Drug Supplies in the American Revolution
Chapter 4
Equipment shortages included surgical instruments and mortar and pestles for pulverizing the crude drugs. Glass vials for holding compounded medicines were also a supply problem, especially after essential drugs were again available.
Some of the shortages were eased, if not solved, by local manufacture. Lint was produced in large quantities in the Colonies, and glass vials were manufactured in numerous glasshouses. Even local manufacture of the purging salts and nitre aided in eliminating shortages of these essential items, and at the same time initiated the first large-scale pharmaceutical manufacturing in America.
Numerous botanicals indigenous to the Colonies were widely employed in medicine of the period, and certain ones such as snakeroot (seneka), which was widely found growing in Virginia, would have been very scarce had not an adequate supply been immediately at hand. However, attempts to substitute other indigenous plants for scarce drugs like Peruvian bark were largely unsuccessful. There is no indication that hysop, wormwood, and mallows called for during the New York crisis were ever found to be suitable replacements for any of the capital articles. Wine apparently was more useful as a substitute for bark than the bark of butternut recommended by the _Lititz Pharmacopoeia_. Peruvian bark, jalap, ipecac, camphor, opium, cantharides--these are the drugs which the American army physicians wanted, and these constituted the most serious shortage problems.
The medical supply problem was placed on relatively firm ground by the summer of 1778, having been established on the principles proven in the Northern Department under the guidance of Drs. Potts and Craigie. Furthermore, the turning point in the war had been reached. Even before Washington's forces went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, Burgoyne[153] had surrendered at Saratoga, on October 17, 1777; and, before the cold bleak winter at Valley Forge was over, the treaty of French alliance was signed on February 6, 1778. The torments at Valley Forge proved to be the birth of a new Continental Army.
The War was still a long way from being over, and a variety of problems were yet to face the Continental Army. Inflation was yet to deal its hardest blow to the supply problem, but not even this could produce the chaos of 1776. The worst of the drug supply problem was over.
Contents of Army Medicine Chests
The following listing is an example of the contents of medicine chests ordered by the Continental Congress. The chest for the Pennsylvania 4th Battalion was filled for "Samuel Kennedy Surgeon" by the pharmacy of Christopher Jr. and Charles Marshall of Philadelphia in May 1776. The medicines are listed on an invoice in the Marshalls' waste book in the possession of The Historical Society of Pennsylvania. The contents of the Northern Department chest, compiled in the Northern Department's "Medicinal Store" for "Thos. Tillotson Esq. Surgeon & Physician General to the Army," probably was filled by Andrew Craigie at Fort George in 1778. (_Italics_ denote capital article; asterisk indicates that the drug is mentioned in _Lititz Pharmacopoeia_. Contemporary English names are in parentheses following the Latin listings.)
Pennsylvania Northern 4th Battalion Department Chest Chest BOTANICALS
*_Cort[ex] Peruv[ianum]_ (Peruvian bark; Jesuits' bark; or bark) 4 lb. *_Pulv[is] Cort[icis] Peruv[iani]_ (Powdered Peruvian bark) 2 lb. Opt.; 6 lb. 2 lb. 2nd *_Pulvis Rad[ix] Jalapii_ (Powdered jalap) 2 lb. 2 lb. *_Pulv[is] Rad[ix] Ipecacuan[hae]_ (Powdered ipecac) 8 oz. 12 oz. *_Pulv[is] Rad[ix] Rhaei_ (Powdered rhubarb) 1 lb. 4 oz. 4 lb. Rad[ix] Rhaei (Rhubarb root) 2 lb. *Fol[ia] Sennae (Sennae or sena) 2 lb. *Rad[ix] Gentian[ae] (Gentian root) 1 lb. 2-1/2 lb. *Rad[ix] Seneka (Senega; rattlesnake root; or snake root) 1 lb. *Rad[ix] Scillae Sict. (Squill; or sea-onion) 6 oz. Cinnamomi (Cinnamon) 1 lb. Cort[ex] Aurant[orium] (Orange peel) 3 lb. Fl[ores] Chamom[eli] (Camomile flower) 2 oz. Mellisa[e Folia] (Balm) 1/2 lb. *_Gum[mi] Camphor[a]_ (Camphor; or camphire) 10 oz. 2-1/2 lb. *_Gum[mi] Opium_ [also] _Opii_ (Opium) 8 oz. 1 lb. *Gum[mi] Arabic[um] (Gum Arabic) 2 lb. Opt. 2 lb. *Gum[mi] Aloe Socotr[ina] (Aloe; or aloes) 8 oz. 1 lb. Gum[mi] Aloe Hepat[ica] (Aloe; or aloes) 1 lb. *Gum[mi] Ammon[iacum] (Gum ammoniac) 12 oz. *Gum[mi] Guaiac[um] (Gum guaiac) 8 oz. 3/4 lb. *Gum[mi] Myrrh[ae] (Myrrh) 4 oz. 2 oz. *Bals[amum] Capivi (Balsam of copaiba) 1 lb. 4 oz. 2 lb. *Bals[amum] Peruvian[um] (Balsam of Peru) 3 oz. Bals[amum] Tolu[tanum] (Balsam of tolu) 8 oz. *Ol[eum] Olivar[um] (Olive oil) 2-1/2 lb. *Ol[eum] Ricini (Castor oil) 1 lb. 4 oz. 2 lb.
