CHAPTER VI

The rise and spread of darwish Fraternities; the survival and tradition of the Hanbalite doctrine; Abd ar-Razzaq; Ibn Taymiya, his attacks on saint-worship and on the mutakallims; ash-Sha‘rani and his times; the modern movements; Wahhabism and the influence of al-Ghazzali; possibilities of the present.

Our sources now begin to grow more and more scanty, and we must hasten over long intervals of time and pass with little connection from one name to another. Preliminary investigations are also to a great extent lacking, and it is possible that the centuries which we shall merely touch may have witnessed developments only less important than those with which we have already dealt. But that is not probable; for when, after a long silence, the curtain rises again for us in the twelfth Muslim century, we shall find at work only those elements and conditions whose inception and growth we have now set forth.

One name in our rapid flight deserves mention, at least. It is that of Umar ibn al-Farid, the greatest poet that Arabic mysticism has produced. He was born at Cairo in 586, lived for a time at Mecca, and died at Cairo in 632. He led no new movement or advance, but the East still cherishes his memory and his poems.

[Sidenote: DARWISH FRATERNITIES]

We have already noticed (p. 177) the beginnings of darwish Fraternities and the founding of monasteries or _khanqahs_. During the period over which we have just passed, these received a great and enduring impetus. The older ascetics and _walis_ gathered round them groups of personal followers and their pupils carried on their names. But it was long, apparently, before definite corporations were founded of fixed purpose to perpetuate the memory of their masters. One of the earliest of these seems to have been the fraternity of Qadirite darwishes, founded by Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, who died in 561 at Baghdad, where pilgrimage is still made to his shrine. So, too, the Rifa‘ite Fraternity was founded at Baghdad by Ahmad ar-Rifa‘a in 576. Another is that of the Shadhilites, named after their founder, ash-Shadhili, who died in 656. Again another is that of the Badawites, whose founder was Ahmad al-Badawi (d. 675); his shrine at Tanta in Lower Egypt is still one of the most popular places of pilgrimage. Again, the order of the Naqshbandite darwishes was founded by Muhammad an-Naqshbandi, who died in 791. Among the Turks by far the most popular religious order is that of the Mawlawites, founded by the great Persian mystical poet, Jalal ad-Din ar-Rumi (d. 672), whose _Mesnevi_ is read over all Islam. These and very many others, especially of later date, are still in existence. Others, once founded, have again become extinct. Thus, Ibn Sab‘in, though he was surrounded by disciples who for a time after his death carried on the order of Sab‘inites, does not seem now to have any to do him honor. The same holds of a certain Adi al-Hakkari who founded a cloister near Mawsil and died about 558. It is significant that al-Ghazzali, though he founded a cloister for Sufis at Tus and taught and governed there himself, left no order behind him. Apparently in his time the movement toward continuous corporations had not yet begun. It is true that there are at present in existence darwish Fraternities which claim to be descended from the celebrated ascetics and _walis_, Ibrahim ibn Adham (d. 161), Sari as-Saqati (d. 257) and Abu Yazid al-Bistami (d. 261), but it may be gravely doubted whether they can show any sound pedigree. The legend of Shaykh Ilwan, who is said to have founded the first order in 49, may be safely rejected. It is significant that the _Awlad Ilwan_, sons of Ilwan, as his followers are called, form a sect of the Rifa‘ites. Further, just as the Sufis have claimed for themselves all the early pious Muslims, and especially the ten to whom Muhammad made specific promise of Paradise (_al-ashara al-mubashshara_), so these Fraternities are ascribed in their origin to, and put under the guardianship of the first Khalifas, and, in Egypt at least, a direct descendant of Abu Bakr holds authority over all their orders.

In these orders all are darwishes, but only those gifted by God with miraculous powers are _walis_. Those of them who are begging friars are _faqirs_. They stand under an elaborate hierarchy grading in dignity and holiness from the _Qutb_, or Axis, who wanders, often invisible and always unknown to the world, through the lands performing the duties of his office, and who has a favorite station on the roof of the Ka‘ba, through his _naqibs_ or assistants, down to the lowest _faqir_. But the members of these orders are not exclusively _faqirs_. All classes are enrolled as, in a sense, lay adherents. Certain trades affect certain fraternities; in Egypt, for example, the fishermen are almost all Qadirites and walk in procession on their festival day, carrying colored nets as their banners. Much the same thing held, and holds, of the monastic orders of Europe, but the Muslim does not wait till he is dying to put on the weeds of Ahmad al-Badawi or ash-Shadhili. Finally, reference may be made again to the last and most important of all these orders, the militant Brotherhood of as-Sanusi.

[Sidenote: MYSTICS _v._ TRADITIONALISTS]

We have now returned to the period of al-Iji and at-Taftazani, when philosophy definitely descended from the throne and became the servant and defender of theology. From this time on, the two independent forces at work are the unveiling of the mystic (_kashf_) and tradition (_naql_). The only place for reason (_aql_) now is to prove the possibility of a given doctrine. That done, its actual truth is proven by tradition. These two then, _kashf_ and _naql_, hold the field, and the history of Muslim theology from this point to the present day is the history of their conflicts. The mystics are accused of heresy by the traditionalists. The traditionalists are accused by the mystics of formalism, hypocrisy, and, above all, of flat inability to argue logically. Both accusations are certainly true. No fine fence on personality can conceal the fact that Muslim mysticism is simple pantheism of the Plotinian type, the individuals are emanations from the One. On the other hand, the formalism of the traditionalists can hardly be exaggerated. They pass over almost entirely into canon lawyers, meriting richly the fine sarcasm of al-Ghazzali, who asked the _faqihs_ of his day what possible value for the next world could lie in a study of the Qur’anic law of inheritance or the like. Tradition (_hadith_), in the exact sense of the sayings and doings of Muhammad, falls into the background, and _fiqh_, the systems built upon it by the generations of lawyers, from the four masters down, takes its place. Again, the accusation of illogical reasoning is also thoroughly sound. The habit of unending subdivision deprived the minds of the canonists of all breadth of scope, and their devotion to the principle of acceptance on authority (_taqlid_) weakened their feeling for argument. It is true, further, that the mystics, such as they were, had heired all the philosophy left in Islam, and were thus become the representatives of the intellectual life. They had so much of an advantage over their more orthodox opponents. But the intellectual life with them, as with the earlier philosophers, remained of a too subjective character. The fatal study of the self, and the self only—that tramping along the high _a priori_ road—and neglect of the objective study of the outside world which ruined their forerunners, was their ruin as well. Outbursts of intellectual energy and revolt we may meet with again and again; there will be few signs of that science which seeks facts patiently in the laboratory, the observatory, and the dissecting-room.

[Sidenote: ABD AR-RAZZAQ]

Curiously enough, there fall closely together at this time the death dates of two men of the most opposite schools. The one was Ibn Taymiya, the anthropomorphist free lance, who died in 728, and the other was Abd ar-Razzaq, the pantheistic Sufi, who died in 730. Abd ar-Razzaq of Samarqand and Kashan was a close student and follower of Ibn Arabi. He commented on his books and defended his orthodoxy. In fact, so closely had Ibn Arabi come to be identified with the Sufi position as a whole that a defence of him was a favorite form in which to cast a defence of Sufiism generally. But Abd ar-Razzaq did not follow his master absolutely. On the freedom of the will especially he left him. For Ibn Arabi, the doctrine of the oneness of all things had involved fatalism. Whatever happens is determined by the nature of things, that is, by the nature of God. So the individuals are bound by the whole. Abd ar-Razzaq turned this round. His pantheism was of the same type as that of Ibn Arabi; God, for him, was all. But there is freedom of the divine nature, he went on. It must therefore exist in man also, for he is an emanation from the divine. His every act, it is true, is predetermined, in time, in form, and in place. But his act is brought about by certain causes, themselves predetermined. These are what we would call natural laws in things, natural abilities, aptitudes, etc., in the agent; finally, free choice itself. And that free choice is in man because he is of and from God. Further, it is evident that Abd ar-Razzaq’s anxiety is to preserve a basis for morals. Among the predetermining causes he reckons the divine commands, warnings, proofs in the Qur’an. The guidance of religion finds thus its place and the prophets their work. But what of the existence of evil and the necessity of restraint in a world that has emanated from the divine? This problem he faces bravely. Our world must be the best of all possible worlds; otherwise God would have made it better. Difference, then, among men and things belongs to its essence and necessity. Next, justice must consist in accepting these different things and adapting them to their situations. To try to make all things and men alike would be to leave some out of existence altogether. That would be a great injustice. Here, again, religion enters. Its object is to rectify this difference in qualities and gifts. Men are not responsible for these, but they are responsible if they do not labor to correct them. In the hereafter all will be reabsorbed into the divine being and taste such bliss as the rank of each deserves. For those who need it there will be a period of purgatorial chastisement, but that will not be eternal, _in sha Allah_.

Like his predecessors, Abd ar-Razzaq divides men into classes according to their insight into divine things. The first is of men of the world, who are ruled by the flesh (_nafs_) and who live careless of all religion. The second is of men of reason (_aql_). They through the reason contemplate God, but see only His external attributes. The third is of men of the spirit (_ruh_) who, in ecstasy, see God face to face in His very essence, which is the substrate of all creation.

In his cosmogony, Abd ar-Razzaq follows, of course, the neo-Platonic model and shows great ingenuity in weaving into it the crude and materialistic phrases and ideas of the Qur’an. Like all Muslim thinkers he displays an anxiety to square with his philosophy the terms dear to the multitude.

[Sidenote: IBN TAYMIYA]

To Ibn Taymiya all this was the very abomination of desolation itself. He had no use for mystics, philosophers, Ash‘arite theologians, or, in fact, for anyone except himself. A contemporary described him as a man most able and learned in many sciences, but with a screw loose. However it may have been about the last point, there can be no question that he was the reviver for his time and the transmitter to our time of the genuine Hanbalite tradition, and that his work rendered possible the Wahhabites and the Brotherhood of as-Sanusi. He was the champion of the religion of the multitude as opposed to that of the educated few with which we have been dealing so long. This popular theology had been going steadily upon its way and producing its regular riots and disputings. It is related of a certain Ash‘arite doctor, Fakhr ad-Din ibn Asakir (d. 620), that, in Damascus, he never dared to pass by a certain way through fear of Hanbalite violence. The same Fakhr ad-Din once gave, as in duty bound, the normal salutation of the Peace to a Hanbalite theologian. The Hanbalite did not return it, which was more than a breach of courtesy, and indicated that he did not regard Fakhr ad-Din as a Muslim. When people remonstrated with him, he turned it as a theological jest and replied, “That man believes in ‘Speech in the Mind’ (_kalam nafsi, hadith fi-n-nafs_), so I returned his salutation mentally.” The point is a hit at the Ash‘arites, who contended that thought was a kind of speech without letters or sounds, and that God’s quality of Speech could therefore be without letters or sounds.

But even the simple orthodoxy of the populace had not remained unchanged. It had received a vast accretion of the most multifarious superstitions. The cult of saints, alive and dead, of holy sites, trees, garments, and the observance of all manner of days and seasons had been developing parallel to the advance of Sufiism among the educated. The _walis_ were untiring in the recital of the _karamat_ which God had worked for them, and the populace drank in the wonders greedily. The metaphysical and theological side they left untouched. “This is a holy man,” they said, “who can work miracles; we must fear and serve him.” And so they would do without much thought whether his morality might not be antinomian and his theology pantheistic. To abate this and other evils and bring back the faith of the fathers was the task which Ibn Taymiya took up.

[Sidenote: A MUJTAHID]

He was born near Damascus in 661 and educated as a Hanbalite. His family had been Hanbalite for generations, and he himself taught in that school and was reckoned as the greatest Hanbalite of his time. His position, too, was practically that of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, modified by the necessities imposed by new controversaries. Thus he was an anthropomorphist, but of what exact shade is obscure. He was accused of teaching that God was above His throne, could be pointed at, and that He descended from His seat as a man might, _i.e._, that He was in space. But he certainly distinguished himself from the crasser materialists. He refused to be classed as the adherent of any school or of any system save that of Muhammad and the agreement of the fathers. He claimed for himself the rights of a _mujtahid_ and went back to first sources and principles in everything. His self-confidence was extreme, and he smote down with proud words the Rightly Guided Khalifas, Umar and Ali, themselves. His bases were Qur’an, tradition from the Prophet and from the Companions and analogy. Agreement, in the broad sense of the agreement of the Muslim people, he rejected. If he had accepted it he would have been forced to accept innumerable superstitions, beliefs, and practices—especially the whole doctrine of the _walis_ and their wonders—for their basis was agreement. The agreement of the Companions he did accept, while convicting them right and left of error as individuals.

His life was filled up with persecutions and misfortune. He was a popular idol, and inquiries for his judgment on theological and canonical questions kept pouring in upon him. If there was no inquiry, and he felt that a situation called for an expression of opinion from him, he did not hesitate to send it out with all formality. It is true that it is the duty of every Muslim, so far as he can, to do away or at least to denounce any illegality or unorthodox view or practice which he may observe. This duty evidently weighed heavily on Ibn Taymiya, and there was fear at one time at the Mamluk court lest he might go the way of Ibn Tumart. In one of these utterances he defined the doctrine of God’s qualities as Ibn Hazm had done, and joined thereto denunciations of the Ash‘arite kalam and of the Qur’anic exegesis of the mutakallims as a whole. They were nothing but the heirs and scholars of philosophers, idolaters, Magians, etc.; and yet they dared to go beyond the Prophet and his heirs and Companions. The consequence of this _fatwa_ or legal opinion was that he was silenced for a time as a teacher. On another occasion he gave out a _fatwa_ on divorce, pronouncing _tahlil_ illegal. _Tahlil_ is a device by which an awkward section in the canon law is evaded. If a man divorces his wife three times, or pronounces a threefold divorce formula, he cannot remarry her until she has been married to another man, has cohabited with him and been divorced by him. Muslim ideas of sexual purity are essentially different from ours, and the custom has grown up, when a man has thus divorced his wife in hasty anger, of employing another to marry her on pledge of divorcing her again next day. Sometimes the man so employed refuses to carry out his contract; such refusal is a frequent _motif_ in oriental tales. To avoid this, the husband not infrequently employs one of his slaves and then presents him to his former wife the next day. A slave can legally marry a free woman, but when he becomes her property the marriage is _ipso facto_ annulled, because a slave cannot be the husband of his mistress or a slave woman the wife of her master. It is to Ibn Taymiya’s credit that he was one of the few to lift up their voices against this abomination. His independence is shown at its best.

[Sidenote: CONTROVERSY WITH SUFIS]

But it was with the Sufis that he had his worst conflicts, and at their hands he suffered most. In many points his career is parallel to that of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the Sufi movement taking the place that was played by Mu‘tazilism in the life of the earlier saint. One great difference, it may be remarked, was that al-Ma’mun urged the persecution of Ibn Hanbal, while an-Nasir, the great Mamluk Sultan (reg. 693, 698-708, 709-741), supported Ibn Taymiya as far as he possibly could. The beginning of the Sufi controversy was characteristic. Ibn Taymiya heard that a certain an-Nasr al-Manbiji (d. 719?), a reputed follower of Ibn Arabi and of Ibn Sab‘in, had reached a position of influence in Cairo. That was enough to make Ibn Taymiya address an epistle to him, intended to turn him from his heresies. It is needless to give in detail the position and content of the epistle. He wrote as a strong monotheist of the old-fashioned type and exposed and assailed unmercifully the doctrine of Unity (_ittihad_) of the mystics. Al-Manbiji retorted with countercharges of heresy, and, as he had behind him all the Sufis of Egypt—as great an army as the Christian monks and ascetics or earlier Egypt and much like to them—Ibn Taymiya had to pay for his eagerness for a fight with long and painful imprisonment at Cairo, Alexandria and Damascus. Here it is evident that he had lost touch with the drift of popular, and especially Egyptian, feeling.

But his fearlessness was like that of Ibn Hanbal himself, and in 726 he gave out a _fatwa_ which ran still straighter in the teeth of the beliefs of the people and which sent him to a prison which he never left alive. It had long been a custom in Islam to make pious pilgrimage to the graves of saints and prophets and there to do reverence to their memory and to ask their aid. It was part of that cult of saints which had so overspread and overcome the earlier simplicity of Islam. The most outstanding case in point was, and is, the pilgrimage to the tomb of Muhammad at al-Madina, which has come to be a more or less essential part of the Hajj to the Ka‘ba itself. Against all this Ibn Taymiya lifted a voice of emphatic protest. These shrines were in great part false, and when they were genuine the visitation of them was an idolatrous imitation of heathen practices. Equally idolatrous was all invoking of saints or prophets, including Muhammad himself; to God alone should prayer be directed. The clamor raised by this _fatwa_ was tremendous. This was no doctrine of the schools which he had touched, but a bit of concrete religiosity which appealed to everyone. His public life practically ended, and the practices which he had denounced abide to this day. It is a bitter satire on his position that when he died in 726 the populace paid to his relics all these signs of superstitious reverence against which he had protested. He became a saint, _malgré lui_. His work had been to keep alive the Hanbalite doctrine and pass it on unchanged to modern times. He did not destroy philosophy: it was dead of itself before he came. Nor Sufiism: it is still very much alive. Nor _kalam_: it still continues in the form to which it had crystallized by his time. But he and his disciples made possible the Wahhabites and the monotheistic revival of our day. The faith of Muhammad himself was not to perish entirely from the earth.

[Sidenote: ASH-SHA‘RANI]

It would now be possible to pass at once to the Wahhabite movement in the latter part of the twelfth century of the Hijra. All the elements for the explanation of it and of the modern situation are in our hands. But there is one figure which stands out so clearly in an otherwise most obscure picture and is so significant for the time, that some account must be taken of it. It is that of ash-Sha‘rani, theologian, canonist, and mystic. He was a Cairene and died in 973. The rule of Egypt had passed half a century before to the Ottoman Turks, and they governed by means of a Turkish Pasha. The condition of the people, as we find it sketched by ash-Sha‘rani, was a most unhappy one. They were bent down, and especially the peasantry, under a load of taxation. The Turks found it advisable, too, to cultivate the friendship of the canon lawyers and professional theologians in order to maintain their hold upon the people. These canonists, in consequence, were rapidly becoming an official class with official privileges. Further, the process, the beginnings of which we have already seen, by which religious science was narrowed to _fiqh_, had gone still further. Practically, the two classes of theologians left were the canonists and the mystics. And the mystics had fallen far from their pride of power under the Mamluks. They now were of the poor of the land, a kind of Essenes over against the Pharisees of the schools.

Such, at least, is the picture of his time which ash-Sha‘rani gives. How far it is exact must remain uncertain. For, of the many puzzling personalities in Islam, ash-Sha‘rani is perhaps for us the most unintelligible. He combined the most abject superstitions of a superstitious age and country with lofty ethical indignation; social humility of the most extreme with an intellectual pride and arrogance rarely paralleled, a keen and original grasp of the canon law of the four schools with an utter submission of the intellect to the inbreathings of the divine from without; a power of discreet silence as to the inconvenient with an open-mouthed vehemence in other things. He was a devoted follower of Ibn Arabi and defended his memory against the accusation of heresy. Yet his position is singularly different from that of Ibn Arabi, and a doubt cannot but rise as to either his knowledge, his intelligence, or his honesty. Practically where he differs from the ordinary Muslim is in his extension of the doctrine of saints. As to the Most Beautiful Names (_al-asma al-husna_), he follows Ibn Hazm. So, too, as to God’s qualities, he follows the older school and would prefer to leave them unconsidered. But he is, otherwise and in general, a sound Ash‘arite, _e.g._, on the doctrine of predestination, and of man’s part in his works (_iktisab_). There is in him no sign of the Plotinian pantheism of Ibn Arabi. The doctrine of God’s difference (_mukhalafa_) he taught, and that He created the world by His will and not by any emanation of energy.

