Chapter 15

EASTERN EUROPE DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES, 395-1096 A.D.

114. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST

SURVIVAL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST

The Roman Empire in the West moved rapidly to its "fall" in 476 A.D., at the hands of the Germanic invaders. The Roman Empire in the East, though threatened by enemies from without and weakened by civil conflicts from within, endured for more than a thousand years. Until the middle of the eleventh century it was the strongest state in Europe, except during the reign of Charlemagne, when the Frankish kingdom eclipsed it. Until the middle of the fifteenth century it preserved the name, the civilization, and some part of the dominions, of ancient Rome. [1]

CAUSES OF THE SURVIVAL

The long life of the Roman Empire in the East is one of the marvels of history. Its great and constant vitality appears the more remarkable, when one considers that it had no easily defensible frontiers, contained many different races with little in common, and on all sides faced hostile states. The empire survived so long, because of its vast wealth and resources, its despotic, centralized government, the strength of its army, and the almost impregnable position occupied by Constantinople, the capital city.

CHARACTER OF THE EMPIRE

The changing fortunes of the empire during the Middle Ages are reflected in some of the names by which it is often known. The term "Greek Empire" expresses the fact that the state became more and more Greek in character, owing to the loss, first of the western provinces in the fifth century, and then of Syria and Egypt in the seventh century. Another term-- "Byzantine Empire"--appropriately describes the condition of the state in still later times, when its possessions were reduced to Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and the territory in the neighborhood of that city. But through all this period the rulers at Constantinople regarded themselves as the true successors of Augustus, Diocletian, and Constantine. They never admitted the right of Charlemagne and Otto the Great to establish a rival Roman Empire in western Europe. [2] They claimed to be the only legitimate heirs of Old Rome.

115. THE REIGN OF JUSTINIAN, 527-565 A.D.

SUCCESSORS OF THEODOSIUS, 395-527 A.D.

The history of the Roman Empire in the East, for more than one hundred years after the death of Theodosius, is uneventful. His successors, though unable to prevent the Germans from seizing Italy and the other western provinces, managed to keep their own dominions intact. The eastern provinces escaped the fate of those in the West, because they were more populous and offered greater obstacles to the barbarian invaders, who followed the line of least resistance. The gradual recovery of the empire in strength and warlike energy prepared the way for a really eminent ruler--Justinian.

JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA

Justinian is described as a man of noble bearing, simple in his habits, affable in speech, and easy of approach to all his subjects. Historians have often drawn attention to his wonderful activity of mind and power of steady industry. So great was his zeal for work that one of his courtiers called him "the emperor who never sleeps." Possessed of large ideas and inspired by the majesty of Rome, Justinian aimed to be a great conqueror, a great lawgiver, and a great restorer of civilization. His success in whatever he undertook must be ascribed in part to his wife, Theodora, whom he associated with himself on the throne. Theodora, strong of mind and wise in counsel, made a worthy helpmate for Justinian, who more than once declared that in affairs of state he had consulted his "revered wife."

CONQUESTS OF JUSTINIAN

It was the ambition of Justinian to conquer the Germanic kingdoms which had been formed out of the Mediterranean provinces. In this task he relied chiefly on the military genius of Belisarius, one of the world's foremost commanders. Belisarius was able in one short campaign to destroy the Vandal kingdom in North Africa. [3] The Vandals by this time had lost their early vigor; they made but a feeble resistance; and their Roman subjects welcomed Belisarius as a deliverer. Justinian awarded a triumph to his victorious general, an honor which for five centuries emperors alone had enjoyed. The conquest of North Africa, together with the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, was followed by the overthrow of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Sicily and Italy. [4] Justinian also recovered from the Visigoths [5] the southeastern part of Spain. He could now say with truth that the Mediterranean was once more a Roman sea. [6]

CODIFICATION OF ROMAN LAW

The conquests of Justinian proved to be less enduring than his work as a lawgiver. Until his reign the sources of Roman law, including the legislation of the popular assemblies, the decrees of the Senate, the edicts of the of Roman praetors and emperors, and the decisions of learned lawyers, had never been completely collected and arranged in scientific form. Justinian appointed a commission of legal scholars to perform this task. The result of their labors, in which the emperor himself assisted, was the publication of the _Corpus Juris Civilis_, the "Body of Civil Law." Under this form the Roman principles of jurisprudence have become the foundation of the legal systems of modern Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and other European countries. These principles even influenced the Common law of England, which has been adopted by the United States. [7] The _Corpus Juris Civilis_, because of this widespread influence, is justly regarded as one of Rome's most important gifts to the world.