DRUGS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN
*_Cantharides_ (Spanish flies; or flies) 4 oz. 3/4 lb. *Cera Flav[a] (Yellow beeswax) 1 lb. 4 lb. *Mel[lis] Com[munis] (Honey) 3 lb. Pul[vis] Oc[uli] Canc[orum] (Powdered crabs' eyes) 1 lb. *Sperm[atis] Ceti (Spermaceti) 3 lb.
CHEMICALS
*Alum[en] Com[munis] or Credem (Alum or rock alum) 1 lb. *Creta ppt [precipitated or praeparata] (Chalk) 6 lb. *_Pulv[is] Crem[or] Tartar[i]_ (Cream of tartar) 4 lb. 2 lb. *_Tart[arus] Emetic[um]_ (Tartar emetic) 6 oz. 1/2 lb. *_Sal Nitri_ [or] _Nitrum_ (Nitre or saltpetre) 4 lb. 4 lb. Sal Absinthii (Salt of wormwood) 8 oz. *_Sal Cath[articus] Amar[us]_ (Epsom salts; bitter purging salts; or bitter cathartic salts) 10 lb. *_Sal Cath[articus] Glauber[i]_ [or] _Sal Mirabile Glauberi_ (Glauber's salts; Glauber's purging salts; or Glauber's wonderful salts). 10 lb. *Sal Tartar[isatus] (Salt of tartar) 2 lb. *Sal Amm[oniacum] (Sal ammoniac) 1/2 lb. Cd. *Merc[urius] Corros[ivus] Sublim[atus] (Corrosive sublimate of mercury) 2 oz. 2 oz. *Merc[urius] Praecip[itatus] Rub[er] (Red precipitate of mercury) 4 oz. 2 oz. *_Merc[urius] Dulc[is] Ppt._ (Calomel) 8 oz. Flor[es] Sulphur[is] (Flowers of sulphur) 4 lb. 2 lb. *Ol[eum] Vitriol[um] (Oil of vitriol) 6 oz. Ol[eum] Tereb[inthinae] (Oil of turpentine) 1-1/2 lb. Tereb[inthina] Venet[ian] (Turpentine) 1 lb. 4 oz. *Vitriol[um] Alb[um] (White vitriol) 4 oz. 2 oz. *Elix[ir] Vitriol[i] (Elixir of vitriol) 3 lb. 2 lb. Vitriol[um] Rom[anum] (Roman vitriol) 4 oz. Sacch[arum] Saturni (Sugar of lead) 4 oz. Vitr[um] Antomon[ii] Cerat[um] (Cerated glass of antimony) 3 oz. *Extr[actum] Saturni [also] Acetum Lithargyrites (Litharge of lead; litharge vinegar; or extract of Saturn). 11 oz.
TINCTURES
*Tinc[tura] Thebaic[a] [or] Tinctura Opii [or] Laudani Liquidi (Tincture 12 oz. 2 lb. of opium; thebaic tincture; liquid laudanum; and Sydenham's laudanam). *Tinct[ura] Myrrh[ae] & Aloes (Tincture of myrrh and aloes). 1 lb. 12 oz. Tinct[ura] Cinnam[omi] (Tincture of cinnamon) 2 lb.