[Sidenote: THE UNSEEN WORLD]

But truth for him is not to be reached by speculation and argument: its only basis is through the unveiling of the inner eye which brings us to the immediate Vision of the Divine. Those who have reached that Vision, guide and teach those who cannot or have not. Upon that Vision all systems are built, and reason can only serve the visionary as a defence against the gainsayer or against his own too wild thoughts. Naturally, with such a starting-point as this the supernatural side of things (_al-ghayb_) receives strong emphasis. The Jinn and the angels are most intense realities. Ash-Sha‘rani met them in familiar converse. He met, too, al-Khadir, the undying pilgrim saint who wanders through the lands, succoring and guiding. The details of these interviews are given with the greatest exactness. A Jinni in the form of a dog ran into his house on such a day by such a door, with a piece of European paper in his mouth—this is a touch of genius—on which certain theological questions were written. The Jinni wished ash-Sha‘rani’s opinion as to them. Such was the origin of one of his books, and another sprang from a similarly exactly described talk with al-Khadir. Yet he was content also with smaller mercies and reckons as a _karama_ that he was enabled to read through a certain book for some time at the rate of two and a half times daily. To all this it would be possible of course to say flatly that he lied. But such a judgment applied to an oriental is somewhat crude, and the knot of the mystic’s mind in any land is not to be so easily cut. Further, the doctrine of the _walis_ is developed by him at length. They possess a certain illumination (_ilham_), which is, however, different from the inspiration (_wahy_) of the prophets. So, too, they never reach the grade of the prophets, or a nearness to God where the requirements of a revealed law fall away from them, _i.e._, they must always walk according to the law of a prophet. They are all guided by God, whatever their particular Rule (_tariqa_) may be, but the Rule of al-Junayd (p. 176) is the best because it is in most essential agreement with the Law (_shari‘a_) of Islam. Their _karamat_ are true and are a consequence of their devout labors, for these are in agreement with the Qur’an and the Sunna. The order of nature will not be broken for anyone who has not achieved more than is usual in religious knowledge and exercises. All _walis_ stand under a regular hierarchy headed by the Qutb; yet above him in holiness stand the Companions of the Prophet. This marks a very moderate position. Many Sufis had contended that the _walis_ stood higher than even the prophets, not to speak of their Companions.

It will be seen that his position is essentially a mediating one. He wishes to show that the beliefs of the mystics and of the mutakallims are really one although they are reached by different paths. In _fiqh_ he made a similar attempt. The Sufis had always looked down on those theologians who were canonists pure and simple. A study of canon law was a necessity, they thought; but as a propædeutic only. The canonists who went no further never reached religion at all. Especially they held that no Sufi should join himself to any of the four contending schools. Their controversies were upon insignificant details which had nothing to do with the life in God. But could it not be shown that their differences were not actual—one view being true and the other false—but were capable of being reduced to a unity? This was the problem that ash-Sha‘rani attacked. These differing opinions, he held, are adapted to different classes of men. Some men of greater gifts and endurance can follow the hardest of these opinions, while the easier are to be recognized as concessions (_rukhsa_) from God to the weakness of others. Each man may follow freely the view which appeals to him; God has appointed it for him.

Ash-Sha‘rani was one of the last original thinkers in Islam: for a thinker he was despite his dealings with the Jinn and al-Khadir. Egypt keeps his memory. A mosque in Cairo bears his name, as does also a division of the Badawite darwishes. In modern times his books have been frequently reprinted, and his influence is one of the ferments in the new Islam.

[Sidenote: THE WAHHABITES]

We must now pass over about two hundred years and come to the latter part of the twelfth century of the Hijra, a period nearly coinciding with the end of the eighteenth of our era. There these two movements come again to light. Wahhabism, the historical origin of which we have already seen (p. 60), is a branch of the school of Ibn Taymiya. Manuscripts of the works of Ibn Taymiya copied by the hand of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab exist in Europe. So the Wahhabites refused to accept as binding the decisions of the four orthodox sects of canon law. Agreement as a source they also reject. The whole People of Muhammad can err and has erred. Only the agreement of the Companions has binding force for them. It is, therefore, the duty and right of every man to draw his own doctrine from the Qur’an and the traditions; the systems of the schools should have no weight with him. Again, they take the anthropomorphisms of the Qur’an in their literal sense. God has a hand, God settles Himself on His throne; so it must be held “without inquiring how and without comparison.” They profess to be the only true Muslims, applying to themselves the term Muwahhids and calling all others _Mushriks_, assigners of companions to God. Again, like Ibn Taymiya, they reject the intercession of _walis_ with God. It is allowable to ask of God for the sake of a saint but not to pray to the saint. This applies also to Muhammad. Pilgrimage to the tombs of saints, the presenting of offerings there, all acts of reverence, they also forbid. No regard should be paid even to the tomb of the Prophet at al-Madina. All such ceremonies are idolatrous. Whenever possible the Wahhabites destroy and level the shrines of saints.

Over other details, such as the prohibition of the use of tobacco, we need not spend time. Wahhabism as a political force is gone. It has, however, left the Sanusi revolt as its direct descendant and what may be the outcome of that Brotherhood we have no means of guessing. It has also left a general revival and reformation throughout the Church of Islam, much parallel, as has been remarked, to the counter-reformation which followed the Protestant Reformation in Europe.

[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF AL-GHAZZALI]

The second movement is the revival of the influence of al-Ghazzali. That influence never became absolutely extinct and it seems to have remained especially strong in al-Yaman. In that corner of the Muslim world generations of Sufis lived comparatively undisturbed, and it was the Sayyid Murtada, a native of Zabid in Tihama, who by his great commentary on the _Ihya_ of al-Ghazzali practically founded the modern study of that book. There have been two editions of this commentary in ten quarto volumes and many of the _Ihya_ itself and of other works by al-Ghazzali. Whether his readers understand him fully or not, there can be no question of the wide influence which he is now exercising. At Mecca, for example, the orthodox theological teaching is practically Ghazzalian and the controversy throughout all Arabia is whether Ibn Taymiya and al-Ghazzali can be called Shaykhs of Islam. The Wahhabites hold that anyone who thus honors al-Ghazzali is an unbeliever, and the Meccans retort the same of the followers of Ibn Taymiya.

These two tendencies then—that back to the simple monotheism of Muhammad and that to an agnostic mysticism—are the hopeful signs in modern Islam. There are many other drifts in which there is no such hope. Simple materialism under European, mostly French, influence is one. A seeking of salvation in the study of canon law is another. Canon law is still the field to which an enormous proportion of Muslim theologians turn. Again, there are various forms of frankly pantheistic mysticism. That is especially the case among Persians and Turks. For the body of the people, religion is still overburdened, as in Ibn Taymiya’s days, with a mass of superstition. Lives of _walis_ containing the wildest and most blasphemous stories abound and are eagerly read. The books of ash-Sha‘rani are especially rich in such hagiology. It is difficult for us to realize that stories like the most extravagant in the _Thousand and One Nights_ are the simplest possibilities to the masses of Islam. The canon lawyers, still, in their discussions, take account of the existence of Jinn, and no theologian would dare to doubt that Solomon sealed them up in brass bottles. Of philosophy, in the free and large sense, there is no trace. Ibn Rushd’s reply to al-Ghazzali’s “Destruction of the Philosophers” has been printed, but only as a pendant to that work. In it, too, Ibn Rushd carefully covers his great heresies. His tractates on the study of kalam, spoken of above, have also been reprinted at Cairo from the European edition. But these tractates are arranged to give no clew to his real philosophy. The Arabic Aristotelianism has perished utterly from the Muslim lands. Of the modern Indian Mu‘tazilism no account need be taken here. It is derived from Europe and is ordinary Christian Unitarianism, connecting with Muhammad instead of with Jesus.

[Sidenote: THE PROBLEM OF THE FUTURE]

From the above sketch some necessary conditions are clear, which must be fulfilled if there is to be a chance for a future development in Islam. Education must be widely extended. The proportion of trained minds must be greatly increased and the barrier between them and the commonalty removed. The economy of teaching has failed; it has destroyed the doctrine which it sought to protect. Again, the slavery of the disciple to the master must cease. It must always be possible for the student, in defiance of _taqlid_, to go back to first principles or to the primary facts and to disregard what the great Imams and Mujtahids have taught. So much of health there was in the Zahirite system.

Third, these primary facts must include the facts of natural science. The student, emancipated from the control of the schools, must turn from the study of himself to an examination of the great world. And that examination must not be cosmological but biological; it must not lose itself in the infinities but find itself in concrete realities. It must experiment and test rather than build lofty hypotheses.

But can the oriental mind thus deny itself? The English educational experiment in Egypt may go far to answer that question.

APPENDICES

I. ILLUSTRATIVE DOCUMENTS TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC.

II. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY.

III. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

APPENDIX I

1. ASH-SHAHRASTANI ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF MUSLIM SECTS.

2. TWO TRADITIONS FROM MUHAMMAD ON THE ESSENTIALS OF ISLAM.

3. A SHORT CREED BY AL-ASH‘ARI.

4. A SHORT CREED BY AL-GHAZZALI.

5. A SHORT CREED BY AN-NASAFI (MATARIDITE).

6. A SCHOLASTIC EXPOSITION OF THE FUNDAMENTALS OF THEOLOGY.

7. ANALYSIS OF A TREATISE IN CANON LAW.

Notes have been added where such appeared called for, but the index, facilitating reference to the body of the book, renders a full commentary unnecessary. The student should use the index as a vocabulary of technical terms, referring for their explanation to the passages where they occur.

I

ASH-SHAHRASTANI ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF MUSLIM SECTS

Then I applied myself to what of arrangement was easy of attainment and to what of attainment was easy of arrangement, until I had crowded them [the different opinions] into four fundamentals, which are the great principles. The first fundamental concerns the Qualities (_sifat_) with the Unity (_tawhid_); it embraces the question of the eternal (_azali_) Qualities, affirmed by some and denied by others, and of the exposition of the essential Qualities (_sifat adh-dhat_) and of the active Qualities (_sifat al-fi‘l_) and of what is necessary in God Most High and what is possible for Him and what is impossible; it involves the controversies between the Ash‘arites and the Karramites and the Anthropomorphists (_mujassims_) and the Mu‘tazilites. The second fundamental concerns decree (_qadar_) and justice (_adl_); it embraces the question of destiny (_qada_) and decree (_qadar_); of force (_jabr_) and acquisition (_kasb_); of the willing of good and of evil and of the decreed and the known, affirmed by some and denied by others; it involves the controversies between the Qadarites and Najjarites and Jabarites and Ash‘arites and Karramites. The third fundamental concerns promise (_wa‘d_) and the decisions (_hukms_); it embraces the question of faith (_iman_) and repentance (_tawba_) and threatening (_wa‘id_) and postponing (_irja_) and pronouncing anyone an unbeliever (_takfir_) and leading anyone astray (_tadlil_), affirmed by some and denied by others; it involves the controversies between the Murji’ites and the Wa‘idites and the Mu‘tazilites and the Ash‘arites and the Karramites. The fourth fundamental concerns tradition (_sam_) and reason (_aql_) and the prophetic mission (_risala_) and the imamate; it embraces the questions of the determination of actions as good (_tahsin_) or vile (_taqbih_); of the advantageous (_salah_) and most advantageous (_aslah_); of benignity (_lutf_); of the prophets being guarded against sin (_isma_); of the condition of the imamate, by statute (_nass_) according to some and by agreement (_ijma_) according to others, and how it is transferred on the view of those who say it is by statute, and how it is fixed on the view of those who say it is by agreement; it involves the controversies between the Shi‘ites and the Kharijites and the Mu‘tazilites and the Karramites and the Ash‘arites.—_Translated from Cureton’s Arabic text, p. 4._

II

THE PROPHET IN A TRADITION

“Islam is built upon five things; testimony that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is the Apostle of God. Prayer (_salat_), the Poor-rate (_zakat_), Pilgrimage (_hajj_) and Fast (_sawm_) in Ramadan.”

A TRADITION OF THE PROPHET

Jibril came in the form of an Arab of the desert and sat down so that his knees touched the knees of the Prophet and said, “O Apostle of God, what is Islam?” He said, “That thou should bear witness that there is no god save God and that I am the Apostle of God; that thou shouldest perform the prayers (_salat_) and bring the poor-rate (_zakat_) and fast in the month of Ramadan and pilgrimage to the House if the way is possible for thee.” He said, “Thou hast spoken truly.” Then he said, “What is Faith (_iman_)?” The Prophet said, “That thou should believe in God and His angels and His books and His messengers and in the Last Day, and that thou should believe in the decreeing (_qadar_) both of good and of evil.” He said, “Thou hast spoken truly.” Then he said, “What is right doing (_ihsan_)?” The Prophet said, “That thou should serve God as though thou sawest Him; for though thou seest Him not, He sees thee.” He said, “Thou hast spoken truly.” Then he said, “When shall be the Last Day (_as-sa‘a_)?” The Prophet said, “The questioned knoweth not more of that than the questioner.” Then he arose and went out. And the Prophet said, “That was Jibril; he came to you to teach you your religion (_din_).”—_Translated from Cureton’s text of ash-Shahrastani, p. 27._

III

A SHORT CREED BY AL-ASH‘ARI

Our doctrine which we teach and our religion (_diyana_) which we follow consists in clinging fast to the Book of God and the Usage (_sunna_) of His Prophet and to that which is handed down from the Companions, their immediate followers (_tabi‘s_) and from the leaders (_imams_) in tradition—with that we take refuge; and we teach that which Ahmad ibn Hanbal—may God illumine his face, exalt his rank and make great his reward—followed; and we shun that which is opposed to his doctrine. For he is the excellent leader, the perfect chief, through whom God made plain the truth, when error was made manifest, and showed the path and smote down the innovations of the innovators, the deviations of the deviators and the doubts of the doubters. So, the mercy of God be upon him for an appointed leader and an instructed chief, and upon all the leaders of the Muslims.

The sum of our doctrine is this, that we believe in God, His Angels, His Books, His Apostles, in all that has come from God, and what trustworthy men (_thiqat_) have reported from the Apostles of God; we oppose nothing thereof. That God is One God, Single, One, Eternal; beside Him no God exists; He has taken to Himself no wife (_sahiba_), nor child (_walad_); and that Muhammad is His Servant (_abd_) and His Apostle. That Paradise and Hell are Verity and that the Hour (_as-sa‘a_) will come without doubt, and God will arouse those that are in the graves. That God has settled Himself (_istawa_) upon His throne, as He has said, (Qur. 20, 4); “the Rahman has settled Himself upon His throne.” That God has a countenance, as He has said, (Qur. 55, 27); “and the countenance of thy Lord will abide, full of majesty and glory;” and two hands, as He has said, (Qur. 5, 69); “much more! both His hands are spread out,” and (Qur. 38, 75); “that which I have created with both My hands;” and two eyes, without asking how (_bila kayfa_), as He has said, (Qur. 54, 14); “which swims forth under Our eyes.” That whoever thinks that God’s name is other than He, is in error. That God has Knowledge (_ilm_), as He has said, (Qur. 35, 12); “Not one woman becomes pregnant and brings forth, except by His knowledge.” We maintain that God has Power (_qudra_), as He has said, (Qur. 41, 14); “and have they not seen that God who created them is stronger than they?” We maintain that God has Hearing (_sam_) and Seeing (_basar_) and do not deny it, as do the Mu‘tazilites, Jahmites and Kharijites. We teach that God’s Word (_kalam_) is uncreated, and that He has never created anything except by saying to it, “Be!” and it forthwith became, as He has said, (Qur. 16, 42); “Our speech to anything when We willed it was, ‘Be’ and it was.” Nothing exists upon earth, be it good or bad, but that which God wills; but all things are by God’s Will (_mashya_). No one is able to do anything before God does it, neither is anyone independent of God, nor can he withdraw himself from God’s Knowledge. There is no Creator but God. The works (_amals_) of creatures are created and predestined by God, as He said, (Qur. 37, 94); “and God has created you and what ye do.” Man is able to create nothing; but they are created, as He has said, (Qur. 35, 31); “Is there any Creator except God?” and (Qur. 16, 17) “and is He who created like him who created not?” and (Qur. 52, 35); “were they created out of nothing, or are they the creators?” and such passages are many in the Qur’an. And God maintains the believers in obedience to Him, is gracious unto them, cares for them, reforms them, and guides them aright; but the unbelievers He leads astray, guides them not aright, vouchsafes them not Faith (_iman_), by His Grace, as the People of error and pride maintain. For should He be gracious unto them and help them aright, then would they be pious, and should He guide them aright, then would they allow themselves to be guided aright, as He has said, (Qur. 7, 177); “whom God guideth aright, he allows himself to be guided aright, and whom He leads astray, they are the losers.” God is able to help the unbelieving aright and to be gracious unto them, so that they shall become believing, but He wills that they shall be unbelieving as is known. For He has made them impervious to all help and sealed their hearts. Good and Evil happen according to the Destiny (_qada_) and Decree (_qadar_) of God for good and evil, for the sweet and the bitter. We know that the misfortune that befalls us is not in order that we may go astray, and that the good fortune which befalls us is not in order that we may go aright. We have no control over that which is good or hurtful to us, except so far as God wills. We flee from our anxieties to God and commit at all times our distress and poverty to Him. We teach that the Qur’an is God’s Word, and that it is uncreated, and that whosoever says that it is created is an unbeliever (_kafir_). We believe that God at the Day of Resurrection (_yawm al-qiyama_) will be visible to the eyes, as the moon is seen upon the night of the full moon; the believers will see Him, according to traditions which have come down from the Prophet. We teach that while the believers will see Him, the unbelievers will be separated from Him by a wall of division, as God has said, (Qur. 83, 15); “Surely not! They will be separated from their Lord, upon that Day.” We teach that Moses besought God that he might see Him in this world; then God revealed Himself to the mountain and turned it into dust and taught Moses thereby that he could not see Him in this world (Qur. 7, 139). We are of the opinion that we may not accuse anyone of unbelief (_kufr_), who prays towards Mecca, on account of sin committed by him, such as unchastity, theft, wine drinking, as the Kharijites believe, who judge that these thereby become unbelievers. We teach that whoever commits a great sin (_kabira_), or anything like it, holding it to be allowed, is an unbeliever, since he does not believe in its prohibition. We teach that Islam is a wider idea than Faith (_iman_), so that not every Islam is Faith. We believe that God turns the hearts upside down, and holds them between two of His fingers, that He lays the heavens upon a finger and the earth upon a finger, according to the tradition from the Prophet. We believe that God will not leave in Hell any of those who confess His Unity (_muwahhid_) and hold fast to the Faith, and that there is no Hell for him whom the Prophet has by his witness appointed to Paradise. We hope for Paradise for sinners and fear on their account, that they will be punished in Hell. We teach that God will release a few out of Hell, on account of Muhammad’s intercession (_shafa‘a_) after they have been scorched there. We believe in the punishment of the grave. We believe that the Tank (_hawd_) and the Balance are Verities: that the Bridge _as-Sirat_ is a Verity; that the Arousing (_ba‘th_) after death is a Verity; that God will set up His creatures in a place (_mawqif_) and will hold a reckoning with the Believers.[1] We believe that Faith (_iman_) consists in word (_qawl_) and in work (_amal_) and that it increases and diminishes. We trust in the sound Traditions handed down from the Apostle of God, which trustworthy people (_thiqat_), just man from just man, up to the Apostle, have transmitted. We hold by the love of the early Believers (_salaf_), whom God chose to be Companions to the Prophet, and we praise them with the praise with which God praised them, and we carry on their succession. We assert that the Imam succeeding the Apostle of God was Abu Bakr; that God through him made the Religion (_din_) mighty, and caused him to conquer the Apostates (_murtadds_). The Muslims made him their Imam, just as Muhammad had made him Imam at prayers. Then followed [as legal Imam] Umar ibn al-Khattab; then Uthman ibn Affan; his murderers killed him out of wickedness and enmity; then Ali ibn Abi Talib. These are the Imams after the Apostle, and their Khalifate is that of the Prophetic office [_i.e._, they are, though not prophets, successors of the Prophet]. We bear witness of Paradise for the Ten (_al-asharatu-l-mubashshara_), to whom the Apostle bore witness of it, and we carry on the succession of the other Companions of the Prophet and hold ourselves far from that which was in dispute between them. We hold that the four Imams were in the true way, were rightly guided and excellent, so that no one equals them in excellence. We hold as true the traditions which the People of Tradition (_naql_) have established, concerning the descent of God to the lowest heaven (_sama ad-dunya_), and that the Lord will say, “Is there a supplicant? Is there a seeker for forgiveness?” and the rest of that which they have handed down and established, contrary to that which the mistaken and misled opine. We ground ourselves in our opposition on the Qur’an, the _Sunna_ of the Prophet, the agreement of the Muslims and what is in accordance therewith, but put forth no novelty (_bid‘a_) not sanctioned by God, and opine of God nothing that we have not been taught. We teach that God will come on the Day of Resurrection, as He has said, (Qur. 89, 23); “When the earth shall be turned to dust, and the Lord shall appear and the angels, rank on rank,” and that God is near to His servants, in what way (_kayfa_) He wills, as He has said, (Qur. 50, 15); “and We are nearer to him than the artery in his neck;” and (Qur. 53, 8); “Then He approached and came near and was two bows’ length distant or even nearer.” To our Religion (_din_) belongs further, that we on Fridays and on festival days pray behind every person, pious and profane—so are the conditions for congregational prayers, as it is handed down from Abd Allah ibn Umar that he prayed behind al-Hajjaj. To our Religion belongs the wiping (_mash_) of the inner boots (_khuffs_) upon a journey and at home, in contradiction to the deniers of this.[2] We uphold the prayer for peace for the Imams of the Muslims, submission to their office, and maintain the error of those who hold it right to rise against them whenever there may be apparent in them a falling away from right. We are against armed rebellion against them and civil war.

