Part 25

A treaty between Spain and the French Directoire, signed in 1794, providing that either Power, in the case of one or the other being attacked, should provide for its ally material aid in the shape of fifteen ships of war, and a land contingent of 24,000 men. This provision, however, was not to apply to the war in which France was then engaged, excepting only in the case of England, against whom Spain, having grievances of her own, was prepared to take up arms at once.

San Juan Arbitration.

The question as to the ownership of the island of San Juan, lying between Vancouver and the American coast, arose out of the wording of the Treaty of Ghent in 1818, by which instrument the middle of the channel between Vancouver and the mainland was fixed as the boundary. San Juan being in the middle of the channel, the question of ownership was a doubtful one, but the arbitrators, in 1872, decided in favour of the United States.

San Stefano, Treaty of.

A treaty signed by Russia and Turkey, at the close of the Russo-Turkish War in 1878. By its provisions the whole of the Christian provinces of Turkey were rendered practically independent, while Bulgaria was erected into an important state with a port on the Ægean Sea. England refused to recognize this treaty, and eventually Russia agreed to submit it to a European Congress, which was held at Berlin in the autumn of the same year.

Sanctuary.

The right claimed by the Church of affording protection to criminals who took refuge in churches and other consecrated precincts. In some cases these refugees from justice were enabled to set the law at defiance for years, by keeping within these precincts. Some of the most notorious of these cities of refuge were abolished by Act of Parliament in 1697, but it was not until the reign of George I that the last of them, the Sanctuary of St. Peter’s, Westminster, ceased to exist.

Sand River Convention.

A treaty signed in 1852 by which the British Government recognized the right of the emigrants beyond the Vaal to manage their own affairs, and govern themselves in accordance with their own laws. Other clauses of the Convention provided for free trade, except in arms, arbitration in any dispute that might arise in respect of the boundary over the Drakensberg, extradition, and free passage of the Vaal for all except criminals and fugitive debtors. The British Government further disclaimed the right to make treaties with native tribes north of the Vaal.

Sandomierz, Confederation of.

A league of the nobles of Little Poland formed in 1702 to oppose Charles XII of Sweden and support Augustus II.

Sanfedisti.

A Neapolitan secret society established in Naples, with the approval of the Pope, during the first decade of the nineteenth century, to oppose the Carbonari and support the Church.

Sanquhar Declaration.

A declaration issued by Richard Cameron and other leaders of the Covenanters in 1680, proclaiming that Charles I had forfeited the crown by his breach of the Covenant.

Sans Gêne, Madame.

The sobriquet of the Maréchale Lefebvre, Duchesse de Dantzic, given her on account of her free and easy manners at the Court of Napoleon. She had been a washerwoman, and afterwards followed her husband in the wars as a vivandière.

Sans Souci, the Philosopher of.

Voltaire’s name for Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-86).

Sansculottes.

The revolutionary rabble of Paris, so called by the Royalists because they wore trousers instead of the knee-breeches affected by the upper classes. The word means literally “without breeches.”

Santa Hermandad.

_See_ Hermandad.

Santa Junta.

A league of the Castilian cities in 1520, under Juan de Padilla and Ferdinand de Avalos, which refused to recognize the authority of Adrian Boyens, the Fleming appointed Regent by Charles V. Charles offered certain concessions, which were refused, and a civil war resulted, which ended in the total defeat of the Junta in 1521, though Toledo held out for another year. This rising is also known as the Revolt of the Communeros.

Santiago de Compostella, Order of.

A Spanish order of religious chivalry founded in 1170, and approved by Papal Bull in 1175. Its members were vowed to obedience, community of goods and conjugal chastity, and also to perpetual war against the Mussulman.

Santiago, Treaty of.

A treaty between Chile and Bolivia, concluded in 1866, delimiting the frontier between the two States.

Sardinia, Kingdom of.

This kingdom came into existence in 1720, when Sardinia was ceded by Austria to the House of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily, the name being applied to the new combination of Savoy, Sardinia and Piedmont. It lasted until Victor Emmanuel became King of United Italy in 1861.

Sardinian Convention.

