consonants sometimes serve to modify the sound of the vowels with which they are combined; while, on the other hand, the vowels often qualify the sound of the consonants by which they are preceded or followed.
It may not appear obvious at first sight how a vowel should be employed, not to represent a vocal sound, but to modify an articulation. Yet examples are to be found in modern languages. Thus, in the English words, George, sergeant, the _e_ has no other effect than to give _g_ its soft sound; and in guest, guide, the _u_ only serves to give _g_ its hard sound. So in the Italian words giorno, giusto, and many others, the _i_ only qualifies the sound of the preceding consonant. The same use of the vowels will be seen to take place frequently in Gaelic orthography.
Besides the common division of the letters into Vowels and Consonants, it is found convenient to adopt some further subdivisions.
The Vowels are divided into _broad_ and _small_: a, o, u, are called _broad_ vowels; e, i, _small_ vowels.
The Consonants are divided into _Mutes_ and _Liquids_: _Mutes_, b, c, d, f, g, m, p, t; _Liquids_, l, n, r, s[3]. They are also divided into _Labials_, _Palatals_, and _Linguals_, so named from the organs employed in pronouncing them: _Labials_, b, f, m, p; _Palatals_, c, g; _Linguals_, d, l, n, r, s, t.
The aspirate _h_ is not included in any of these divisions[4].
{3}
OF THE SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS[5].
All the vowels are sometimes long, sometimes short. A long vowel is often marked with an accent, especially when the _quantity_ of the vowel determines the meaning of the word; as, b[`a]s _death_, s[`a]il _the heel_, c[`a]raid _a pair_, r[`i]s _again_, m[`o] _more_, l[`o]n _a marsh_; which are distinguished by the accent alone from bas _the palm_ of the hand, sail _a beam_, caraid _a friend_, ris _to_, lon _the elk_.
All the vowels, but especially the broad ones, have somewhat of a nasal sound when preceded or followed by m, mh, n, nn. No vowels are doubled in the same syllable like _ee_, _oo_, in English.
In almost all polysyllables, excepting some words compounded with a preposition, the accent falls on the first syllable[6]. The other syllables are short and unaccented, and the vowels in that situation have in general the same short obscure sound. Hence it happens that the broad vowels in these syllables are often used indiscriminately.
There are no quiescent final vowels.
A.
A has three sounds.
1. The first is both long and short; long, like _a_ in the English words _far_, _star_; as, [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_, gr[`a]dh, {4} _love_, s[`a]ruich _oppress_; short, like _a_ in _that_; as, cath _a battle_, alt _a joint_; abuich _ripe_.
2. Both long and short, before _dh_ and _gh_. This sound has none like it in English. Long, as, adhbhar _a cause_, adhradh _worship_; short, as, lagh _a law_, magh _a field_, adharc _a horn_.
3. Short and obscure, like _e_ in _mother_; as, an, a _the_, ar _our_, ma _if_, and in the plural termination a or an.
E.
_E_ has three sounds.
1. Both long and short: long, like _e_ in _where, there_; as, [`e], s[`e] _he_, r[`e] _during_. This _e_ is generally marked with a grave accent. Short, like _e_ in _met_; as, le _with_, leth _half_.
2. Long, as, r['e] _the moon_, c['e] _the earth_, and d['e] _yesterday_. This _e_ is commonly marked with an acute accent.
3. Short, like _e_ in _mother_; as, duine _a man_, ceannuichte _bought_.
I.
_I_ has two sounds.
1. Both long and short, like _ee_ in _seem_: long, as, m[`i]n _smooth_, righ _a king_; short, as, min _meal_, crith _trembling_.
2. Short and obscure, like _i_ in _this_; as, is _am_, _art_, &c.
O.
_O_ has three sounds.
1. Both long and short: long, somewhat like _o_ in _more_; as, m[`o]r _great_, [`o]r _gold_, d[`o]chas _expectation_; short, like _o_ in _hot_; as, mo _my_, do _thy_, dochann _harm_.
2. Both long and short: long, nearly like _o_ in _old_; as, lom _bare_, toll _a hole_; short, as, lomadh _making bare_, tolladh _boring_.
3. Both long and short, like (2) a[7]: long, as, foghlum _to learn_; short, as, roghuinn _choice_, logh _to forgive_.
{5}
U.
_U_ has one sound, both long and short, like _oo_ in _fool_: long, as, [`u]r _fresh_, [`u]raich _to renew_; short, as, ubh _an egg_, urras _a surety_.
OF THE DIPHTHONGS.
There are thirteen Diphthongs reckoned in Gaelic; ae, ai, ao, ea, ei, eo, eu; ia, io, iu; oi; ua, ui. Of these, ao, eu, ia, ua, are always long; the others are sometimes long, sometimes short.
AE.
The sound of _ae_ is made up of (1) _a_ long, and (1) _e_ short. This diphthong hardly occurs, except in Gael _a Gaul_ or _Highlander_, and Gaelic the _Gaelic_ language[8].
AI.
The sound of _ai_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of the former.
1. Made up of (1) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, f[`a]idh _a prophet_; the _a_ short, the _i_ short; as, claidheamh _a sword_.
2. Made up of (2) _a_ and (1) _i_: the _a_ long, the _i_ short; as, saighde _arrows_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ often loses its sound, and only serves to qualify the sound of the following consonant[9]; hence,
3. Like (1) _a_ alone: long, as, f[`a]isg _squeeze_, f[`a]ilte _salutation_; short, as, glaic _a hollow_, tais _soft_.
4. Like (2) _a_ alone: short, as, airm _arms_, gairm _a call_.
AO.
1. The sound of _ao_ is like (2) _a_, long: as, caora _a sheep_, faobhar _the edge of a tool_, saothair _labour_.
{6}
EA.
The sound of _ea_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of one of them.
1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _a_: _e_ very short, _a_ long, as, beann _a summit_, _pinnacle_, feall _deceit_; _a_ short, as, meal _to enjoy_, speal _a scythe_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _a_ frequently loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _e_, long: as, dean _do_; short, as, fear _a man_, bean _a woman_.
