Part 3

But so much have these things become in the present day matters of course, that it is difficult for one who has not witnessed the revolution produced by such applications of science to realize their full importance. Let the young reader who wishes to understand why the present epoch is worthy of admiration as a stage in the progress of mankind, address himself to some intelligent person old enough to remember the century in its teens; let him inquire what wonderful changes in the aspect of things have been comprised within the experience of a single lifetime, and let him ask what has brought about these changes. He will be told of the railway, and the steam-ship, and the telegraph, and the great guns, and the mighty ships of war—

“The armaments which thunderstrike the walls Of rock-built cities, bidding nations quake, And monarchs tremble in their capitals.”

He will be told of a machine more potent in shaping the destinies of our race than warlike engines—the steam printing-press. He may hear of a chemistry which effects endless and marvellous transformations; which from dirt and dross extracts fragrant essences and dyes of resplendent hue. He may hear something of a wonderful instrument which can make a faint beam of light, reaching us after a journey of a thousand years, unfold its tale and reveal the secrets of the stars. Of these and of other inventions and discoveries which distinguish the present age it is the purpose of this work to give some account.

STEAM ENGINES.

To track the steps which led up to the invention of the Steam Engine, and fully describe the improvements by which the genius of the illustrious Watt perfected it at least in principle, are not subjects falling within the province of this work, which deals only with the discoveries and inventions of the present century. But as it does enter into our province to describe some of the more recent developments of Watt’s invention, it may be desirable to give the reader an idea of his engine, of which all the more recent applications of steam are modifications, with improvements of detail rather than of principle.

Watt took up the engine in the condition in which it was left by Newcomen; and what that was may be seen in Fig. 2, which represents Newcomen’s atmospheric engine—the first practically useful engine in which a piston moving in a cylinder was employed. In the cut, the lower part of the cylinder, _c_, is removed, or supposed to be broken off, in order that the piston, _h_, and the openings of the pipes, _d_, _e_, _f_, connected with the cylinder, may be exhibited. The steam was admitted beneath the piston by the attendant turning the cock _k_, and as the elastic force of the steam was only equal to the pressure of the atmosphere, it was not employed to raise the piston, but merely filled the cylinder, the ascent of the piston being caused by the weight attached to the other side of the beam, which at the same time sent down the pump-rod, _m_; and when this was at its lowest position, the piston was nearly at the top of the cylinder, which was open. The attendant then cut off the communication with the boiler by closing the cock, _k_, at the same time opening another cock which allowed a jet of cold water from the cistern, _g_, to flow through the opening, _d_, into the cylinder. The steam which filled the cylinder was, by contact with the cold fluid, instantly condensed into water; and as the liquefied steam would take up little more than a two-thousandth part of the space it occupied in the gaseous state, it followed that a vacuum was produced within the cylinder; and the weight of the atmosphere acting on the top of the piston, having no longer the elastic force of the steam to counteract it, forced the piston down, and thus raised the pump-bucket attached to the rod, _m_. The water which entered the cylinder from the cistern, together with that produced by the condensation of the steam, flowed out of the cylinder by the opening, _f_, the pipe from which was conducted downwards, and terminated under water, the surface of which was at least 34 ft. below the level of the cylinder; for the atmospheric pressure would cause the cylinder to be filled with water had the height been less. The improvements which Watt, reasoning from scientific principles, was enabled to effect on the rude engine of Newcomen, are well expressed by himself in the specification of his patent of 1769. It will be observed that the machine was formerly called the “fire engine.”

