Part 7

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed in 1850, providing for the construction of a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was stipulated that in the event of such canal being constructed, neither party should erect fortifications on the line of the canal, nor assume any sovereign rights over any portion of Central America. The United States afterwards repudiated the treaty, and it is now superseded by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.

Clean the Causeway.

The name given to a brawl in the streets of Edinburgh in 1519, in which the Douglas faction were attacked by the supporters of the Government. The Douglasses swept their opponents from the streets, killing their leader, Sir Patrick Stuart.

Cleargrits.

The extreme democratic party in Canada in 1850 were so called. They were in favour of secession from England and annexation to the United States.

Clemency Canning.

A nickname given to Lord Canning, Governor-General of India, in consequence of what many considered his undue leniency in the treatment of the rebels, after the suppression of the Indian Mutiny in 1858.

Clementine League.

_See_ Holy League.

Clergy of France, Declaration of the.

A manifesto issued by Bossuet in 1682, declaring that the Pope had no power in France in temporal affairs, and that his spiritual authority was subject to that of a General Council, as proclaimed by the Council of Constance; that the constitution of the Gallican Church was not to be subverted, and that, in questions of faith, the Pope’s opinion was not binding unless supported by the Church. This declaration was, by Royal Edict given the force of law.

Clericis Laicos, Bull of.

A Bull issued by Pope Boniface VIII in 1296, forbidding the clergy to pay tribute to a temporal sovereign. The result of this Bull in England was that the clergy refused to pay taxes. They were consequently outlawed, and much church property was confiscated by Edward I.

Clermont, Council of.

A Council summoned by Urban II in 1095, at which the Pope proclaimed the duty of Christians to free the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of Saracens. At the Council Godefroi de Bouillon and other notable personages assumed the red cross, and the First Crusade followed.

Clicquot, King.

The nickname by which Frederick William IV of Prussia was known in England.

Clontarf Meeting.

The name given to an incident which marked the collapse of O’Connell’s Repeal agitation. A monster meeting was fixed to be held at Clontarf on October 8, 1843. The Government proclaimed the meeting, and O’Connell did his best to prevent the peasants assembling. In this he was successful, but the proof that he did not mean under any circumstances to resort to strong measures was the death blow to his movement.

Clouds, Battle above the.

The name given to the attack on Lookout Mountain by the Federal troops at the battle of Chattanooga in 1863, during the American Civil War. They advanced to the attack through a heavy mist, and the battle was fought in a clear atmosphere, with the fog below.

Closter Seven, Convention of.

A convention, signed in July, 1757, between the French and the Duke of Cumberland, who had advanced to the Weser in command of an English force, and had been driven back by a French army, under D’Estrées, to the mouth of the Elbe. The Duke agreed to disband his army.

Club, The.

A section of the Whig party in Scotland, who, at the accession of William and Mary, advocated extreme views as to the limitations to be set to the power of the king. Notwithstanding their opinions, they did not hesitate to ally themselves with the Jacobites in their opposition to William.

Club Parliament.

The Parliament of 1346, so called because the Barons attended it accompanied by their retainers armed with clubs. It is also called the Parliament of Bats (or Batons.)

Clubmen.

The name assumed by bands of peasants who, in 1644, assembled in various parts of England, but especially in the West, to protect their lands from the ravages of the civil war. They sided with neither party, but attacked both impartially when their property was threatened.

Coalition Ministry.

A Ministry formed under Lord Aberdeen in 1853, composed of Liberals and Peelites, and including among its members, Lord John Russell, Lord Palmerston and Mr. Gladstone.

Cockburn’s Act.

The Betting Act, passed in 1853, is so called after its introducer, Sir Alexander Cockburn. It did away with betting houses, and rendered the exhibition of betting lists illegal. In 1874 the Act was extended to Scotland.

Cockerton Judgment.

A judgment in the Court of Queen’s Bench in the case of Regina _v._ Cockerton. Mr. Cockerton, the auditor of the Local Government Board, had surcharged certain expenditure of the London School Board, and the correctness of his action being called in question, the court held that it was illegal to make a payment out of the rates (1) for advanced instruction in art and science in elementary day schools, (2) for any instruction to adults at evening continuation classes.

