Part 6

Pennyroyal grows well on average upland soils and is frequently abundant on sandy or gravelly slopes. In field planting the seeds should be sown in rows in the fall and covered not to exceed one-quarter of an inch, since they rarely germinate if planted at a greater depth. The plants come up early in the spring, and to secure the best results clean cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential, as with all cultivated crops.

Early in the summer, when the plants are in full flower, they may be mowed. To prepare the herb for market the plants are dried, preferably in the shade, and carefully packed immediately after drying. All the large stems should be removed in order to improve the quality of the product. The herb should be marketed promptly, since it deteriorates with age. For the production of the volatile oil, the plants should be harvested when in full flower and distilled without drying.

Returns from experimental areas indicate that a yield of about 1,200 pounds of dry herb per acre may be expected. The yield of oil varies from 15 to 30 pounds per acre. The price paid for the dry herb usually ranges from 1 to 2 cents a pound. The wholesale price of the oil ranges from about $1 to $2 a pound.

PEPPERMINT.

Peppermint (_Mentha piperita_) is a perennial of the mint family, frequently found growing wild in moist situations throughout the eastern half of the United States. It is cultivated on a commercial scale, chiefly on the muck lands of southern Michigan and northern Indiana. The volatile oil forms the principal marketable product, but there is some demand in the crude-drug trade for the dried leaves and flowering tops.

Peppermint is propagated from "roots," or runners, which should be set in an almost continuous row in furrows about 3 feet apart and covered to a depth of about 3 inches. It can be grown on any land that will produce good crops of corn, but is most successful on the muck lands of reclaimed swamps. On uplands it soon exhausts the soil and will not do well for more than two or three seasons without the rotation of crops. On rich muck lands it will grow for a number of years, the soil being plowed after the crop is harvested and the runners turned in to form a new growth the succeeding year. It is essential that the ground be kept free from weeds, since their presence in the crop at harvest would seriously injure the quality of the oil.

When peppermint is grown on reclaimed swamps or muck lands fertilizers are rarely needed, but on uplands it is well to plow in 12 or more tons per acre of rotted stable manure before planting. Similar applications may be made between the rows in early spring and plowed in as the land shows signs of exhaustion. Commercial truck or potato fertilizers cultivated in between the rows at the rate of 600 pounds to the acre have proved useful in keeping up fertility, but manure is to be preferred, as it provides humus or vegetable matter as well as increases the fertility.

Harvesting is begun in July or August, when the plants are in full bloom. The herb is cut and cured like hay, and when fairly well dried is placed in large vats or stills having a capacity of from 1 to 3 tons of dry herb and distilled with steam to obtain the volatile oil. The yield of oil is exceedingly variable, but on lands well suited for the production of peppermint the average yield is not far from 30 pounds per acre. The annual production of peppermint oil in the United States is about 300,000 pounds. For many years before the war the price of the oil varied from year to year, but averaged about $2.50 a pound. There is some demand for the dried leaves and tops, for which 6 to 15 cents a pound was paid to collectors in June, 1920.

For further information on the growing of peppermint, see Farmers' Bulletin 694, entitled "The Cultivation of Peppermint and Spearmint."

PINKROOT.

Pinkroot (_Spigelia marilandica_, fig. 7) is a native perennial herb occurring in rich open woods from New Jersey to Wisconsin and south to Florida and Texas. The root is an official drug, the use of which has declined in recent years, apparently on account of the extent to which pinkroot has been adulterated with the worthless roots of another plant known as East Tennessee pinkroot. Prospective growers of pinkroot should obtain seeds or roots for planting from thoroughly reliable sources only.