SPIRITS
Sp[iritus] Sal[is] Ammon[iaci] (Spirit of sal ammoniac) 1 lb. 5 oz. Sp[iritus] Nitri Dulc[is] [also] Sal[is] Vol[atilis] (Sweet spirit of nitre) 2-1/2 lb. 1 lb. 12 oz. Sp[iritus] Lavend[ula] Co[mpositus] (Compound spirit of lavender) 1 lb. 4 oz. 1-1/2 lb. Sp[iritus] Vini Rect[ificatus] (Rectified spirit of wine) 1 lb. 4 oz.
MISCELLANEOUS PREPARATIONS
*Cons[erva] Rosar[um] Rub[rarum] (Conserves of red roses) 1 lb. Conf[ectio] Cardiac[a] (Cordial confection) 1 lb. Elect[uarium] Asthmatic[um] (Asthmatic electuary) 1 lb. 1 oz. *Elix[ir] Paregor[icum] (Paregoric elixir) 2 lb. Pill[ulae] Purgant (Purgative pills) 8 oz. Pulv[is] e Bol[o Compositus] (Compound powder of bole with opium) 2 lb. Linim[entum] Sapo[naceum] (Soap liniment) 3-1/2 lb. Sapo[nis] Venet[ian] (Venetian soap) 2 lb. 6 lb.
OINTMENTS
*Ung[euntum] Lap[ide] Calamin[ari] (Ointment from calamine stone) 10 lb. 4 lb. *Ung[uentum] Basilic[um] Flav[um] (Yellow basilicon ointment) 10 lb. *Ung[uentum] Merc[urale] Fort[is] (Strong mercurial ointment) 6 lb. Ung[uentum] e Gum[mi] Elemi (Ointment of gum elemi) 3 lb. Ung[uentum] Alb[um] Camp[horatum] (Camphorated white ointment) 3 lb.
PLASTERS
*Emp[lastrum] Adhesiv[um] (Adhesive plaster) 6 lb. Emp[lastrum] Diach[ylon] (Simple diachylon plaster) 6 lb. 2 lb. Emp[lastrum] Diach[ylon] c[um] G[ummi] (Diachylon plaster with gum) 1 lb. *Emp[lastrum] Epispast[icum] [also] Epithema Vesicatorium (Blistering plaster; vesicatory plaster). 1 lb. Emp[lastrum] Stomach[icum] Majest. (Stomach plaster) 1 lb.
SURGICAL DRESSINGS, ETC.
*_Linteum Praeparatum_ (Lint) 1 lb. fine Tow 12 lb. fine Sponge 4 oz. fine Twine 1 lb. fine 1/2 lb. Tape 1 piece 2 pieces Fracture pillows 2 Splints 2 p. Sharps 34 doz. Thread 4 oz. Needles 7 common Pins 1/2 thousand Compresses 6 doz. Bandages 700 Flannel 6 yds. Shears 2 pr. Rags 1 bundle
SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS
Director 1 1 steel Probe, silver 1 1 Forceps 1 Catheters 1 silver Amputating instruments 1 set Trepanning instruments 1 Trepan 1 set Lancets 2 best crown, 4 common Tourniquets 1 Brass 8 common with ligatures Syringe, pewter 4 2 Syringe, ivory 2 Glyster pipe arm'd 6 Tooth-drawing instrument 1 Crow Bill
PHARMACEUTICAL EQUIPMENT
Scales and weights 1 box 1 set Mortar and pestle 1 Brass, 1 Glass Tyles (pill tiles) 2 Spatulas 1 wooden 1 large, handle, 1 1 pocket iron handle Bolus knife 1 Plaister knife (plaster spatula) 1 Leather skins 2 lb.
MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES
Bottles Assortment Assortment Gallypots 1 doz. Assortment Vials 6 doz. sorted Corks 10 doz. Pillboxes 1 pacg. Wrapp[ing] paper 4 quire Writing paper 1 quire 6 quire Ink powder 2 papers Quiles (quills) 14 hundred
* * * * *
U.S. Government Printing Office: 1961
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D.C.--Price 25 cents
* * * * *
FOOTNOTES:
[1] John C. Miller, _Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783_, Boston, 1948, preface.
[2] Louis C. Duncan, _Medical Men in the American Revolution, 1775-1783_, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 1931; William O. Owen, _The Medical Department of the United States Army during the Period of the Revolution_, New York, 1920; James E. Gibson, _Dr. Bodo Otto and the Medical Background of the American Revolution_, Springfield, Ill., 1937; James Thomas Flexner, _Doctors on Horseback_, New York, 1939.