We believe in the appearance of anti-Christ (_ad-Dajjal_) according to the tradition handed down from the Prophet; in the punishment of the grave, and in Munkar and Nakir and in their questions to the buried in their graves. We hold the tradition of the journey to heaven (_mi‘raj_, Qur. 17) of Muhammad as true, and declare many of the visions in sleep to be true, and we say that there is an explanation for them. We uphold the alms for the dead of the Muslims and prayer for them, and believe that God will help them therewith. We hold as true that there are enchanters in the world, and that enchantment is and exists. We hold as a religious duty the prayer which is held over the dead of those who have prayed toward Mecca, whether they have been believers or godless; we uphold also their right of testation. We acknowledge that Paradise and Hell are created, and that whoever dies or is killed, dies or is killed at his appointed time (_ajal_); that the articles of sustenance (_rizq_) from God, with which He sustains His creatures, are permitted (_halal_) and forbidden (_haram_);[3] that Satan makes evil suggestions to men, and puts them in doubt, and causes them to be possessed, contrary to that which the Mu‘tazilites and the Jahmites maintain, as God said, (Qur. 2, 276); “Those who take usury will [at the Resurrection] stand there like one whom Satan causes to be possessed by madness,” and (Qur. 114, 4 ff.); “I take my refuge in God, from the evil suggestion, from the stealthy one who makes suggestions in the hearts of men, by means of men and Jinn.” We affirm that God may distinguish the pious by signs which He manifests through them. Our teaching concerning the little children of the polytheists (_mushriks_) is this, that God will kindle a fire in the other world for them, and will say, “Run in there;”—as the tradition says.[4] We believe that God knows what men do and what they will to do, what happens and how that which does not happen, if it should happen, would happen. We believe in the obedience of the Imams and in their counsel of the Muslims. We consider right the separation from every inciter to innovation (_bid‘a_) and the turning aside from the People of wandering desires (_ahl al-ahwa_).—_Translated from the Arabic text in Spitta’s Zur Geschichte al-As‘ari’s, pp. 133 ff._

IV

A SHORT CREED BY AL-GHAZZALI

An exposition of the Creed of the People of the Sunna on the two Words of Witnessing (_kalimata-sh-shabada_) which form one of the Foundations of Islam.

[Intended to be committed to memory by children. It forms the first section of the second book of his _Ihya_, vol. ii, pp. 17-42 of edit. of Cairo with commentary of the Sayyid Murtada.]

We say—and in God is our trust—Praise belongeth unto God, the Beginner, the Bringer back, the Doer of what He willeth, the Lord of the Glorious Throne and of Mighty Grasp, the Guider of His chosen creatures to the right path and to the true way, the Granter of benefits to them after the witness to the Unity (_tawhid_) by guarding their articles of belief from obscurities of doubt and opposition, He that bringeth them to follow His Apostle, the Chosen one (_al-Mustafa_), and to imitate the traces of his Companions, the most honored, through His aid and right guidance revealed to them in His essence and His works by His beautiful qualities which none perceives, save he who inclines his ear. He is the witness who maketh known to them that He in His essence is One without any partner (_sharik_). Single without any similar, Eternal without any opposite, Separate without any like. He is One, Prior (_qadim_) with nothing before Him, from eternity (_azali_) without any beginning, abiding in existence with none after Him, to eternity (_abadi_) without any end, subsisting without ending, abiding without termination. He hath not ceased and He will not cease to be described with glorious epithets; finishing and ending, through the cutting off of the ages and the terminating of allotted times, have no rule over Him, but He is the First and Last, the External and the Internal, and He knoweth everything.

We witness that He is not a body possessing form, nor a substance possessing bounds and limits: He does not resemble bodies, either in limitation or in accepting division. He is not a substance and substances do not exist in Him; and He is not an accident and accidents do not exist in Him, nay He does not resemble an entity, and no entity resembles Him; nothing is like Him and He is not like anything; measure does not bound Him and boundaries do not contain Him; the directions do not surround Him and neither the earth nor the heavens are on different sides of Him. Lo, He is seated firmly upon His Throne (_arsh_), after the manner which He has said, and in the sense in which He willed a being seated firmly (_istiwa_), which is far removed from contact and fixity of location and being established and being enveloped and being removed. The Throne does not carry Him, but the Throne and those that carry it are carried by the grace of His power and mastered by His grasp. He is above the Throne and the Heavens and above everything unto the limit of the Pleiades, with an aboveness which does not bring Him nearer to the Throne and the Heavens, just as it does not make Him further from the earth and the Pleiades. Nay, He is exalted by degrees from the Throne and the Heavens, just as He is exalted by degrees from the earth and the Pleiades; and He, in spite of that, is near to every entity and is “nearer to a creature than the artery of his neck” (Qur. 50, 15), and He witnesseth everything, since His nearness does not resemble the nearness of bodies, just as His essence does not resemble the essence of bodies. He does not exist in anything, just as nothing exists in Him: He has exalted Himself far therefrom that a place should contain Him, just as He has sanctified Himself far therefrom that time should limit Him. Nay, He was before He had created Time and Place and He is now above that which He was above, and distinct from His creatures through His qualities. There is not in His essence His equal, nor in His equal His essence. He is far removed from change of state or of place. Events have no place in Him, and mishaps do not befall him. Nay, He does not cease, through His glorious epithets, to be far removed from changing, and through His perfect qualities to be independent of perfecting increase. The existence of His essence is known by reason; His essence is seen with the eyes, a benefit from Him and a grace to the pious, in the Abiding Abode and a completion in beatitude from Him, through gazing upon His gracious face.

We witness that He is living, powerful, commanding, conquering; inadequacy and weakness befall Him not; slumber seizes Him not, nor sleep. Passing away does not happen to Him, nor death. He is Lord of the Worlds, the Visible and the Invisible, that of Force and that of Might; He possesses Rule and Conquest and Creation and Command; the heavens are rolled in His right hand and the created things are overcome in His grasp; He is separate in creating and inventing; He is one in bringing into existence and innovating; He created the creation and their works and decreed their sustenance and their terms of life; not a decreed thing escapes His grasp and the mutations of things are not distant from His power; the things which He hath decreed cannot be reckoned and the things which He knoweth have no end.

We witness that He knoweth all the things that can be known, comprehending that which happeneth from the bounds of the earths unto the topmost heavens; no grain in the earth or the heavens is distant from His knowledge. Yea, He knows the creeping of the black ant upon the rugged rock in a dark night, and He perceives the movement of the mote in the midst of the air; He knows the secret and the concealed and has knowledge of the suggestions of the minds and the movements of the thoughts and the concealed things of the inmost parts, by a knowledge which is prior from eternity; He has not ceased to be describable by it, from the ages of the ages, not by a knowledge which renews itself and arises in His essence by arrival and removal.

We witness that He is a Willer of the things that are, a Director of the things that happen; there does not come about in the world, seen or unseen, little or much, small or great, good or evil, advantage or disadvantage, faith or unbelief, knowledge or ignorance, success or loss, increase or diminution, obedience or rebellion, except by His will. What He wills is, and what He wills not is not. Not a glance of one who looks, or a slip of one who thinks is outside of His will: He is the Creator, the Bringer back, the Doer of that which He wills. There is no opponent of His command and no repeater of His destiny and no refuge for a creature from disobeying Him, except by His help and His mercy, and no strength to a creature to obey Him except by His will. Even though mankind and the Jinn and the Angels and the Shaytans were to unite to remove a single grain in the world or to bring it to rest without His will, they would be too weak for that. His will subsists in His essence as one of His qualities; He hath not ceased to be described through it as a Willer, in His infinity, of the existence of things at their appointed times which He hath decreed. So they come into existence at their appointed times even as He has willed in His infinity without precedence or sequence. They happen according to the agreement of His knowledge and His will, without exchange or change in planning of things, nor with arranging of thoughts or awaiting of time, and therefore one thing does not distract Him from another.

And we witness that He is a Hearer and a Seer. He hears and sees, and no audible thing is distant from His hearing, and no visible thing is far from His seeing, however fine it may be. Distance does not curtain off His hearing and darkness does not dull His seeing; He sees without eyeball or eyelid, and hears without earholes or ears, just as He knows without a brain and seizes without a limb and creates without an instrument, since His qualities do not resemble the qualities of created things, just as His essence does not resemble the essences of created things.

And we witness that He speaks, commanding, forbidding, praising, threatening, with a speech from all eternity, prior, subsisting in His essence not resembling the speech of created things. It is not a sound which originates through the slipping out of air, or striking of bodies; nor is it a letter which is separated off by closing down a lip or moving a tongue. And the Qur’an and the Tawrat [the Law of Moses] and the Injil [the Gospel] and the Zabbur [the Psalms] are His book revealed to His Apostles. And the Qur’an is repeated by tongues, written in copies, preserved in hearts: yet it, in spite of that, is prior, subsisting in the essence of God, not subject to division and separation through being transferred to hearts and leaves. And Musa heard the speech of God without a sound and without a letter, just as the pious see the essence of God, in the other world, without a substance or an attribute.

And since He has those qualities, He is Living, Knowing, Powerful, a Willer, a Hearer, a Seer, a Speaker, through Life, Power, Knowledge, Will, Hearing, Seeing, Speech, not by a thing separated from His essence.

We witness that there is no entity besides Him, except what is originated from His action and proceeds from His justice, after the most beautiful and perfect and complete and just of ways. He is wise in His actions, just in His determinations; there is no analogy between His justice and the justice of creatures, since tyranny is conceivable in the case of a creature, when he deals with the property of some other than himself, but tyranny is not conceivable in the case of God. For He never encounters any property in another besides Himself, so that His dealing with it might be tyranny. Everything besides Him, consisting of men and Jinn and Angels and Shaytans and the heavens and the earth and animals and plants and inanimate things and substance and attribute and things perceived and things felt, is an originated thing, which He created by His power, before any other had created it, after it had not existed, and which He invented after that it had not been a thing, since He in eternity was an entity by Himself, and there was not along with Him any other than He. So He originated the creation thereafter, by way of manifestation of His power, and verification of that which had preceded of His Will, and of that which existed in eternity of His Word; not because He had any lack of it or need of it. And He is gracious in creating and in making for the first times and in imposing of duty—not of necessity—and He is generous in benefiting; and well-doing and gracious helping belong to Him, since He is able to bring upon His creatures different kinds of punishment and to test them with different varieties of pains and ailments. And if He did that, it would be justice on His part, and would not be a vile action or tyranny in Him. He rewardeth His believing creatures for their acts of obedience by a decision which is of generosity and of promise and not of right and of obligation, since no particular action toward anyone is incumbent upon Him, and tyranny is inconceivable in Him, and no one possesses a right against Him. And His right to acts of obedience is binding upon the creatures because He has made it binding through the tongues of His prophets, not by reason alone. But He sent apostles and manifested their truth by plain miracles, and they brought His commands and forbiddings and promisings and threatenings. So, belief in them as to what they have brought is incumbent upon the creation.

THE SECOND WORD OF WITNESSING is witnessing that the apostolate belongs to the apostle, and that God sent the unlettered Qurayshite prophet, Muhammad, with his apostolate to the totality of Arabs and foreigners and Jinn and men. And He abrogated by his law the other laws, except so much of them as He confirmed; and made him excellent over the rest of the prophets and made him the Lord of Mankind and declared incomplete the Faith that consists in witnessing the Unity, which is saying, “There is no god except God,” so long as there is not joined to that a witnessing to the Apostle, which is saying, “Muhammad is the Apostle of God.” And He made obligatory upon the creation belief in him, as to all which he narrated concerning the things of this world and the next. And that He would not accept the faith of a creature, so long as he did not believe in that which the Prophet narrated concerning things after death. The first of that is the question of Munkar and Nakir; these are two awful and terrible beings who will cause the creature to sit up in his grave, complete, both soul and body; and they will ask him, “Who is thy Lord, and what is thy religion (_din_), and who is thy Prophet?” They are the two testers in the grave and their questioning is the first testing after death. And that he should believe in the punishment of the grave—that it is a Verity and that its judgment upon the body and the soul is just, according to what God wills. And that he should believe in the Balance—it with the two scales and the tongue, the magnitude of which is like unto the stages of the heavens and the earth. In it, deeds are weighed by the power of God Most High; and its weights in that day will be of the weight of motes and mustard seeds, to show the exactitude of its justice. The leaves of the good deeds will be placed in a beautiful form in the scale of light; and then the Balance will be weighed down by them according to the measure of their degree with God, by the grace of God. And the leaves of evil deeds will be cast in a vile form into the scale of darkness, and the Balance will be light with them, through the justice of God. And that he should believe that the Bridge (_as-sirat_) is a Verity; it is a bridge stretched over the back of Hell (_jahannam_), sharper than a sword and finer than a hair. The feet of the unbelievers slip upon it, by the decree of God, and fall with them into the Fire. But the feet of believers stand firm upon it, by the grace of God, and so they pass into the Abiding Abode. And that he should believe in the Tank (_hawd_), to which the people shall go down, the Tank of Muhammad from which the believers shall drink before entering the Garden and after passing the Bridge. Whoever drinks of it a single draught will never thirst again thereafter. Its breadth is a journey of a month; its water is whiter than milk and sweeter than honey; around it are ewers in numbers like the stars of heaven; into it flow two canals from _al-Kawthar_ (Qur. 108). And that he should believe in the Reckoning and in the distinctions between men in it, him with whom it will go hard in the Reckoning and him to whom compassion will be shown therein, and him who enters the Garden without any reckoning,—these are the honored (_muqarrab_). God Most High will ask whomsoever He will of the prophets, concerning the carrying of His message, and whomsoever He will of the unbelievers, concerning the rejection of the messengers; and He will ask the innovators (_mubtadi‘s_) concerning the Sunna; and the Muslims concerning works. And that he should believe that the attestors of God’s Unity (_muwahhids_) will be brought forth from the Fire, after vengeance has been taken on them, so that there will not remain in Hell an attestor of God’s Unity. And that he should believe in the intercession (_shafa‘a_) of the prophets, next of the learned (_ulama_), next of the martyrs, next of the rest of the believers—each according to his dignity and rank with God Most High. And he who remains of the believers, and has no intercessor, shall be brought forth of the grace of God, whose are Might and Majesty. So there shall not abide eternally in the Fire a single believer, but whoever has in his heart the weight of a single grain of faith shall be brought forth therefrom. And that he should confess the excellence of the Companions—May God be well pleased with them!—and their rank; and that the most excellent of mankind, after the Prophet, is Abu Bakr, next Umar, next Uthman, next Ali—May God be well pleased with them! And that he should think well of all the Companions and should praise them like as he praises God, whose are Might and Majesty, and His Apostles. All this is of that which has been handed down in traditions from the Prophet and in narratives from the followers. He who confesses all this, relying upon it, is of the People of the Truth and the Company of the Sunna, and hath separated himself from the band of error and the sect of innovation (_bid‘a_). So we ask from God perfection of certainty and firm standing in the Faith (_din_) for us and for all Muslims through His compassion.—lo! He is the Most Compassionate!—and may the blessing of God be upon our Lord Muhammad and upon every chosen creature.

V

ARTICLES OF BELIEF OF NAJM AD-DIN ABU HAFS AN-NASAFI

[A Mataridite who d. A.H. 537. This creed is still used as a text-book in schools. It is translated from Cureton’s edition (London, 1843) with the assistance of at-Taftazani’s commentary (Constantinople, A.H. 1310). The asterisks mark the points on which al-Mataridi differed from al-Ash‘ari.]

In the name of God, the merciful Compassionator.

The Shaykh, the Imam, Najm ad-Din Abu Hafs Umar ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad an-Nasafi—may God have mercy upon him!—said;—The People of Verity, contradicting the Sceptics [_Sufistiqiya_, i.e., Sophists] say that the real natures of things are validly established and that the science of them is certain.

Further, that the sources of knowledge for mankind are three: the sound Senses, true Narration (_khabar_), and Reason (_aql_). As for the Senses, they are five: Hearing, Sight, Smell, Taste and Touch, and by each sense you are informed concerning that for which it is appointed. True Narration, again, is of two kinds. The one is Narration handed down along a large number of lines of tradition (_mutawatir_); that is, it is established by the tongues of a number of people of whom we cannot imagine that they would agree in a lie. It compels a knowledge which is of necessity (_daruri_), such as the knowledge of departed kings in past times and of distant countries. And the second is Narration by the Apostle (_rasul_) aided by miracle [_i.e._, Muhammad], and it compels deduced knowledge (_istidlali_), and the knowledge established by it resembles in certainty and fixity the knowledge established by necessity.

Then as for Reason, it is a cause of knowledge also; and whatever is established by intuition (_badaha_) is of necessity, as the knowledge that everything is greater than its parts; and whatever is established by inference is acquired knowledge (_iktisabi_), as the existence of fire from the appearance of smoke. And the Inner Light (_ilham_) with the People of Verity is not one of the causes of knowledge as to the soundness of anything.[5]

Further, the world in the totality of its parts is a thing originated (_muhdath_), in that it consists of Substances (_ayns_) and Attributes (_arads_). The Substances are what exist in themselves, and a substance is either a compound, that is a body (_jism_), or not compounded like an essence (_jawhar_), namely a division that is not further divided. And the attributes are what do not exist in themselves but have a dependent existence in bodies or essences, such as colors, tastes, conditions (_kawns_), odors.

The Originator (_Muhdith_) of the world is God Most High, the One, the Eternal, the Decreeing, the Knowing, the Hearing, the Seeing, the Willing. He is not an attribute, nor a body, nor an essence, nor a thing formed, nor a thing bounded, nor a thing numbered, nor a thing divided, nor a thing compounded, nor a thing limited; and He is not described by quiddity (_mahiya_), nor by modality (_kayfiya_), and He does not exist in place or time, and there is nothing that resembles Him and nothing that is outwith His knowledge and power.

He has qualities (_sifat_) from all eternity (_azali_) existing in His essence. They are not He nor are they any other than He. They are Knowledge and Power and Life and Strength and Hearing and Seeing and Doing and Creating and Sustaining and Speech (_kalam_).