3. Like (2) _e_, long: as, easlan _sick_; short, as, fead _whistle_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
4. Like (1) _a_, long: as, c[`e]ard _an artificer_; short, as, geal _white_.
5. Like (3) _a_, short: as, itheadh _eating_, coireach _faulty_.
EI.
The sound of _ei_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of _e_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, sgeimh _beauty_; _e_ short, as, meidh _a balance_.
2. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _i_: _e_ long, _i_ short, as, feidh _deer_; _e_ short, as, greigh _a herd_, _stud_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
3. Like (1) _e_ alone: long, as, m[`e]ise _of a plate_.
4. Like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, ['e]igin _necessity_; short, as, eich _horses_.
EO.
The sound of _eo_ is either made up of the sounds of both vowels, or like that of _o_ alone. {7}
1. Made up of (2) _e_ and (1) _o_: _e_ very short, _o_ long, as, beo _alive_, eolas _knowledge_; _o_ short, as, beothail _lively_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _e_ loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _o_: long, as, leomhann _a lion_; short, as, deoch _drink_.
EU.
The sound of _eu_ is like (2) _e_ alone: long, as, teum _to bite_, gleus _trim, entertainment_.
One of the most marked variations of dialect occurs in the pronunciation of the diphthong _eu_, which, instead of being pronounced like long _e_, is over all the North Highlands commonly pronounced like _ia_; as, nial, ian, fiar, for neul, eun, feur.
IA.
The sound of _ia_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels.
1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _a_: both of equal length, as, fial _liberal_, iar _west_.
2. Made up of (1) _i_ and (2) _a_: of equal length, as, fiadh _a deer_, ciall _common sense_.
In cia _which?_ iad _they_, _ia_ is often found like (1) _[`e]_.
IO.
The sound of _io_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like one of them alone.
1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (3) _o_: _i_ long, _o_ short, as, diol _to pay_, fior _true_; _i_ short, as, iolach _a shout_, ionnsuidh _an attack_.
Before a Lingual or Palatal, not quiescent, the _o_ sometimes loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _i_: long, as, iodhol _an idol_; short, as, crios _a girdle_, biorach _pointed_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ {8} sometimes loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
3. Like _u_ in _fun_, short and obscure: as, cionta _guilt_, tiondadh _to turn_.
IU.
The sound of _iu_ is either made up of the sound of both the vowels, or like _u_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _i_ and (1) _u_: _i_ short, _u_ long, as, fi[`u] _worthy_; _u_ short, as, iuchair _a key_.
After a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the preceding consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _u_: long, as, di[`u] _worst part, refuse_; short, as, tiugh _thick_, giuthas _fir_.
OI.
The sound of _oi_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of _o_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, [`o]igh _a virgin_; _o_ short, as, troidh _a foot_.
2. Made up of (3) _o_ and (1) _i_: _o_ long, _i_ short, as, oidhche _night_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
3. Like (1) _o_ long: as, m[`o]id _more_; short, as, toic _wealth_.
4. Like (2) _o_ long: as, f[`o]id _a turf_; short, as, fois _rest_.
5. Like (3) _o_ short; as, coileach _a cock_, doire _a wood_.
UA.
The sound of _ua_ is made up of the sounds of both the vowels.
1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _a_, equally long; as, cuan _the sea_, fuar _cold_.
2. Made up of (1) _u_ and (2) _a_; as, tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. {9}
UI.
The sound of _ui_ is either made up of the sounds of both the vowels, or like that of _u_ alone.
1. Made up of (1) _u_ and (1) _i_: _u_ long, _i_ short, as, suigheag _a rasp-berry_; _u_ short, as, buidheann _a company_.
Before a Lingual or a Palatal, not quiescent, the _i_ loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant; hence,
2. Like (1) _u_ long: as, d[`u]il _expectation_, c[`u]ig _five_; short, as, fuil _blood_, muir _the sea_.
OF THE TRIPHTHONGS.
There are five Triphthongs, in each of which _i_ is the last letter: aoi, eoi, iai, iui, uai. In these the two first vowels have the same sounds and powers as when they form a diphthong. The final _i_ is sounded short; but before a Palatal or a Lingual, not quiescent, it loses its sound, and only qualifies that of the following consonant.
AOI.
1. Made up of _ao_ and (1) _i_; as, caoidh _lamentation_, aoibhneas _joy_, laoigh _calves_.
2. Like _ao_; as, caoineadh _wailing_, maoile _baldness_.
EOI.
1. Made up of (2) _eo_ and (1) _i_; as, geoigh _geese_.
2. Like (1) _eo_; as, meoir _fingers_.
3. Like (2) _eo_; as, deoir _tears_, treoir _ability_.
IAI.
1. Like (1) _ia_; as, fiaire _more awry_.
IUI.
1. Like (2) _iu_; as, ci[`u]il _of music_, fliuiche _more wet_. {10}
UAI.
1. Made up of (1) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, luaithe _quicker_.
2. Made up of (2) _ua_ and (1) _i_; as, cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_.
3. Like (1) _ua_; as, uair _time, an hour_, cluaise _of an ear_.
OF THE POWERS OF THE CONSONANTS.
The simple powers of the consonants differ not much from their powers in English. Those called _mediae_ by the writers on Greek grammar, viz., _b_, _d_, _g_, approach nearer in force to the corresponding _tenues_ _p_, _t_, _c_, than they do in English.
In accented syllables, where, if the vocal sound be short, the voice necessarily rests on the subsequent articulation, the consonants, though written single, are pronounced with the same degree of force as when written double in English; as, bradan _a salmon_, cos _a foot_; pronounced braddan, coss. No consonants are written double except _l_, _n_, _r_.
A propensity to aspiration is a conspicuous feature in the Gaelic tongue[10]. The aspirating of a consonant has been {11} usually marked, in the Irish dialect, by a dot over the letter aspirated; in the Scottish dialect by writing _h_ after it. All the consonants have their sounds changed by being aspirated, and the effect is different on different consonants. In some cases the articulation is changed, but still formed by the same organ. In others the articulation is formed by a different organ. In others the _h_ alone retains its power. And sometimes both the _h_ and the consonant to which it is subjoined become entirely quiescent.
{12}
In treating of the consonants separately, it will be convenient to depart a little from the alphabetical order of the letters, and to consider first the _Labials_, next the _Palatals_, and lastly the _Linguals_.
