Part 8

In past winters some kills had been located that had been only partly eaten, but in each case the carcasses were soon revisited and cleaned up (Mech 1970). This was often not the case in 1969. For the rest of the winter most of the deer killed by wolves in our study area were not as completely consumed as in previous winters. Pimlott _et al._ (1969) found a similar relationship between the severity of the winter and the degree to which wolf-killed deer were utilized.

Correlated with the above information was the kill history of our radiotagged wolves (Mech _et al._, p. 1). From December 1968 through January 1969 No. 1051 had killed three or possibly four deer, and generally had spent 6 or 7 days feeding on each. However, throughout most of February this animal visited a new deer carcass (which presumably he killed) every 3 days, and he spent only 1 or 2 days at each. In two cases two new carcasses were found in the immediate vicinity of this animal during the same day, and in each case the wolf spent only 1 day in the area. A second wolf (1053) which had spent most of December and January scavenging on the remains of both deer and moose (_Alces alces_) that had died long before, made her first known kill of a deer on January 31, 1969. The kill rate of the other three radiotagged wolves also increased, although the data for them are less complete. The average kill rate for all radiotagged wolves and their associates was one deer per wolf per 16 to 20 days before February 1, and one per 8 to 12 days after February 1 (see Mech _et al._, p. 1).

FOOTNOTES:

[36] _M. H. Stenlund. Personal correspondence to L. D. Mech, Oct. 10, 1969._

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Under usual snow conditions throughout most of the range of the white-tailed deer, healthy vigorous individuals can probably escape most attacks by wolves. Observations by Mech (1966), Rutter and Pimlott (1968), and Mech _et al._ (p. 1) indicate that a high percentage of attempts by wolves to kill deer during winter are unsuccessful. This is further implied by the figures of Pimlott _et al._ (1969) and Mech and Frenzel (p. 35) showing that at least during winter wolves tend to kill a disproportionate number of old deer as well as those with various abnormalities and pathological conditions.

However, during a winter with extremely deep snow, the usual relationships seem to change somewhat. Fewer deer are able to escape wolves, and a surplus is killed. This means that some individuals not vulnerable under the usual snow conditions become vulnerable during extreme conditions. There are two main possible reasons for this, the effect of the extreme weather conditions on the health and vigor of the deer, and the physical effect of the snow on the escapability of the deer.

In regard to the first possibility, there was limited evidence that during February and March 1969 some fawns and yearlings in our study area were losing their fat stores. Two of three yearlings, and both fawns intact enough for examination during this period lacked back fat, and the marrow in one of six fawn femurs was partly fat depleted. Nevertheless, the third yearling inspected still had back fat, and a 3-1/2-year-old doe had heavy omental, renal, heart, and back fat during the same period. Thus, although an abnormal decline in the physical condition of some deer in the late winter might partly account for the increased kill by wolves during February and March 1969, the effect of snow on the escapability of the deer probably was also involved.

The key difference in snow conditions between the two periods--(1) the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and December-January 1968-69, and (2) February and March 1969--was the heavy, persisting accumulation of snow during the latter period, combined with the increasing density of the snow. As our observations show, this greatly hindered the movements of deer fleeing from wolves.

Under more usual conditions, a running deer might sink through the snow to the ground and thus obtain a firm footing from which to spring again. In discussing wolf-caribou relations in snow, Kelsall (1968, p. 249) stated the following: "While caribou (_Rangifer tarandus_) will sink into snow even deeper than wolves, their longer legs permit them to run efficiently where a wolf will bog down. Nasimovich (1955) considered that roe deer and sika deer could be taken by wolves when snow was not more than 30 cm. (11.8 inches) in depth. At depths above that their pursuit becomes difficult or fruitless."

However, it appears that when snow becomes extremely deep, wolves then gain the advantage. With 22 to 48 inches or more of snow to plow through, a deer would have trouble even touching a firm foundation. According to Kelsall (1969), deer measure only 20 to 24 inches from hoof tip to chest, with legs extended.