“My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and consequently fuel, in fire engines, consists of the following principles:—_First._ That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be employed to work the engine (which is called the cylinder in common fire engines, and which I call the steam-vessel), must, during the whole time the engine is at work, be kept as hot as the steam that enters it; first, by enclosing it in a case of wood, or any other materials that transmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it with steam or other heated bodies; and thirdly, by suffering neither water nor any other substance colder than the steam to enter or touch it during that time.—_Secondly._ In engines that are to be worked either wholly or partially by condensation of steam, the steam is to be condensed in vessels distinct from the steam-vessels or cylinders, although occasionally communicating with them,—these vessels I call condensers; and whilst the engines are working, these condensers ought to be kept at least as cold as the air in the neighbourhood of the engines by the application of water or other cold bodies.—_Thirdly._ Whatever air or other elastic vapour is not condensed by the cold of the condenser, and may impede the working of the engine, is to be drawn out of the steam-vessels or condensers by means of pumps, wrought by the engines themselves or otherwise.—_Fourthly._ I intend in many cases to employ the expansive force of steam to press on the pistons, or whatever may be used instead of them, in the same manner in which the pressure of the atmosphere is now employed in common fire engines. In cases where cold water cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by this force of steam only, by discharging the steam into the air after it has done its office.—_Lastly._ Instead of using water to render the pistons and other parts of the engines air- and steam-tight, I employ oils, wax, resinous bodies, fat of animals, quicksilver, and other metals in their fluid state.”

From the engraving we give of Watt’s double-action steam engine, Fig. 3, and the following description, the reader will realize the high degree of perfection to which the steam engine was brought by Watt. The steam is conveyed to the cylinder through a pipe, B, the supply being regulated by the throttle-valve, acted on by rods connected with the governor, D, which has a rotary motion. This apparatus is designed to regulate the admission of steam in such a manner that the speed of the engine shall be nearly uniform; and the mode in which this is accomplished may be seen in Fig. 4, where D D is a vertical axis carrying the pulley, _d_, which receives a rotary motion from the driving-shaft of the engine, by a band not shown in the figures. Near the top of the axis, at _e_, two bent rods work on a pin, crossing each other in the same manner as the blades of a pair of scissors. The two heavy balls are attached to the lower arms of these levers, which move in slits through the curved guides intended to keep them always in the same vertical plane as the axis, D D. The upper arms are jointed at _f f_ to rods hinged at _h h_ to a ring not attached to the axis, but allowing it to revolve freely within it. To this ring at F is fastened one end of the lever connected with the throttle-valve in a manner sufficiently obvious from the cut. The position represented is that assumed by the apparatus when the engine is in motion, the disc-valve, _z_, being partly open. If from any cause the velocity of the engine increases, the balls diverge from increased centrifugal force, and the effect is to draw down the ring at F, and, through the system of levers, to turn the disc in the direction of the arrows, and diminish the supply of steam. If, on the other hand, the speed of the engine is checked, the balls fall towards the axis, and the valve is opened wider, admitting steam more freely, and so restoring its former speed to the engine. On one side of the cylinder are two hollow boxes, E E, Fig. 3, communicating with the cylinder by an opening near the middle of the box. Each of these steam-chests is divided into three compartments by conical valves attached to rods connected with the lever, H. These valves are so arranged that when the upper part of the cylinder is in communication with the boiler, the lower part is open to the condenser, I, and _vice versâ_. The top of the cylinder is covered, and the piston-rod passes through an air and steam-tight hole in it; freedom of motion, with the necessary close fitting, being attained by making the piston-rod pass through a _stuffing-box_, where it is closely surrounded with greased tow. The piston is also packed, so that, while it can slide freely up and down in the cylinder, it divides the latter into two steam-tight chambers. In an engine of this kind, the elastic force of the steam acts alternately on the upper and lower surfaces of the piston; and the condenser, by removing the steam which has performed its office, leaves a nearly empty space before the piston, in which it advances with little or no resistance. On the rod which works the air-pump, two pins are placed, so as to move the lever, H, up and down through a certain space, when one pin is near its highest and the other near its lowest position, and thus the valves are opened and closed when the piston reaches the termination of its stroke. In the condenser, I, a stream of cold water is constantly playing, the flow being regulated by the handle, _f_. The steam, in condensing, heats the cold water, adding to its bulk, and at the same time the air, which is always contained in water, is disengaged, owing to the heat and the reduced pressure. Hence it is necessary to pump out both the air and the water by the pump, J, which is worked by the beam of the engine. In his engines Watt adopted the heavy fly-wheel, which tends to equalize the movement, and render insensible the effects of those variations in the driving power and in the resistance which always occur. In the action of the engine itself there are two positions of the piston, namely, where it is changing its direction, in which there is no force whatever communicated to the piston-rod by the steam. These positions are known as the “dead points,” and in a rotatory engine occur twice in each revolution. The resistance also is liable to great variations. Suppose, for example, that the engine is employed to move the shears by which thick plates of iron are cut. When a plate has been cut, the resistance is removed, and the speed of the engine increases; but this increase, instead of taking place by a sudden start, takes place gradually, the power of the engine being in the meantime absorbed in imparting increased velocity to the fly-wheel. When another plate is put between the shears, the power which the fly-wheel has gathered up is given out in the slight diminution of its speed occasioned by the increased resistance. But for the fly-wheel, such changes of velocity would take place with great suddenness, and the shocks and strains thereby caused would soon injure the machine. This expedient, in conjunction with that admirable contrivance, the “governor,” renders it possible to set the same engine at one moment to forge an anchor, and at the next to shape a needle. One of the most ingenious of Watt’s improvements is what is termed the “parallel motion,” consisting of a system of jointed rods connecting the head of the piston-rod, R, with the end of the oscillating beam. As, during the motion of the engine, the former moves in a straight line, while the latter describes a circle, it would be impossible to connect them directly. Watt accomplished this by hinging rods together in form of a parallelogram, in such a manner that, while three of the angles describe circles, the fourth moves in nearly a straight line. Watt was himself surprised at the regularity of the action. “When I saw it work for the first time, I felt truly all the pleasure of novelty, _as if I was examining the invention of another man_.”