A convention, signed in 1855, by which the King of Sardinia undertook to furnish 15,000 men in aid of France and England in the Crimea, the troops to be transported by England. In return the allies guaranteed the integrity of the King’s dominions.

Sarnen, League of.

A league formed in 1832 by the cantons of Basle, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Valais, and Neuchâtel to oppose Federal revision and support the Federal Pact of 1815. It was also called the Sonderbund.

Satisfaction.

An agreement arrived at in 1578 between the Protestant party and the Catholic magistrates of Amsterdam, whereby, following the example of other Dutch cities, the two religions were placed on an equal footing.

Satsuma Rebellion.

A rising of the Prince of Satsuma against the Japanese Government in 1877, at the head of the party opposed to reform. The rebellion was soon suppressed.

Savary, Code.

A codification of the French Commercial Law, issued by Louis XIV in 1673.

Saviour of the Nations.

The Duke of Wellington was so called after the battle of Waterloo.

Savoy Conference.

A conference of bishops of the Church of England, held in 1661, with the object of so amending the liturgy as to permit of the Puritan party remaining in the Church. It was, however, found impossible to arrive at any acceptable middle course.

Savoy Confession.

A declaration of faith of the Congregational Churches of England, issued in 1658. It is a modification of the Westminster Confession.

Saxonicum Litus.

The ancient name of the coast line of England, from the Wash to Shoreham.

Scabini.

Judicial assessors, twelve in number, chosen by the allodial landowners, who accompanied each Count to the general assemblies of the early French kings.

Scalds.

The bards of the ancient Norsemen were so called.

Scandalum Magnatum.

The spreading of libellous reports concerning peers, judges or great officers of the State was created an offence by a statute of 1275, which was repealed in 1887.

Schism.

After the Avignon Captivity and the death of Gregory XI, the cardinals, under pressure of the Roman populace, elected as Pope in 1378 a perfectly unfit person, who took the name of Urban VI. They endeavoured to persuade him to resign, but failing, elected Robert of Geneva, who took the name of Clement VII. The schism continued, each Pope having a successor appointed at his death, till at the Council of Pisa, in 1409, both were deposed, and a Franciscan monk elected who took the name of Alexander V. As neither of the deposed Popes would give way, there were now three. Alexander was succeeded by Cossa, as John XXIII, and finally the schism was ended by the Council of Constance in 1415, where all three Popes were deposed, and Martin V, a Colonna, was elected.

Schism Act.

An Act passed in 1714, by which all persons were forbidden to keep schools or act as tutors, who were not members of the Church of England, and duly licensed for the purpose by the bishop. It was repealed in 1719.

Schism, Great.

The severance between the Churches of the East and the West, which became final in 1054, when the legates of Pope Victor II laid the papal anathema upon the altar of St. Sophia of Constantinople.

Schleswig-Holstein Question.

By the Treaty of London of 1852 it was provided that the succession to the Danish throne was to be vested in Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, but that the Duchies, one of which, Holstein, was a German Duchy, sending delegates to the German Diet, should not be incorporated in the kingdom of Denmark. The Danes, however, did not observe the compact, and before the death of Frederick VII of Denmark, in 1862, Schleswig had been made practically a part of Denmark. After the succession of Christian IX, Austria and Prussia, finding protests unavailing, entered the Duchies, and, after a short struggle, overwhelmed the Danish army. By the Treaty of Gastein, signed in 1865, Schleswig was allotted to Prussia and Holstein to Austria.

Schmalkald, Articles of.

A profession of the Lutheran doctrine, similar to, but more forcibly worded than, the Augsburg Confession, drawn up by Luther at the request of John Frederick of Saxony.

Schmalkald, League of.

A confederation of the Lutheran Princes of Germany, headed by the Elector of Saxony, formed in 1530 to unite the supporters of the Reformed Religion against Charles V.

Schomburgk Line.

The line of demarcation between British Guiana and Venezuela fixed by Sir Robert Schomburgk in his official survey of the colony in 1840. The Schomburgk Line was, with unimportant exceptions, upheld by the arbitrators in the Venezuelan arbitration award of 1899.

Schönbrunn, Proclamation of.

A proclamation of Napoleon in 1805, declaring the deposition of the Bourbons from the throne of Naples.

Schönbrunn, Treaty of.