It is true that wolves stand even shorter than deer and so might be expected to flounder even more. However, this is where another factor becomes important, the "weight-load-on-track" or total weight per area of track. As Kelsall (1969) has pointed out, the mean weight-load-on-track for deer is extremely difficult to measure directly, because the actual under-surface of the deer's foot slants vertically, and a much greater area may be used to support an animal in snow than on a hard surface. This probably explains the discrepancy between Kelsall's measurements and work done by Verme (1968) in Michigan. According to Kelsall, deer weight-load-on-track (hoof only) varies between 431 and 1,124 gm./cm.^2. However, Verme stated that his compaction gauge (with a weight load of about 211 gm./cm.^2, described earlier in this paper) sank in virtually the same amount in snow as did deer. Under the snow conditions in our study area, we found that the same type of compaction gauge generally penetrated to a depth within a half inch of that to which deer were sinking. On this basis, it seems reasonable to suggest that a deer in snow is supported by more of its foot than just the hoof, and that the actual weight-load-on-track of deer in snow is about 211 gm./cm.^2.

For wolves, this measure varies from 89 to 103 gm./cm.^2 (Foromozov 1946). This means that for the same amount of force applied during running, a wolf would have twice as much support as a deer. It also means that in deep snow a walking wolf generally is much less restricted than a walking deer. Late in February 1969, for example, when deer were seriously limited in their ability to travel, wolves were able to travel widely (Mech _et al._, p. 1).

Even though wolves have much greater support than deer, when running they still sink into the snow almost as much as deer under most conditions, probably because both run with such force that snow usually offers little support. Nevertheless, with extremely deep snow, the difference in support factor between wolves and deer could become critical, and this is probably what happened during February and March 1969. With deer seriously restrained by the deep snow, even a slight advantage in favor of the wolf could increase hunting success. A high snow density during that period would accentuate this advantage. This is because until the snow becomes dense enough to hold a running deer, each increase in density would further the advantage of the wolf, which would require only half the density to support it, while it would hinder the deer.

One result of the extreme snow conditions of early 1969 was that deer tended to gravitate to lakes, where snow was shallow and footing was firm. Initially upon disturbance by human beings, and probably by wolves, these deer usually headed inland, but it is apparent from a number of kills examined that when pressed hard by wolves inland, deer headed out onto lakes where possible. Apparently they could run there with better footing. However, frozen lakes also provide wolves with good running conditions, and even seem to give them an advantage (Rutter and Pimlott 1968, Mech 1970), so many of these deer were killed (fig. 11).

Stenlund (1955, p. 44) reported as follows on years of low snowfall, the opposite condition, which demonstrated the same relationship between snow depth and kills on lakes: "The winters of 1951-52 and 1952-53 were abnormally mild with little early snow. As a result, few wolf-killed deer appeared on the lakes and most deer attempted to outrun wolves in the woods."

Thus it appears that extreme snow conditions in our study area increase the vulnerability of deer to wolf predation in three ways: (1) by causing a decline in the health and nutritional state of some members of the deer population; (2) by hindering the escapability of the deer; and (3) by causing deer to congregate on frozen lakes where wolves have the advantage in running.

SUMMARY

During the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69, the interactions of wolves (_Canis lupus_) and white-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus_) were observed in northeastern Minnesota from aircraft. Snow depth and supporting ability were also measured during these winters, and the ability of wolves to capture deer was compared for a period of usual snow conditions versus a period of extreme snow conditions.

It was found that during February and March 1969, when snow remained from 2.5 to 3.9 feet deep and failed to support running deer, wolves were able to capture deer more easily. This was evidenced by kills that were left partly or completely uneaten, and by a higher rate of predation by radiotagged wolves and their associates.