LABIALS.
P.
1. Plain. Like _p_ in English; as, poll _a pool_, pill _return_.
2. Aspirated. Like _ph_ or _f_ in English; as, a' phuill _of the pool_, phill _returned_[11].
B.
1. Plain. Like _b_ in English; as, baile _a town_, beo _alive_.
2. Aspirated. Like _v_ in English, as, bhuail _struck_. In the end of a syllable the articulation is sometimes feeble, and often passes into the vocal sound of _u_[12]; as in marbh[13] _dead_, garbh _rough_, dabhach _a vat_.
M.
1. Plain. Like _m_ in English; as, mac _a son_, cam _crooked_.
2. Aspirated. Somewhat like _v_ in English, but more feeble and nasal; as, mhathair _O mother_, lamh _the hand_. The sound _mh_ has the same relation to that of _bh_, as the sound of _m_ has to that of b. Sometimes, like _bh_, it becomes a vocal sound like a nasal _u_; as, in damh _an ox_, samhradh _summer_: and sometimes the articulation becomes so feeble as not to be perceived; as, comhradh _speech_, domhainn _deep_.
{13}
F.
1. Plain. Like _f_ in English, as, faigh _to get_, f[`o]id _a turf_.
2. Aspirated. Quiescent; as, fheara _O men_. In fhuair _found_, the aspiration is retained, and the word is pronounced as if written _huair_. It is probable that it was originally written and pronounced fuair[14]; that huair is but a provincial pronunciation[15]; and that to adapt the spelling in some shape to this pronunciation, the word came to be written fhuair.
PALATALS AND LINGUALS.
In treating of the Diphthongs (ai, ea, ei, &c.) notice has been often taken of the powers of certain vowels in modifying the sound of the adjoining consonants. This refers to a twofold mode of pronouncing the Palatal and Lingual consonants, whether _plain_ or _aspirated_. The difference between these two modes of pronunciation is, in some consonants, abundantly striking; in others it is minute, but sufficiently discernible to an ear accustomed to the Gaelic. The one of these modes of articulation belongs to Palatals and Linguals, chiefly when connected with a _broad vowel_; the other belongs to them when connected with a _small vowel_. Hence, the former may be called the _broad_ sound, the latter the _small_ sound of a _Palatal_ or a _Lingual_.
These sounds are not distinguished in writing, but may be known, for the most part, by the relative situation of the letters.
C.
1. Plain. _Broad_: like _c_ in _come_, _curb_; as, c[`u]l _the back_, cridhe _the heart_.
{14}
2. _Small_: like _c_ in _care_, _cure_; as, taic _support_, circe _of a hen_[16].
3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like the Greek [chi], as pronounced in Scotland, in [Greek: chora]; as, croch _to hang_, chaidh _went_.
4. _Small_: like [chi] in [Greek: chion]; as, chi _shall see_, eich _horses_.
G.
1. Plain. _Broad_: like _g_ in _go_, _rogue_; as, gabh _to take_, glor _speech_, bog _soft_.
2. _Small_: like _g_ in _give_, _fatigue_; as, gin _to produce_, thig _shall come_, tilg _to throw_.
3. Aspirated. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; ghabh _took_, ghleidh _kept_.
4. _Small_: nearly like _y_ in _young_; as, ghin _produced_.
5. _Gh_ in the end of a syllable is often quiescent; as, righ _a king_, tiugh _thick_, fuigheall _remainder_.
T.
1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _t_ in _tone_, _bottom_; as, tog _to raise_, trom _heavy_, brat _a covering_.
{15}
2. _Small_: like _ch_ in _cheek_, _choose_; as, tinn _sick_, caillte _lost_.
3. Aspirated. Like _h_ in _house_; as, thig _shall come_, throisg _fasted_, maith _good_.
4. _Quiescent_: in the middle of a polysyllable, in the end of a long syllable, and in certain tenses of a few irregular verbs when preceded by _d'_; as, snitheach[17] _watery_, s[`i]th _peace_, an d' thug e? _did he give?_ also in the pronoun thusa _thou_.
D.
1. Plain. _Broad_: nearly like _d_ in _done_; as, dol _going_, dl[`u] _near_, _close_, ciod _what_.
2. _Small_: like _j_ in _June_, _jewel_; as, di[`u] _refuse_, maide _a stick_, airde _height_.
_D_, after _ch_, is commonly sounded like _c_; as, bochd _poor_, pronounced as if written bochc[18].
{16}
3. Aspirated[19]. _Broad_: like broad _gh_, as, dhruid _did shut_, gradh _love_.
4. _Small_: like small _gh_; as, dhearc _looked_.
5. Quiescent; as, f[`a]idh _a prophet_, cridhe _a heart_, radh _saying_, bualadh _striking_.
RULE.--_The consonants c, g, t, d, have their _SMALL_ sound, when, in the same syllable, they are preceded, or immediately followed, by a _SMALL VOWEL_; in all other situations they have their _BROAD_ sound._
S.
1. Plain. _Broad_: like _s_ in _sun_, _this_; as, speal _a scythe_, cas _a foot_, s[`u]il _an eye_, scian _a knife_.
2. _Small_: like _sh_ in _show_, _rash_; as, bris _to break_, s[`e]imh _quiet_, sniomh _to twine_, st['e]idh _foundation_.
3. Aspirated: like _h_ in _him_; as, shuidh _sat_, shrann _snorted_. Before _l_ and _n_, it is almost, if not altogether, quiescent; as, shlanuich _healed_, shniomh _twisted_. _S_ followed by a _mute_ consonant is never aspirated.
RULE.--_S has its _SMALL_ sound, when, in the same syllable, it is preceded or followed by a _SMALL VOWEL_, with or without an intervening Lingual. In all other situations it has its _BROAD_ sound._ EXCEPT. _S_ is _broad_ in is _am_. It is _small_ in so _this_, sud _yon_. It is customary to give _s_ its _broad_ sound in the beginning of a word, when the former word ends with _r_, in which case the _r_ also has its broad sound; as, chuir sinn _we put_, air son _on account_.
{17}
OF L, N, R.