A treaty between France and Prussia, signed in December 1805, by which Napoleon succeeded in detaching Prussia from the coalition. Prussia entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with France, and surrendered Anspach and Neuchâtel, receiving Hanover in exchange.

Scots Plot.

_See_ Queensberry Plot.

Scottish Solomon.

A sobriquet of James I of England and VI of Scotland.

Scrutin d’Arrondissement.

A system of election by which every Department is divided into wards, or divisions, each returning one member to the Chamber of Deputies. It is the system at present in force in France.

Scrutin de Liste.

A system of election in France by which all the deputies for a Department are elected _en bloc_. It was in force in 1848 and again in 1871, while an unsuccessful attempt to reintroduce it was made in 1881. It is also the system prevailing in Italy.

Scullabogue, Massacre of.

The massacre by the Irish Rebels in 1798 of nearly 200 Protestant prisoners. They were shut up in a barn, and after the defeat of the rebels at New Ross, the barn was fired and they were burnt to death, or piked as they attempted to escape.

Scutage.

A money payment exacted from knights in lieu of personal service. The first instance of it occurs in the reign of Henry II. It enabled the king to hire mercenaries for his foreign wars, and to dispense with the services of his barons, and came to be regarded as a regular source of revenue. The right of the sovereign to exact it, however, was greatly restricted by Magna Charta. It was also known as escuage.

Sea-dogs.

English privateers in the early days of Elizabeth, who preyed on French commerce in the Channel, sailing under letters of marque granted by Condé and the Huguenots. When the differences between the Huguenots and Catholics were adjusted and the letters of marque withdrawn, they joined the Dutch “Beggars of the Sea” in their raids upon the Spaniards.

Sealed Knot.

A small band of Royalists formed as a secret committee to manage the affairs of the party in 1657. One of their number, Willis, was in the pay of Cromwell, who was thereby enabled to counteract their numerous plots for his destruction.

Secession, Ordinance of.

The declaration issued by South Carolina in 1860 dissolving its union with the United States. The other Southern States followed with similar declarations.

Second Charlemagne.

A sobriquet of Charles V, Emperor of Germany (1519-58).

Second Washington.

Henry Clay, the American statesman (1777-1852), was so called.

Secret Treaty.

A document published in the _Times_ of July 25, 1870, purporting to be the text of a treaty between France and Prussia, containing the following provisions: the recognition by France of Prussia’s acquisitions in the war with Austria; an undertaking by Prussia to use her influence with Holland to secure Luxemburg for France, and to aid France if she found it necessary to undertake the conquest of Belgium, providing a force if required to resist any foreign interference; an undertaking by France not to oppose Prussia’s designs for the unification of Germany. Whether this treaty was ever signed or not, there is little doubt that proposals of this nature were made to Bismarck by Benedetti, Napoleon’s minister at Berlin.

Sections, Journée des.

October 5, 1794, on which day the troops of the Convention, under Buonaparte, routed the National Guard of the “Sections” of Paris and established the rule of the Directoire, thus marking the end of the Revolution.

Sects.

_See_ Albigenses, Alumbrados, Anabaptists, Arminians, Arya Somaj, Assassins, Bianchi, Brahmo Somaj, Brownists, Calixtines, Cameronians, Doppers, Dukhobors, Erastians, Fifth Monarchy Men, Flagellants, Hussites, Iconoclasts, Illuminati, Independents, Jansenists, Karmathians, Latitudinarians, Levellers, Lollards, Molokani, Moravians, Mormons, Old Catholics, Quakers, Quietists, Senussi, Shakers, Shiah, Sikhs, Socinians, Skoptsi, Stundists, Sunni, Taborites, Utraquists, Wahabis, Waldenses.

Secularization.

By a treaty concluded in 1803, in the promotion of which Napoleon took a prominent part, the ecclesiastical States of Germany, three of which, the Sees of Mayence, Treves and Cologne, were Electors to the Imperial crown, were secularized and distributed among the other German States.

Securities Bill.

A Bill brought forward at the instance of Charles II in 1679, to provide for the succession of James, who was a declared Roman Catholic. The Bill provided that while a Catholic prince was on the throne the right of appointing to livings should be withdrawn from him, and that the appointment of all judges, councillors, lords lieutenant and officers of the fleet should be in the hands of the two Houses of Parliament. This Bill was not considered sufficiently stringent.

