Part 86

It will be seen that the early diamond-seekers at the Cape followed very primitive methods, by simply washing in sieves the gravel and sand shovelled out of the river banks; and indeed, it was only when, about 1871, they began to dig deeper that their working seems entitled to be called mining. The “dry-digging” operations began at the since famous Du Toit’s Pan, by the circumstance of a Boer farmer finding to his great surprise diamonds sticking in the walls of his house, which had been built of mud. When the locality of this mud was examined by digging, more diamonds were found; and when the excavation was continued downwards, still more. At this place and at four others, all within a circuit of less than four miles diameter, have been developed the richest diamond _mines_ in the world, throwing into the shade the produce of all the river gravel washings; and what is still more remarkable, showing no signs of exhaustion after nearly thirty years of working, but rather the contrary. The locality soon presented a scene of the most active industry, and it was not long before the town sprang up which has since become celebrated all the world over—Kimberley, the diamond capital. Kimberley is situated at the northern part of the British territory known as Cape Colony, not far within its boundary, and about 14 miles from the Vaal River, in Lat. 28° 43´ S., Long. 24° 46´ E. It lies in a north-easterly direction from Cape Town, at a distance of about 550 miles. When the existence of diamonds at the Cape became known, a great influx of strangers seeking fortune set in to a land that had failed to offer the attractions to colonists that America and Australia did. Before the establishment of the overland route opened a more direct way to India, China, and Australia, Cape Colony owed whatever importance it had to its position as a provisioning and coaling station for ships and steamers. As a British settlement it was little regarded, and its somewhat somnolent condition would have been deepened by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, had not the diamond discovery in that very same year brought about a great change. But the early diamond-seekers found their land of promise a wilderness without roads and without habitations, for the development of civilization did not then extend far from the coast. It is true, that here and there, at great distances apart, a few primitive missionary stations might be found, like that of Pniel shown in one of our cuts, which also represent the inhospitable aspect of the country. One cannot but admire the pluck of the adventurers, who, though unversed in their quest, encountered in its prosecution prolonged toils and many hardships. But they were young men, and their perseverance gained its reward. They came from all parts: from Britain, from America, from Australia, from Germany, even from Russia.

The finding at Du Toit’s Pan, and at contiguous places, of diamonds at some depth below the surface of the soil, led to geological examinations of the district, which ultimately resulted in discoveries of the highest interest and importance, as will now be explained, with first a few words about the external features of the country.

A traveller directing his steps northward from the sea-shore at almost any part of the southern coast of Cape Colony will be faced by several successive ranges of mountains, or what will appear to be such, running more or less parallel to the coast, and of no great elevation. When he has reached the summits of these heights he will not find corresponding declivities on the northern side, but nearly level plains, bounded northwards by other similar ranges. Supposing him to set out at a point, say, 150 miles east of Cape Agulhas (the most southern point of Africa), he will, about 50 miles from the shore, have reached the top of the third of the great escarpments which rise up like the stages of a gigantic terrace, and having thus gained the ridge of the Black Mountains, he will see one of these almost level plains stretching before him a breadth of 80 miles, for the most part arid and inhospitable, with a much greater length east and west, and bounded on the north by a portion of the range of elevations that in an almost unbroken line runs through Cape Colony to Delagoa Bay nearly parallel with the coast, at a distance from it between 100 and 150 miles. This extensive plain is known as the _Groot Karoo_ (Great Karoo),—_karoo_ being the generic name for such plains in South Africa. After crossing the Great Karoo, our traveller, on mounting the last far-reaching step of the Brobdignagian staircase, may find himself on the summit of the Nieuveldt Mountains, at an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet above the sea-level, attained in several widely separated stages within a distance of 140 miles. From the summit of these elevations there is no descent by terraces northwards, but the high tableland or plateau stretches away for hundreds of miles, descending by only a gentle slope towards the Orange River, but maintaining an average altitude of nearly 6,000 feet, and extending far beyond the Orange River towards the Equator. Kimberley is situated about 50 miles north of the Orange River, and 4,042 feet above the sea-level.