CIVILIZING WORK OF JUSTINIAN

Justinian's claim to the title of "Great" rests also on his civilizing work. He wished to restore the prosperity, as well as the provinces, of the empire. During his reign roads, bridges, and aqueducts were repaired, and commerce and agriculture were encouraged. It was at this time that two Christian missionaries brought from China the eggs of the silkworm, and introduced the manufacture of silk in Europe. As a builder Justinian gained special fame. The edifices which he caused to be raised throughout his dominions included massive fortifications on the exposed frontiers, splendid palaces, and many monasteries and churches. The most noteworthy monument to his piety is the church of Sancta Sophia [8] at Constantinople, now used as a Mohammedan mosque. By his conquests, his laws, and his buildings, Justinian revived for a time the waning glory of imperial Rome.

116. THE EMPIRE AND ITS ASIATIC FOES

AFTER JUSTINIAN

The Roman Empire in the East did not long remain at the pinnacle of greatness to which Justinian had raised it. His conquests, indeed, weakened rather than strengthened the empire, since now there were much more extensive frontiers to defend. Within half a century after his death it was attacked both in Europe and in Asia. The Lombards [9] soon seized Italy, and in the East the Persians renewed their contest against the Roman power.

PERSIANS

The struggle with the Persians was an inheritance from earlier times. [10] Under an ambitious king, Chosroes II, the Persians overran all the Asiatic provinces of the empire. A savior arose, however, in the person of the Roman emperor, Heraclius (610-641 A.D.). His brilliant campaigns against Chosroes partook of the nature of a crusade, or "holy war," for the Persians had violated the Holy Sepulcher at Jerusalem and had stolen away the True Cross, the most sacred relic of Christendom. Heraclius recovered all his provinces, but only at the cost of a bloody struggle which drained them of men and money and helped to make them fall easy victims to foes still more terrible than the Persians. These were the Arabs.

ARABS

Heraclius had not closed his reign before he saw all his victories undone by the advance of the Arabs. The first wave of invasion tore away Syria and Egypt from the empire, penetrated Asia Minor, and reached the shores of the Bosporus. Repulsed before the walls of Constantinople, the Arabs carried their arms to the West and seized North Africa, Spain, part of southern Italy, and the Mediterranean islands. Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula still held out, however, and during the tenth century a line of able rulers at Constantinople succeeded in winning back some of their lost provinces.

SELJUK TURKS

During the eleventh century the empire had to face new enemies. These were the Seljuk Turks, [11] fierce nomads from the steppes beyond the Caspian. After their conversion to Mohammedanism, they swept with irresistible force through the East and conquered nearly all Asia Minor. The ruin of this country, in earlier ages one of the most populous and flourishing regions of the world, dates from its occupation by the Seljuks. To resist their further advance the Roman emperor sought in 1095 A.D. the help of the Christians of Europe. His appeals for aid resulted in the First Crusade, with which a new chapter of medieval history began. (See Chapter XX.)

WORK OF THE EMPIRE IN ASIA

Thus, for more than five centuries after Justinian, the Roman Empire in the East was engaged in a long struggle with the foes--Persians, Arabs, and Seljuk Turks--which successively attacked its dominions. By its stubborn resistance of the advance of the invaders the old empire protected the young states of Europe from attack, until they grew strong enough to meet and repulse the hordes of Asia. This service to civilization was not less important than that which had been performed by Greece and Rome in their contests with the Persians and the Carthaginians.

117. THE EMPIRE AND ITS FOES IN EUROPE

SLAVS

The troubled years after Justinian's death also witnessed the beginning of the Slavic [12] settlements in southeastern Europe. The Slavs belonged to the Indo-European race, but had not progressed in civilization as far as the Germans. Their cradle land seems to have been in western Russia, whence they slowly spread to the Baltic, the Elbe, and the Danube. We have already mentioned the campaigns which Charlemagne and Henry the Fowler waged against them. [13] The emperors at Constantinople were less successful in resisting that branch of the Slavs which tried to occupy the Balkan peninsula. After crossing the Danube, the Slavs pressed on farther and farther, until they reached the southern extremity of ancient Greece. They avoided the cities, but formed peasant communities in the open country, where they readily mingled with the inhabitants. Their descendants have remained in the Balkan peninsula to this day. The inhabitants of modern Serbia [14] are Slavs, and even in the Greeks there is a considerable strain of Slavic blood.

BULGARIANS

The Bulgarians, a people akin to the Huns and Avars, made their appearance south of the lower Danube in the seventh century. For more than three hundred years these barbarians, brutal, fierce, and cruel, were a menace to the empire. At one time they threatened Constantinople and even killed a Roman emperor, whose skull was converted into a drinking cup to grace their feasts. The Bulgarians settled in the region which now bears their name and gradually adopted the speech and customs of the Slavs. Modern Bulgaria is essentially a Slavic state.