Although both wolves and deer floundered in the extremely deep snow, the relatively lighter weight-load-on-track of wolves evidently gave them a greater advantage than under the usual snow conditions, when wolves were observed floundering more than deer. This factor, plus a decline in the health and vigor of some segments of the deer population and a tendency for deer to congregate on frozen lakes, where wolves have an advantage, help explain the increased vulnerability of deer to wolf predation during the winters of deep snow.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by Macalester College, the Minnesota Department of Conservation, the USDA Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and the New York Zoological Society. Pilots John Winship, Pat Magie, Jack Burgess, and Don Murray flew the observation planes during radiotracking. Miss Elizabeth Dayton, Mr. Wallace C. Dayton, and the Quetico-Superior Foundation, all of Minneapolis, financed Mech during the writing of this report.

Thanks are also due L. J. Verme, J. P. Kelsall, and J. M. Peek for their helpful reviews.

LITERATURE CITED

Foromozov, A. N. 1946. The snow cover as an environment factor and its importance in the life of mammals and birds. (Moskovskoe obshchestvo ispytatelei priroda) Materialy k poznaniyu fauny i flory SSSR, Otdel. Zool. n. 5 (XX). (Translation from Russian published by Boreal Institute, Univ. Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.)

Kelsall, J. P. 1968. The caribou. Can. Wildl. Serv. Monog. 3, 340 p.

Kelsall, J. P. 1969. Structural adaptations of moose and deer for snow. J. Mammal. 50: 302-310.

Mech, L. D. 1966. Hunting behavior of wolves in Minnesota. J. Mammal. 47: 347-348.

Mech, L. D. 1970. The wolf: the ecology and behavior of an endangered species. 389 p. New York: Natural History Press, Doubleday.

Nasimovich, A. A. 1955. The role of the regime of snow cover in the life of ungulates in the U.S.S.R. Moskva, Akademiya Nauk SSSR. 403 p.

Pimlott, D. H., Shannon, J. A., and Kolenosky, G. B. 1969. The ecology of the timber wolf in Algonquin Provincial Park. Out. Dep. Lands and Forests Res. Rep. (Wildl.) 87, 92 p.

Rutter, R. J., and Pimlott, D. H. 1968. The world of the wolf. 202 p. Philadelphia and New York: J. B. Lippincott Co.

Stenlund, M. H. 1955. A field study of the timber wolf (_Canis lupus_) on the Superior National Forest, Minnesota. Minn. Conserv. Dep. Tech. Bull. 4, 55 p.

Verme, L. J. 1968. An index of winter severity for northern deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 566-574.

THE POSSIBLE OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT PLAINS WOLF IN NORTHEASTERN MINNESOTA

L. David Mech and L. D. Frenzel, Jr.

The timber wolf (_Canis lupus_) of northeastern Minnesota occupies an area within the range given by Goldman (1944) for the eastern timber wolf (_C. l. lycaon_ Schreber). However, this area is within 150 miles of the eastern edge of the former range of the Great Plains wolf (_C. l. nubilus_ Say), and there is some question as to whether the Minnesota wolf is really an intergrade between these two subspecies. Writing of _nubilus_, Goldman (1944, p. 444) stated: "Specimens from eastern Minnesota and Michigan seem more properly referable to _lycaon_, but relationship to _nubilus_ is shown in somewhat intermediate characters."

In describing _lycaon_ as basically a gray wolf, Goldman made no mention of the occurrence of black or white color phases in that subspecies. However, in discussing _nubilus_, Goldman (1944, p. 442) wrote the following: "Many color variations are presented. Individuals may be nearly white at any season, except for a sprinkling of black hairs over the back, a small, narrow, but conspicuous, black patch over the tail gland, and a more or less distinctly black tip. Black individuals may occur in the same litter with those normally colored." Goldman also referred to _nubilus_ as "now probably extinct."

In the eastern part of the range of _lycaon_, color phases other than gray appear to be rare as Rutter and Pimlott (1969, p. 188) attest: "The uniformity of the color of timber wolves in many areas is evidenced by the work in Algonquin Park, in Ontario. There, over the past eight years, dozens of packs have been observed from the air. However, we have never been able to discriminate between any of them on the basis of the color variation of individual animals."