And He, whose Majesty is majestic, speaks with a Word (_kalam_). This Word is a quality from all eternity, not belonging to the genus of letters and sounds, a quality that is incompatible with coming to silence and that has no weakness.

God Most High speaks with this Word, commanding and prohibiting and narrating. And the Qur’an is the uncreated Word of God, repeated by our tongues, heard by our ears, written in our copies, preserved in our hearts, yet not simply a transient state (_hal_) in these [_i.e._, the tongues, ears, etc.]. And Creating (_takwin_) is a quality of God Most High from all eternity, and it is the Creating of the world and of every one of its parts at the time of its becoming existent, and this quality of Creating is not the thing created, according to our opinion.* And Willing is a quality of God Most High from all eternity, existing in His essence.

And that there is a Vision (_ru’ya_) of God Most High is allowed by reason and certified by tradition (_naql_). A proof on authority has come down with the affirmation that believers have a Vision of God Most High in Paradise and that He is seen, not in a place or in a direction or by facing or the joining of glances or the placing of a distance between him who sees and God Most High.

And God Most High is the Creator of all actions of His creatures, whether of unbelief or belief, of obedience or of rebellion; all of them are by the will of God and His sentence and His conclusion and His decreeing.

And to His creatures belong actions of choice (_ikhtiyar_),* for which they are rewarded or punished, and the good in these is by the good pleasure of God (_rida_) and the vile in them is not by His good pleasure.*

And the ability to do the action (_istita‘a_) goes along with the action and is the essence of the power (_qudra_) by which the action takes place, and this word “ability” means the soundness of the causes and instruments and limbs. And the validity of the imposition of the task (_taklif_) is based upon this ability,* and the creature has not a task imposed upon him that is not in his power.

And the pain which is found in one who is beaten as a consequence of being beaten by any man, and the state of being broken in glass as a consequence of its being broken by any man, and such things, all that is created by God Most High, and the creature has no part in its creation and a slain man is dead because his appointed time (_ajal_) has come; and death exists in a slain man and is created by God Most High, and the appointed time is one.[6]

And that which is forbidden (_haram_) is still Sustenance (_rizq_), and each one receives his own Sustenance whether it consists of permitted or of forbidden things; and let no one imagine that a man shall not eat his Sustenance or that another than he shall eat his Sustenance.

And God leadeth astray whom He wills and guideth aright whom He wills, and it is not incumbent upon God Most High to do that which may be best (_aslah_) for the creature.

The punishment of the grave for unbelievers and for some rebellious ones of the believers, and the bliss of the obedient in the grave, and the questioning by Munkar and Nakir are established by proofs of authority. And the Quickening of the Dead (_ba‘th_) is a Verity, and the Weighing is a Verity, and the Book is a Verity and the Tank (_hawd_) is a Verity, and the Bridge, _as-Sirat_, is a Verity, and the Garden is a Verity, and the Fire is a Verity, and they are both created, existing, continuing; they shall not pass away and their people shall not pass away.

A great sin (_kabira_) does not exclude the creature who believes from the Belief (_iman_) and does not make him an unbeliever. And God does not forgive him who joins another with Himself, but He forgives anything beneath that to whom He wills, of sins small (_saghira_) or great.

And there may be punishment for a small and pardon for a great one, if it be not of the nature of considering lawful what is forbidden, for that is unbelief (_kufr_). And the intercession (_shafa‘a_) of the Apostles and of the excellent on behalf of those who commit great sins is established.

And those believers who commit great sins do not remain eternally in the Fire although they die without repentance.

Belief (_iman_) is assent (_tasdiq_) to that which comes from God and confession (_iqrar_) of it. Then, as for Works (_amal_), they are acts of obedience and gradually increase of themselves, but Belief does not increase and does not diminish. And Belief and al-Islam are one.* And whenever assent and confession are found in a creature, it is right that he should say, “I am a believer in truth.” And it is not fitting that he should say, “I am a believer if God will.”*

The happy one sometimes becomes miserable and the miserable one sometimes becomes happy,* and the changing is in happiness and misery, and not in making happy and making miserable: for those are both qualities of God Most High, and there is no changing in Him nor in His qualities.

And in the sending of Apostles (_rasuls_) is an advantage and God has sent Apostles of flesh unto flesh with good tidings, warning and explaining to men the things of the world and of faith, of which they have need. And He has aided them with miracles (_mu‘jizat_) which break the order of nature. The first of the Prophets (_nabis_) was Adam and the last is Muhammad, Upon both of them be Peace! A statement of their number has been handed down in several traditions, but the more fitting course is that there should be no limiting to a number in naming them; God Most High has said, “Of them are those concerning whom We have recited to thee, and of them are those concerning whom We have not recited to thee.” And there is no security in a statement of number against there being entered among them some that are not of them, or of there being excluded from them some that are of them. They all give intelligence concerning God Most High, are veracious and sincere, and the most excellent of the Prophets is Muhammad—Upon him be Peace!

The Angels are servants of God and work according to His commands. They are not described as masculine or feminine.

And God has books which He has revealed to His Prophets, and in them are His commands and His promises.

The Night Journey (_mi‘raj_) of the Apostle of God—Upon whom be Blessing and Peace! while awake, in the body, to Heaven, then to what place God Most High willed of the Exalted Regions, is a Verity.

The Wonders (_karamat_) of the Saints (_walis_) are a Verity. And a Wonder on the part of a Saint appears by way of a contradiction of the ordinary course of nature, such as passing over a great distance in a short time, and the appearing of meat and drink and clothing at a time of need, and walking upon the water and in the air, and the speech of stones and of beasts, and the warding off of an evil that is approaching, and the guarding of him who is anxious from enemies, and other things of the same kind. And such a thing is to be reckoned as an evidentiary miracle (_mu‘jiza_) on behalf of the Apostle followed by the Saint on whose part the wonder appears. For it is evident by it that he is a Saint and he could never be a Saint unless he were right in his religion and worship and in abiding by the message committed to his Apostle.

The most excellent of mankind after the Prophets are Abu Bakr, the Very Veracious (_as-Siddiq_), then Umar, the Divider (_al-Faruq_), then Uthman, he of the Two Lights (_Dhu-n-Nurayn_), then Ali—The good-will of God be upon them! Their Khalifates were in this order, and the Khalifate extended to thirty years; then, thereafter, came kings and princes.

The Muslims cannot do without a leader (_Imam_) who shall occupy himself with the enforcing of their decisions, and in maintaining their boundaries and guarding their frontiers, and equipping their armies, and receiving their alms, and putting down robberies and thieving and highwaymen, and maintaining the Friday services and the Festivals, and removing quarrels that fall between creatures, and receiving evidence bearing on legal claims, and marrying minors, male and female, and those who have no guardians, and dividing booty. And it is necessary that the leader should be visible, not hidden and expected to appear (_muntazar_), and that he should be of the tribe of Quraysh and not of any other. And he is not assigned exclusively to the sons of Hashim nor to the children of Ali. And it is not a condition that he should be protected by God from sin (_isma_), nor that he should be the most excellent of the people of his time, but it is a condition that he should have administrative ability, should be a good governor and be able to carry out decrees and to guard the restrictive ordinances (_hadds_) of Islam and to protect the wronged against him who wrongs him. And he is not to be deposed from the leadership on account of immorality or tyranny.

Prayer is allowable behind anyone whether pure or a sinner. And we give the salutation of Peace to the pure and to the sinner.

And we abstain from the mention of the Companions (_sahibs_) of the Prophet except with good.

And we bear witness that Paradise is for the ten to whom the Prophet—God bless him and give him Peace!—gave good tidings of Paradise (_al-asharatu-l-mubashshara_).

And we approve the wiping (_mash_) of the inner-shoes (_khuffs_) both at home and when on a journey.

And we do not regard _nabidh_ as forbidden.

And the Saint does not reach the level of the Prophets. And the creature does not come to a point where commands and prohibitions and the details of the statutes in their outward sense (_zahir_) fall away from him; and the turning aside from these to the views which the People of the Inner Meaning (_batin_) assert is a deviation (_ilhad_) through unbelief.

And feeling safe from God is unbelief. And despairing of God is unbelief. And rejection of the statutes and contempt for the law is unbelief. And believing a diviner (_kahin_) in what he tells of the Unseen (_ghayb_) is unbelief. And what does not exist (_ma‘dum_) is known of God Most High just as what exists (_mawjud_) is known of Him and it [_i.e._, what does not exist] is neither a thing (_shay_) nor an object of vision (_mar’an_).

And in prayer of the living for the dead, and in alms offered for them there is an advantage to them. And God Most High answers prayers and supplies needs.

And what the Prophet has reported of the conditions of the last day (_as-sa‘a_), of the appearance of _ad-Dajjal_ and of the beast of the earth [cf. Revelations xiii, 11 ff.] and of _Yajuj_ and _Majuj_ and the descent of Isa from heaven and the rising of the sun in the west, that is verity.

And the Mujtahids sometimes err and sometimes hit the mark. And the Apostles of mankind are more excellent than the Apostles of the angels; and the Apostles of the angels are more excellent than the generality of mankind; and the generality of mankind of the true believers is more excellent than the generality of the angels.

VI

THE CREED CALLED THE SUFFICIENCY OF THE COMMONALTY IN THE SCIENCE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY, BY MUHAMMAD AL-FUDALI [D. FIRST HALF OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY OF THE HIJRA]

[Translated from the Arabic text of Cairo, A.H. 1315, with the commentary of al-Bayjuri.]

In the name of God, the merciful Compassionator. Praise belongeth unto God who alone bringeth into existence, and blessing and peace be upon our Lord Muhammad, his family and companions, possessors of beauty and guidance.

To proceed: The creature who stands in need of the mercy of his exalted Lord, Muhammad ibn ash-Shafi‘i al-Fudali says: One of the brethren asked me that I should compose a tractate on the divine unity (_tawhid_), and I agreed to that, following the example of the most learned Shaykh, as-Sanusi, [d. 895,] in the establishing of proofs, except that I adduced each proof (_dalil_) in connection with the doctrine that was to be proved, and added to it an exposition on account of my knowledge of the limitations of that student. So, in the ascription of praise to God Most High, it became a tractate, useful and excellent for the establishing of that which is in it. And I called it, THE SUFFICIENCY OF THE PEOPLE IN THAT WHICH IS NECESSARY TO THEM OF THE SCIENCE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY (_kalam_). And I pray God Most High that He will make it useful, for He is my sufficiency, and excellent is the Guardian.

Know that it is incumbent upon every Muslim that he should know fifty articles of belief (_aqidas_), and for each article that he should know a proof, general (_ijmali_) or detailed (_tafsili_). Some say that it is required that he should know a detailed proof, but the common opinion is that a general proof suffices for each article of the fifty. An example of a detailed proof is when someone says, “What is the proof of the existence (_wujud_) of God?” that the answer should be, “These created things.” That the asker should then say, “Do the created things prove the existence of God on the side of their possibility or on the side of their existence after non-existence (_adam_)?” and that his question should be answered. And if the further question is not answered, but the only answer is, “These created things,” and the answerer does not know whether it is on the side of their possibility or of their existence after non-existence, then the proof is said to be general; but it is sufficient according to the common position. And with regard to _taqlid_ (blind acceptance), which is that fifty articles are known but no proof of them is known, either general or detailed, the learned differ. Some say that it does not suffice, and that the _mukallad_ (blind accepter) is an unbeliever (_kafir_). Ibn al-Arabi [d. 543] held this and as-Sanusi, and the latter gave in his commentary on his _kubra_ a lengthy refutation of those who hold that _taqlid_ is sufficient. Yet there is a report that he retired from this position, and acknowledged the sufficiency of _taqlid_; but I have never seen in his books anything but the opinion that it does not suffice.

INTRODUCTION

Know that an understanding of the fifty following articles must be based upon three things—the necessary (_wajib_), the impossible (_mustahil_), and the possible (_ja’iz_). The necessary is that the non-existence of which cannot be apprehended by the intellect (_aql_), that is, the intellect cannot affirm its non-existence, as boundary to a body (_jirm_), _i.e._, its taking up a certain measure of space (_faragh_). An example of a body is a tree or a stone. Then, whenever a person says to you, that a tree, for example, does not take up room (_mahall_) in the earth, your intellect cannot affirm that, for its taking up room is a necessary thing, the absence of which your intellect cannot affirm. The impossible is that the existence of which cannot be apprehended; that is, the intellect cannot affirm its existence. Then, whenever anyone says that such a body is bare of motion and rest at the same time, your intellect cannot affirm that, because being bare of motion and rest at the same time is an impossibility, the occurrence and existence of which the intellect cannot affirm, and whenever it is said that weakness (_ajz_) is impossible in God, the meaning is that the occurrence or existence of weakness in God is unthinkable. So, too, with the other impossibilities. And the possible is that the existence of which at one time, and the non-existence at another, the intellect can affirm, as the existence of a child of Zayd’s. When, then, someone says that Zayd has a child, your intellect acknowledges the possibility of the truth of that; and whenever he says that Zayd has no child, your intellect acknowledges the possibility of the truth of that. So the existence and the non-existence of a child of Zayd is possible; the intellect can believe in its existence or in its non-existence. And whenever it is said that God’s sustaining Zayd with a _dinar_ is a possibility, the meaning is that the intellect assents to the existence of that sustaining (_rizq_) at one time and to its non-existence at another.

On these three distinctions, then, is based the science of the articles of belief; and these three are necessary for every _mukallaf_ [one who has a task imposed upon him; in this case of religious duty], male and female, for that upon which the necessary is based is necessary. The Imam al-Haramayn (d. 478) even held that an understanding of these three constituted reason itself and that he who did not know the meaning of necessary, impossible and possible, was not a reasoning being. So, whenever it is said here that Power is necessary (_wajib_) in God, the meaning is that the intellect cannot affirm its non-existence, because the necessary is that the non-existence of which the intellect cannot affirm, as has preceded. But necessary (_wajib_, incumbent) in the sense of that the not doing of which is punished, is an idea which does not enter into the science of the divine Unity. So, do not let the matter be confused for you. It is true that if one says that belief in the Power of God is incumbent (_wajib_) on the _mukallaf_, the meaning is that he is rewarded for that and punished for omitting that. Thus there is a distinction between saying that belief in such and such is incumbent and that the knowledge, for example, is necessary. For when it is said that knowledge is necessary in God, the meaning is that the intellect cannot affirm the non-existence of knowledge in God. But when it is said that belief in that knowledge is incumbent, the meaning is that belief in it is rewarded and lack of belief punished. So, apply thyself to the distinction between the two and be not of those who regard _taqlid_ in the articles of Religion as right, that so your faith (_iman_) should differ from the truth and you should abide in the Fire, according to those who hold that _taqlid_ does not suffice. As-Sanusi said, “A person is not a Believer when he says, ‘I hold by the Articles and will not abandon them though I be cut in pieces;’ nay, he is not a Believer until he knows each Article of the fifty, along with its proof.” And this science of theology must be studied first of all sciences, as may be gathered from the commentary [by at-Taftazani, d. 791] on as-Sanusi’s _Articles_; for he made this science a foundation on which other things are built. So a judgment as to anyone’s ceremonial ablution (_wudu_) or prayer is not valid unless the person in question knows these articles or, on the other hand, holds them without proof.

* * * * *

Now, let us state to you the fifty articles shortly, before stating them in detail. Know, then, that twenty qualities are necessary in God Most High, that twenty are impossible in Him and that one is possible. This makes up forty-one. And in the case of the Apostles, four qualities are necessary, four impossible and one possible. This makes up the fifty. And there shall come an accurate account of doctrines along with the statement of them, if it be the will of God Most High.

The first of the qualities necessary in God is existence (_wujud_); and there is a difference of opinion as to its meaning. All except the Imam al-Ash‘ari and his followers hold that existence is the state (_hal_) necessary to the essence so long as the essence abides; and this state has no cause (_illa_). And the meaning of it being a state is that it does not attain to the degree of an entity (_mawjud_) and does not fall to the degree of a non-entity (_ma‘dum_), so that it should be non-existence pure, but is half way between an entity and a non-entity. So the existence of Zayd, for example, is a state necessary to his essence; that is, it cannot be separated from his essence. And when it is said that it has no cause, the meaning is that it does not originate in anything, as opposed to Zayd’s potentiality (_qadir_, powerful), for example, which originates in his power (_qudra_). So Zayd’s potentiality and his existence are two states which subsist in his essence, unperceived by any of the five senses; only, the first has a cause in which it originates, and it is power, and the second has no cause. This is the description of a personal state (_hal nafsi_) and every state subsisting in an essence, without a cause, is a personal quality (_sifa nafsiya_). It is that without which the essence is unthinkable; that is, the essence cannot be apprehended by the intellect and comprehended except through its personal quality, like limitation for a body. For, if you apprehend and comprehend a body, you have comprehended that it is limited. So, according to this doctrine—that existence is a state—the essence of God is not His existence and the essences of the created things are not their existences. But al-Ash‘ari and his followers hold that existence is the self (_ayn_) of an entity, and according to their view the existence of God is the self of His essence and not an addition to it externally, and the existence of a created thing is the self of its essence. And, on this view, it is not clear how existence can be reckoned as a quality, because existence is the self of the essence, and a quality, on the other hand, as we have seen already, is something else than the essence. But if he makes existence a quality, then the thing is plain and the meaning that existence is necessary in God, according to the first view, is that the personal quality is a state established in God; and its meaning, on the second view, is that the essence of God is an entity with external reality, so that if the veil were removed from us we would see it. The essence of God, then, is a reality; only, its existence is something else than it, on the one view, and is it, on the other.

And the proof of the existence of God is the origin (_huduth_) of the world; that is, its existence after non-existence. The world consists of bodies (_jirms_) like essences; and accidents (_arads_) like motion, and rest and colors. And the origin of the world is a proof of the existence of God only because it is not sound reasoning that it should originate through itself without someone bringing it into existence. Before it existed, its existence equalled its non-existence; then, when it entered existence and its non-existence ceased, we know that its existence overbalanced its non-existence. But this existence had previously equalled the non-existence; and it is not sound reasoning that it could overbalance the non-existence through itself; so that it is clear that there must have been one who caused the overbalancing, other than itself, and it is He that brought it into existence; for it is impossible that one of two equal things could overbalance the other without an overbalancer. For example, before Zayd exists it is possible that he may come into existence in such and such a year and also that he may remain in non-existence. So, his existence is equal to his non-existence. So, then, when he exists and his non-existence ceases, in the time in which he exists, we know that his existence is by a bringer-into-existence and not through himself. The proof, in short, is that you say:—The world, consisting of bodies and accidents, is a thing originated (_hadith_), _i.e._, an entity after non-existence. And every originated thing cannot help but have an originator (_muhdith_). Therefore, the world must have had an originator.

This is what can be gained by an intellectual proof. But as for the Originator being named by the Glorious and Lofty Expression [_i.e._, _Allah_, God] or the other Names (_asma_), knowledge of that is to be gained from the Prophets only. So note this point carefully and also the proof which has preceded, that the originating of the world is a proof of the existence of Him Most High.

But as for the proof that the world has had an origin, know that the world consists of bodies and accidents only, as has preceded. And the accidents, like motion and rest, are originated, because you observe their changing from existence to non-existence and from non-existence to existence. You see it is so in the motion of Zayd. His motion is lacking if he is at rest; and his rest is lacking if he is in motion. Then his rest, which comes after his motion, exists after that it has been lacking through motion; and his motion, which comes after his rest, exists after that it has been lacking through his rest. And existence after non-existence means having an origin. And bodies are inseparable from attributes, because they are never free from either motion or rest. And whatever is inseparable from a thing having origin must have origin; _i.e._, must be an entity after non-existence. So, the bodies are originated also, like the attributes. The proof, in short, is that you say: Bodies are inseparable from attributes and these have an origin; everything that is inseparable from that which has an origin, itself has an origin; therefore, bodies have an origin. And the origin of the two things—bodies and attributes—that is their existence after non-existence, is a proof of the existence of Him Most High, because everything having an origin must have an originator, and there is no originator of the world save God Most High alone, who has no partner (_sharik_) as shall be shown in the proof of His Unity. This, then, is the general proof, a knowledge of which is incumbent upon every _mukallaf_, male and female, according to the opinion of Ibn al-Arabi and as-Sanusi, who hold those who do not know it to be unbelievers. So, beware lest there be a contradiction in your faith.