It was soon observed that the Karoos had common geological characters, consisting in a certain series of shales, coal, limestones, etc., and this series naturally came to be called the “Karoo formation,” just as we in England speak of the Wealden formation, etc.; and it was found that it extended over a greater part of Central South Africa, covering an area of at least 200,000 square miles, with an estimated thickness of 5,000 feet. The reader need not imagine that a boring nearly a mile in depth had to be made for the ascertainment of this last dimension, if he will remember what has been said in the last paragraph about escarpments of the rocks looking everywhere towards the coast. There is reason to believe that these beds were originally the sedimentary deposits of a vast fresh-water lake, or inland sea, far back in geological times. But here we need only concern ourselves with the development of the Karoo beds about Kimberley. There the ground is covered by a sandy soil of a red colour, for it contains much iron. Below this there is a layer of decomposed basalt, also containing much iron, its thickness varying from 20 to 90 feet. This lies upon a bed of very combustible shale, with carbon and iron pyrites, 250 feet thick, which from its great development here is known as Kimberley shale; then, after a conglomerate stratum 10 feet thick, is found a very hard compact rock, resembling hornblende, extending 400 feet downwards, and resting on another hard rock of quartz, also 400 feet in depth. These beds are _nearly_ horizontal, but dipping a little towards the north. In speaking of them collectively we may use the local term of the miners and call them “the reef.”

Now, there are a few certain spots near Kimberley, and two or three elsewhere, in which the strata forming “the reef” are not found, but something quite different. These may be compared to large dry wells, extending vertically downwards to unknown depths, which have been filled up with matters from below. They are called _pipes_, but they are uncommonly large ones; for though of a somewhat irregular circular or oval shape, their diameters range from 200 to 500 feet. Nor must it be supposed that the enclosing reef presents itself as a smooth wall, as the name “pipe” might suggest. These _pipes_ are true diamond mines. They are believed to have been formed by an eruptive action originating from below at a great depth, and this was not by the escape of red-hot lava or other molten rocks, but by that of steam or other gases. It is known that the eruptive forces acted from below, for the edges of some of the strata are seen in places in the walls of the reef that surround the pipes to be turned a little _upwards_. It is known that the erupted matter was not molten lava or rock, for the shale and other strata show none of those changes of character near the pipes which would have resulted from igneous action, and for the same reason the gas or steam that escaped by these pipes could not have been highly heated. It must therefore have forced its way through the strata by enormous tension or pressure, and this either at one terrific outburst or possibly by the gradual enlargement of smaller volcanic chimneys. These blow-holes are filled with a mixture of subterranean débris, as if mud had been forced up from below, carrying with it an extraordinary variety of rock fragments and crystallized minerals. These are embedded in a mass of a bluish-green colour much resembling indurated clay (but nearly as hard as ordinary sandstone), and this on long exposure to the weather crumbles down to a yellow friable substance. More than eighty different kinds of minerals of the volcanic class have been found in this _breccia_, as it is termed by geologists, and it is remarked that these fragments could not have been exposed to any great heat, for their edges show no signs of fusion. There are also embedded in the agglutinating substance large masses of the surrounding strata, sometimes having an area of several thousand square feet, and these are called in miners’ parlance “floating reef.” The cementing material is named “blue ground,” and the same when crumbled down by exposure is known as “yellow ground.” These colours are due to oxides of iron, which in the unaltered ground give the blue-green tint, being lower oxides; but are converted by absorption of oxygen into yellow and higher oxides. The upper part of the pipes is filled to a depth of about 70 feet with “yellow ground,” produced by the penetration of atmospheric influences. Blue ground and yellow ground alike contain diamonds, and the yield of these is pretty regular at all depths in the same mine (some have been explored down to nearly 2,000 feet), although it varies considerably from one mine to another, and in some the east side is often richer than the west. Thus in one load (1,600 lbs.) of _ground_ from Du Toit’s Pan, in 1890, the quantity of diamonds found averaged less than 2 grains (0·5 carat), while Kimberley yielded 1·25 to 1·5 carats (5 to 6 grains). It is singular that the stones from mines quite close together are so distinctly different in character, that the Kimberley merchants can tell at once the source of any particular parcel. This would indicate that the blue mud was not forced up the several pipes at one and the same time, carrying with it diamonds from one birthplace.