Pinkroot makes a vigorous growth under conditions suitable for growing ginseng or goldenseal, and partial shade is usually necessary, although if given a rich, moist, loamy soil it may be grown without shade in situations not too hot and dry. It is propagated either from seeds or from divisions of old roots. It is best to sow the seeds as soon as they are ripe, but if mixed with moist sand and kept in a cool place sowing may be deferred until fall or the following spring. The seeds are sown in drills 6 inches apart in well-prepared seed beds, and in the spring, when the young plants are a few inches high, they are set about a foot apart each way in the permanent beds. The old roots are divided when dormant, and each division should consist of a portion of the root with one or more buds and a number of the small rootlets. They are set in the same manner as the seedlings. Thorough cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential for good results.

The roots usually attain a marketable size in three years, but will give a heavier yield at the end of the fourth or fifth year. They are harvested in the fall, and after the tops are cut off the roots are well washed and thoroughly dried. Little can be said regarding yield, but returns from small areas indicate that a bed 4 by 30 feet will yield from 10 to 12 pounds of dry root in four years. The prices paid to collectors of pinkroot before the war ranged from 15 to 30 cents a pound. The price in June, 1920, was about 60 cents a pound.

POKEWEED.

Pokeweed (_Phytolacca americana_) is a native plant of frequent occurrence in moist, rich soil along fences and in uncultivated land throughout the eastern half of the United States. The root, which is perennial, sends up large annual stems, sometimes attaining a height of 8 or 9 feet. This plant bears numerous long clusters of smooth, shining purple berries, very attractive in appearance, but the seeds are said to be poisonous. Both the root and the berries are used in medicine.

Pokeweed thrives in deep, rich soils well supplied with moisture and may be readily grown from seed sown early in the spring in rows 4 feet apart and barely covered. The seedlings may be thinned to stand about 3 feet apart in the rows. Cultivation should be shallow, though frequent. The plant develops a long, thick, and fleshy root, which when old is not easily harvested and may have to be dug by hand. If the roots of plants grown from seed are harvested at the end of the first year, they may be turned out by means of a deep-running plow without great difficulty. As soon as they are dug the roots are cleaned by washing and are usually cut into lengthwise or transverse slices for drying. They should be thoroughly dried, and if a large quantity is to be handled the use of artificial heat will be found desirable.

A yield of about 600 pounds of dry root per acre may be expected at the end of the first year, or three or four times as much from plants of the second year's growth. In the second year several hundred pounds of berries may also be obtained from 1 acre.

Before the war, collectors received from 2 to 3 cents a pound for the roots and berries. The price in June, 1920, for the dry, cut root was about 6 cents and for the dry berries 15 cents a pound. Apparently there is but a small demand for either of these products.

SAFFLOWER.

Safflower, American saffron, or false saffron (_Carthamus tinctorius_) is a hardy Old World annual of the aster family, cultivated in gardens in this country for its flowers, which are used in coloring or for flavoring, and sometimes as a substitute for the true saffron.

Safflower grows well on moist soils and may be readily propagated from seeds sown in the open early in the spring. The soil should be fine and mellow, and the seeds sown an inch or more apart in drills and well covered. About three weeks from the time of sowing the seed the plants will be well started, and cultivation should begin at once and be continued until the flower buds form. The plants bloom in July or August, when harvesting may begin. Only the florets are collected, and, since these must be removed by hand, harvesting is slow and expensive. The plants continue to blossom for several weeks, and the florets must be harvested almost daily. It is best to collect them early in the morning and to dry them in the shade on trays having muslin bottoms. The florets should be turned daily until thoroughly dry and then stored in tin containers.

The yield is estimated at 125 to 150 pounds of dry florets per acre. The price for safflower is variable and ranges from 19 to 60 cents a pound.

SAFFRON.

The true saffron (_Crocus sativus_) is a low-growing, fall-blooming, bulbous plant of the iris family, native to southern Europe, where it is cultivated commercially. It was formerly grown as a small garden crop in some localities in this country, chiefly in Lancaster and Lebanon Counties, Pa. The stigmas of the flowers form the saffron of commerce. Saffron is used in cookery and for coloring confectionery, and was formerly widely used in medicine.