Thus it seems significant to report on incidences of black and white color phases in wolves that we have observed in northeastern Minnesota during some 480 hours of flying associated with wolf research (Mech _et al._, p. 1). The observations took place in the Superior National Forest, in northern Cook, Lake, and St. Louis Counties during the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69. A total of 309 sightings were made of wolves that could be classified by color; of these, 11 (3.6 percent) were jet black (fig. 1) and two (0.6 percent) were creamish white, with the cream color the most intense on the back. No doubt some of the grays, and perhaps the blacks and whites, were repeated observations, but the figures should provide a reasonable approximation of the incidence of these color phases in this area. All black or white animals except one were observed with gray wolves (table 1 and fig. 2).

A number of black wolves, and a few white wolves, have been seen by other observers, all in the three counties listed earlier. To gain some idea of the past incidence of these color phases in the same general area, we asked Conservation Officers Robert Hodge, Robert Jacobsen, and Frank Baltich of the Ely, Minnesota, area about the numbers of each phase that they took before 1960. They reported killing an approximate total of 580 wolves, of which four were black and three were white or creamish white.

_Table 1.--Observations of wolves of black and white color phases_

+--------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+ | Date | Location | Color combinations | | | | within each pack | +--------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+ |Feb. 24, 1967 T64N-R8W-S1 Vera Lake 3 grays; 1 black; 1 white| |Mar. 4, 1967 T63N-R9W-S27 Lake Two 3 grays; 2 blacks | |Dec. 18, 1968 T63N-R8W-S35 Lake Insula 2 grays; 2 blacks[37] | |Jan. 17, 1969 T65N-R8W-S27 Carp Lake 1 gray; 1 white | |Feb. 1, 1969 T63N-R8W-S13 Lake Insula 4 blacks; 2 grays[38] | |Feb. 5, 1969 T63N-R8W-S8 Benezie Lake 1 black | |Feb. 6, 1969 T63N-R10W-S33 Clear Lake 3 grays; 1 black | +--------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+ FOOTNOTES:

[37] These animals were near the shore of the lake, so others may have been inland where they could not be seen.

[38] This group might well have been the same as that seen on Dec. 18, 1968.

Because black and white color phases have rarely if ever been reported for _lycaon_, yet were well known for _nubilus_, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the race of wolves now occupying northeastern Minnesota does show strong _nubilus_ influence. Goldman examined the skulls only of 10 Minnesota specimens assignable to _lycaon_ and only one referable to _nubilus_. Because wolves in the known range of _nubilus_ are thought to be extinct, and because the animals in northeastern Minnesota are legally unprotected and subject to a control program, it seems highly desirable that the question of their taxonomy be studied intensively while specimens are still available.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by Macalester College, the New York Zoological Society, the Minnesota Department of Conservation, the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and the USDA Forest Service. Mr. Wallace C. Dayton and Miss Elizabeth Dayton, and the Quetico-Superior Foundation, all of Minneapolis, financed Mech during the preparation of this paper. We would also like to thank Dr. J. L. Paradiso, Dr. H. L. Gunderson, and Mr. M. H. Stenlund for reviewing this manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

Goldman, E. A. 1944. The wolves of North America, Part II. Classification of Wolves. p. 389-636. Washington, D.C.: The Amer. Wildl. Inst.

Pimlott, D. H., Shannon, J. A., and Kolenosky, G. B. 1969. The ecology of the timber wolf in Algonquin Provincial Park. Ont. Dep. Lands and Forests Res. Pap. (Wildl.) 87, 94 p.

SOME RECENT RESEARCH PAPERS OF THE NORTH CENTRAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION

Tree Improvement Opportunities in the North-Central States Related to Economic Trends, A Problem Analysis, by David H. Dawson and John A. Pitcher. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-40, 30 p., illus. 1970.

Relation Between the National Fire Danger Spread Component and Fire Activity in the Lake States, by Donald A. Haines, William A. Main, and Von J. Johnson. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-41, 8 p., illus. 1970.

Thinning and Fertilizing Red Pine to Increase Growth and Cone Production, by John H. Cooley. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-42, 8 p., illus. 1970.