[3] Lyman F. Kebler, "Andrew Craigie, the First Apothecary General of the United States," _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_, 1928, vol. 17, pp. 63-74, 167-178; Frederick Haven Pratt, "The Craigies," _Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical Society_ (1941), 1942, vol. 27, pp. 43-86; Edward Kremers and George Urdang, _A History of Pharmacy_, Philadelphia, 1951 edition, chap. 11; Edward Kremers, "The Lititz Pharmacopoeia," _The Badger Pharmacist_, nos. 22-25, June-December 1938; J. W. England, ed., _The First Century of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy_, Philadelphia, 1922, pp. 84-94; _American Journal of Pharmacy_, 1884, vol. 56, pp. 483-491.
[4] Jonathan Potts Papers, four volumes of miscellaneous manuscripts at The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (hereinafter referred to as Potts Papers).
[5] Journals of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts Bay, quoted in Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 22-23.
[6] Greenleaf Ledger, 1765-1778, at the American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass. (The Greenleaf pharmacy was established by Elizabeth Greenleaf in 1726 or 1727. See J. L. Sibley, _Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts_, Cambridge, 1920, vol. 5, pp. 472-476; Jonathan Greenleaf, _A Genealogy of the Greenleaf Family_, New York, 1854, pp. 89, 91, 205, 207; _Boston Post-Boy_ and _Boston Gazette_, November 8, 1762, obituary of Elizabeth Greenleaf.)
[7] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 23.
[8] J. R. Alden, _The American Revolution_, New York, 1954 p. 23.
[9] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 12-13.
[10] _Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789_, edited by Worthington C. Ford, Washington, D.C., 1905, vol. 2, p. 250. Nearly all excerpts from Ford also appear in Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2).
[11] _Ibid._, vol. 3, p. 261. The Samuel Ward diary for September 23 records that "a parcel of medicines for the hospital" was "to be bought" (E. C. Burnett, _Letters of Members of the Continental Congress_, Washington, D.C., 1921, vol. 1, p. 205).
[12] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 344.
[13] Burnett, _op. cit._ (footnote 11), vol. 1, p. 292.
[14] _Pennsylvania Ledger_, May 6, 1775. [William Smith in Philadelphia was selling drugs in 1772 (Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 52).]
[15] _Pennsylvania Evening Post_, December 26, 1775.
[16] _Pennsylvania Packet_, September 11, 1775; _Pennsylvania Journal_, September 6, 1775; _Pennsylvania Gazette_, October 4, 1775.
[17] The Marshalls sold drugs to Sharp Delaney and William Smith in April 1776 (Marshall Waste Book, see footnote 20).
[18] E. T. Ellis, "The Story of a Very Old Philadelphia Drug Store," _American Journal of Pharmacy_, 1908, vol. 75, p. 57; England, _op. cit._ (footnote 3), pp. 348-350; Parke, Davis & Co., _A History of Pharmacy in Pictures_, undated booklet edited by George Bender.
[19] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 442; vol. 4, pp. 188, 197.
[20] Christopher Jr. and Charles Marshall Waste Book, February 21 to July 6, 1776, at The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
[21] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 3, p. 442; vol. 4, pp. 188, 197; Burnett, _op. cit._ (footnote 11), vol. 1.
[22] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 18-19.
[23] _American Archives ..._ Peter Force, ed., Washington, ser. 4, vol. 1-6, 1837-46; ser. 5, vol. 1-3, 1848-53. Ser. 4, vol. 3, p. 306.
[24] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 62-64.
[25] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 24, 1779.
[26] It is quite possible that the designation "bad" was a typographical error for "rad[ix]."
[27] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 5, p. 115.
[28] _Connecticut Courant_, February 12, 1776.
[29] _Newport Mercury_, January 15, 1776.
[30] _Massachusetts Gazette_, September 7, 1775.
[31] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 4, p. 159.
[32] _Massachusetts Gazette_, February 22, 1776.
[33] _Boston Gazette_, April 15, 1776.
[34] _Ibid._, April 22, 1776. It is worth noting that Morgan did not think this important enough to include in his _Vindication_ (see footnote 35).
[35] John Morgan, _A Vindication of His Public Character in the Station of Director-General of the Military Hospital, and Physician in Chief of the American Army; Anno, 1776_, Boston, 1777.
[36] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 24, 1779.
[37] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 5, p. 488.
[38] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), pp. 102, 144; and _Independent Chronicle_, April 10, 1777.