Security, Act of.

An Act passed by the Scottish Parliament in 1703, declaring that the successor of Queen Anne in Scotland should not be the same as in England, unless free commercial intercourse were secured between the two countries.

Sédan, Man of.

A name bestowed on Napoleon III after his surrender, with the army of Macmahon, at Sédan in September, 1870.

Self-denying Ordinance.

A resolution of the Parliament, passed at the instance of Cromwell, by which the members of both Houses were made ineligible for commands in the army. Its object was to get rid of some of the Parliamentary generals, such as Manchester, Essex and Waller, in as delicate a way as possible. The resolution was at first rejected by the Lords, but was afterwards passed.

Selski Starosta.

The village elder or elected head of a Russian mir, or village community.

Semiramis of the North.

Margaret of Denmark (1387) was so called. Voltaire also gave this title to Catherine of Russia (1729-96).

Sempach, Convention of.

A military ordinance promulgated in 1393 by the eight federated cantons of Switzerland, together with Soleure, making provision for the repression of private war, brigandage and pillage.

Senussi.

A Mohammedan religious fraternity founded at Fez by Mohammed-es-Senussi about 1830. It has spread all over Northern Africa, and is a powerful factor in uniting African Mohammedanism.

September Convention.

A convention between France and Italy, signed in 1864, by which Louis Napoleon agreed gradually to withdraw the French troops from Rome, Victor Emmanuel undertaking not to violate the Pope’s territory.

September Laws.

A series of laws restricting the liberty of the Press, passed in France in 1835.

September Massacres.

The massacre, after a mock trial, of the priests, officials and other Royalists confined in the prisons of Paris between the 2nd and 6th of September, 1792. About 1,000 prisoners are known to have perished. The men engaged in the massacre were afterwards called the Septembriseurs.

Septembrists.

A section of the democratic party of Portugal, during the reign of Queen Maria, who in September, 1836, demanded the abrogation of the Charter of 1826 and a return to the democratic form of government established by the Constitution of 1824. A compromise between them and the supporters of the Charter was effected in 1852.

Septennial Act.

An Act passed in 1716, prolonging the term of the then existing Parliament from three to seven years. It was intended as a temporary measure, but has never been repealed, and is the Act under which Parliaments are now held.

Serfs, Russian.

Prior to the emancipation of the serfs by Alexander II. in 1861, the Russian peasants were serfs, either of the State, or of a great landowner. The State serfs were practically free, with the exception that they could not change their domicile, but they were permitted, on payment of a small fee, to leave their villages, subject to the due payment of their share of the village taxes. The serfs of the nobles were more like slaves. Some of them were taken as house servants, others remained in the villages and rendered certain services to the lord in return for the land which he surrendered to the village commune. The house serfs were practically chattels, and were not infrequently sold.

Seringapatam, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1792 at the close of the third Mysore War, by which Tippu Sahib surrendered Dindigul, Baramahal and Malabar, and agreed to pay a war indemnity of three crores of rupees to the British and thirty lacs to the Mahratta States.

Serrar del Consiglio.

A measure passed in Venice in 1298 providing that no citizens should be eligible for election to the Grand Council except the families of senators then in office. The Government was thus established on purely aristocratic lines.

Servian Capitulation.

A treaty signed in 1375 between Mourad I, Sultan of Turkey, and Lazar, Despot of Servia, by which Servia acknowledged the suzerainty of Turkey and agreed to pay an annual tribute.

Settled Lands Act.

An Act passed in 1882, introduced by Lord Cairns, removing many of the restrictions and difficulties existing in dealing with entailed estates.

Settlement, Act of, 1652.

An Act passed by Cromwell, providing for the banishment of all the officers of the Catholic army in Ireland, who, with their followers, withdrew to the Continent, to the number of some 30,000; the confiscation of a portion of the property of the remaining Royalists, and the distribution of their lands among the English adventurers. It further confined the Catholics to the right bank of the Shannon.

Settlement, Act of, 1661.