Cockpit of Europe.

The name given to Belgium on account of the numerous important battles which have been fought there.

Code Napoleon.

The Code of Law issued by Napoleon in 1803. It was based on the old French law, with such alterations as had been rendered necessary by the Revolution, and certain new provisions, introduced by Napoleon, notably those relating to the law of succession and to the marriage law. For the purpose of this codification, which remains the law of France, he called to his councils the most eminent French lawyers, irrespective of party, among others Tronchet, Cambacérès, Portalis and Roederer.

Codes.

Allgemeines Landrecht, Brehon, Bretts and Scots, Burgos, Caroline Ordinance, Clarendon, Consolato, Doom-Book, Etablissements, Frédéric, Frostathing, Fuero Juzgo, Grágás, Gulathing, Jus Magdeburgicum, Jutland, Landrecht, Louis, Libro de Tasas, Lübeck, Ludlow, Martian, Mulmutine, Noir, Oleron, Recess of Colding, Regiani Majestatem, Savary, Siete Partidas, Thirty-three Articles, Wisbuy, Wisliza.

Codini.

The Pigtail Party, a name given by the supporters of the House of Savoy to the Papal party in Rome, the suggestion being that they are behind the times.

Coercion Act.

An Act of Parliament passed in 1833, giving the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland power to prohibit any meeting of whatever nature which he regarded as dangerous to the peace, and to declare any district to be in a disturbed state. The bill gave the right to search for arms and suspended the Habeas Corpus Act in the proclaimed districts, substituting martial law for the regular tribunals.

Cœur de Lion.

The sobriquet of Richard I of England.

Cognac, League of.

_See_ Holy League.

Collectivism.

A form of socialism, the leading tenet of which is that capital and the means of production should be in the hands of associations of workers, and not be privately owned.

College of Justice.

The supreme court of Scotland in civil cases. It was established by James V in 1533, and was composed of fourteen judges and a president. At the same time the body of Advocates was created.

Colonial Conference.

A conference held in London in 1902, between Mr. Chamberlain and the Colonial Premiers. The principal recommendations of the conference were an increase in the Colonial contribution to the navy, increased facilities for Colonial cadets to enter the services, that preferential duties between Great Britain and the Colonies should be kept in view, that the metric system should be adopted, and that postage rates should be lowered.

Colonies, Council for the.

A Council appointed by Charles II in 1660, to supervise all the affairs of the oversea plantations.

Coloquy of Poissy.

A conference of divines summoned by Catherine de’ Medici in 1561, and attended, among others, by Peter Martyr and Beza. It was hoped that a _modus vivendi_ with the Huguenots might be arrived at, but the divergences between the two religions were perhaps unduly emphasized by the reformers, and the conference proved abortive, though in the following year an edict was issued permitting the Huguenots to worship outside the towns.

Colorados.

_See_ Blanquillos.

Coloured League.

A confederation of the coloured people of the Southern States of America, formed after the war, with the object of securing for the negroes the free exercise of their political rights.

Comité de Salut Public.

The Committee of Public Safety was appointed by the French Convention in April, 1893, to exercise the functions of a Ministry. The first object was to drive the Girondists from power. The members of the first Comité were comparatively moderate men, but it was reorganized in July of the same year, from which time it was composed almost entirely of the extremists, and became a mere instrument in the hands of Robespierre.

Comitia Paludata.

The Diet which met in Poland during an interregnum only. The whole body of nobles attended, the meeting taking place on an open plain, and the members appearing armed and mounted.

Comitia Togata.

The ordinary Polish Diet of representatives of the nobles. It was summoned by the king, and the members attended unarmed.

Commando.

The military system established by the English in South Africa in 1806. The country was split up into districts, each under a field cornet, whose duty it was to summon the burghers when called out for military service. The burghers were divided into three classes, according to age, and every male was liable to service from sixteen to sixty. The system was maintained by the independent Dutch States, till the close of the Boer War in 1902, but compulsory service was abolished in Cape Colony in 1834.