The second Quality necessary in God is Priority (_qidam_); its meaning is lack of beginning. And the meaning of God’s being Prior (_qadim_) is that there was no beginning to His existence, as opposed to Zayd, for example. Zayd’s existence had a beginning and it was the creation from the drop from which he was created. And there is a difference of opinion whether Prior and _Azali_ (eternal with respect to past time) mean the same or not. Those who hold that they mean the same, define them as that which has no beginning, and explain “that which” by thing (_shay_). That is, prior and _azali_ are the thing which has no beginning; so the essence of God and His qualities are included. And those who hold that their meaning is different define prior as the entity which had no beginning and _azali_ as that which had no beginning, covering thus both entity and non-entity. So _azali_ is broader than prior, but they both come together in the essence of God and His existential qualities. The essence of God is _azali_ and His Power (_qudra_) is _azali_. But only _azali_ is said of the states (_hals_) like God’s being powerful, in accordance with the doctrine of the states. For God’s being powerful is called _azali_, in accordance with that doctrine, and is not called prior, because in prior there must be existence, and “being powerful” does not rise to the level of existence [to being an entity], but is only a state (_hal_).

And the proof of God’s Priority is that if He were not Prior He would be a thing originated (_hadith_), because there is no medium between the prior and the thing originated; to everything of which priority is denied, origin belongs. But if God were a thing originated, He would need an originator, and His originator would need an originator, and so on. Then, if the originators did not coincide, there would be the Endless Chain (_tasalsul_), that is a sequence of things, one after another to infinity; and the Endless Chain is impossible. And if the series of originators comes to an end by it being said that the originator of God was originated by Him, then we have the Circle (_dawr_) and it is that one thing depends on another thing which again depends on the first. For if God had an originator, He would depend on this originator; but the hypothesis is that God originated this originator and so the originator depends on Him. But the Circle is impossible; that is, its existence is unthinkable. And that which leads to the Circle and to the Chain, both being impossible, involves the originating of God. So, the originating of God is impossible; for what involves an impossibility is impossible. The proof, in short, is that you say, “If God were other than Prior, through being a thing originated, He would have need of an originator. Then the Circle or the Chain would be unavoidable; but they are both impossible. So, the originating of God is impossible and His Priority is established; and that is what has been sought.” This is the general proof of the Priority of God, and by it the _mukallaf_ escapes from the noose of _taqlid_, the remainer in which will abide eternally in the Fire, according to the opinion of Ibn al-Arabi and as-Sanusi, as has preceded.

The third Quality necessary in God is Continuance (_baqa_). The meaning of it is lack of termination of the existence; and the meaning of God’s being continuing is that there is no end to His existence. And the proof of God’s continuance is that if it were possible that any lack could be joined to Him, then He would be a thing originated and would need an originator and then the Circle or the Chain would necessarily follow. A definition of each one of these two has preceded in the proof of Priority and in the explanation that to a thing with which non-existence is possible, priority must be denied. For the existence of everyone to whom non-existence is joined is possible, and everything whose existence is possible is a thing originated, and everything originated requires an originator. But Priority has been established for God by the preceding proof, and non-existence is impossible for everything for which Priority has been established. So the proof of Continuance in God is the same as the proof of Priority. That proof, in short, is that you say, “If Continuance is not necessary in Him, then Priority must be negated of Him. But Priority cannot be negated on account of the preceding proof.” This is the general proof of Continuance, a knowledge of which is incumbent on every individual. And similarly a knowledge of every article is necessary and of its general proof. Then, if some of the articles are known with their proofs, and the rest are not known with their proofs, that is not sufficient according to the opinion of those who do not regard _taqlid_ as sufficient.

The fourth Quality necessary in God is difference (_mukhalafa_) from originated things. That is, from created things (_makhluqat_), for God is different from every created thing, men, Jinn, angels and the rest; and it is not good that He should be described with the descriptions which apply to created things, as walking, sitting, having members of the body, for He is far removed (_munazzah_) from members of the body, as mouth, eye, ear and the like. Then, from everything that is in your mind of length and breadth and shortness and fatness, God is different; He has removed Himself far from all descriptions which apply to the creation. And the proof of the necessity of this difference in God is that if any originated thing resembled Him, that is, if it were laid down that God could be described with any of the things with which an originated thing is described, then He would be an originated thing. And if God were an originated thing, then He would need an originator, and His originator, another originator, and so we would come necessarily to the circle or the chain, and both of these are impossible. This proof, in short, is that you say, “If God resembles a created thing in anything, He is an originated thing, because what is possible in one of two things resembling each other, is possible in the other. But that God should be originated is impossible, for priority is necessary in Him. And when being originated is denied in Him, His difference from created things stands fast and there is absolutely no resemblance between Him and the originated things.” This is the general proof, the knowledge of which is necessary, as has preceded.

The fifth Quality necessary in God is self-subsistence (_qiyam bin-nafs_). That is in the essence; and its meaning is that there is independence of a _locus_ (_mahall_, subject) and a specifier (_mukhassis_). The _locus_ is the essence and the specifier is the bringer-into-existence (_mujid_); then the meaning of God’s subsisting in Himself is that He is independent of an essence in which He may subsist, or of a bringer-into-existence; for He is the bringer-into-existence of all things. The proof that He subsists in Himself is that you say, “If God had need of a _locus_, that is an essence, in which He might subsist, as whiteness has need of an essence in which it may subsist, He would be a quality, as whiteness, for example, is a quality. But it is not sound to say of Him that He is a quality, for He is described by qualities, and a quality is not described by qualities, so He is not a quality. And if He had need of a bringer-into-existence, He would be an originated thing, and His originator would be an originated thing also, and the Circle or the Chain would necessarily follow. Then it stands fast that He is the absolutely independent, that is, He is independent of everything. But the created thing that is independent is independent in a limited sense only; that is, of one thing in place of another. And may God rule thy guidance.”

The sixth Quality in God is Unity (_wahdaniya_). It is unity in essence and qualities and acts in the sense of absence of multiplicity. And the meaning of God’s being one in His essence is that His essence is not compounded of parts, and this compounding is called internal quantity (_kamm muttasil_). And in the sense that there is not in existence or in possibility an essence which resembles the essence of God, this impossibility of resemblance is called external quantity (_kamm munfasil_). The unity, then, in the essence denies both quantities, external and internal. And the meaning of God’s Oneness in qualities is that He has not two qualities agreeing in name and meaning, like two Powers, or two Knowledges or two Wills—for He has only one Power and one Will and one Knowledge, in opposition to Abu Sahl, who held that He had knowledges to the number of the things known. And this, I mean multiplicity in qualities, is called internal quantity in qualities. Or the sense is, that no one has a quality resembling a quality of God. And this, I mean anyone possessing a quality, etc., is called external quantity in qualities. Oneness, then, in qualities, negates quantity in them, internal and external. And the meaning of God’s Oneness in acts is that no created thing possesses an act, for God is the creator of the acts of created things, prophets, angels and the rest. And as for what happens when an individual dies or falls into pain on opposing himself to a saint (_wali_), that is by the creation of God, who creates it when the saint is angry with the man who opposes him. Do not then explain Oneness in acts by saying that no other than God has an act like God’s act, for that involves that some other than God has an act, but that it is not like the act of God. That is false. God it is who is the creator of all acts. What comes from you by way of movement of the hand, when you strike Zayd, for example, is by the creation of God. He has said (Qur. 37, 99), “God created you, and what do ye do?” And another than God being possessor of an act is called external quantity in acts.

So the unity necessary in God denies the five impossible quantities. Internal quantity in the essence makes the essence a compound of parts; external quantity means that there is an essence which resembles it. Internal quantity in the qualities is that God has two Powers, for example; external quantity in them means that someone else has a quality which resembles one of His qualities. External quantity in acts means that some other than God possesses an act. These five quantities deny the unity necessary in God. The meaning of quantity is number (_adad_).

The proof that Unity is necessary in God is the existence of the world. If God had a partner (_sharik_) in divinity (_uluhiya_), the case could not be in doubt. Either they would agree on the existence of the world, in that one of them would say, “I will cause the world to exist,” and the other would say, “I will cause it to exist along with thee, that we may help one another in it.” Or they would disagree, and one of them would say, “I will cause the world to exist by my power,” and the other, “I will that the existence be lacking.” Then, if they agreed upon the existence of the world in that both of them together caused it to exist, and it existed through their action, that would necessarily involve the coincidence of two impressors upon one impression, which is impossible. And if they disagreed, it is plain that the will of one either would be carried out or it would not be carried out. If the will of one, rather than the other, is carried out, then the other whose will is not carried out must be weaker. But our hypothesis was that he was equal in divinity to the one whose will was carried out. So whenever weakness is established in the case of the one, it is established in the case of the other, for he is like the other. And if the wills of both are not carried out, they are both weak. And upon every alternative, that they agree or differ, the existence of a single thing of the world is impossible; because if they agree on its existence, there necessarily follows the coincidence of two impressors upon one impression if their will is carried out, and that is impossible. So the carrying out of their will is not affected, and it is not possible that a single thing of the world should come into existence then. And if they disagree and the will of one of them is carried out, the other is weak. But he is his like. So it is not possible that there should come into existence a single thing of this world, for he is weak. So _the_ God is not except one. And if they differ and their will is not carried out, they are weak and not able to cause the existence of a thing of the world. But the world exists, by common witness (_mushahada_). So it stands fast that _the_ God is one; and that was what was sought. So the existence of the world is proof of the Unity of God and that He has no partner in any act, and no second cause in an action. He is the independent (_al-Ghani_), the absolutely independent.

And from this proof it may be known that there is no impression, by fire or a knife or eating, upon anything, consisting of burning or cutting or satiety, but God makes the being burnt in a thing which fire touches, when it touches it, and being cut in a thing with which a knife is brought into contact, when it is brought into contact with it, and satiety at eating and satisfaction at drinking. And he who holds that fire burns by its nature (_tab_), and water satisfies by its nature, and so on, is an unbeliever (_kafir_) by agreement (_ijma_). And he who holds that it burns by a power (_quwa_) created in it by God, is ignorant and corrupt, because he knows not the true nature (_haqiqa_) of Unity.

This is the general proof a knowledge of which is incumbent upon every individual, male and female: and he who knows it not is an unbeliever, according to as-Sanusi and al-Arabi. And may God rule thy guidance.

And Priority and Continuance and Difference from originated things and Self-Subsistence and Unity are negative qualities (_sifat salabiya_), that is, their meaning is negation and exclusion, for each of them excludes from God what does not beseem Him.

The seventh Quality necessary in God is Power (_qudra_). It is a quality which makes an impression on a thing that is capable of existence or non-existence. So it comes into connection (_ta‘allaqa_) with a non-entity and makes it an entity, as it came into connection with you before you existed. And it comes into connection with an entity and reduces it to a non-entity, as it comes into contact with a body which God desires should become a non-entity, that is, a not-thing (_la shay_). This connection is called accomplished (_tanjizi_) in the sense that it is actual (_bil-fi‘l_), and this accomplished connection is a thing that takes place (_hadith_). But this quality has also an eternal, potential connection (_saluhi qadim_), and it is its potentiality from eternity of bringing into existence. It is potential in eternity to make Zayd tall or short or broad, or give him knowledge; but its accomplished connection is conditioned by the state in which Zayd is. So it has two connections; one eternal, potential, which has been described, and one accomplished, happening. The last is its connection with a non-entity, when it makes it an entity; and with an entity, when it makes it a non-entity. And this, I mean its connection with an entity or a non-entity, is a real (_haqiqi_) connection. But it has also a figurative (_majazi_) connection. That is, its connection with an entity after it has become so and before it has become a non-entity, as it is connected with us after we have come to exist and before we have ceased to exist. It is called the connection of grasping (_ta‘alluqu-l-qabdati_) in the sense that the entity is in the grasp (_qabda_) of the Power of God. If God will, He makes it remain an entity; and if He will, He reduces it to non-entity. And its connection with the non-entity before that God wills its existence is like its connection with Zayd at the time of the Flood (_tufan_), for example; it also is a connection of grasping in the sense that the non-entity is in the grasp of the Power of God. If God wills, He makes it remain in non-existence, and if He wills, He brings it out into existence. And similar is its connection with us after our death and before the resurrection (_ba‘th_). It, too, is called a connection of grasping in the sense of what has preceded. So the quality of Power has seven connections: (1) eternal, (2) connection of grasping (that is, its connection with us before God wills our existence), (3) actual connection (that is, God’s bringing the thing into existence), (4) connection of grasping (that is, connection with a thing after existence and before God has willed non-existence), (5) actual connection (that is, God’s making a thing a non-entity), (6) connection of grasping after non-existence and before the resurrection, (7) actual connection (that is, God’s making us exist on the day of resurrection).

But the real connections of these are two; God’s bringing into existence and bringing into non-existence. This is a detailed statement; and a general statement would be that God’s Power has two connections—as is commonly accepted—a potential and an accomplished; but the accomplished is limited to actual bringing into existence and non-existence. And the connection of grasping is not to be described as accomplished, nor as eternal. And what has preceded about this quality connecting with existence and non-existence is the opinion of the multitude on the subject. But some hold that it does not connect with non-existence; that whenever God desires the non-existence of an individual, He takes away from him the aids (_imdadat_) which are the cause of his continuance.

The eighth Quality necessary in God is Will (_irada_). It is the quality which specifies the possible with one of the things possible to it. For example, tallness and shortness are possible to Zayd; then Will specifies him with one,—tallness, say. Power brings tallness out of non-existence into existence. So Will specifies and Power brings out. And the possibilities (_mumkinat_) with which Power and Will connect are six: (1) existence, (2) non-existence, (3) qualities, like tallness and shortness, (4) times, (5) places, (6) directions.

And the possibilities are called “the mutual opposers” (_mutaqabilat_), existence opposes non-existence and tallness opposes shortness and direction upward opposes direction downward, and one place, like Egypt, opposes another place, like Syria. And this, in short, means that it is possible in the case of Zayd, for example, that he should remain in non-existence and also that he should enter existence at this time. Then, whenever he enters existence, Will has specified existence instead of non-existence, and Power has brought out existence. And it would have been possible that he might have entered existence at the time of the Flood (_tufan_) or at some other time; so that which specifies his existence at this time instead of any other is Will. And it is possible that he should be tall or short; then that which specifies his tallness instead of shortness is Will. And it is possible that he should be in the direction upward, then that which specifies him in the direction downward is Will. And Power and Will are two qualities subsisting in God’s essence—two entities; if the veil were removed from us we could see them. They have connection with the possible only; but none with the impossible, such as a partner for God. He is far removed from that! Nor with the necessary, like the essence of God and His qualities. Ignorance is the saying of those who hold that God has power to take a son (_walad_); for Power has no connection with the impossible and taking a son is impossible. But it should not be said that because He has no power to take a son, He is therefore weak. We say that weakness would follow only if the impossible were of that which is allotted to Power. But Power has not been connected with that, seeing that nothing is allotted to it except the possible. And Will has two connections, one eternally potential, and it is its potentiality to specify from all eternity. So, in the case of the tall or the short Zayd, it is possible that he might be otherwise than what he is, so far as relationship to the potentiality of Will is concerned. For Will is potential that Zayd should be a Sultan or a scavenger, so far as the potential connection is concerned. And Will has also an eternal accomplished connection, and it is the specifying by God of a thing with a quality which it possesses. So God specified Zayd from all eternity by His Will with the knowledge that he possesses. And his being specified with knowledge, for example, is eternal and is called an eternal accomplished connection. And the potentiality of Will to specify him with knowledge, etc., in relationship to the essence of Will, cutting off all consideration of actual specifying, is called an eternal potential connection. And some say that Will has also a temporal, accomplished connection. It is, for example, the specifying of Zayd with tallness, when he is actually brought into existence. According to this view, Will has three connections; but the truth is that this third is not a connection but is the making manifest of the eternal, accomplished connection.

And the connection of Power and Will is common to every possible thing to the extent that the affections of the mind (_khatarat_) which arise in the mind of an individual are specified by the Will of God and created by His Power as the Shaykh al-Malawi [Ahmad al-Malawi, d. 1181] has said in some of his books. But know that the attributing of specifying to Will and of bringing out into existence to Power is only metaphorical; for the true specifier is God by His Will and the true producer and bringer-into-existence is God by His Power. Then, in the case of the saying of the common people that Power does such and such to so and so, if it is meant that the doing belongs to Power actually, or to it and to the essence of God, that is unbelief (_kufr_). Rather, the doing belongs to the essence of God by His Power.

The ninth Quality necessary in God is Knowledge (_ilm_). It is an eternal quality subsisting in the essence of God, an entity by which what is known is revealed with a revealing of the nature of complete comprehension (_ihata_), without any concealment having preceded. It is connected with the necessary, the possible and the impossible. He knows His own essence and qualities by His Knowledge. And He knows impossibilities in the sense that He knows that a partner is impossible to Him and that, if one existed, corruption would accrue from it. And Knowledge has an eternal, accomplished connection only. For God knows these things that have been mentioned from all eternity with a complete knowledge that is not by way of opinion (_zann_) or doubt (_shakk_); because opinion and doubt are impossibilities in God. And the meaning of the saying, “without any concealment having preceded,” is that He knows things eternally; He is not first ignorant of them and then knowing them. But an originated being (_hadith_) is ignorant of a thing and then knows it. And God’s Knowledge has no potential connection in the sense that there is a potentiality that such and such should be revealed by it, because that involves that the thing in question has not been actually revealed, and lack of actual revealing of it is ignorance.

The tenth Quality necessary in God is Life (_hayah_). It is a quality which in him in whom it subsists validates perception, as knowledge and hearing and seeing: that is, it is valid that he should be described therewith. But being characterized by actual perception does not necessarily follow from possessing the quality, Life. And it is not connected with anything, entity or non-entity.

The proof that Knowledge and Power and Will and Life are necessary is the existence of the created things. Because, if any one of these four is denied, why does the created world exist? So, since the created things exist, we know that God is to be described by these qualities. And the reason of the existence of the created things depending on these four is this. He who makes a thing does not make it except when he knows the thing. Then he wills the thing which he would make and, after his willing, he busies himself with making it by his power. Further, it is known that the maker cannot but be living. And Knowledge and Will and Power are called qualities of impression (_sifat at-ta’thir_), for making an impression depends upon them. Because he who wills a thing must have knowledge of it before he aims at it; then, after he has aimed at it, he busies himself with doing it. For example, when there is something in your house and you wish to take it, your knowledge precedes your wish to take it, and after your wish to take it, you take it actually. The connection of these qualities, then, is in a certain order, in the case of an originated being; first comes the knowledge of the thing, then the aiming at it, then the doing. But in the case of God, on the other hand, there is no sequence in His qualities, except in our comprehension; in that, Knowledge comes first, then Will, then Power. But as for the making of an impression externally, there is no sequence in the qualities of God. It is not said that Knowledge comes into actual connection, then Will, then Power; because all that belongs to originated beings. Order is only according to our comprehensions.

The eleventh and twelfth Qualities of God are Hearing (_sam_) and Seeing (_basar_). These are two qualities subsisting in the essence of God and connected with every entity; that is, by them is revealed every entity, necessary or possible. And Hearing and Seeing are connected with the essence of God and His qualities; that is, His essence and qualities are revealed to Him by His Seeing and Hearing, besides the revealing of His Knowledge. And God hears the essences of Zayd and Amr and a wall and He sees them. And He hears the sound of the possessor of a sound and He sees it, that is the sound. Then, if you say, “Hearing a sound is plain, but hearing the essence of Zayd and the essence of a wall is not plain; so, too, the connection of seeing with sounds, for sounds are heard only,” we reply, “Belief in this is incumbent upon us because these two qualities are connected with every entity; but the _how_ (_kayfiya_) of the connection is unknown to us. God hears the essence of Zayd, but we do not know how hearing is connected with that essence. And it is not meant that He hears the walking of the essence of Zayd, for the hearing of his walking enters into the hearing of all the sounds (_sawt_), but what is meant is that He hears the essence of Zayd and his body (_juththa_), besides hearing his walking. But we do not know how the hearing of God is connected with the person (_nafs_) of the essence. This is what is binding upon every individual, male and female—Our trust is in God!”