[39] James Thacher, _American Medical Biography_, Boston, 1828, vol. 1, pp. 270-273.
[40] For biographies of Sylvester Gardiner see _Dictionary of American Biography_, New York, 1931, vol. 8, pp. 139-140; _Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography_, New York, 1887, vol. 2; H. A. Kelly and W. L. Burrage, _Dictionary of American Medical Biography_, New York, 1928, pp. 450-452; James H. Stark, _The Loyalists of Massachusetts_, Boston, 1910, pp. 313-315.
[41] Greenleaf Ledger (see footnote 6).
[42] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, pp. 282, 284.
[43] _Ibid._, p. 314.
[44] S. E. Morison and H. S. Commager, _The Growth of the American Republic_, New York, 1950, vol. 1, p. 210.
[45] _New-York Journal_, July 13, 1775.
[46] _Ibid._, May 11, 1775.
[47] _New-York Gazette_, January 1 and January 29, 1776. For a history of the English patent medicines in America, see G. B. Griffenhagen and J. H. Young in _The Chemist and Druggist_, 1957, vol. 167, pp. 714-722, and in _U.S. National Museum Bulletin 218_, 1959, pp. 155-183 (Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology, Paper 10).
[48] George Washington, _The Writings of George Washington_, edited by John C. Fitzpatrick, Washington, 1931, vol. 4, pp. 464-465.
[49] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), pp. 4, 9, 68; _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 19, 1779; and Washington, _op. cit._ (footnote 48), vol. 4, pp. 464-465.
[50] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 135; Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 11.
[51] _New-York Gazette_, May 6 and December 23, 1776.
[52] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 4, p. 1026.
[53] _Ibid._, vol. 6, p. 1431.
[54] Morgan misspelled Delaney as "Delancey" in his letter of June 25 to Adams.
[55] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 128.
[56] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 5, p. 570.
[57] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 6, p. 1069.
[58] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 5, p. 633.
[59] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 12.
[60] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 26, 1779.
[61] Washington, _op. cit._ (footnote 48), vol. 6, pp. 58-59.
[62] _Connecticut Courant_, January 6, 1777.
[63] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), pp. 13, 136, 146. William Smith was appointed Continental Druggist on August 20; see Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 4, pp. 292-293.
[64] Washington, _op. cit._ (footnote 48), vol. 6, pp. 86, 113.
[65] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 3, pp. 116, 837.
[66] _Pennsylvania Packet_, June 24, 1779.
[67] Morgan, _op. cit._ (footnote 35), p. 129.
[68] _Ibid._, p. xxv. [For details of the manner in which Shippen moved in on Morgan to replace him eventually as director general, see Flexner, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 3-53.]
[69] _Ibid._, p. xxxv; Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 55.
[70] Ford, _op. cit._ (footnote 10), vol. 7, p. 91.
[71] _New-York Gazette_, September 30, December 16, 23, 1776, January 20, 1777.
[72] _Ibid._, December 9, 1776, April 28, June 9, 1777.
[73] Plough Court Pharmacy letterbook dated April 7, 1778, through December 8, 1779, in possession of Allen and Hanburys, London. See also Chapman-Huston and Ernest C. Gripps, _Through a City Archway: The Story of Allen and Hanburys, 1715-1954_, London, 1954.
[74] Duncan, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 97.
[75] Owen, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 39.
[76] _American Archives_, ser. 4, vol. 6, p. 1069.
[77] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, pp. 651-652, 1114.
[78] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 77; Morgan to Potts, July 28, 1776.
[79] _Ibid._, folio 89; Stringer to Potts, August 17, 1776. See also Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), pp. 108-109. Washington mentions Stringer's visit with Morgan in a letter to Gates dated August 14 (Washington, _op. cit._ footnote 48, vol. 5, pp. 433-435).
[80] _Ibid._; McHenry to Potts, August 3, 1776. [Stringer arrived in Philadelphia on the evening of August 2.]
[81] _Ibid._; Stringer to Potts, August 17, 1776.
[82] _Ibid._; McHenry to Potts, August 21, 1776.
[83] _American Archives_, ser. 5, vol. 1, p. 1271. For a similarly worded letter to Egbert Benson dated August 22, see Gibson, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 112.
[84] Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 98; Stringer to Potts, September 7, 1776. Stringer arrived in Albany on September 5 (Potts Papers, vol. 1, folio 97).