A distinction between a consonant when _plain_, and the same consonant when _aspirated_, has been easily traced thus far. This distinction readily discovers itself, not only in the pronunciation and orthography, but also (as will be seen in its proper place) throughout the system of inflection. It takes place uniformly in those consonants which have been already considered. With respect to the remaining linguals, _l_, _n_, _r_, a corresponding distinction will be found to take place in their pronunciation, and likewise in the changes they suffer by inflection. This close correspondence between the changes incident to _l_, _n_, _r_, and the changes which the other consonants undergo, seems to be a sufficient reason for still using the same discriminative terms in treating of their powers, though these terms may not appear to be so strictly applicable to these three consonants as to the rest. The powers of _l_, _n_, _r_, shall accordingly be explained under the divisions _plain_ and _aspirated_, _broad_ and _small_.
L.
1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; lom _bare_, labhair _speak_, mall _slow_, alt _a joint_, ald _a brook_, slat _a rod_, dl[`u] _near_.
2. _Small_: like _ll_ in _million_; as, linn _an age_, lion _fill_, pill _to return_, slighe _a way_.
3. Aspirated. _Broad_: like _l_ in _loom_, _fool_; as, labhair _spoke_, lom feminine of lom _bare_, mol _to praise_, dhl[`u] feminine of dl[`u] _near_.
4. _Small:_ nearly like _l_ in _limb_, _fill_; as, a linn _his age_, lion _filled_, mil _honey_, dligheach _due, lawful_.
N.
1. Plain. _Broad_: has no sound like it in English; nuadh _new_, naisg _bind_, lann _a blade_, carn _a heap of stones_.
2. _Small_: like _n_ in the second syllable of _opinion_; as, nigh _wash_, binn _melodious_, cuirn _heaps of stones_. {18}
3. Aspirated. _Broad:_ like _n_ in _no_, _on_; as, nuadh feminine of nuadh _new_, naisg _bound_, shnamh _swam_, sean _old_[20], chon _of dogs_, d[`a]n _a poem_.
4. _Small_: like _n_ in _keen_, _near_; as, nigh _washed_, shniomh _twisted_, coin _dogs_, d[`a]in _poems_.
In an when followed by a Palatal, the _n_ is pronounced like _ng_ in English; as, an gille _the lad_, an comhnuidh _always_.
_N_, after a mute, is in a few instances pronounced like _r_[21]; as in mnathan _women_, cnatan _a cold_, an t-sn[`a]th _of the yarn_; pronounced mrathan, cratan, &c.
R.
1. Plain. Nearly like _r_ in _roar_; as, ruadh _reddish_, righ _a king_, ruith _run_, torr _a heap_, ceartas _justice_.
2. Aspirated. _Broad_: nearly like _r_ in _rear_; as, car _a turn_, ruith _ran_, m[`o]r _great_.
3. _Small_: has no sound like it in English; a righ _O king_, seirbhe _satiety_, m[`o]ir gen. of m[`o]r _great_.
The _plain_, _aspirated_, _broad_, and _small_ sounds of these Linguals are not distinguished in writing; but they may, for the most part, be known from the relative position of the letters.
RULE.--L, N, R, _have their _PLAIN_ sound when, in the same syllable, they are immediately preceded by a plain Liquid, or immediately followed by a plain Lingual; also in the beginning of certain cases and tenses; in all other situations, they have their _ASPIRATED_ sound. They have their _SMALL_ sound when, in the same syllable, they are preceded or followed by a small vowel, with or without an intervening Liquid; in other situations, they have their _BROAD_ sound._
{19}
H.
H is never used as an independent radical letter. When prefixed to a word beginning with a vowel, it is pronounced like h in _how_; as, na h-[`o]ighean _the virgins_, na h-oidhche _of the night_.
The following scheme exhibits a succinct view of the letters, both singly and in their several combinations. The first column contains the letters whose sound is to be exhibited; the prefixed figures marking the number of different sounds denoted by the same letter. The second column explains the sounds by examples or by references. The third column contains Gaelic words, with their translation, in which the several sounds are exemplified.
VOWELS.
1 a {long far star [`a]r _slaughter_, [`a]th _a ford_. {short that ar _to plow_, abu[^i]ch _ripe_.
2 a {long adhradh _worship_, adhbhar _reason_. {short adharc _a horn_, adhart _a bolster_.
3 a short similar ma _if_, an _the_, a _his, her_.
1 e {long there [`e] s[`e] _he_, gn[`e] _sort, kind_. {short met le _with_, leth _half_.
2 e long an d['e] _yesterday_, c['e] _the earth_.
3 e short mother duine _a man_, briste _broken_.
1 i see {m[`i]n _smooth_, righ _a king_. {min _meal_, crith _a shaking_.
2 i short this is _am, art, is_.
1 o {long more m[`o]r _great_, l[`o]n _food_. {short hot mo _my_, do _thy_, lon _the ouzle_.
2 o {long } old lom _bare_, toll _a hole_. {short} lomadh _making bare_.
3 o {long } (2) a roghnuich _to choose_. {short} roghuinn _choice_. {20}
1 u {long } fool {[`u]r _fresh_, s[`u]gh _juice_. {short} {ubh _an egg_, tur _quite_.
DIPHTHONGS.