The existence of the diamondiferous pipes is pointed out by no indication on the surface, which is covered nearly uniformly with the red sandy soil already spoken of; although indeed the site of the Kimberley mine was marked by a slight elevation, and that of Du Toit’s Pan by one of the depressions there called _pans_, which, at least in the wet season, are receptacles for surface water. The Wesselton mine, which was found only in the last decade of the century, about a mile from Du Toit’s Pan, also showed a surface depression, and that had been utilised as a depositing place for dry rubbish. At a later period the “Leicester mine” was accidentally discovered 40 miles away. At Jagersfontein, in the Orange River Free State, 60 miles from the Kimberley mines, is another pipe which yields the finest diamonds of any, commanding prices nearly the double of those paid for the De Beers and Kimberley gems, being in fact their nearest commercial rival. The proprietorship of the Kimberley group having in 1889 become united in the hands of one company, known as the “De Beers Consolidated Mines,” this company is able practically to control the diamond market, as it has sometimes turned out in a year as much as 3 million carats of diamonds, which sell for about £3,500,000. Up to the end of 1892, 10 tons of diamonds had been derived from these mines, representing a value of £60,000,000 sterling. In 1895, the De Beers Company sold diamonds to the amount of £3,105,958, the total expense of working for that year being £1,704,813,—the net profit was £1,401,145. The effect of consolidating all the Kimberley diamond interest into the De Beers Company has been to give an almost complete monopoly to this last, which has however found it advantageous to restrict its production to an annual output of about £3,000,000 in value, as the putting of a larger quantity of diamonds on the market would cause lowering of their price, and a diminution of the profits all round. The reason is, that though the world at large annually spends between 4 and 4½ million pounds sterling in the purchase of diamonds, yet it would not by a reduction in their price be induced to spend proportionately more. The company are sufficiently supplied by only two of their mines, the Kimberley and the De Beers, the expenses of working these being also relatively smaller than is the case with the others. It may be of interest to compare the quantities of diamonds that have so far been produced from the world’s greatest fields, leaving out Borneo, the Ural Mountains, Australia, etc., as comparatively insignificant. Estimated produce of India, from the remotest period, 10 million carats; of Brazil (since 1728), 12 million carats; of South Africa, in only 19 years, 57 million carats.

At the time of the discovery of the Kimberley mine (July 1871) it was divided into about 500 claims, each 31 feet square, and between these were roadways across; but when the claims were excavated to a depth of 100 feet or more the roadways became unsafe, and, the “blue ground” underneath them being too tempting always to be left for their support, they began to fall in, and the mine was often threatened with ruin from this cause. The state of things became still worse when the unsupported walls of the “pipe” itself began to collapse, so that by 1878 a quarter of the claims were buried in the ruins of the reef. These falls continued, and although very large sums were year after year expended in removing the fallen reef, the cost amounting in 1882 to 2 million pounds sterling, it was found at last that very few of the claims could be regularly worked, and when in 1883 a tremendous fall of 250,000 cubic yards of reef took place, covering half the area of the mine, it became necessary to adopt another mode of working, namely, a regular system of underground mining. Vertical shafts were sunk at a considerable distance from the pipe itself, and tunnels from these carried through at different levels, with a system of galleries so arranged that all the “blue ground” is removable without danger to the miners. The whole mine is illuminated by electric lights, and the different kinds of labour are carried on by distinct sets of workmen, some of whom drill holes for the reception of dynamite cartridges, others shovel the material into trucks, others again wheel the trucks along tram lines, which converge to a space where their contents are discharged into skips holding four truck loads, in which they are hoisted to the surface at about the rate of 400 loads per hour. This goes on day and night, the miners working in three shifts of eight hours each. About 8,000 persons are employed, 6,500 of whom are blacks.

Fig. 334_a_ is a sketch section of the Kimberley diamond mine, approximately to scale, and a glance at this will elucidate the foregoing description. The thick vertical and horizontal lines show the positions of the shafts and galleries that have at various times been excavated, the lowest gallery being connected with a shaft a considerable distance from the pipe, towards the right, but out of the range of the sketch. The fringed lines at the top, with dates, give some idea of the forms of the excavations until the final fall of reef that determined the resort to subterranean working.