Commendation.

In feudal times the personal submission of a man to a feudal lord, by which he became his vassal, was so called.

Commercial Treaty of 1786.

A treaty between France and England, abolishing prohibitive duties and establishing a moderate tariff between the two countries. The Methuen Treaty between England and Portugal, which had been very prejudicial to French interests, was abrogated.

Commission of Government.

A Commission of Peers, authorized by Richard II in 1386, to inquire into abuses in the Government, and to prepare a scheme of reform.

Commission of Grace.

A proclamation under the Great Seal by James I in 1604, securing Irish landowners from all claims of the Crown, and empowering the governor, in all cases of precarious tenure, to grant indefeasible titles.

Commissions of Array.

Commissions given by the English Kings to certain commissioners to impress men for military service. They were first issued under Edward I.

Committee of Religion.

A committee appointed by the Long Parliament in 1641 to consider the question of religious reform.

Commune, Paris.

An outbreak of the extreme revolutionary party in Paris in 1871, after the withdrawal of the Germans. Its leaders were Assi, Billioray, Blanqui, Cluseret, Paschal Grousset, Félix Pyat, and other noted extremists. They obtained complete possession of Paris, and were guilty of terrible atrocities, including the cold-blooded murder of the so-called hostages, amongst whom was the Archbishop of Paris. The city underwent a second siege at the hands of the Provisional Government, but after severe fighting the Government troops, under the Marquis de Gallifet, surmounted the last barricade, and those of the Communist leaders who failed to escape were brought to trial, and executed or transported. Many of the public buildings, including the Tuileries, were set fire to during the fighting by the “Pétroleuses.”

Communeros, Revolt of the.

_See_ Santa Junta.

Compactata of Prague.

An agreement between the Hussites and their religious opponents in 1433. This agreement afterwards formed the basis of the Treaty of Iglau.

Compagnies d’Ordonnance.

The first French regular army, called into existence by Charles V in 1370.

Complaints of the Commons of Kent.

A document submitted to the Government in 1450 by the insurgents under Jack Cade. It set forth the causes of the unpopularity of Suffolk, and demanded the restoration to favour of the Duke of York.

Composition of Connaught.

An arrangement between Sir James Perrot, Governor of Ireland, and the landowners of Connaught in 1585, by which the landowners agreed to pay a fixed ground rent, in consideration of a patent from the Crown, and relief from all other taxes and imposts. At the same time all members of the clans were released from their allegiance to their chiefs, and placed directly under the Crown.

Compound Householder.

The occupier of a small tenement who did not pay poor rates directly, but compounded with his landlord, who was responsible for the rate to the authorities. During the debates on the Reform Bill of 1867, the question of his enfranchisement was very hotly contested, and in the end the compound householder was abolished, and every name put on the rate book.

Compounders.

The name given to the more moderate section of the English Jacobites in 1692. They desired a restoration of the Stuarts, but accompanied by a general amnesty. The non-compounders, who would listen to no suggestions of moderation, were, however, more powerful at St. Germains.

Compromise, The.

A document signed in 1566 by some 2,000 nobles and gentlemen of the Netherlands, by which the signatories bound themselves to offer the most strenuous resistance to the Inquisition, while loyally supporting the sovereignty of Philip II.

Compromise Act.

An Omnibus Act passed by Congress in 1850. It provided for the admission to the Union of California as a state, and of New Mexico and Utah as territories, for the settlement of the boundaries of Texas, the return of fugitive slaves to the owners, and the suppression of the slave trade in the district of Columbia.

Compte Rendu.

A manifesto by the Moderate party in the French Chamber, drawn up by Odilon Barrot in May, 1832. It denounced the Ministry for continuing the Restoration rather than the Revolution, and complained of the institution of hereditary peerages, the excessive civil list, and the extravagant expenditure on the army. With regard to foreign policy it pointed out that, through lack of firmness, the Government was abandoning Italy to Austria and Poland to Russia.

Compurgation.