Many improvements in the details and fittings of almost every part of the steam engine have been effected since Watt’s time. For example, the opening and closing of the passages for the steam to enter and leave the cylinder is commonly effected by means of the slide-valve (Fig. 5). The steam first enters a box, in which are three holes placed one above the other in the face of the box opposite to the pipe by which the steam enters. The uppermost hole is in communication with the upper part of the cylinder, and the lowest with the lower part. The middle opening leads to the condenser, or to the pipe by which the steam escapes into the air. A piece of metal, which may be compared to a box without a lid, slides over the three holes with its open side towards them, and its size is such that it can put the middle opening in communication with either the uppermost or the lowest opening, at the same time giving free passage for the steam into the cylinder by leaving the third opening uncovered. In A, Fig. 5, the valve is admitting steam below the piston, which is moving upwards, the steam which had before propelled it downwards now having free exit. When the piston has arrived at the top of the cylinder, the slide is pushed down by the rod connecting it with the eccentric into the position represented at B, and then the opposite movement takes place. The slide-valve is not moved, like the old pot-lid valves, against the pressure of the steam, and has other advantages, amongst which may be named the readiness with which a slight modification renders it available for using the steam “_expansively_.” This expansive working was one of Watt’s inventions, but has been more largely applied in recent times. In this plan, when the piston has performed a part of its stroke, the steam is shut off, and the piston is then urged on by the expansive force of the steam enclosed in the cylinder. Of course as the steam expands its pressure decreases; but as the same quantity of steam performs a much larger amount of work when used expansively, this plan of cutting off the steam is attended with great economy. It is usually effected by the modification of the slide-valve, shown at C, Fig. 5, where the faces of the slides are made of much greater width than the openings. This excess of width is called the “_lap_,” and by properly adjusting it, the opening into the cylinder may be kept closed during the interval required, so that the steam is not allowed to enter the cylinder after a certain length of the stroke has been performed. The slide-valve is moved by an arrangement termed the eccentric. A circular disc of metal is carried on the shaft of the engine, and revolves with it. The axis of the shaft does not, however, run through the centre of the disc, but towards one side. The disc is surrounded by a ring, to which it is not attached, but is capable of turning round within it. The ring forms part of a triangular frame to which is attached one arm of a lever that communicates the motion to the rod bearing the slide. Expansive working is often employed in conjunction with _superheated steam_, that is, steam heated out of contact with water, after it has been formed, so as to raise its temperature beyond that merely necessary to maintain it in the state of steam, and to confer upon it the properties of a perfect gas. Experience has proved that an increased efficiency is thus obtained.