The Impact of Estimation Errors on Evaluations of Timber Production Opportunities, by Dennis L. Schweitzer. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-43, 18 p., illus. 1970.

User Evaluation of Campgrounds on Two Michigan National Forests, by Robert C. Lucas. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-44, 15 p., illus. 1970.

System Identification Principles in Studies of Forest Dynamics, by Rolfe A. Leary. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-45, 38 p., illus. 1970.

Skiing in the Great Lakes State: the Industry and the Skier, by William A. Leuschner. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-46, 42 p., illus. 1970.

Proceedings of the Ninth Lake States Forest Tree Improvement Conference, August 22-23, 1969. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-47, 34 p. 1970.

A Water Curtain for Controlling Experimental Forest Fires, by Von J. Johnson. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-48, 7 p., illus. 1970.

Wildness Ecology: A Method of Sampling and Summarizing Data for Plant Community Classification, by Lewis F. Ohmann and Robert R. Ream. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NC-49, 14 p., illus. 1970.

ABOUT THE FOREST SERVICE....

As our Nation grows, people expect and need more from their forests--more wood; more water, fish, and wildlife; more recreation and natural beauty; more special forest products and forage. The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture helps to fulfill these expectations and needs through three major activities:

· Conducting forest and range research at over 75 locations ranging from Puerto Rico to Alaska to Hawaii.

· Participating with all State forestry agencies in cooperative programs to protect, improve, and wisely use our Country's 395 million acres of State, local, and private forest lands.

· Managing and protecting the 187-million acre National Forest System.

The Forest Service does this by encouraging use of the new knowledge that research scientists develop; by setting an example in managing, under sustained yield, the National Forests and Grasslands for multiple use purposes; and by cooperating with all States and with private citizens in their efforts to achieve better management, protection, and use of forest resources.

Traditionally, Forest Service people have been active members of the communities and towns in which they live and work. They strive to secure for all, continuous benefits from the Country's forest resources.

For more than 60 years, the Forest Service has been serving the Nation as a leading natural resource conservation agency.

* * * * *

Transcriber's Notes

This is a compilation of four separate reports, each having their own table and figure numbers. I have retained the original table and figure numbers due to all the references made to them within the text. However I did reindex the footnotes for the complete compilation. I made minor punctuation corrections, modified the table formats, moved some illustrations, and made the following typo corrections:

Table of Contents: Changed "Occurence" to "Occurrence". Originally: The Possible Occurence of the Great Plains Wolf in Northeastern Minnesota

Page 5: Added missing parenthesis after "individuals". Originally: the same color (with the exception of a few black or white individuals (see Mech and Frenzel, page 60)

Page 27, Deleted repeated word "the". Originally: When still on the the ice about 15 feet from shore,

Page 34, Literature Cited: Changed "Vegetatation" to "Vegetation". Originally: Ohmann, L. F., and Ream, R. R. 1969 Vegetatation studies in the BWCA

Page 37: Changed "repreductive" to "reproductive". Originally: lungs, liver, kidneys, repreductive tracts

Page 40: Changed "wildnerness" to "wilderness". Originally: while in the wildnerness more males were taken

Page 41: Changed "decidous" to "deciduous". Originally: The deciduous first incisors of fawns and the decidous

Page 42: Changed "end" to "and". Originally: from wolf-killed deer end examined grossly in the field

Page 42, Figure 9: Changed "discoverd" to "discovered". Originally: A permanent first premolar (arrow) was discoverd in M-8.

Page 47: Changed "wildnerness" to "wilderness". Originally: not surprising that in the wildnerness area

Page 57, Footnote 36: Deleted duplicate "to". Originally: Personal correspondence to to L. D. Mech, Oct. 10, 1969.

Page 58: Changed "diffference" to "difference". Originally: Nevertheless, with extremely deep snow, the diffference

Page 59, Literature Cited: Changed "roll" to "role". Originally: Nasimovich, A. A. 1955. The roll of the regime of snow