The proof of Hearing and Seeing is the saying of God that He is a Hearer and Seer. And know that the connection of Hearing and Seeing in relation to originated things is an eternal, potential connection before the existence of these, and after their existence it is a temporal, accomplished connection. That is, after their existence, they are revealed to God by His Hearing and Seeing besides the revealing of His Knowledge. So they have two connections. And in relation to God and His qualities, the connection is eternal, accomplished, in the sense that His essence and His qualities are revealed to Him from all eternity through His Hearing and Seeing. So, God hears His essence and all His existential qualities [all except the states and the negative qualities], Power, Hearing, and all the rest; but we do not know how the connection is, and He sees His essence and His qualities of existence, Power, Seeing and the rest, but again we do not know how the connection is. The preceding statement that Hearing and Seeing are connected with every entity is the opinion of as-Sanusi and those who follow him; it is the preponderating one. But it is said, also, that Hearing is only connected with sounds and Seeing with objects of vision. And God’s Hearing is not with ear or ear-hole, and His Seeing is not with eyeball or eyelid.

The thirteenth Quality of God is Speech (_kalam_). It is an eternal quality, subsisting in God’s essence, not a word or sound, and far removed from order of preceding and following, from inflection and structure, opposed to the speech of originated beings. And by the Speech that is necessary to God is not meant the Glorious Expressions (_lafz_) revealed to the Prophet, because these are originated and the quality that subsists in the essence of God is eternal. And these embrace preceding and following, inflection and chapters and verses; but the eternal quality is bare of all these things. It has no verses or chapters or inflections, because such belong to the speech which embraces letters and sounds, and the eternal quality is far removed from letters and sounds, as has preceded. And those Glorious Expressions are not a guide to the eternal quality in the sense that the eternal quality can be understood from them. What is understood from these expressions equals what would be understood from the eternal quality if the veil were removed from us and we could hear it. In short, these expressions are a guide to its meaning, and this meaning equals what would be understood from the eternal Speech which subsists in the essence of God. So meditate this distinction, for many have erred in it. And both the Glorious Expressions and the eternal quality are called Qur’an and the Word (_kalam_) of God. But the Glorious Expressions are created and written on the Preserved Tablet (_al-lawh-al-mahfuz_); Jibril brought them down [_i.e._, revealed them] to the Prophet after that they had been brought down in the Night of Decree (_laylatu-l-qadr_; Qur. 97, 1) to the Mighty House (_baytu-l-izza_), a place in the Heaven nearest to the earth; it was written in books (_sahifas_) and placed in the Mighty House. It is said that it was brought down to the Mighty House all at once and then brought down to the Prophet in twenty years, and some say, in twenty-five. And it is also said that it was brought down to the Mighty House only to the amount that was to be revealed each year and not all at once.

And that which was brought down to the Prophet was expression and meaning. And it is said also that only the meaning was brought down to him. There is a conflict of opinion on this; some say that the Prophet clothed the meaning with expressions of his own, and others, that he who so clothed the meaning, was Jibril. But the truth is that it was sent down in expressions and meaning. In short, the quality subsisting in the essence of God is not a letter nor a sound. And the Mu‘tazilites called in doubt the existence of a kind of Speech without letters. But the People of the Sunna answered that because thoughts in the mind (_hadith an-nafs_), a kind of speech with which an individual speaks to himself, are without letter or sound, there exists a kind of speech without letters or words. By this the People of the Sunna do not wish to institute a comparison between the Speech of God and thoughts in the mind; for the Speech of God is eternal and thoughts in the mind are originated. They wished to disprove the contention of the Mu‘tazilites when they urged that speech cannot exist without letter or sound.

The proof of the necessity of Speech in God is His saying (Qur. 4, 162); “and God spoke to Moses.” So He has established Speech for Himself. And Speech connects with that with which Knowledge connects, of necessary and possible and impossible. But the connection of Knowledge with these is a connection of revealing, in the sense that they are revealed to God by His Knowledge; and the connection of Speech with them is a connection of proof, in the sense that if the veil were taken away from us and we heard the eternal Speech we would understand these things from it.

The fourteenth Quality subsisting in God is Being Powerful (_kawn qadir_). It is a Quality subsisting in His essence, not an entity and not a non-entity. It is not Power, but between it and Power is a reciprocal inseparability. When Power exists in an essence, the quality called “Being Powerful” exists in that essence, equally whether that essence is eternal or originated. So, God creates in the essence of Zayd Power actual, and He creates also in it the quality called Zayd’s Being Powerful. This quality is called a state (_hal_) and Power is a cause (_illa_) in it in the case of created things. But in the case of God, Power is not said to be a cause in His Being Powerful; it is only said that between Power and God’s Being Powerful there is a reciprocal inseparability. The Mu‘tazilites hold also the reciprocal inseparability between the Power of an originated being and its Being Powerful. But they do not say that the second quality is by the creation of God, only that when God creates Power in an originated being, there proceeds from the Power a quality called Being Powerful, without creation.

The Fifteenth Quality necessary in God is Being a Willer (_kawn murid_). It is a quality subsisting in His essence, not an entity and not a non-entity. It is called a state (_hal_) and it is not Will, equally whether the essence is eternal or created. So, God creates in the essence of Zayd Will actual, and He creates in it the quality called Zayd’s Being a Willer. And what is said above, about the disagreement between the Mu‘tazilites and the People of the Sunna on Being Powerful, applies also to Being a Willer.

[The same thing applies exactly to Qualities Sixteen, Seventeen, Eighteen, Nineteen and Twenty,—Being a Knower (_alim_), a Living One (_hayy_), a Hearer (_sami_), a Seer (_basir_), a Speaker (_mutakallim_).]

NOTICE. The Qualities, Power, Will, Knowledge, Life, Hearing, Seeing, Speech, which have preceded, are called, “Qualities consisting of ideas” (_sifat al-ma‘ani_, thought-qualities as opposed to active qualities; see below); on account of the connection of the general with the particular (_idafatu-l-amm lil-khass_), or the explanatory connection (_al-idafatu-l-bayaniya_). And those which follow these, God’s Being Powerful, etc., are called “Qualities _derived_ from ideas” (_sifat ma‘nawiya_), by way of derivation (_nisba_) from the “Qualities consisting of ideas,” because they are inseparable from them in a thing eternal and proceed from them in a thing originated, according to what has preceded.

And the Mataridites added to the “Qualities consisting of Ideas,” an Eighth Quality and called it, Making to Be (_takwin_). It is a quality and an entity like the rest of the “Qualities consisting of Ideas”; if the veil were removed from us we would see it, just as we would see the other “Qualities consisting of Ideas” if the veil were removed from us. But the Ash‘arites opposed them and urged that there was no advantage in having a quality, Making to Be, besides Power, because the Mataridites said that God brought into existence and out of existence by the quality of Making to Be. Then these replied that Power prepared the possibility for existence, that is, made it ready to receive existence after it had not been ready; that thereafter Making to Be brought it into existence actually. The Ash‘arites replied that the possible was ready for existence without anything further. And on account of their having added this quality, they said that the active qualities (_sifat al-af‘al_), such as Creating (_khalq_), Bringing to Life (_ihya_), Sustaining (_razq_), Bringing to Death (_imata_), were eternal, because these expressions are names of the quality Making to Be, which is a quality and an entity, according to them. But it is eternal; therefore these active qualities are eternal. But according to the Ash‘arites, the active qualities are originated, because they are only names of the connections of Power. So Bringing to Life is a name for the connection of Power with Life, and Sustaining is a name for the connection of Power with the creature to be sustained, and Creating is a name for its connection with the thing to be created, and Bringing to Death, a name for its connection with death. And the connections of Power, according to them, are originated.

And among the Fifty Articles are twenty which express the opposites of the twenty above. They are Non-existence, the opposite to Existence.

The Second, Origin (_huduth_), is the opposite of Priority.

The Third, Transitoriness (_fana_), is the opposite of Continuance.

The Fourth, Resemblance (_mumathala_), is the opposite of Difference. It is impossible that God should resemble originated things in any of those things with which they are described; time has no effect upon Him and He has not a place or movement or rest; and He is not described with colors or with a direction; it is not said with regard to Him that He is above such a body, or on the right of such a body. And He has no direction from Him. So it is not said, “I am under God.” And the saying of the commonalty, “I am under our Lord,” and “My Lord is over me,” is to be disapproved. Unbelief is to be feared on the part of him who holds the use of it to be an article of his faith.

The Fifth is having need of a _locus_ (_ihtiyaj ila mahall_), that is, an essence in which He may subsist, or a Specifier, that is a bringer-into-existence. This is the opposite of Self-subsistence.

The Sixth is Multiplicity (_ta‘addud_), in the sense of combination in the essence or the qualities, or the existence of a being similar in essence or qualities or acts. This is the opposite of Unity.

The Seventh is Weakness (_ajz_) and it is the opposite of Power. So, being unequal to any possibility is impossible in God.

The Eighth is Unwillingness (_karaha_, lit. dislike). It is the opposite of Will, and it is impossible in God that He should bring into existence anything of the world, along with Unwillingness toward it, that is, lack of Will. Entities are possibilities which God brought into existence by His Will and Choice (_ikhtiyar_). And it is derived from the necessity of Will in God, that the existence of created things is not through causation (_ta‘lil_), or by way of nature (_tab_). And the difference between the two is that the entity which exists through causation is whatever exists whenever its cause exists, without dependence on another thing. The movement of the finger is the cause of the movement of the ring; when the one exists, the second exists, without dependence on anything else. And the entity which exists, by way of nature, depends upon a condition and upon the nullifying of a hindrance. So, fire does not burn except on the condition of contact with wood and the nullifying of moistness which is the hindrance of its burning. For fire burns by its nature according to those who hold the doctrine of nature—Whom may God curse!—But the truth is, that God creates the being burned in the wood when it is in contact with the fire, just as He creates the movement of the ring when movement of the finger exists. And there is no such thing as existence through causation or nature. So it is an impossibility in God that there should be a cause in the world which proceeds from Him without His choice, or that there should be a course of nature and that the world should exist thereby.

The Ninth is Ignorance (_jahl_). Ignorance of any possible thing is impossible in God, equally whether it is simple, that is, lack of knowledge of a thing; or compound, that is, perception of a thing as different from what it really is. And Inattention (_ghafala_) and Neglect (_dhuhul_) are impossible in God. This is the opposite of Knowledge.

The Tenth is Death (_mawt_). It is the opposite of Life.

The Eleventh is Deafness (_samam_). It is the opposite of Hearing.

The Twelfth is Blindness (_ama_). It is the opposite of Seeing.

The Thirteenth is Dumbness (_kharas_). In it is the idea of Silence (_bakam_) and it is the opposite of Speech.

The Fourteenth is God’s Being Weak (_kawn ajiz_). It is the opposite of His Being Powerful.

The Fifteenth is His Being an Unwilling One (_kawn karih_). It is the opposite of His Being a Willer.

The Sixteenth is His Being an Ignorant One (_kawn jahil_). It is the opposite of His Being a Knower.

The Seventeenth is His Being a Dead One (_kawn mayyit_). It is the opposite of His Being a Living One.

The Eighteenth is His Being Deaf (_asamm_). It is the opposite of His Being a Hearer.

The Nineteenth is His Being Blind (_a‘ma_). It is the opposite of His Being a Seer.

The Twentieth is His Being Silent (_abkam_). In it is the idea of Dumbness (_kharas_) and it is the opposite of His Being a Speaker.

All these twenty are impossible in God. And know that the proof of each one of the twenty qualities necessary in God establishes the existence of that quality in Him and denies to Him its opposite. And the proofs of the seven thought-qualities are proofs of the seven derived from these. Thus, there are Forty Articles; twenty of them are necessary in God; twenty are denied in Him; and there are twenty general proofs, each proof establishing a quality and annulling its opposite.

NOTICE. Some say that things are four, entities, non-entities, states and relations (_i‘tibarat_). The entities are like the essence of Zayd which we see; the non-entities are like your child before it is created; the states are like Being Powerful; and so, too, the relations, like the establishing of standing in Zayd. This—I mean that things are four—is the view which as-Sanusi follows in his _Sughra_, for he asserts in it the existence of states and makes the necessary qualities to be twenty. But elsewhere, he follows the opinion which denies states, and that is the right view.

According to that view, the Qualities are thirteen in number, because the seven derived qualities—God’s Being Powerful, etc., drop out. God has no quality called Being Powerful, because the right view is denial that states are things. According to this, then, things are three:—entities, non-entities and relations. Then when the seven derived qualities drop out from the twenty necessary qualities, seven drop also from the opposites, and there is no quality called, Being Weak, etc., and there is no need to number these among the impossibilities. So, the impossibilities are thirteen also; at least, if existence is reckoned as a quality. That it should be is the opinion of all except al-Ash‘ari. But the opinion of al-Ash‘ari was that Existence is the self (_ayn_) of an entity. So, the existence of God is the self of His essence and not a quality. The necessary qualities, on that view, are twelve. Priority and Continuance and Difference and Self-subsistence—expressed also as Absolute Independence—and Unity and Power and Will and Knowledge and Life and Hearing and Seeing and Speech; and the derived qualities drop out, because their existence is based upon the view that there are things called states; but the right view is the opposite.

And if you wish to instruct the commonalty in the qualities of God, then state them as names (_asma_) derived from the qualities just mentioned. So it is said that God is an Entity. Prior, Different from originated things, Independent of everything, One, Powerful, a Willer, a Knower, Living, a Hearer, a Seer, a Speaker. And they should know their opposites.

And know that some of the Shaykhs distinguish between states and relationships and say of both that they are not entities and also not non-entities. But each has a reality in itself, except that a state has a connection with and a subsistence in an essence, and a relation has no connection with an essence. And it is said that a relation has a reality outside of the mind. But to this it is opposed that a relation is a quality, and if it has no connection with an essence and has a reality outside of the mind, where is the thing qualified by it? A quality does not subsist in itself, but must needs have a thing which it qualifies. So the truth is that relations have no reality except in the mind. And they are of two kinds; the invented relation (_i‘tibara ikhtira‘i_), it is that which has no ground in existence, as your making a generous man niggardly; and second, the apprehended relation (_intiza‘i_, claiming), it is that which has ground outside of your mind, as asserting the subsistence of Zayd, for that may be claimed from your saying, “Zayd subsists”; so the describing of Zayd as subsisting is existent outside of your mind.

The forty-first Article is Possibility in the case of God. It is incumbent upon every _mukallaf_ that he should believe that it is possible for God to create good and evil, to create Islam in Zayd and unbelief in Amr, knowledge in one of them and ignorance in the other. And another of the things, belief in which is incumbent upon every _mukallaf_, is that the good and the bad of things is by Destiny (_qada_) and Decree (_qadar_). And there is a difference of opinion as to the meaning of destiny and decree. It is said that destiny is the will of God and the eternal (_azali_) connection of that will; and decree is God’s bringing into existence the thing in agreement with the will. So the Will of God which is connected eternally with your becoming a learned man or a Sultan is destiny; and the bringing knowledge into existence in you, after your existence, or the Sultanship, in agreement with the Will, is decree. And it is said that destiny is God’s eternal knowledge and its connection with the thing known; and decree is God’s bringing things into existence in agreement with His knowledge. So, God’s knowing that which is connected eternally with a person’s becoming a learned man after he enters existence is destiny, and the bringing knowledge into existence in that man after he enters existence is decree. And according to each of these two views, destiny is prior (_qadim_), because it is one of the qualities of God, whether Will or Knowledge; and decree is originated, because it is bringing into existence, and bringing into existence is one of the connections of Power, and the connections of Power are originated.

And the proof that possible things are possible in the case of God is that there is general agreement on their possibility. If the doing of any possible thing were incumbent upon God, the possible would be turned into a necessary thing. And if the doing of a possible thing were hindered from Him, the possible would be turned into an impossible. But the turning of the possible into a necessary or an impossible is false. By this, you may know that there is nothing incumbent upon God, against the doctrine of the Mu‘tazilites, who say that it is incumbent upon God to do that which is best (_salah_) for the creature. So, it would be incumbent upon Him that He should sustain the creature, but this is falsehood against Him and a lie from which He is far removed. He creates faith in Zayd, for example, and gives him knowledge out of His free grace, without there being any necessity upon Him. And one of the arguments which may be brought against the Mu‘tazilites is that afflictions come upon little children, such as ailments and diseases. And in this there is not that which is best for them. So, if doing that which is best is incumbent upon Him, why do afflictions descend upon little children? For they say that God could not abandon that which is incumbent upon Him, for abandoning it would be defect, and God is far removed from defect, by Agreement. And God’s rewarding the obedient is a grace from Him, and His punishing the rebellious is justice from Him. For obedience does not advantage Him, nor rebellion injure Him; He is the Advantager and the Injurer. And these acts of obedience or rebellion are only signs of God’s rewarding or punishing those described by them. Then him whom He wills to draw near to Himself, He helps to obedience: and in him whose abandoning and rejection He wills, He creates rebellion. And all acts of good and bad are by the creation of God, for He creates the creature and that which the creature does, as He has said (Qur. 37, 94), “and God hath created you and that which ye do.”

And the belief is also incumbent that God may be seen in the Other World by believers, for He has joined the seeing (_ru’ya_) of Him with the standing fast of the mountain in His saying (Qur. 7, 139), “And if it standeth fast in its place, thou wilt see Me.” And the standing fast of the mountain was possible: then, that which is connected with it of seeing must also have been possible; because what is connected with the possible is possible. But our seeing God must be without inquiring how (_bila kayfa_); it is not like our seeing one another. God is not seen in a direction, nor in a color, nor in a body; He is far removed from that. And the Mu‘tazilites—may God make them vile!—deny the seeing of God. That is one of their perverse and false articles of belief. And another of their corrupt articles is their saying that the creature creates his own actions. For this, they are called Qadarites, because they say that the actions of the creature are by his own _qudra_ (power), just as the sect which holds that the creature is forced to the action he does, is called Jabrite, derived from their holding a being forced (_jabr_) on the part of the creature, and a being compelled. It, too, is a perverse article. And the truth is that the creature does not create his own actions and is not forced, but that God creates the actions which issue from the creature, along with the creature’s having a free choice (_ikhtiyar_) in them. As-Sa‘d [Sa‘d ad-Din at-Taftazani, see above] said, in his commentary on the _Articles_, “It is not possible to render this free choice by any expression, but the creature finds a difference between the movement of his hand when he moves it himself and when the wind moves it against his will.”

And to that which is possible in God belongs also the sending of a number of Apostles (_rasuls_). And God’s sending them is by His grace, and by way of necessity, as has preceded.

And it is necessary to confess that the most excellent of created beings, absolutely, is our Prophet [Muhammad], and there follow him in excellency the rest of the Endowed with Earnestness and Patience (_ulu-l-azm_; see Qur. 46, 34); they are our Lord Ibrahim, our Lord Musa, our Lord Isa, and our Lord Nuh; and this is their order in excellency. And that they are five along with our Prophet, and four after him is the correct view. And it is said, too, that the Endowed with Earnestness and Patience are more numerous. And there follow them in excellency the rest of the Apostles. Then, the rest of the Prophets (_nabis_), then the Angels.

And it is necessary to confess that God has aided them with miracles (_mu‘jizat_) and that He has distinguished our Prophet in that he is the seal of the Apostles, and that his law (_shar_) will not be abrogated till time is fulfilled. And Isa, after his descent, will judge according to the law of our Prophet. It is said that he will take it from the Qur’an and the Sunna. It is said also that he will go to the Glorious Tomb [of Muhammad] and learn from him. And know that he will abrogate one part of the law of our Prophet with a later part, just as the waiting period of a woman after the death of her husband was changed from a year to four months and ten days. And in this there is no defect.