The actual power of a steam engine is ascertained by an instrument called the Indicator, which registers the amount of pressure exerted by the steam on the face of the piston in every part of its motion. The indicator consists simply of a very small cylinder, in which works a piston, very accurately made, so as to move up and down with very little friction. The piston is attached to a strong spiral spring, so that when the steam is admitted into the cylinder of the indicator the spring is compressed, and its elasticity resists the pressure of the steam, which tends to force the piston up. When the pressure of steam below the piston of the indicator is equal to that of the atmosphere, the spring is neither compressed nor extended; but when the steam-pressure falls below that of the atmosphere, as it does while the steam is being condensed, then the atmospheric pressure forces down the piston of the indicator until it is balanced by the tension of the now stretched spring. The extension or compression of the spring thus measures the difference between the pressure of the atmosphere and that of the steam in the cylinder of the engine, with which the cylinder of the indicator freely communicates.

From the piston-rod of the indicator a pencil projects horizontally, and its point presses against a sheet of paper wound on a drum, which moves about a vertical axis. This drum is made to move backwards and forwards through a part of a revolution, so that its motion may exactly correspond with that of the piston in the cylinder of the steam engine. Thus, if the piston of the indicator were to remain stationary, a level line would be traced on the paper by the movement of the drum; and if the latter did not move, but the steam were admitted to the indicator, the pencil would mark an upright straight line on the paper. The actual result is that a figure bounded by curved lines is traced on the paper, and the curve accurately represents the pressure of the steam at every point of the piston’s motion. The position of the point of the pencil which corresponds with each pound of pressure per square inch is found by trial by the maker of the instrument, who attaches a scale to show what pressures of steam are indicated.

If the pressure per square inch is known, it is plain that by multiplying that pressure by the number of square inches in the area of the piston of the engine, the total pressure on the piston can be found. The pressure does not rise instantly when the steam is first admitted, nor does it fall quite abruptly when the steam is cut off and communication opened with the condenser. When the steam is worked expansively, the pressure falls gradually from the time the steam is shut off. Now, the amount of work done by any force is reckoned by the pressure it exerts multiplied into the space through which that pressure is exerted. Therefore the work done by the steam is known by multiplying the pressure in pounds on the whole surface of the piston into the length in feet of the piston’s motion through which that pressure is exerted. The trace of the pencil on the paper—_i.e._, the _indicator diagram_—shows the pressures, and also the length of the piston’s path through which each pressure is exerted, and therefore it is not difficult to calculate the actual work which is done by the steam at every stroke of the engine. If this be multiplied by the number of strokes per minute, and the product divided by 33,000, we obtain what is termed the _indicated horse-power_ of the engine. The work done per minute is divided by 33,000, because that number is taken to represent the work that a horse can do in a minute: that is, the average work done in one minute by a horse would be equal to the raising of the weight of 1,000 lbs. thirty-three feet high, or the raising of thirty-three pounds 1,000 feet high. The number, 33,000, as expressing the work that could be done by a horse in one minute, was fixed on by Watt, but more recent experiments have shown that he over-estimated the power of horses, and that we should have to reduce this number by about one-third if we desire to express the actual average working power of a horse. But the power of engines having come to be expressed by stating the horse-power on Watt’s standard, engineers have kept to the original number, which is, however, to be considered as a merely artificial unit or term of comparison between one engine and another; for the power of a horse to perform work will vary with the mode in which its strength is exerted. The source of the power which does the work in the steam engine is the combustion of the coal in the furnace under the boiler. The amount of work a steam engine will do depends not only on the quantity of steam which is generated in a given time, but also upon the pressure, and therefore the temperature at which the steam is formed.