A rich, well-drained garden soil favors a vigorous growth of the plant, but a better quality of saffron is secured on land of medium fertility. It is propagated from bulbs (corms), which may be planted in August about 6 inches apart each way and 6 inches deep in well-prepared soil. When grown on a large scale the bulbs are often set late in the spring. The ground is laid off in rows about 20 inches apart, and a furrow 6 to 8 inches deep is opened for each row. In this furrow the bulbs are set in two parallel rows about 4 inches apart and about 2 inches apart in the row. The furrows are then filled and the surface of the soil brought to a uniform level. Thorough cultivation and freedom from weeds are essential for good results.

The purplish blossoms usually appear about October, but the main leaf growth of the plant is made in the following spring. The bulbs may remain undisturbed for three or four years, or they may be taken up yearly and the clusters divided. All unsound bulbs should be rejected, as they are often attacked by a fungus which readily spreads to the sound bulbs, causing them to rot. During the blossoming period, which frequently lasts from two to three weeks, the flowers are collected daily just as they open. The orange-colored stigmas are then removed from the flowers, either by pulling them out or by cutting them off with the finger nail, after which the flowers are thrown away. The stigmas are dried immediately, a common method being to spread them in a thin layer on a sieve which is suspended over a low fire. When fully dry they are placed in linen bags and stored in a dry place.

The yield of saffron is variously estimated at from 10 to 30 pounds per acre, according to the situation where it Is grown. About 50,000 flowers are required to produce a pound of dry saffron; consequently, the amount of hand labor involved in removing the stigmas is quite large. The price usually received for saffron in normal times is not far from $8 a pound, but the prices in June, 1920, ranged from $14 to $15 a pound. Owing to the high cost of production, it is not thought probable that saffron culture would prove profitable in the United States.

SAGE.

The common sage plant (_Salvia officinalis_) is a hardy perennial of the mint family, widely cultivated in gardens, and when once established it persists for several years. The leaves are used extensively for seasoning meats and soups, and a tea made from them is an old household remedy.

Sage is easily cultivated and will grow in any well-drained fertile soil, but seems to thrive best in a rich clayey loam. For cultivation on a large scale the seeds are sown in early spring in rows from 2 to 3 feet apart, and when the plants are well up they are thinned to stand about 12 inches apart in the row. Seedling plants have a tendency to produce narrow leaves; hence, the broad-leaved varieties which do not flower readily are the most desirable, since they give a larger yield of leaves. As the plants rarely set seed, they are usually grown from cuttings, which may be obtained from seed houses having their own propagating gardens. Cuttings set as early in the spring as weather conditions will permit usually give a large crop. In the North the plants should be protected In winter by a mulch of manure. Sage may also be grown as a second crop after early vegetables.

A fair crop of leaves may be harvested the first season and a much larger one for five or six years following. Only one picking should be made the first year, after which two or three pickings may be made in a season. If a product of fine quality is desired, the leaves are picked by hand and dried in the shade. Sage leaves are apt to turn black while drying unless the removal of moisture proceeds continually until they are fully dry. A cheap grade may be obtained at a smaller harvest cost by cutting the plants with a mower, the cutter bar of which is set at such a height as not to include the woody stems. The dry herb should be marketed promptly, since it loses its strength rapidly with age.

Returns from experimental areas indicate that on good soil a yield of 2,000 pounds or more of dried tops per acre may be expected. In case the leaves only are harvested, the yield will be proportionately less. American leaf sage usually brings a considerably higher price than that imported from Europe. During the last three years the price has ranged from 20 to 70 cents a pound, according to supply and demand.

SENECA SNAKEROOT.

Seneca snakeroot, known also as senega or seneca root (_Polygala senega_, fig. 8), is a small native perennial, occurring in rocky woods in the eastern United States and Canada. Seneca is not yet grown on a commercial scale, although cultivated experimentally in a number of places. The root is used in medicine.