1 ae (1) a (2) e laeth _days_. 1 ai (1) a (1) i f[`a]idh _a prophet_, claidheamh _a sword_. 2 ai (2) a (1) i saidhbhir, _rich_. 3 ai (1) a f[`a]isg _squeeze_, tais _soft_. 4 ai (2) a airm _arms_, gairm _to call_. 1 ao (2) a faobhar _edge_ of an instrument. 1 ea (2) e (1) a beann _a pinnacle_, meal _enjoy_. 2 ea (1) e dean _to do, make_, bean _a woman_. 3 ea (2) e easlan _sick_, fead _whistle_. 4 ea (1) a ceard _an artificer_, geal _white_. 5 ea (3) a coireach _faulty_. 1 ei (1) e (1) i sg[`e]imh _beauty_, meidh _a balance_. 2 ei (2) e (1) i feidh _deer_, greigh _a herd_. 3 ei (1) e m[`e]ise _of a plate_. 4 ei (2) e ['e]igin _necessity_, eich _horses_. 1 eo (2) e (1) o beo _alive_, beothail _lively_. 2 eo (1) o leomhann _a lion_, deoch _a drink_. 1 eu (2) e teum _to bite_, gleus _trim_. 1 ia (1) i (1) a fial _liberal_, fiar _oblique_. 2 ia (1) i (2) a fiadh _a deer_, biadh _food_. 1 io (1) i (3) o diol _to pay_, iolach _a spout_. 2 io (1) i iodhol _an idol_, crios _a girdle_. 3 io fun cionta _guilt_. 1 iu (1) i u fi[`u] _worth_, iuchair _a key_. 2 iu u di[`u] _refuse_, tiugh _thick_. 1 oi (1) o (1) i [`o]igh _a virgin_, troidh _a foot_. 2 oi (3) o (1) i oidhche _night_. 3 oi (1) o m[`o]id _more_, toic _wealth_. 4 oi (2) o f[`o]id _a turf_, fois _rest_. 5 oi (3) o coileach _a cock_, goirid _short_. 1 ua u (1) a cuan _the sea_, fuath _hatred_. 2 ua u (2) a tuadh _a hatchet_, sluagh _people_. {21} 1 ui u (1) i s[`u]igheah _a raspberry_, buidheann _a company_. 2 ui u d[`u]il _expectation_, fuil _blood_.
TRIPHTHONGS.
1 aoi (1) ao (1) i caoidh _lamentation_. 2 aoi (1) ao caoin _mild_, saoil _to think_. 1 eoi (2) eo (1) i geoigh _geese_. 2 eoi (1) eo meoir _fingers_. 3 eoi (2) eo deoir _tears_. 1 iai (1) ia fiaire _more oblique_. 1 iui (2) iu ci[`u]il _of music_. 1 uai (1) ua (1) i luaithe _quicker_. 2 uai (2) ua (1) i cruaidh _hard_, fuaim _sound_. 3 uai (1) ua gluais _to move_, uair _time_.
CONSONANTS
_Labials._
1 p part poll _a pool_, streap _to climb_. 2 ph Philip phill _returned_. 1 b boil baile _a town_, breab _to kick_. 2 bh vile bhuail _struck_, gabh _to take_. 1 m my m[`o]r _great_, anam _life, soul_. 2 mh mhothuich _perceived_, damh _an ox_. 1 f feel fill _to fold_. 2 fh _quiescent_ fheara _O men_.
_Palatals._
1 c cock can _to say, sing_, creid _to believe_. 2 c kick ceann _end, head_, reic _to sell_. 3 ch [Greek: chora] chaidh _went_, rach _go_. 4 ch [Greek: cheimon] chi _shall see_, cr[`i]che _of a boundary_. 1 g go gabh _to take_, rag _stiff_. {22} 2 g give geinne _a wedge_, ruig _to reach_. 3 gh ghabh _took_, ghleidh _kept_. 4 gh you gheibh _will get_. 5 _quiescent_ righ _a king_, sluagh _people_.
_Linguals._
1 t tone tog _to raise_, slat _a rod_. 2 t chin tinn _sick_, [`a]ite _a place_. 3 th have thainig _came_. 4 th _quiescent_ maith _good_, f[`a]th _occasion_. 1 d done dol _going_, dragh _trouble_. 2 d join diom _resentment_, maide _a stick_. 3 dh (3) gh dhall _blind_. 4 dh (4) gh dhearc _looked_. 5 dh _quiescent_ radh _saying_, bualadh _threshing_. 1 s so sannt _desire_, sloc _a pit_. 2 s show s[`e]imh _gentle_, so _this_. 3 sh how shuidh _sat_, shaoil _thought_. 1 l lom _bare_, slat _a rod_, moll _chaff_. 2 l million l[`i]nn _an age_, caillte _lost_. 3 l look bl[`a]th _blossom_, shlanuich _healed_. 4 l believe leum _leaped_, shleamhnuich _slipped_. 1 n crann _a tree_, naomh _holy_, naisg _bind_. 2 n opinion seinn _to sing_, nigh _wash_. 3 n no fan _to stay_, naisg _bound_. 4 n near coin _dogs_, nigh _washed_. 1 r roar fearr _better_, righ _a king_, ruith _run_. 2 r rear fear _a man_, ruith _ran_. 3 r fir _men_, a righ _O king_, treoir _strength_.
There is no doubt that the Gaelic has been for many ages a written language. It is equally certain that its orthography, since it was first committed to writing, has undergone {23} considerable changes. In this respect it has shared the common fate of all written languages.
In the first exhibition of the sounds of a living language, by alphabetical characters, it is probable that the principle which regulated the system of orthography was, that every elementary sound should be represented by a corresponding character, either simple or compounded, and that the same sound should be represented by the same character. If different sounds were represented by the same letter; if the same sound were represented by different letters; if more letters were employed then were necessary to exhibit the sound; or if any sound were not represented by a corresponding character; then the _written_ language would not be an adequate representation of the _spoken_. It is hardly to be supposed that, in the first rude attempts at alphabetical writing, the principle above laid down could be strictly and uniformly followed. And though it had, yet, in the course of a few generations, many causes would occur to bring about considerable departures from it. A gradual refinement of ear, and increasing attention to _euphonia_; contractions and elisions brought into vogue by the carelessness or the rapidity of colloquial speech, or by the practice of popular speakers; above all, the mixture of the speech of different nations would introduce numberless varieties into the pronunciation. Still, those who wrote the language might choose to adhere to the original orthography for the sake of retaining the radical parts, and preserving the etymon of vocables undisguised, and for maintaining an uniformity in the mechanism of the inflections. Hence the pronunciation and the orthography would disagree in many instances, till at length it would be found expedient to alter the orthography, and to adapt it to such changes in the speech or spoken language as long use had established, in order to maintain what was most necessary of all, a due correspondence between the mode of speaking and the mode of writing the same language.