An Act passed after the Restoration, by which, and a supplementary Act passed in 1665, restitution was made to the dispossessed Royalist officers and some others, partly out of lands which had not been alienated by Cromwell, and partly out of land surrendered, to the extent of one-third of their estates, by the adventurers. The majority of the claims for compensation were disregarded, with the result that by far the larger part of Ireland remained in Protestant hands. This Act was repealed by the Irish Parliament summoned by James II in 1689.

Settlement, Act of, 1700.

The Act settling the succession after the death of Queen Anne upon the Electress Sophia of Hanover and her descendants. It provided for various limitations of the royal prerogative; among its provisions being that the sovereign should be a member of the Church of England; that Great Britain should not be called upon to defend any territories not being British territory, without the consent of Parliament; that the sovereign should not quit the realm; that no person born out of the realm should be capable of holding office under the Crown, and that no person holding office or enjoying a pension should sit in the House of Commons.

Settlement, Law of.

A law passed in 1662, providing that a labourer not born in the parish or resident therein for forty days, might be removed to the parish of his birth or former residence, on complaint of the overseers that he was likely to become chargeable to the rates. The object was that each parish should be compelled to support its own paupers, under the Poor Law of Elizabeth.

Settlement of India Act.

An Act passed in 1858, transferring to the Government of the Queen all the territories hitherto governed by the East India Company.

Seven Bishops, Petition of the.

A petition signed by the Archbishop of Canterbury and six bishops against the Declaration of Indulgence of James II in 1687. The bishops were brought before the Council and ordered to find bail, and on refusing were committed to the Tower.

Seven Cantons, League of the.

The Siebenkonkordat, a league of the liberal Cantons, Lucerne, Zurich, Berne, Soleure, St. Gall, Aargau and Thurgau, formed in 1832, with the object of protecting the constitutions of these Cantons and promoting Federal reforms.

Seven Days Battle.

A series of battles fought during the Peninsular Campaign of the American Civil War, from June 25 to July 1, 1862, between the Federals under McClellan and the Confederates under Lee. McClellan was driven back to the James River.

Seven Days King.

Masaniello was so called after his brief rule in Naples in 1647.

Seven Earls.

The dignitaries next in importance to the king in mediæval Scotland. In the time of Alexander I they formed the Council of the Kingdom, and they claimed the right of appointing the king.

Seven Pillars.

The seven men chosen in 1639 by the Puritan colonists of New Haven to organize the Government of the colony. The most prominent among them were Eaton and Davenport.

Seven Points.

A document published in 1871, purporting to be an agreement between certain prominent Conservatives and the delegates of the Council of Skilled Workmen, on the subject of social reform. As the “points” included a statutory eight hours’ day, free places of amusement and full local self-government in all towns and villages, it is not surprising that the document was repudiated by most of those who were said to have signed it, including Lords Salisbury, Lorne and Carnarvon.

Seven Weeks War.

The war between Prussia and Austria in 1866 is so called.

Seven Years War.

The war maintained by Frederick the Great, with some aid, chiefly naval and financial, from England, against the combined forces of France, Russia, Austria, Sweden and Saxony. It lasted from 1756 to 1763, but early in 1762 Frederick succeeded in detaching Russia from the allies and received her aid till the end of the struggle.

Seville, Treaty of.

A treaty signed in 1729 by England, Spain and France, and subsequently Holland, thus detaching Spain from the Austrian alliance concluded by the Treaty of Vienna of 1725. Spain revoked all the concessions made to Austria under that instrument, again confirmed the Asiento, and in return received the support of the other signatories to the succession of Don Carlos to the Duchies of Tuscany and Parma.

Shakers.

A sect founded in England about 1757 by a body of seceders from the Quakers, under Ann Lee, known as Mother Ann. They emigrated to America in 1772, where they are found chiefly in New York State.

Shays’ Rebellion.

A rising in Massachusetts in 1786, headed by an ex-officer named Daniel Shays, in opposition to a decision of Congress to apportion the National Debt of the United States among the various States of the Union. The rising was quickly suppressed by the militia, and the ring leaders arrested.

Sheriff’s Tourn.

The Hundred Court, when occupied with the View of Frank pledge, was known by this name.

Sherman’s March.