The acquittal of an accused person, in consequence of an oath taken by his kinsmen to the effect that he was innocent of the charges brought against him. This was abolished by the Assize of Clarendon in 1166.

Concentration Camps.

Camps formed in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, during the Boer War, for the reception of women and children who could not be protected in their own homes in the disturbed parts of the two colonies. Charges were made of gross mismanagement of these camps, but a commission appointed to investigate pronounced that the complaints were absurd, and that everything had been done for the refugees that the circumstances permitted.

Conclave.

An assembly of the Cardinals summoned for the purpose of electing a Pope. The regulations governing the Conclave were issued by Gregory X in 1275.

Conclusions.

An argument drawn up by the Puritans of Salem, Massachusetts, in 1629, and circulated among the Puritans of England, setting forth the desirability of strengthening the Colony of Salem.

Concordat.

An agreement entered into in 1801 between Napoleon and the Pope, providing for the re-establishment of Roman Catholicism, which had been proscribed during the Revolution, as the religion of the majority of the French nation. It was agreed, among other provisions, that bishops were to be nominated by the State, but instituted by the Pope. The nomination of parish priests was vested in the bishops, the State having a right of veto. The State undertook to see that adequate stipends were provided for the clergy, to replace the ancient revenues which had been confiscated during the Revolution.

Concordat of 1516.

An agreement between Francis I of France and Leo X, by which the King obtained the right of nominating archbishops, bishops and mitred abbots, the inferior clergy being appointed by the bishops as before. In return for this, Francis granted the Pope annates and the right to levy a yearly tribute.

Concordat of 1855.

An agreement between Francis Joseph of Austria and Pius IX, by which the control of public education was entrusted to the priesthood, and all offences against canon law were sent for trial before ecclesiastical courts. This concordat was abrogated in 1870.

Concordats.

_See_ Aschaffenburg, Bec, German, Worms.

Condottieri.

Soldiers of fortune who hired themselves out to the various petty states of Italy, during the wars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Confederate Catholics.

A federation of Irish Catholics formed in 1642, at the commencement of the Great Rebellion. They formed a provisional government, consisting of a general assembly, with two houses, and appointed a judicial body for each county under their control, with an appeal to a supreme council of twenty-four persons.

Confederate States.

The independent republic formed, under the presidency of Jefferson Davis, by the states which seceded from the Union prior to the American Civil War of 1860.

Confederation of 1573.

An enactment of the Polish Diet, granting to all sects liberty of conscience and equal rights and privileges. This is the first instance of the establishment of complete religious toleration.

Confederation, Treaty of.

An agreement entered into in 1643, by Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Haven, and later joined by Plymouth, uniting the four communities under the title of the United Colonies of New England.

Confines, Audiencia de los.

During the Spanish domination, the Supreme Court of Central America. It was established in 1542.

Confirmatio Cartarum.

The confirmation by Edward I in 1297 of Magna Charta and the Charter of Forests, to which was added an article known as “De Tallagio non Concedendo,” sometimes referred to as a separate statute, and denying the right of the king to levy Tallages without the consent of Parliament.

Conflans, Treaty of.

A treaty between Louis XI and his nobles, signed in 1465, putting an end to the Guerre du Bien Public. Louis ceded the Duchy of Normandy to his brother, the Duc de Berri, to be held as a fief of France, and made certain concessions to the Duc de Bretagne, the Comte de Charolais, and others.

Congé d’Elire.

The invitation sent by the Crown to a cathedral chapter to elect a certain person as bishop of the diocese.

Congo Conference.

A conference of the Powers held at Berlin in 1884-5. It declared for freedom of commerce in the basin and mouths of the Congo, and along the coast from Gaboon to Angola, and appointed an international commission to regulate the navigation of the Congo and the Niger. It recognised the neutrality of the Congo Free State, decreed the abolition of slave gangs and slave markets, and all monopolies, and insisted that foreigners should enjoy equal rights with the subjects of the sovereign state.

Congregation, Lords of the.

The leaders of the reforming party in Scotland, who issued the First Covenant in 1557, took this title.

Congress.