RUSSIANS

The empire was attacked in southeastern Europe by still other barbarians, among whom were the Russians. This Slavic people, led by chieftains from Sweden, descended the Dnieper and Dniester rivers and, crossing the Black Sea, appeared before the walls of Constantinople. Already, in the tenth century, that city formed the goal of Russian ambitions. The invaders are said to have made four attempts to plunder its treasures. Though unsuccessful, they compelled the emperors from time to time to pay them tribute.

WORK OF THE EMPIRE IN EUROPE

Christianity reached the invaders of the Balkan peninsula from Constantinople. The Serbians, Bulgarians, and Russians were converted in the ninth and tenth centuries. With Christianity they received the use of letters and some knowledge of Roman law and methods of government. Constantinople was to them, henceforth, such a center of religion and culture as Rome was to the Germans. By becoming the teacher of the vast Slavic peoples of the Balkan peninsula and European Russia, the empire performed another important service to civilization.

118. BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION

STRENGTH AND WEALTH OF THE EMPIRE

The Roman Empire in the East, though often menaced by barbarian foes, long continued to be the leading European power. Its highest degree of prosperity was reached between the middle of the ninth and the middle of the eleventh century. The provinces in Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula produced a vast annual revenue, much of which went for defense. It was necessary to maintain a large, well-disciplined army, great fleets and engines of war, and the extensive fortifications of Constantinople and the frontier cities. Confronted by so many dangers, the empire could hope to survive only by making itself a strong military state.

COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

The merchant ships of Constantinople, during the earlier part of the Middle Ages, carried on most of the commerce of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The products of Byzantine industry, including silks, embroideries, mosaics, enamels, and metal work, were exchanged at that city for the spices, drugs, and precious stones of the East. Byzantine wares also found their way into Italy and France and, by way of the Russian rivers, reached the heart of eastern Europe. Russia, in turn, furnished Constantinople with large quantities of honey, wax, fur, wool, grain, and slaves. A traveler of the twelfth century well described the city as a metropolis "common to all the world, without distinction of country or religion."

CHARACTER OF BYZANTINE ART

Many of the Roman emperors from Justinian onward were great builders. Byzantine architecture, seen especially in the churches, became a leading form of art. Its most striking feature is the dome, which replaces the flat, wooden roof used in the basilican [15] Churches of Italy. The exterior of a Byzantine church is plain and unimposing, but the interior is adorned on a magnificent scale. The eyes of the worshiper are dazzled by the walls faced with marble slabs of variegated colors, by the columns of polished marble, jasper, and porphyry, and by the brilliant mosaic pictures of gilded glass. The entire impression is one of richness and splendor. Byzantine artists, though mediocre painters and sculptors, excelled in all kinds of decorative work. Their carvings in wood, ivory, and metal, together with their embroideries, enamels, and miniatures, enjoyed a high reputation throughout medieval Europe.

INFLUENCE OF BYZANTINE ART

Byzantine art, from the sixth century to the present time, has exerted a wide influence. Sicily, southern Italy, Rome, Ravenna, and Venice contain many examples of Byzantine churches. Italian painting in the Middle Ages seems to have been derived directly from the mosaic pictures of the artists of Constantinople. Russia received not only its religion but also its art from Constantinople. The great Russian churches of Moscow and Petrograd follow Byzantine models. Even the Arabs, in spite of their hostility to Christianity, borrowed Byzantine artists and profited by their services. The Mohammedan mosques of Damascus, Cairo, and Cordova, both in methods of construction and in details of ornamentation, reproduce Byzantine styles.

LITERATURE AND LEARNING

The libraries and museums of Constantinople preserved classical learning. In the flourishing schools of that city the wisest men of the day taught philosophy, law, medicine, and science to thousands of students. The professors figured among the important persons of the court: official documents mention the "prince of the rhetoricians" and the "consul of the philosophers." Many of the emperors showed a taste for scholarship; one of them was said to have been so devoted to study that he almost forgot to reign. When kings in western Europe were so ignorant that they could with difficulty scrawl their names, eastern emperors wrote books and composed poetry. It is true that Byzantine scholars were erudite rather than original. Impressed by the great treasures of knowledge about them, they found it difficult to strike out into new, unbeaten paths. Most students were content to make huge collections of extracts and notes from the books which antiquity had bequeathed to them. Even this task was useful, however, for their encyclopedias preserved much information which otherwise would have been lost. During the Middle Ages the East cherished the productions of classical learning, until the time came when the West was ready to receive them and to profit by them.

119. CONSTANTINOPLE

POSITION OF CONSTANTINOPLE

The heart of Byzantine civilization was Constantinople. The city lies on a peninsula between the Sea of Marmora and the spacious harbor called the Golden Horn. Washed on three sides by the water and, like Rome, enthroned upon seven hills, Constantinople occupies a site justly celebrated as the noblest in the world. It stands in Europe, looks on Asia, and commands the entrance to both the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. As a sixteenth century writer pointed out, Constantinople "is a city which Nature herself has designed to be the mistress of the world."