Seneca can be grown in good garden soil or in rather firm, stony soil, provided it contains a fair proportion of leaf mold or very well rotted manure. Shade is not essential, although the plant thrives in partial shade or under modified forest conditions. Roots for propagation may be obtained from dealers or may be collected from the wild in autumn or early spring. If set 15 inches apart in rows, the plants may be readily cultivated until they reach a marketable size. The seeds ripen in June and may then be planted, or they may be stratified by mixing with sand and buried in boxes or flower pots in moist soil until the following spring, when they may be sown in seed beds or shallow boxes of loam and leaf mold. The seedlings when old enough to be handled safely may be transplanted to the permanent beds and set in rows to facilitate cultivation. In cold situations they will probably need to be protected during the first winter after transplanting. A light covering of straw or pine needles will be sufficient to protect them from severe frost.

The plant is slow in growth, but experiments thus far indicate that about four years are required to obtain marketable roots. The roots should be dug in the fall, thoroughly cleaned, and dried. There are no reliable data on the probable yield. Seneca root is in constant demand, and collectors formerly received from 35 to 50 cents a pound. The price to collectors in June, 1920, was 90 cents a pound.

SERPENTARIA.

Serpentaria, or Virginia snakeroot (_Aristolochia serpentaria_), is a native perennial plant occurring in rich woods in the eastern part of the United States, and most abundantly along the Allegheny Mountains. The roots of this plant are used in medicine.

Like many other woodland plants, serpentaria requires a rich, moist loam and partial shade for its best development. It may be readily propagated from seeds, which, however, require several months for germination. The seeds are best sown in a well-prepared seed bed as soon as they are ripe. They may also be sown broadcast or in drills 6 inches apart and lightly covered with leaf mold. A thin mulch of straw or leaves will afford the necessary winter protection. In the spring the plants may be set 6 inches apart each way in the permanent beds. Plantings have been made in the open, in which case the plants were set 4 inches apart in rows 16 inches apart, but the results have been less satisfactory than with plantings made under shade.

The roots are collected in the fall, thoroughly cleaned, and carefully dried. Satisfactory data on probable yields under cultivation are not available. The price usually ranges from 30 to 45 cents a pound.

SPEARMINT.

Spearmint (_Mentha spicata_) is a well-known perennial of the mint family which is very frequently found growing wild in moist situations throughout the eastern half of the United States. It is widely used for seasoning meats, and the leaves and flowering tops, as well as the volatile oil distilled from the whole herb, form marketable drug products.

Spearmint is easily grown in any fertile soil which is fairly moist. Its culture and the method of distilling the volatile oil are the same as for peppermint. To prepare the dry herb for market the leaves and flowering tops are collected when the first flowers appear and before the leaves begin to fall and are carefully dried in the shade. The demand for the dry herb is small, but the annual market requirement for the oil is about 50,000 pounds.

On ordinary soils the yield of oil varies from 10 to 20 pounds per acre, according to stand and season, but on muck lands the yield is usually only a little less than that of peppermint. Before the war the wholesale prices for the oil ranged from $1.50 to $5, averaging about $3.30 a pound. The price in June, 1920, was $12 a pound. The dry herb, which formerly brought from 3 to 4 cents, is now quoted at 6 to 12 cents a pound.

For further information on the growing of spearmint, see Farmers' Bulletin 694, entitled "The Cultivation of Peppermint and Spearmint."

STRAMONIUM.

Stramonium, Jamestown weed, or jimson weed (_Datura stramonium_), is a poisonous annual of the nightshade family, which occurs as a common weed in almost all parts of this country except the West and North. The leaves and seeds are used medicinally.

Although stramonium grows wild on a variety of soils, it thrives best under cultivation in rich and rather heavy soils which are fairly well supplied with lime. It grows readily from seed, which may be sown in the open early in the spring in drills 3 feet apart and barely covered. When the plants are well established they are thinned to stand 12 to 15 inches apart in the row. The plants can be readily transplanted, and gaps occurring in the rows may be filled in with the plants removed in thinning. Cultivation sufficient to keep the soil free from weeds is necessary for good growth.