And it is necessary also that every _mukallaf_, male and female, should know in detail the Apostles who are mentioned in the Qur’an, and should believe in them in detail. As for the other Prophets, belief is necessary in them as a whole. As-Sa‘d handed down an authority in his commentary on the _Maqasid_ that belief in all the Prophets as a whole suffices, but he was not followed.

And someone put them into verse as follows:

“There is imposed upon every _mukallaf_ a knowledge Of Prophets in detail, who have been named In that document of ours [_i.e._, the Qur’an]. Of them are eight After ten [_i.e._, eighteen]. And there remain seven who are Idris, Hud, Shu‘ayb, Salih, and similarly, Dhu-l-Kifl, Adam, with the Chosen One [Muhammad] they close.”

And it is necessary to confess that the Companions (_sahibs_) of the Prophet are the most excellent of the generations. Then their followers (_tabi‘s_); then the followers of their followers. And the most excellent of the Companions is Abu Bakr, then Umar, then Uthman, then Ali—in this order. But al-Alqami said that our Lady Fatima and her brother, our Lord Ibrahim, were absolutely more excellent than the Companions, including the Four [Khalifas]. And our Lord Malik [ibn Anas] was wont to say, “There is none more excellent than the children of the Prophet.” This is that the confession of which is incumbent; and we will meet God confessing it, if it is His Will.

And of that the confession of which is also necessary, is that the Prophet was born in Mecca and died in al-Madina. It is incumbent on fathers that they teach that to their children. Al-Ajhuri said, “It is incumbent on the individual that he know the genealogy of the Prophet on his father’s side and on his mother’s.” A statement of it will come in our Conclusion, if God will. The learned have said, “Every individual ought to know the number of the children of the Prophet and the order in which they were born, for an individual ought to know his Lords, and they are the Lords of the People.” But they do not explain, in what I have seen, whether that is required (_mawjub_) or desired (_mandub_); the analogy (_qiyas_) of things similar to it would say it was required. His children were seven, three male and four female, according to the right view. Their order of birth was: al-Qasim, he was the first of his children, then Zaynab, then Ruqayya, then Fatima, then Umm Kulthum, then Abd Allah, he had the to-names (_laqab_) at-Tayyib and at-Tahir, which are to-names of Abd Allah, not names of two other different persons. These were all children of our Lady Khadija. And the seventh was our Lord Ibrahim, born of Mariya, the Copt. So it stands. Let us now return to the conclusion of the Articles.

The Forty-second is the Veracity (_sidq_) of the Apostles in all their sayings.

The Forty-third is their trustworthiness (_amana_), that is, their being preserved (_isma_) from falling into things forbidden (_muharram_) or disliked (_makruh_).

The Forty-fourth is their Conveying (_tabligh_) to the creatures that which they were commanded to convey. The Forty-fifth is intelligence (_fatana_). These four things are necessary in the Apostles in the sense that the lack of them is unthinkable. And Faith depends on the knowledge of these, according to the controversy between as-Sanusi and his opponents.

The opposites of these four are impossible in the Apostles, that is, Lying (_kidhb_), Unfaithfulness (_khiyana_) in a thing forbidden or disliked, Concealment (_kitman_) of a thing they have been commanded to convey, and Stupidity (_balada_). These four are impossible in them, in the sense that the existence of them is unthinkable. And Faith depends upon the knowledge of these, as has preceded.

These are Nine and Forty Articles and the Fiftieth is the possibility of the occurrence of such fleshly accidents in them as do not lead to defect in their lofty rank.

And the proof of the existence of Veracity in them is that if they were to lie, then information from God would be a lie, for He has guaranteed the claim of the Apostles by the manifestation of miracles at their hands. For the miracle is revealed in place of an utterance from God, “My servant is truthful in all that he brings from Me.” That is, whenever an Apostle comes to his people and says, “I am an Apostle to you from God,” and they say to him, “What is the proof of your apostolate?” then he shall say, “The splitting of this mountain,” for example. And when they say to him, “Bring what you say,” God will split that mountain at their saying, as a guarantee of the claim of the Apostle to the apostolate. So, God’s splitting the mountain is sent down in place of an utterance from God, “My servant is truthful in all which he brings to you from Me.” And if the Apostle were lying, this information would be lying. But lying is impossible in the case of God, so lying on the part of the Apostles is impossible. And whenever lying is denied in them, Veracity is established.

And as for the proof of the Trustworthiness, that is, their being preserved internally and externally from forbidden and disliked things; if they were unfaithful in committing such things, we would be commanded to do the like. But it is impossible that we could be commanded to do a forbidden or disliked thing, “for God does not command a vile thing” (Qur. 7, 27). And it is evident that they did nothing except obedience, whether required or desired, and “permitted” (_mubah_) things entered among their actions only to show, whenever they did a “permitted” thing, that it was allowable (_ja’iz_).

And as for the proof of Intelligence, if it were failing in them, how would they be able to establish an argument against an adversary? But the Qur’an indicates in more than one place, that they must establish arguments against adversaries. And such establishing of arguments is only possible with intelligence.

And the proof that fleshly accidents do befall them is that they do not cease to ascend in their lofty rank; for the occurrence of such accidents is in them for increase in their lofty rank, for example, and that others may be consoled, and that the thoughtful may know that the world is not a place of recompense for the lovers of God; since if it were, why should aught of the defilements of the world befall the Apostles? The Blessing of God be upon them and upon their Mighty Head, our Lord Muhammad, and upon his family and Companions and descendants, all!

The Fifty Articles are completed with their Glorious Proofs.

Let us mention to you now somewhat of that which must be held of the things whose proofs are authority (_sam‘i_): Know that it must be believed that our Prophet has a Tank (_hawd_); and ignorance as to whether it is on one side or the other of the Bridge (_as-sirat_) does not hurt. On the Day of Resurrection (_yawm al-qiyama_) the creatures will go down to drink of it. It is different from _al-Kawthar_, which is a River in the Garden.

And it must also be believed that he will make intercession (_shafa‘a_) on the Day of Resurrection in the midst of the Judgment, when we shall stand and long to depart, even though it be into the Fire. Then he shall intercede that they may depart from the Station (_mawqif_); and this intercession belongs to him only.

And it must also be believed that falling into great sins (_kabiras_), other than Unbelief (_kufr_), does not involve Unbelief, but repentance (_tawba_) from the sin is necessary at once; and if the sin be a small one (_saghira_) repentance is necessary to him who is liable to fall into it. And repentance is not injured by returning to sin; but for the new sin a new repentance is necessary.

And it is incumbent upon the individual that he set aside arrogance (_kibr_) and jealousy (_hasad_) and slander (_ghiba_) on account of what the Prophet has said, “The gates of the Heavens have curtains which reject the works of the people of arrogance, jealousy and slander.” That is, they prevent them from rising, and so they are not received. Jealousy is a desiring that the well-being of another should pass away, equally whether it is desired that it should come to the jealous one or not. And arrogance is considering the truth to be falsehood and rejecting it, and despising God’s creation. And it is incumbent also upon him that he should not spread malicious slanders among the people, for a tradition has come down, “A slanderer (_qattat_) shall not enter the Garden.” And jealousy is forbidden, as is said above, when the well-being does not lead its possessor to transgression, and if it does, then desire that the well-being should pass away is allowable.

It is necessary also to hold that some of those who commit great sins will be punished, though it is only one of them.

CONCLUSION. Faith (_iman_), in the usage of the language, is acknowledgment that something is true (_tasdiq_), in general. In that way it is used by God, when he reports the words of the sons of Ya‘qub (Qur. 12, 17). “But thou dost not believe us [art not a believer (_mu’min_) in us].” Legally, it is belief in all that the Prophet has brought. But there is a difference of opinion as to the meaning of belief, when used in this way. Some say that it means knowledge (_ma‘rifa_) and that everyone who knows what the Prophet has brought is a believer (_mu’min_). But this interpretation is opposed by the fact that the unbeliever (_kafir_) knows, but is not a believer. Nor does this interpretation agree with the common saying, that the _muqallad_ is a believer, although he does not know. And the right view as to the interpretation of belief is that it is a mental utterance (_hadith an-nafs_) following conviction, equally whether it is conviction on account of proof, which is called knowledge, or on account of acceptance on authority (_taqlid_). This excludes the unbeliever because he does not possess the mental utterance, the idea of which is that you say, “I am well pleased with what the Prophet has brought.” The mind of the unbeliever does not say this. And it includes the _muqallad_; for he possesses the mental utterance following conviction, though the conviction is not based on a proof.

And of that which must be believed is the genealogy of the Prophet, both on his father’s side and on his mother’s. On his father’s side he is our Lord, Muhammad, son of Abd Allah, son of Abd al-Muttalib, son of Hashim, son of Abd Manaf, son of Qusay, son of Kilab, son of Murra, son of Ka‘b, son of Lu’ay, or Luway, son of Ghalib, son of Fihr, son of Malik, son of Nadr, son of Kinana, son of Khuzayma, son of Mudrika, son of Alyas, son of Mudar, son of Nizar, son of Ma‘add, son of Adnan. And the Agreement (_ijma_) unites upon this genealogy up to Adnan. But after him to Adam there is no sure path in that which has been handed down. And as to his genealogy on his mother’s side, she is Amina, daughter of Wahb, son of Abd Manaf, son of Zuhra—this Abd Manaf is not the same as his ancestor on the other line—son of Kilab, who is already one of his ancestors. So the two lines of descent join in Kilab.

And it is necessary also to know that he was of mixed white and red complexion, according to what some of them have said.

This is the last of that which God has made easy by His grace. His Blessing be upon our Lord Muhammad and upon his family and his Companions and his descendants, so so long as the mindful are mindful of him and the heedless are heedless of the thought of him. And Praise belongeth unto God, the Lord of the Worlds.

VII

ANALYSIS OF THE _Taqrib_ OF ABU SHUJA AL-ISPAHANI[7]

_Book I. Of Ceremonial Purity (Tahara)_

1. The water which may be used for ceremonial ablutions.

2. Legal materials for utensils; what can be purified and what cannot.

3. The use of the toothpick.

4. Description of the different stages of a ceremonial ablution (_wudu_).

5. On cleansing from excrement and its ritual generally.

6. The five things which require a fresh _wudu_.

7. The six things which require a complete ablution of the whole body (_ghusl_) and its ritual.

8. The seventeen occasions on which a _ghusl_ is prescribed.

9. When it is allowable to wash the inner shoes (_khuffs_) instead of the feet.

10. The conditions and ritual for the use of sand (_tayammum_) instead of water.

11. On uncleannesses (_najasat_) and how and how far they can be removed.

12. On ailments of women; duration of pregnancy and their conditions.

_Book II. Of Prayer_

1. The times of prayer (_salat_).

2. Upon whom prayer is incumbent, and

3. On what occasions.

4. The antecedent requirements of prayer.

5. The eighteen essential parts of prayer.

6. The four things in which the prayer of a woman differs from that of a man.

7. The eleven things which nullify prayer.

8. A reckoning of the occurrences of certain frequently repeated elements in prayer.

9. On omissions in prayer.

10. The five occasions on which prayer is not allowable.

11. The duty and ritual of congregational prayer.

12. The prayer of a traveller.

13. The conditions under which congregational prayer is required and those under which it is lawful.

14. The requirements in congregational prayer.

15. The prayers of the Two Festivals and their ritual.

16. The prayers on occasion of an eclipse.

17. Prayer for rain.

18. Prayer in presence of the enemy.

19. What is forbidden of clothing.

20. The ritual of the dead.

_Book III. Of Rates for the Poor, etc._

1. The condition of the rate (_zakat_) and of the rate-payer; what it is levied on and consists of.

2. On camels.

3. On cattle.

4. On sheep.

5. How it affects partners.

6. On gold and silver.

7. On grain-stuff.

8. On merchandise.

9. The conditions and nature of the rate to be paid at the end of the fast.

10. Uses to which the rate may be applied.

_Book IV. Of the Fast_

1. The conditions for the fast (_siyam_); its description; what breaks it.

2. What is meritorious in fasting; when and for whom it is forbidden; how breaking the fast must be expiated.

3. The conditions and nature of religious retreat (_i‘tikaf_).

_Book V. Of the Pilgrimage_

1. The conditions of pilgrimaging (_hajj_); its essentials and other elements.

2. The ten things forbidden on pilgrimage.

3. The five sacrifices of the pilgrimage.

_Book VI. Of Barter and Other Business Transactions_

1. Conditions and kinds of barter (_bay_); what may be bartered and what not.

2. Description and conditions of the bargain with payment in advance (_salam_).

3. Of pledging (_rahn_).

4. Of those who are not to be permitted to administer their own property (_hajar as-safih_).

5. Of bankruptcy and composition and common rights in a highway (_sulh_).

6. The conditions for the transfer of debts and credits (_hawala_).

7. Of security for debts (_daman_).

8. Of personal security for debts (_kafala_).

9. Of partnership (_shirka_).

10. Of agency (_wakala_).

11. Of confession (_iqrar_).

12. Of loans (_i‘ara_).

13. Of illegal seizure and use of property; indemnity for it and its damage (_ghasb_).

14. Of right of pre-emption (_shuf‘a_).

15. The conditions of advancing capital with participation in the profits (_qirad_).

16. Of the letting of date-palms and vines (_musaqat_).

17. Of hiring a thing out (_ijara_).

18. Of reward for return of a thing lost (_ja‘ala_).

19. That land may not be let for a fixed amount of its produce (_mukhabara_).

20. Of irrigation of waste lands (_ihya al-mawat_).

21. Of foundations in mortmain (_waqf_).

22. Of gifts (_hiba_).

23. Of found property (_luqta_).

24. Of foundlings (_laqit_).

25. Of deposits (_wadi‘a_).

_Book VII. Of Inheritance and Wills_

1. Of legal heirs (_warith_).

2. The conditions and proportions of inheritance (_farida_).

3. Of legacies (_wasiya_).

_Book VIII. Of Marriage and Related Subjects_

1. The conditions of marriage (_nikah_). What women a man may see and to what extent.

2. The form of a legal marriage.

3. The conditions of asking (_khitba_) and giving in marriage; whom a man may not marry; conditions for nullity of marriage.

4. The settlement (_mahr_) on a wife by her husband.

5. On the wedding feast (_walima_).

6. On the equality of the rights of the wives and the authority of the husband.

7. On divorce for incompatibility (_khul_).

8. The forms of divorce (_talaq_).

9. On taking a wife back and the threefold divorce.

10. The oath not to cohabit (_ila_).

11. The temporary separation by the formula, _zihar_ Qur. 58.

12. The form of accusation of adultery and the defence (_li‘an_).

13. The period during which a previously married woman cannot remarry (_idda_).

14. Of relations with female slaves.

15. The support and behavior of a woman, divorced or a widow; mourning.

16. Law of relationship through suckling (_irda_).

17. The support (_nafaqa_) due to a wife.

18. The support due to children and parents, slaves and domestic animals.

19. Of the custody of children (_hidana_).

_Book IX. Of Crimes of Violence to the Person (jinaya)_

1. On murder, homicide and chance medley.

2. The _lex talionis_ (_qisas_) for murder, and

3. For wounds and mutilations.

4. The blood-wit (_diya_).

5. Use of weak evidence in case of murder.

6. Personal penance for homicide.

_Book X. Of Restrictive Ordinances of God (hadd)_

1. Of fornication (_zina_) of one who has been or is married (_muhsan_), and of one who has not been or is not married.

2. Of accusing of fornication.

3. Of drinking wine or any intoxicating drink.

4. Of theft.

5. Of highway robbery.

6. Of killing in defence.

7. Of rebelling against a just government.

8. Of apostasy.

9. Of abandoning the usage of prayer.

_Book XI. Of the Holy War (jihad)_

1. The general law of _jihad_.

2. The distribution of booty taken in the field (_ghanima_).

3. The law of the tax on unbelievers (_fay_).

4. The law of the poll-tax on unbelievers (_jizya_).

_Book XII. Of Hunting and the Slaughter of Animals_

1. How an animal may be killed in the chase or otherwise.

2. What flesh may be eaten.

3. The ritual of sacrifice (_udhiya_).

4. The ritual of sacrifice for a child (_aqiqa_).

_Book XIII. Of Racing and Shooting with the Bow_

_Book XIV. Of Oaths and Vows (yamin, nadhr)_

1. What oaths are allowable and binding; how expiated.

2. Lawful and unlawful vows.

_Book XV. Of Judgments and Evidence (qada, shahada)_

1. Of the judge (_qadi_) and court usage.

2. The division (_qasm_) of property held in common.

3. Of evidence and oaths.

4. The conditions of being a legal witness (_adil_).

5. The difference of claims (_haqq_), on the part of God, and on the part of man, and their legal treatment.

_Book XVI. Of Manumission of Slaves_

1. General conditions of manumission (_itq_).

2. The clientship which follows (_wala_).

3. Of freeing at death (_tadbir_).

4. Of the slave buying his freedom (_kitaba_).

5. Of the slave (_umm walad_) that has borne a child to her master or to another and of her children.

APPENDIX II

I. BOOKS AND ARTICLES, GENERAL AND FUNDAMENTAL, FOR THE STUDY OF ISLAM.

II. ON MUSLIM HISTORY AND ON PRESENT CONDITION OF MUSLIM WORLD.

III. ON MUSLIM TRADITIONS AND LAW.

IV. ON MUSLIM THEOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY AND MYSTICISM.

I

BOOKS AND ARTICLES, GENERAL AND FUNDAMENTAL, FOR THE STUDY OF ISLAM

The non-Arabist will gain much insight into Muslim life and thought by reading such translations as that of Ibn Khallikan by De Slane (Paris-London; 1843-71), the Persian Tabari, by Zotenberg (Paris; 1867-74), Ibn Batuta by Defrémery and Sanguinetti (Paris; 1853-58), Mas‘udi by C. Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille (Paris; 1861-77), Ibn Khaldun’s _Prolégomènes_ by De Slane (Paris; 1862-68), ad-Dimishqi by Mehren (Copenhagen; 1874), al-Beruni’s _Chronology_ by Sachau (London; 1879).

The translations and notes in De Sacy’s _Chrestomathie arabe_ (Paris; 1826) can also be used to advantage.

Very many valuable articles will be found scattered through the _Zeitschrift_ of the German Oriental Society (hereafter ZDMG), the _Journal asiatique_ (hereafter JA), the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ (hereafter JRAS) and the Vienna _Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes_ (hereafter WZ).

It is always worth while to consult the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

The best translations of the Qur’an into English are those by E. H. Palmer (2 vols., Oxford; 1880) and J. M. Rodwell (London; 1871). The first more perfectly represents the spirit and tone, and the second more exactly the letter. The commentary added by Sale to his version and his introduction are still useful.

The _Thousand and One Nights_ should be read in its entirety in Arabic or in a translation by every student of Islam. English translation by Lane (incomplete but accurate and with very valuable commentary); Burton (last edition almost complete; 12 vols., London: 1894). Payne’s translation is complete, as is also Burton’s privately printed edition; but, while exceedingly readable, Payne hardly represents the tone of the original. There is an almost complete and very cheap German version by Henning (published by Reclam, Leipzig); Mardrus’ French version is inaccurate and free to such an extent as to make it useless. Galland’s version is a work of genius; but it belongs to French and not to Arabic literature.

R. P. A. DOZY: _Essai sur l’histoire de l’islamisme._ Leyden, 1879. A readable introduction.

A. MÜLLER: _Der Islam im Morgen-und-Abendland._ 2 vols. Berlin, 1885, 1887. The best general history of Islam.

STANLEY LANE-POOLE: _The Mohammedan Dynasties; chronological and genealogical tables with historical introductions._ Westminster, 1894. An indispensable book for any student of Muslim history.