When the “blue ground” has come to the surface, how are the diamonds to be extracted from the hard mass? how can a stone of a few grains weight be found amongst 1,600 lbs. of miscellaneous matter—a thing perhaps not larger than a peppercorn in four cubic feet of compact material? The “blue ground” is spread out on levelled and carefully prepared areas called “depositing floors,” and there, after a few months’ exposure, all but the very hardest pieces crumble down, the atmospheric action being accelerated by turning the material over with harrows, and by occasional waterings. The “blue ground” from the De Beers mine requires at least six months of this treatment, and it contains a certain proportion of refractory lumps that would not disintegrate in perhaps less than two years. These lumps are coarsely crushed between rollers, and the fragments are spread over slowly moving tables, from which any larger diamonds are picked off; the fragments left go through smaller crushers, and are subjected to still greater concentration. The depositing floors of the De Beers mine are laid out as rectangles, 600 yards long by 200 yards wide, each holding about 50,000 loads. They occupy several square miles, and as the “blue ground” spread upon them is always one of the most valuable assets of the company, the quantity of it forms an important item in the balance-sheets, and the amount that can be realized from it can be estimated with sufficient closeness, on account of the nearly uniform distribution of the diamonds. Thus in June 1895, the 3,360,256 loads then on the floors were put down as equivalent to nearly 1 million pounds sterling. When the “ground,” thoroughly weathered, has become yellow and friable, it is transferred to the washing machinery, by which about 99 per cent, of the original non-diamondiferous material is removed, and, thus concentrated, the gravel is together with the mechanically crushed material submitted to the action of a machine called the _pulsator_, where the gravel is first assorted into sizes by being turned about within an inclined iron cylinder perforated with several stages of round holes of diameters successively of 2, 3, 4 and 6 sixteenths of an inch. The pieces that are too coarse to pass through the largest holes are taken to the _sorting house_ direct; but the stones that have passed through the cylinder drop according to their sizes into four separate sieves called at Kimberley _jigs_, from the well-known mining term _jigger_, applied to a man who washes ores in a sieve. The several jigs into which passes the now assorted gravel have screens with meshes corresponding to the holes in the cylinder; and by a very ingenious arrangement the concentration is carried to the point at which the diamonds can be individually picked out. The “jigs” themselves do not move, but all over the meshes of the screen is spread a layer of leaden bullets, which prevent a too rapid passage through the screens, while the material is kept moving in water, by that liquid _pulsating_ or emerging in quickly succeeding gushes from below the meshes, and thus carrying off the lighter matters, while those of greater specific gravity, including the diamonds, work their way downwards between the bullets and through the meshes, and are received in boxes which are periodically carried to the sorting house.

When the now much concentrated diamondiferous gravel reaches the sorting house, the remaining operation consists merely in picking the diamonds out. But simple as this operation is, it has to be conducted systematically. In the sorting house are long tables covered with plates of iron, and placed in a good light. Upon these is thrown the wet gravel, but not promiscuously; the different sizes being set apart, the sorter spreads out the heap before him with a flat piece of zinc, picks out the diamonds and drops them into a small box. Only white men in whom confidence can be placed are allowed to deal with largest sized material, for this offers the strongest temptation to purloiners, as in this of course the most valuable stones are met with. This material, after the first search, is submitted to the scrutiny of another person, to see that no diamond has been overlooked; but the smaller assortments are examined by blacks, who are closely supervised by white men. The value of the diamonds occasionally sorted out in a single day may reach £10,000.

At the diamond mines little trust is reposed in the honesty of the blacks. Below ground and above ground they work under the constant surveillance of white men, and they live in “compounds” which are spacious areas—perhaps of 20 acres in extent—enclosed by lofty iron fences, and containing long rows of corrugated iron erections divided into rooms, each appropriated to a score of natives. Food, etc., is supplied from a store at less than ordinary prices, and the company find fuel and water gratis, and provide a well equipped hospital and medical attendance. There are swimming baths, and ample recreation grounds for dancing, etc. The natives of each of the many tribes keep by themselves apart, and follow their own fancies. They receive good wages, and some of them save money. They are not allowed out of the “compound” or the mine, except to work on the depositing floor, which they do under guard. They accept their restrictions voluntarily, making agreements for a certain term, three months being the least. Those who leave, as many do to spend their earnings, often “not wisely but too well,” usually return. The depositing floors are surrounded by fences 7 feet high, unscalably and impenetrably armed with barbed wire; and as here robbery would have the readiest chance, where the largest stones might be met with, extraordinary precautions are taken, watch and ward being maintained by day and by night. Not more vigilantly did Cerberus keep the entrance of Pluto’s domain, nor the wakeful dragon guard the golden apples of the Hesperides, than the patrols observe the depositing floors. At night powerful electric searchlights are made to play across the enclosures, so that unauthorized movements can scarcely escape detection. Besides these provisions against theft, the laws of the Colony prohibit any attempt at illicit dealing in diamonds, under a penalty of two years’ penal servitude.

The maximum penalties for contravention of the Diamond Laws are, however, much more severe, and that to an extraordinary degree. Thus any unlicensed dealer is liable to a fine of £1,000, or fifteen years’ imprisonment, or both. And the authorized dealers are required to keep a most minute record of all their transactions, to send a copy of it every month to the head of the police, and to produce it when required. It is needless to say that extraordinary precautions are taken to prevent the native workmen from secreting diamonds. And any person even finding a diamond, and neglecting to report the circumstance to the proper quarter at once, is liable to the pains and penalties above mentioned.