Cultivated plants are frequently attacked by leaf-eating insects, especially in the early stages of growth, and it is often necessary to use lime or other insect repellents to prevent the destruction of the crop.

The leaves, which are collected when the plant is in full bloom, may be picked in the field, but time will be saved if the entire plant is cut and dried in an artificially heated curing room at a temperature of 100° to 110° F. When the leaves are dry they can be readily stripped from the stems, and should be baled for shipment. Such seed as is ripe may be easily thrashed out of the capsules after the leaves have been removed from the stems.

Yields of dry leaf at the rate of 1,000 to 1,500 pounds per acre have been obtained. The yield of seed is much more variable, and is estimated to range from 500 to 2,000 pounds per acre. The prewar price for the leaves varied from 2 to 10 cents and for the seed from 3 to 7 cents a pound. The price in June, 1920, for the leaves was 22 cents and for the seed 12 cents a pound.

TANSY.

Tansy (_Tanacetum vulgare_) is a European perennial plant, long cultivated in this country in gardens, from which it has escaped, and it now occurs as a weed along fence rows and roadsides. The leaves and flowering tops are in some demand for medicinal purposes. The herb also yields a volatile oil, for which there is a small market.

Tansy grows well on almost any good soil, but rich and rather heavy soils well supplied with moisture favor a heavy growth of herb. It may be propagated from seed, but is more readily propagated by division of the roots early in spring. The divisions are set 18 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. Seed may be sown very early in the spring in the open or in seed beds, and the seedlings later transplanted to the field. Such cultivation as is usually given to garden crops will be sufficient.

The plants are cut late in the summer when in full flower, the leaves and tops being separated from the stems and dried without exposure to the sun, as the trade desires a bright-green color. For the volatile oil the plants are allowed to lie in the field after cutting until they have lost a considerable portion of their moisture. They are then brought to the still and the oil removed by the usual method of steam distillation.

A yield of about 2,000 pounds of dry leaves and flowering tops per acre may be obtained under good conditions. The yield of oil varies, but about 20 pounds per acre is a fair average. In the United States the center of production of oil of tansy is Michigan, where about 2,500 pounds are distilled annually. The price of the oil in June, 1920, was about $8 a pound. The price of the leaves and tops usually ranges from 3 to 5 cents a pound.

THYME.

Thyme (_Thymus vulgaris_) is a shrublike perennial plant of the mint family, native to southwestern Europe. It is a common garden plant, which lives for many years under good culture. The herb, often used for seasoning and flavoring, yields the oil of thyme, which has well-recognized medicinal properties.

Thyme grows well from seed, which may be sown early in the spring in drills 3 feet apart, or the plants may be started in a greenhouse or in seed beds outside and later set at intervals of about 18 inches in rows 2 to 3 feet apart. Thyme may also be propagated, like geraniums, from cuttings rooted in sand under glass. The plants grow well in mellow upland soil of good quality, and should be well cultivated and kept free from weeds throughout the growing season.

For preparing the dry herb only the flowering tops are used, and these are cut when the plant is in full bloom and carefully dried in the shade in order to preserve the natural color. The volatile oil is obtained from the entire herb, which is preferably cut when in full flower and subjected to steam distillation without previous drying.

Returns from experimental areas have shown great variations in the yield, which has averaged about a ton of green herb per acre. Normally the yield from a planting increases for several years, as the plants become better established, and yields at the rate of about a ton of dry herb per acre have been reported. The wholesale price in June, 1920, for the dry herb ranged from 11 to 15 cents a pound; for the imported oil, from $1.85 to $2.25 a pound, according to quality.

VALERIAN.

Valerian (_Valeriana officinalis_) is a hardy herbaceous perennial, well known under the name "garden heliotrope" and often grown as an ornamental plant. It has also been cultivated as a drug plant in New York and in parts of New England. The dried roots (rhizome and roots) form the marketable drug.