The Parliament of the United States, consisting of two Chambers, a House of Representatives, and a Senate. The former consists of a certain number of members from each state, elected by direct popular vote. The number of representatives of each state is in proportion to the population, as shown in the decennial census. The Senate is composed of two members from each state, irrespective of population, elected by the respective state legislatures. One third of the Senate retires annually.

Congresses.

_See_ Aix-la-Chapelle, Arras, Berlin, Brussels, Carlsbad, Châtillon, Congo, General, Hague, Heilbronn, Kilkenny, Laibach, Troppau, Vienna, Verona.

Conservative.

This name came into use to designate the Tory party about 1837. It was first employed by John Wilson Croker, in an article in the _Quarterly Review_.

Consistoriali.

A secret society, established in Naples, with the Papal authorization, during the first decade of the nineteenth century, to oppose the Carbonari and support the Church.

Consistorium.

A tribunal established in Geneva by Calvin in 1541, to deal with offences against religion and morals. Its rule was terribly severe, all amusements being proscribed and all criticism of the Calvinist doctrine being sternly repressed. In five years the Consistorium imprisoned over 800 persons, and put to death fifty-eight.

Consistory.

An assembly of the Cardinals, in the presence of the Pope; summoned for the transaction of business.

Consolato del Mare.

A code of maritime law, said to have been compiled, from Roman and Rhodian laws, by the trading communities of Barcelona about the middle of the thirteenth century. Other authorities attribute it to the Venetians or the Pisans.

Conspiracies, Plots, etc.

_See_ Alexander, Amboise, Ankarstrôm. Army, Assassination, Atterbury, Babington, Biron, Booth, Bridal of Norwich, Burr, Bye, Catherine, Cato Street, Cinq Mars, Craigmillar, Despard, Dutch, Emmett, Falieri, Fieschi, Gowrie, Gunpowder, Hunting of Braemar, Incident, Jerviswood, Malet, Meal Tub, Orsini, Overton, Pablen, Pazzi, Pichegru, Popish, Porcari, Strelitzi, Ridolfi, Rye House, Queensberry, Throgmorton, Tiepoli, Venner, Vowel, Waller.

Constance, Council of.

A council summoned by John XXIII, at the instance of the Emperor Sigismund in 1415. It was concerned with the Hussite heresy, and John Huss, who attended under a safe-conduct, was declared a heretic and, notwithstanding the safe-conduct, burnt at the stake. The council further dealt with the schism, deposing two popes, and electing Martin V.

Constance, Peace of.

A treaty, signed at Constance in 1183, between Frederick Barbarossa and the Italian cities, after the successful revolt of the Lombard League. It provided for the re-establishment of self-government in the cities, including the right of electing their magistrates, subject to certain unimportant reservations of the Imperial prerogative.

Constantinople, Conference of.

A conference of the Great Powers, summoned in 1876, with the object of preventing war between Russia and Turkey. The terms agreed upon by the Powers were, however, rejected by the Porte, and war followed.

Constantinople, Council of.

A council of the Church, held at Constantinople in 754, under the auspices of Leo the Iconoclast. It proscribed the use of images and religious pictures in worship. The decrees of this council were anathematised by the Synod of Rome in 769, and reversed by the Council of Nicæa in 787. It is not regarded by the Church as an Oecumenical Council.

Constantinople, Fourth Council of.

An Oecumenical Council, held in 869, which declared that no Metropolitan could enter upon his functions until he had received the pallium from the Pope. This decision practically placed the nomination of the higher church dignitaries in the Pope’s hands.

Constitution of 1812.

The Constitution drawn up by the Spanish Cortes which met at Cadiz in 1810. Ferdinand VII, on his restoration in 1814, refused to subscribe to the instrument, and continued to govern the country on absolute principles, but a military _pronunciamiento_ forced him finally to give way and agree to its conditions in 1820.

Constitutions.

_See_ Body of Liberties, Canada, Eadgar, Estatuto Real, Federal Pact, May, Mediation, Model, Nine Articles, Waldemariana.

Constitutions of Clarendon.