It will probably be found on inquiry that in all languages when the _speech_ has undergone material and striking changes, {24} the _written language_ also has varied in a considerable degree in conformity to these changes, but that it has not scrupulously kept pace with the spoken language in every smaller variation. The written language of the Greeks suffered many changes between the time that the old Pelasgic was spoken and the days of Demosthenes. The various modes of pronunciation used in the different districts of Greece are marked by a diversity in the orthography of the written language. The writing of the Latin underwent considerable alterations between the era of the _Decemviri_ and the Augustan age, corresponding, no doubt, to the changes which had taken place during that interval in speaking the Latin. English and French books printed within the last century exhibit a mode of orthography very different from what is found in books printed two or three hundred years ago. These instances show the tendency which the written language has to follow the lead of the spoken language, and to maintain a certain degree of conformity to those modes of pronunciation which are from time to time adopted by those who speak it.
On the other hand, numberless examples might be adduced from any living language to prove that the written language does not adapt itself, on all occasions and with strict uniformity, to the sounds of speech. Words are written differently which are pronounced alike. The same combinations of letters, in different situations, represent different sounds. Letters are retained in writing, serving to point out the derivations of words, after they have been entirely dropped in speaking.
From such facts as these, it appears a just conclusion that _written language_ generally follows the _spoken language_ through its various revolutions, but still at a certain distance,--not dropping so far behind as to lose sight of its precursor, nor following so close as to be led through all its fantastic deviations.
Here a question occurs of importance in settling the orthography of any particular tongue: How near ought the _written language_ to correspond to the _spoken_, and where may a disagreement between them be allowed with {25} propriety? The following observations may serve to throw some light on the subject of this question, though by no means sufficient to furnish a complete answer.
It is obvious that in speech the _articulations_ (which are represented by consonants in writing) are the least liable to variation. _Vowel sounds_ are continually varying. In this variety chiefly consists that diversity of tone and dialect which is found in the speech of different districts of the same country, where the same words are spoken. The changes, too, which are introduced by time fall with greater effect on the vowel sounds than on the articulations. This circumstance will strike an observer who steps into any deliberative assembly, where the speakers are of different ages. St Jerome makes a remark on the reading of Hebrew, which is applicable, in some measure, to the pronunciation of all languages: "Nec refert utrum _Salem_ aut _Salim_ nominetur; cum vocalibus in medio literis perraro utantur Hebraei; et pro voluntate lectorum, ac _varietate regionum_, eadem verba _diversis sonis_ atque accentibus proferantur." It may be observed that the superior stability of the articulations above the vowel sounds is the natural consequence of the position of the organs of speech in uttering them. The different modifications of the vowel sounds are effected by minute changes in the conformation of the organs; those of the articulations are made by more distinct and operose inflections of the organs.
It seems, then, a warrantable conclusion that, of the elementary constituents of speech, viz., articulations and vowel sounds, the _articulations_ are, in their own nature, ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the _vowel sounds_, comparatively considered, are ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.
Further, all the vowel sounds that usually occur in speech seem to be uttered with equal ease, in whatever situation they occur, as the same organs are employed for all. In forming the common articulations of speech, as different organs are employed, a degree of difficulty is sometimes felt in making a transition from one articulation to another. {26} Thus a difficulty will occasionally occur in pronouncing certain words, where the general analogy of inflection or of collocation has brought together articulations which do not easily coalesce. Hence a necessity arises of departing in such a case from the general analogy, and altering or displacing some of those discrepant articulations, for the sake of ease and convenience in pronunciation, and to relieve the ear from an offensive discordant sound. Departures are made from the general rules of speech in the case of the vowel sounds also, of which the Greek tongue abounds with examples. These departures, however, seem to have been made from a desire to indulge the ear in certain national predilections or aversions which it had conceived with regard to particular sounds. In examining the anomalies of speech, or those peculiarities which have been reckoned anomalous, it will be found that such of them as affect the articulations have, for the most part, been adopted for the purpose of ease and convenience in pronunciation; while those which affect the vowel sounds have proceeded from the peculiar taste of the speakers. Thus the former spring from a cause urgent and constant in its nature, and uniform in its operation; the latter, from a cause local and temporary in its nature, and variable in its operation.
If this theory be just, it ought to follow that, in all polished tongues, an agreement will be found among those irregularities which affect the articulations, that is not so observable in those which affect the vowel sounds. There is reason to believe that, if a full comparison were made between different languages, this would accordingly be found to be the case. Let it be observed, then, that in speech a deference has been usually paid to the articulations which has not been paid to the vowel sounds, inasmuch as the latter have been changed from the state in which the structure of each tongue had at first placed them, frequently and from peculiar taste or humour; the former more rarely, and for the most part from necessity. If this observation be found to be well supported, we shall have the sanction of general practice in favour of the conclusion that was formerly {27} drawn from the nature of articulate sounds, viz., that the articulations are ESSENTIAL, PERMANENT, and PREDOMINANT; the vowel sounds ADJUNCTIVE, FLUCTUATING, and SERVILE.
If it appear, then, that the vowel sounds in speech are perpetually varying in the mouths of different speakers, from causes which either elude our search, or, when discovered, are seen to be of small importance, may we not judge that it would be equally vain and improper to attempt to make _Writing_ follow all these minute variations; and that, however it may happen that the same vowel sound may be represented in many instances by different letters, and different vowel sounds by the same letters, yet this disagreement between _Speech_ and _Writing_ must be connived at, for the sake of preserving some degree of uniformity, where alone it can be preserved, in the _written language_? If it appear, again, that the variations from the established analogy which are made on the articulations are less frequent, and proceed from causes obvious and cogent, ought not these variations to be exhibited in writing, for preserving that general correspondence between the written and the spoken language which ought to be preserved, as far as the limited powers of letters will permit, and without which the words I speak and those I write do not belong to the same language?
One exception from this principle seems allowable in the case of quiescent consonants. It may be inferred, from the practice of all living languages, that consonants whereof the corresponding articulations have been suppressed in speaking may yet be retained with propriety in writing, when they are requisite to point out the derivation of vocables, or the radical part of declinable words. But this exception ought to be allowed only to a moderate extent, for the reasons already assigned; to which it may be added, that the far greater part of the suppressed articulations can be easily discovered and retraced to their roots, without any index in the _written_ any more than in the _spoken_ language to point them out. {28}
These observations being premised, I shall proceed to explain the present state of Gaelic Orthography, and shall endeavour to assist the reader in forming a judgment of its merit, and how far it may admit of improvement.