CONSTANTINOPLE AS A NATURAL CITADEL

The position of Constantinople made it difficult to attack but easy to defend. To surround the city an enemy would have to be strong upon both land and sea. A hostile army, advancing through Asia Minor, found its further advance arrested by the long, winding channel which the Bosporus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles combine to form. A hostile fleet, coming by way of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, faced grave difficulties in attempting to penetrate the narrow strait into which this waterway contracts at each extremity. On the landward side the line of defense was so short--about four miles in width--that it could be strongly fortified and held by a small force against large numbers. During the Middle Ages the rear of the city was protected by two huge walls, the remains of which are still visible. Constantinople, in fact, was all but impregnable. Though each new century brought a fresh horde of enemies, it resisted siege after siege and long continued to be the capital of what was left of the Roman Empire. [16]

MONUMENTS OF CONSTANTINOPLE

Constantine had laid out his new city on an imposing scale and adorned it with the choicest treasures of art from Greece, Italy, and the Orient. Fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, eight public baths, and several triumphal arches are assigned to the founder of the city. His most stately building was the Hippodrome, an immense structure devoted to chariot races and all sorts of popular gatherings. There new emperors, after their consecration in Sancta Sophia, were greeted by their subjects; there civic festivals were held; and there the last Roman triumphs were celebrated. Theodosius the Great built the principal gate of Constantinople, the "Golden Gate," as it was called, by which the emperors made their solemn entry into the city. But it was Justinian who, after Constantine, did most to adorn the new capital by the Bosporus. He is said to have erected more than twenty-five churches in Constantinople and its suburbs. Of these, the most beautiful is the world-famed cathedral dedicated by Justinian to "Holy Wisdom." On its completion the emperor declared that he had surpassed Solomon's Temple. Though nearly fourteen hundred years old and now defaced by vandal hands, it remains perhaps the supreme achievement of Christian architecture.

HISTORIC SIGNIFICANCE OF CONSTANTINOPLE

Excepting Athens and Rome, no other European city can lay claim to so long and so important a history as Constantinople. Her day came after theirs was done. Throughout the Middle Ages Constantinople remained the most important city in Europe. When London, Paris, and Vienna were small and mean towns, Constantinople was a large and flourishing metropolis. The renown of the city penetrated even into barbarian lands. The Scandinavians called it Micklegarth, the "Great City"; the Russians knew of it as Tsarigrad, the "City of the Caesars." But its own people best described it as the "City guarded by God." Here, for more than eleven centuries, was the capital of the Roman Empire and the center of Eastern Christendom.

STUDIES

1. Compare the area of the Roman Empire in the East in 395 A.D. with its area in 800 A.D. (maps between pages 222-223 and facing page 308).

2. Compare the respective areas in 800 A.D. of the Roman Empire in the East and Charlemagne's empire.

3. On the map, page 338, locate Adrianople, Gallipoli, Nicaea, the Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and Dardanelles.

4. Who were Belisarius, Chosroes II, and Heraclius?

5. In your opinion which of the two rival imperial lines after 800 A.D. had the better title to represent ancient Rome?

6. Why has Justinian been called the "lawgiver of civilization"?

7. Why was it necessary to codify Roman law? Is the English Common law codified?

8. Compare the work of Alexandrian and Byzantine scholars in preserving learning.

9. "The Byzantines were the teachers of the Slavs, as the Romans were of the Germans." Comment on this statement.

10. The Byzantine Empire was once called "a gigantic mass of mould, a thousand years old." Does this seem a fair description?

11. "The history of medieval civilization is, in large measure, the history of the Roman Empire in the East." Comment on this statement.

12. Show that Constantinople formed "a natural citadel."

13. On the map, page 340, trace the successive walls of Constantinople.

FOOTNOTES

[1] The fall of the empire came in 1453 A.D., when Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks.

[2] See pages 311-312, 317-318.

[3] See page 245.

[4] See page 300.

[5] See page 244.

[6] See the map, page 301.

[7] Roman law still prevails in the province of Quebec and the state of Louisiana, territories formerly under French control, and in all the Spanish-American countries.

[8] In Greek, _Hagia Sophia_, "Holy Wisdom."

[9] See page 302.

[10] See page 219.

[11] So named from one of their leaders.

[12] The word _slova_ means "speech"; the Slavs are those who speak the same language.

[13] See pages 309, 315.

[14] A more accurate designation than Servia. Originally, all Slavic peoples called themselves Serbs.

[15] See page 284.

[16] Of the eight sieges to which Constantinople was subjected in medieval times, only two succeeded. In 1204 A.D. it was captured by the Venetians and in 1453 A.D., by the Ottoman Turks. See pages 477 and 492.