I. It may be laid down as one settled principle in orthography, that each letter or combination of letters in the written language ought always to denote one and the same sound. From the explanation that has been given of the powers of the letters, it may be seen how far this principle has been regarded in the Gaelic. Though almost every one of the letters represents more than one sound, yet there is an evident affinity between the several sounds of the same letter. And it may be readily allowed that less confusion and inconvenience follow from exhibiting a few kindred sounds by the same letter, than would have taken place had the characters been multiplied to such a degree as that a separate one could have been appropriated to each minute variety of sound.
It is obvious to remark, as a departure from this principle, that in the case of the consonants _l_, _n_, _r_, the distinction between their _plain_ and their _aspirated_ state is not marked in writing, but that in both states the consonant is written in one way. In the middle and end of words, as has been shown, this distinction may be known from the relative situation of the letters. In the beginning of certain cases and tenses of declinable words, it may often be known from their _grammatical_ connection, but is not marked by any _graphical_ index whatever. The proper reading is to be determined by the sense of the passage, instead of the sense being understood by the proper reading. It is not easy to discover how those who first committed the Gaelic to writing neglected to mark such a material distinction. Inconveniencies and ambiguities not unfrequently arise from this cause, which have been long felt and regretted. Is there room to hope that it is not yet too late to recommend a method of remedying this defect? The method I would suggest is the most simple and obvious of any. It is to annex to the initial _l_, _n_, and _r_, in their aspirated state, the letter _h_, just as has been {29} done to all the other consonants. The analogy of orthography would thus be maintained, the system of inflection would be more justly exhibited, and carried on by an uniform process in _Writing_ as it is in _Speech_, and errors in reading and ambiguities in syntax would be avoided[22].
II. Another principle of authority in regulating orthography is, that each sound ought always to be represented by one and the same letter, or combination of letters. The deviations from this rule in Gaelic are extremely few. The sound of _ao_ is represented sometimes by _a_ alone, sometimes by _o_ alone. The sound of _gh_ is represented also by _dh_; and final _c_ often, though corruptly, represents the same sound with _chd_.
III. A third principle in orthography is, that no more letters ought to be employed than are necessary to represent the sound. There are probably few polished languages in which departures from this rule are not found in abundance. Reasons have been already mentioned which render it expedient to retain letters in writing many words, after the corresponding sounds have been dropped in pronouncing the same words. Quiescent letters, both vowels and consonants, are not unfrequent in Gaelic. Though these quiescent letters have no sound themselves, they are not always without effect in pronunciation, as they often determine the sound of other letters. Most, if not all, the quiescent vowels seem to have been introduced for this purpose. They ascertain the _broad_ or the _small_ sound of the adjoining {30} consonants. This has been made sufficiently clear in treating of the vowels and diphthongs separately. A consonant, as has been shown, has its _broad_ sound, both when preceded and when followed by a broad vowel; and in like manner has its _small_ sound, both when preceded and when followed by a small vowel. If a consonant were preceded by a vowel of one quality, and followed by one of a different quality, the reader, it has been thought, might be doubtful whether that consonant ought to be pronounced with its broad or with its small sound. Hence this rule has long obtained in Gaelic orthography, that in polysyllables the last vowel of one syllable and the first vowel of the subsequent syllable must be both of the same quality[23]. To the extensive application and the rigid observance of this rule it is owing that so many diphthongs appear where one vowel is sufficient to express the vocal sound, and that the homogeneous vowels, when used in their quiescent capacity, are often exchanged for each other, or written indiscriminately[24]. From the former of these circumstances, most of the words in the language appear loaded with superfluous vowels; from the latter, the orthography of many words appears, in some respects, arbitrary and unsettled. Even a partial correction of these blemishes must be desirable. It may therefore be worth while to examine this long established canon of Gaelic orthography, with a view to discover whether it has not been extended farther than is necessary, and whether it ought not in many cases to be set aside.
We have seen that the Labials _b_, _m_, _f_, _p_, whether aspirated or not, have no distinction of broad and small sound.
{31} It cannot, then, be necessary to employ vowels, either prefixed or postfixed, to indicate the sound of these. Thus, abuich _ripe_, gabhaidh _will take_, chromainn _I would bow_, ciomaich _captives_, have been written with a broad vowel in the second syllable, corresponding to the broad vowel in the first syllable; yet the letters abich, gabhidh, chrominn, ciomich, fully exhibit the sound. The prepositive syllable im, when followed by a small vowel, is written im, as in imlich _to lick_, imcheist _perplexity_. But when the first vowel of the following syllable is broad, it has been the practice to insert an _o_ before the _m_, as in iomlan _complete_, iomghaoth _a whirlwind_, iomluasg _agitation_. Yet the inserted _o_ serves no purpose, either in respect of derivation, of inflection, or of pronunciation. The unnecessary application of the rule in question appears most unequivocally in words derived from other languages. From the Latin words _imago_, _templum_, _liber_, are formed in Gaelic iomhaigh, teampull, leabhar. Nothing but a servile regard to the rule under consideration could have suggested the insertion of a broad vowel in the first syllable of these words, where it serves neither to guide the pronunciation, nor to point out the derivation.
Another case, in which the observation of this rule seems to be wholly unnecessary, is when two syllables of a word are separated by a quiescent consonant. Thus in gleidheadh _keeping_, itheadh _eating_, buidheann _a company_, dligheach _lawful_, the aspirated consonants in the middle are altogether quiescent. The vocal sound of the second syllable is sufficiently expressed by the last vowel. No good reason, then, appears for writing a small vowel in the second syllable.
Thus far it is evident that the rule respecting the correspondence of vowels is wholly impertinent in the case of syllables divided by Labials, or by quiescent consonants. If we examine further into the application of this rule, we shall find more cases in which it may be safely set aside.
Many of the inflections of nouns and verbs are formed by adding one or more syllables to the root. The final {32} consonant of the root must always be considered as belonging to the radical part, not to the adjected termination. The sound of that consonant, whether broad or small, falls to be determined by the quality of the vowel which precedes it in the same syllable, not by the quality of that which follows it in the next syllable. It seems, therefore, unnecessary to employ any more vowels in the adjected syllable than what are sufficient to represent its own vocal sound. The rule under consideration has, notwithstanding, been extended to the orthography of the oblique cases and tenses, and a supernumerary vowel has been thrown into the termination, whenever that was requisite to preserve the supposed necessary correspondence with the foregoing syllable. Thus, in forming the nominative and dative plural of many nouns, the syllables _an_ and _ibh_ are added to the singular, which letters fully express the true sound of these terminations. If the last vowel of the nominative singular is broad, _an_ alone is added for the nominative plural; as, lamh-an _hands_, cluas-an _ears_. But if the last vowel be small, an _e_ is thrown into the termination; as, s[`u]il-ean _eyes_, sr[`o]in-ean _noses_. Now if it be observed that, in the two last examples, the small sound of the _l_ and _n_ in the root is determined by the preceding small vowel _i_, with which they are necessarily connected in one syllable, and that the letters _an_ fully represent the sound of the termination, it must be evident that the _e_ in the final syllable is altogether superfluous. So in forming the dative plural: if the last vowel of the root be small, _ibh_ is added; as, s[`u]il-ibh, sroin-ibh. But if the last vowel of the root is broad, the termination is written _aibh_; as, lamh-aibh, cluas-aibh, where the _a_, for the reason already assigned, is totally useless.
These observations apply with equal justness to the tenses of verbs, as will be seen by comparing the following examples: creid-idh _will believe_, stad-aidh _will stop_; chreid-inn _I would believe_, stad-_a_inn _I would stop_; creid-_e_am _let me believe_, stad-am _let me stop_; creid-ibh _believe ye_, stad-_a_ibh _stop ye_.
The same observations may be further applied to derivative words, formed by adding to their primitives the syllables {33} _ach_, _achd_, _ag_, _an_, _ail_, _as_; in all which _e_ has been unnecessarily introduced, when the last vowel of the preceding syllable was small; as, sannt-ach _covetous_, toil-_e_ach _willing_; naomh-achd _holiness_, doimhn-_e_achd _depth_; sruth-an _a rivulet_, cuil-_e_an _a whelp_; cauch-ag _a little cup_, cail-_e_ag _a girl_; fear-ail _manly_, caird-_e_il _friendly_[25]; ceart-as _justice_, caird-_e_as _friendship_.
The foregoing observations appear sufficient to establish this general conclusion, that in all cases in which a vowel serves neither to exhibit the vocal sound, nor to modify the articulations of _the syllable to which it belongs_, it may be reckoned nothing better than an useless incumbrance. There seems, therefore, much room for simplifying the present system of Gaelic Orthography, by the rejection of a considerable number of quiescent vowels[26].
{34}
Almost the only quiescent consonants which occur in Gaelic are _d_, _f_, _g_, _s_, _t_, in their aspirated state. When these occur in the inflections of declinable words, serving to indicate the Root, or in derivatives, serving to point out the primitive word, the omission of them might, on the whole, be unadvisable. Even when such letters appear in their absolute form, though they have been laid aside in pronunciation, yet it would be rash to discard them in writing, as they often serve to show the affinity of the words in which they are found to others in different languages, or in different dialects of the Celtic. The aspirated form of the consonant in writing sufficiently shows that, in speaking, its articulation is either attenuated or wholly suppressed.
The writers of Gaelic seem to have carefully avoided bringing into apposition two vowels which belong to different syllables. For this purpose they have sometimes introduced a quiescent consonant into the middle of compound or of inflected words; as, gneidheil, or rather gnethail _kindly_, made up of gn[`e] and ail; beothail _lively_, made up of beo and ail; diathan _gods_, from the singular dia; lathaibh _days_, from the singular l[`a], &c. It may at least bear a question, whether it would not be better to allow the vowels to denote the sound of the word by their own powers, without the intervention of quiescent consonants, as has been done in {35} mnaibh _women_, d['e]ibh _gods_, rather than insert consonants which have nothing to do with either the radical or the superadded articulations of the word.
From the want of an established standard in orthography, the writers of Gaelic, in spelling words wherein quiescent consonants occurred, must have been often doubtful which of two or three consonants was the proper one, and may therefore have differed in their manner of spelling the same word. Accordingly we find, in many instances, the same words written by different writers, and even at different times by the same writer, with different quiescent consonants. This variation affects not indeed the pronunciation, or does it in a very slight degree. Hence, however, some who judge of the language only from its appearance in writing, have taken occasion to vilify it, as unfixed and nonsensical[27]. A proper attention to the affinity which the Scottish Gaelic bears to some other languages, particularly to other dialects of the Celtic, might contribute to fix the orthography in some cases where it appears doubtful, or has become variable[28].
IV. The last principle to be mentioned, which ought to regulate orthography, is that every sound ought to be represented by a corresponding character. From this rule there is hardly a single deviation in Gaelic, as there is no sound in the spoken language which is not, in some measure, {36} exhibited in the written language. The fault of the Gaelic orthography is sometimes a redundancy, but never a deficiency of letters.
A few observations on the mode of writing some particular words, or particular parts of speech, remain to be brought forward in the sequel of this work, which it would be premature to introduce here.
The Scottish writers of Gaelic in general followed the Irish orthography, till after the middle of the last century. However that system may suit the dialect of Ireland, it certainly is not adapted to the Gaelic of this country. In the Gaelic translation of the New Testament, printed in 1767, not only were most of the Irish idioms and inflections which had been admitted into the Scottish Gaelic writings rejected, and the language adapted to the dialect of the Scottish Highlands, but the orthography also was adapted to the language. In later publications, the manner of writing the language was gradually assimilated to that pattern. The Gaelic version of the sacred Scriptures lately published has exhibited a model, both of style and orthography, still more agreeable to the purest Scottish idiom, and has a just title to be acknowledged as the standard in both. Little seems to be now wanting to confer on the orthography of the Scottish Gaelic such a degree of uniformity as may redeem its credit and ensure its stability. This, it is to be hoped, may be attained by a judicious regard to the separate, and especially the relative powers of the letters, to the most common and approved modes of pronunciation, to the affinity of the Scottish Gaelic with other branches of the Celtic tongue, to the analogy of inflection and derivation, and, above all, to the authority of some generally received standard, to which pre-eminence the late Gaelic version of the Scriptures has the only indisputable claim.
* * * * *
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