C. BROCKELMANN: _Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur._ 2 vols. Weimar, 1898, 1899. Indispensable for names, dates, and books, but not a history in any true sense.

T. B. HUGHES: _A Dictionary of Islam._ London, 1896. Very full of information, but to be used with caution. Based on Persian sources largely.

E. W. LANE: _An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians._ First edition, London, 1836; third, 1842. Many others. Indispensable.

C. M. DOUGHTY: _Travels in Arabia Deserta._ 2 vols. Cambridge, 1888. By far the best book on nomad life in Arabia. Gives the fullest and clearest idea of the nature and workings of the Arab mind.

J. L. BURCKHARDT: _Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys._ 2 vols. London, 1831.

J. L. BURCKHARDT: _Travels in Arabia._ 2 vols. London, 1829.

R. F. BURTON: _Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Meccah._ 2 vols. Last edition, London, 1898. On the Hajj and Muslim life, thought and studies generally in the middle of the nineteenth century. Readable and accurate to a degree.

C. SNOUCK HURGRONJE: _Mekka._ 2 vols. and portfolio of plates. Haag, 1888, 1889. Is somewhat dull beside Burton, but very full and accurate.

W. ROBERTSON SMITH: _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites._ First Series. New edition, London, 1894. _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia._ Cambridge, 1885.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Muhammedanische Studien._ I, Halle a. S., 1889. II, 1890. Epoch-marking books; as are all Goldziher’s contributions to the history of Muslim civilization.

ALFRED VON KREMER: _Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams._ Leipzig, 1868.

ALFRED VON KREMER: _Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen._ 2 vols. Wien, 1875-77. _Culturgeschichtliche Streifzüge._ Leipzig, 1873.

EDWARD G. BROWNE: _A Year Among the Persians._ London, 1893. A most valuable account of modern Persian life, philosophy, and theology, and especially of Sufiism and Babism.

EDWARD G. BROWNE: _A Literary History of Persia._ New York, 1902. Really political and religious prolegomena to such a history.

G. A. HERKLOTS: _Qanoon-e-Islam, or the Customs of the Moosulmans of India._ London, 1832.

II

ON MUSLIM HISTORY AND ON PRESENT CONDITION OF MUSLIM WORLD

AUGUST MÜLLER: _Die Beherrscher der Gläubigen._ Berlin, 1882. A very brightly written sketch based on thorough knowledge.

GUSTAV WEIL: _Geschichte der Chalifen._ 3 vols. Mannheim, 1846-1851.

SIR WILLIAM MUIR: _The Caliphate, its Rise, Decline and Fall._ London, 1891.

THEODOR NÖLDEKE: _Zur tendentiösen Gestaltung der Urgeschichte des Islams._ ZDMG, lii, pp. 16 ff. All Nöldeke’s papers on the early history of Islam are worthy of the most careful study.

G. VON VLOTEN: _Zur Abbasiden Geschichte._ ZDMG, lii, pp. 213 ff. On the early Abbasids.

R. E. BRÜNNOW: _De Charidschiten unter den ersten Omayyaden._ Leyden, 1884.

EDUARD SACHAU: _Über eine Arabische Chronik aus Zanzibar._ Mitth. a.d. Sem. f. Orient. Sprachen. Berlin, 1898. On Ibadites.

GEORGE PERCY BADGER: _History of the Imams and Seyyids of Oman_, by Salîl-ibn-Razîk. London: Hakluyt Society, 1871. Valuable for Ibadite history, law and theology.

M. J. DE GOEJE: _Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahraïn et les Fatimides._ Leyden, 1886.

JOHN NICHOLSON: _An Account of the Establishment of the Fatemite Dynasty in Africa._ Tübingen and Bristol, 1840.

QUATREMÈRE: _Mémoires historiques sur la dynastie des Khalifes Fatimites._ JA, 3, ii.

SYLVESTRE DE SACY: _Exposé de la religion des Druzes et la vie du Khalife Hakem-biamr-allah._ 2 vols. Paris, 1838.

F. WÜSTENFELD: _Geschichte der Fatimiden-Khalifen._ Göttingen, 1881.

STANLEY LANE-POOLE: _A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages._ New York, 1901. For the origin and founding of the Fatimid Dynasty, the Khalifa al-Hakim, etc.

H. L. FLEISCHER: _Briefwechsel zwischen den Anführern der Wahhabiten und dem Pasha von Damaskus._ _Kleinere Schriften_, iii, pp. 341 ff. First published in ZDMG for year 1857.

E. REHATSEK: _The History of the Wahhabys in Arabia and in India._ Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal. No. xxxviii (read January, 1880).

_Turkey in Europe_, by “Odysseus.” London, 1900. The present situation, with its historical antecedents in European Turkey and the Balkans generally.

H. O. DWIGHT: _Constantinople and its Problems._ New York, 1901.

A. S. WHITE: _The Expansion of Egypt._ London, 1899. The present situation in Egypt and its historical antecedents.

W. W. HUNTER: _Our Indian Mussulmans._ London, 1871.

SIR LEWIS PELLY: _The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain._ London, 1879.

W. S. BLUNT: _The Future of Islam._ London, 1880.

III

ON MUSLIM TRADITIONS AND LAW

_The Mishkat_, translated by Matthews. Calcutta, 1809. (A collection of traditions.)

_The Hidaya_, translated by C. Hamilton. II edition. London, 1870.

N. B. E. BAILLIE: _A Digest of Muhammadan Law. Hanifi Code._ London, 1865.

The same. _Imameea Code._ London, 1869. The first volume deals with Sunnite, the second with Shi‘ite law.

S. KEIJZER: _Précis de Jurisprudence Musulmane selon le rite Châfeite par Abu Chodja; texte arabe avec traduction et annotations._ Leyden, 1859. To be used with caution.

EDUARD SACHAU: _Muhammadanisches Recht nach Schafiitischer Lehre._ Stuttgart & Berlin, 1897. Based largely on al-Bajuri’s commentary to Abu Shuja: covers rather less than half the material of a corpus of canon law and is the best general introduction to the subject.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Die Zâhiriten, ihr Lehrsystem und ihre Geschichte._ Leipzig, 1884.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Neue Materialien zur Litteratur des Ueberlieferungswesen bei den Muhammedanern._ ZDMG, I, pp. 465 ff. Deals with Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Zur Litteratur des Ichtilâf al-madhâhib._ ZDMG, xxxviii, pp. 669 ff. Contains a notice of ash-Sha‘rani.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Über eine Formel in der judischen Responsen-litteratur._ ZDMG, liii, pp. 645 ff. On _fatwas_ and _ijtihad_.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Das Princip des Istishab in muham. Gesetzwissenschaft._ WZ, i, pp. 228 ff.

EDUARD SACHAU: _Muhammedanisches Erbrecht nach der Lehre der Ibaditischen Araber von Zanzibar und Östafrika._ Sitzungsberichte der kön. preuss. Akad., 1894.

EDUARD SACHAU: _Zur ältesten Geschichte des muhammedanischen Rechts._ Wien. Akad., 1870.

SNOUCK HURGRONJE: _Le droit musulman._ Revue de l’histoire des religions, xxxvii, pp. 1 ff, and 174 ff.

SNOUCK HURGRONJE: _Muhammedanisches Recht nach schafiitischer Lehre von Eduard Sachau_; _Anzeige_, ZDMG, liii, pp. 125 ff.

S. K. KEUN DE HOOGERWOERD: _Studien zur Einführung in das Recht des Islam._ Erlangen, 1901. Contains introduction and part of section on law of marriage. Gives a good but miscellaneous bibliography and is written from a Persian point of view; transliteration is peculiarly eccentric and Arabic scholarship is unsound.

J. WELLHAUSEN: _Medina vor dem Islam. Muhammad’s Gemeindeordnung von Medina._ In “Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,” Viertes Heft. Berlin, 1889.

HUART: _Les Zindiqs en droit musulman._ Eleventh Congress of Orientalists, part iii, pp. 69 ff.

D. B. MACDONALD: _The Emancipation of Slaves under Muslim Law._ American Monthly Review of Reviews, March, 1900.

IV

ON MUSLIM THEOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY AND MYSTICISM

THEODOR HAARBRÜCKER: _Asch-Schahrastâni’s Religionsparteien und Philosophenschulen übersetzt und erklärt._ 2 vols. Halle, 1850-51. The Arabic text, without which Haarbrücker’s German is sometimes hardly intelligible, was published by Cureton, London, 1846.

T. J. DE BOER: _Geschichte der Philosophie im Islam._ Stuttgart, 1901. Unsatisfactory but the best that there is. It is only a sketch and takes hardly sufficient account of theology and mysticism.

STANLEY LANE-POOLE: _Studies in a Mosque._ II edition. London, 1893. Miscellaneous essays, lightly written but trustworthy.

KREHL: _Beiträge zur Characteristik der Lehre vom Glauben in Islam._ Leipzig, 1877.

G. VON VLOTEN: _Les Hachwia et Nabita._ Eleventh Congress of Orientalists, part iii, pp. 99 ff. On early religious sects.

G. VON VLOTEN: _Irdja._ ZDMG, xiv, pp. 181 ff. On the Murji’ites.

EDUARD SACHAU: _Über de religiosen Anschauungen der ibaditischen Muhammedaner in Oman und Östafrica._ Mitth. a. d. Sem. f. Orient. Sprachen. Berlin, 1899.

H. STEINER: _Die Mu‘taziliten oder die Freidenker im Islam._ Leipzig, 1865.

WILHELM SPITTA: _Zur Geschichte Abu l-Hasan al-Ash‘ari’s._ Leipzig, 1876. The best as yet on al-Ash‘ari, but to be used with caution, especially in the translations of theological texts.

MARTIN SCHREINER: _Zur Geschichte des Ash‘aritenthums._ In Actes du huitième Congress International des Orientalistes, I, i, pp. 77 ff. Leiden, 1891.

M. A. F. MEHREN: _Exposé de la réforme de l’Islamisme commencée au troisième siècle de l’Hégire par Abou-l-Hasan Ali el-Ash‘ari et continuée par son école._ Third International Congress of Orientalists, vol. ii.

G. FLÜGEL: _Al-Kindi genannt “der Philosoph der Araber.” Ein Vorbild seiner Zeit und seines Volkes._ Leipzig, 1857.

SIR WILLIAM MUIR: _The Apology of al-Kindy, written at the court of al-Mámûn._ London, 1882.

E. SELL: _The Faith of Islam._ London, 1896. II edition. A valuable book, but from the point of view of an Indian missionary. Hence the tone is polemic and the technicalities are Persian rather than Arabic.

WALTER M. PATTEN: _Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the Mihna._ Leyden, 1897. There is a valuable review by Goldziher in ZDMG, lii, pp. 155 ff. It traces connection of Hanbalites with Ibn Taymiya and Wahhabites.

HEINRICH RITTER: _Ueber unsere Kenntniss der Arabischen Philosophie._ Göttingen, 1844.

FRIEDRICH DIETERICI: _Alfarabi’s philosophische Abhandlungen herausgegeben._ Leiden, 1890. _Aus dem arabischen übersetzt._ Leiden, 1892.

AL-FARABI: _Der Musterstaat. Herausgegeben und Übersetzt von Frdr. Dieterici._ Leiden, 1900.

G. FLÜGEL: _Ueber Inhalt und Verfasser der arabischen Encyclopädie der Ikhwan as-Safa._ ZDMG, xiii, pp. 1 ff. See, too, an excellent article by August Müller in _Ersch und Gruber_, ii, 42, pp. 272 ff., and Stanley Lane-Poole in his _Studies in a Mosque_.

FRIEDRICH DIETERICI: _Die Philosophie der Araber im X. Jahrhundert n. Chr. aus der Schriften der lauteren Brüder herausgegeben._ Berlin and Leipzig, 1861-1879.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Materialien zur Entwickelungs-geschichte des Sufismus._ WZ, xiii, pp. 35 ff.

THEODOR NÖLDEKE: _Sufi._ ZDMG, xlviii, pp. 45 ff. On the derivation and early usage of the name Sufi.

ADELBERT MERX: _Idee und Grundlinien einer allgemeinen Geschichte der Mystik._ Heidelberg, 1893.

JOHN P. BROWN: _The Derwishes or Oriental Spiritualism._ London, 1868. A valuable but uncritical description of modern Turkish and Persian Darwishes.

SIR JAMES REDHOUSE: _The Mesnevi of Jelal eddin ar-rumi translated into English._ Book I. London, 1881. See, too, a translation by Whinfield, London, 1887, and an edition of selected ghazels from the Diwan with translation and valuable introduction by R. A. Nicholson, Cambridge University Press, 1898.

E. J. W. GIBB: _A History of Ottoman Poetry._ Vol. i. London, 1900. A valuable statement of the later Persian and Turkish mysticism and metaphysic on pp. 13-70.

E. H. PALMER: _Oriental Mysticism._ Cambridge, 1867.

CARRA DE VAUX: _Avicenne._ Paris, 1900. Contains an introductory sketch of philosophy and theology up to the time of Ibn Sina. _Algazali._ Paris, 1902. A continuation of the first.

A. VON KREMER: _Über die philosophischen Gedichte des Abul Ala Ma‘arry._ Wien, 1888.

A. VON KREMER: _Gedichte des Abu-l-Ala Ma‘arri._ ZDMG, xxix, 304; xxx, 40; xxxi, pp. 471 ff.; xxxviii, 499 ff.

ABU-L-ALA AL-MA‘ARRI: _Letters Arabic and English, with notes, etc., edited by D. S. Margoliouth._ Oxford, 1898. See, too, papers by R. A. Nicholson in JRAS, October, 1900, ff.; and by Margoliouth, for April, 1902.

E. FITZGERALD: _The Ruba‘iyat of Omar Khayyam. With a commentary by H. M. Batson and a biographical Introduction by_

_E. D. Ross._ New York, 1900. The biography by Ross is the only at all adequate treatment of the life and times of Umar which yet exists. Of the Ruba‘iyat themselves there are several adequate translations, _e.g._ by Whinfield, Payne and Mrs. Cadell.

MARTIN SCHREINER: _Zur Geschichte der Polemik zwischen Juden und Muhammedanern._ ZDMG, xlii, pp. 591 ff. Deals with Ibn Hazm and Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi.

MARTIN SCHREINER: _Beiträge zur Geschichte der theologischen Bewegungen in Islam._ ZDMG, lii, pp. 463 ff.; 513 ff.; liii, pp. 51 ff. A most valuable collection of materials with considerable gaps and imperfect digestion.

D. B. MACDONALD: _The Life of al-Ghazzali._ In the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. xx, pp. 71-132.

D. B. MACDONALD: _Emotional Religion in Islam as affected by Music and Singing. Being a translation of a book of the Ihya of al-Ghazzali._ In JRAS for April and October, 1901, and January, 1902.

MIGUEL ASIN PALACIOS: _Algazel, dogmatica, moral, ascetica._ Zaragoza, 1901.

C. BARBIER DE MEYNARD: _Traduction nouvelle du Traité de Ghazzali_, _intitulé_ Le Preservatif de l’Erreur. In JA, vii, 9, pp. 5 ff.

T. J. DE BOER: _Die Widersprüche der Philosophie nach al-Ghazzali und ihr Ausgleich durch Ibn Roshd._ Strassburg, 1894.

A translation of al-Ghazzali’s _Tahafut_ has been begun by Carra de Vaux in _Le Muséon_, xxviii, p. 143 (June, 1899).

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Materialien zur Kenntniss der Almohadenbewegung in Nordafrika._ ZDMG, xli, pp. 30 ff.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Die Bekenntnissformeln der Almohaden._ ZDMG, xliv, pp. 168 ff.

ROBERT FLINT: _Historical Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switzerland._ New York, 1894. Contains an excellent estimate of Ibn Khaldun as a philosophical historian.

A. VON KREMER: _Ibn Chaldun und seine Culturgeschichte der islamischen Reiche._ Wien, 1879.

ERNEST RENAN: _Averroes et l’Averroisme._ III edition. Paris, 1861. Reviewed by Dozy in JA, 5, ii, pp. 93 ff. This review contains a curious description of a Parliament of Religions at Baghdad about A.D. 1000.

_Philosophie und Theologie von Averroes. Aus dem Arabischen übersetzt von M. J. Müller._ München, 1875. The Arabic text was published by Müller in 1859.

LEON GAUTHIER: _Ibn Thofail-Hayy ben Yaqdhan, roman philosophique. Texte arabe ... et traduction française._ Alger, 1900. There is an earlier edition of Ibn Tufayl’s romance by the younger Pocock with a Latin version. Oxford, 1671.

M. A. F. MEHREN: _Correspondance du Philosophe Soufi Ibn Sab‘in Abd oul-Haqq avec l’Empereur Frédéric II. de Hohenstaufen._ In JA, vii, 14, pp. 341 ff.

S. GUYARD: _Abd ar-Razzaq et son traité de la Prédestination et du libre arbitre._ In JA, vii, 1, pp. 125 ff.

A. DE KREMER: _Notice sur Sha’rany._ In JA, vi, 11, pp. 253 ff.

G. FLÜGEL: _Scha‘rani und sein Werk uber die muhammadanische Glaubenslehre._ ZDMG, xx, p. 1 ff.

IGNAZ GOLDZIHER: _Beiträge zur Litteraturgeschichte der Shi‘a._ Wien, 1874.

JAMES L. MERRICK: _The Life and Religion of Mohammed, as contained in the Sheeah Traditions of the Hyat-ul-Kuloob._ Boston, 1850.

J. B. RÜLING: _Beiträge zur Eschatologie des Islam._ Leipzig, 1895.

L. GAUTHIER: _Ad-dourra al-fakhira; la perle précieuse de Ghazali._ Genève, 1878. In Arabic and French; a valuable account of Muslim eschatology.

M. WOLFF: _Muhammedanische Eschatologie._ Leipzig, 1872. In Arabic and German; an account of _popular_ Muslim eschatology.

DEPONT ET CAPPOLANI: _Les Confréries religieuses Musulmanes._ Alger, 1897.

SNOUCK HURGRONJE: _Les Confréries religieuses, la Mecque et le Panislamisme_, in Revue de l’histoire des religions, xliv, pp. 262 ff.

APPENDIX III

For typographical reasons the smooth guttural _Ha_, the palatals _Sad_, _Dad_, _Ta_, _Za_, and the long vowels are indicated by italic. The same system is followed in the index.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

A.H.

11 M.d.; Ab_u_ Bakr Kh.

13 ‘Umar Kh.

14 Battle of al-Q_a_dis_i_ya; fall of Jerusalem; al-Basra founded; fall of Damascus.

17 Al-K_u_fa founded; Syria and Mesopotamia conquered.

20 Conquest of Egypt.

21 Battle of Nah_a_wand; Persia conquered.

23 ‘Uthm_a_n Kh.

30 Final redaction of the Qur’_a_n.

35 ‘Al_i_ Kh.

36 Battle of Carmel.

40 ‘Al_i_ d.

41 Mu‘_a_wiya I. Kh.; Herat.

49 Al-_H_asan d.

56 Samarqand.

60 Schism of Ib_ad_ites from Kh_a_rijites.

61 Karbala & d. of al-_H_usayn.

73 Storm of Mecca & d. of ‘Abd All_a_h b. az-Zubayr.

74 Carthage.

80 Ma‘bad executed.

81 M. b. al-_H_anaf_i_ya d.

93 Toledo.

99-101 ‘Umar II. Kh.

110 _H_asan al-Ba_s_r_i_ d.

114 Charles the Hammer at Tours (A.D. 732).

121 Zayd b. Zayn al-‘_A_bid_i_n d.

124 Az-Zuhr_i_ d.

127-132 Marw_a_n II. Kh.

130 Jahm b. _S_afw_a_n killed?

131 W_a_sil b. ‘At_a_ d.

132 Fall of Umayyads; as-Saff_ah_ first ‘Abb_a_sid Kh.

134 First Ib_a_dite Im_a_m.

135 R_a_bi‘a d.

136-158 Al-Man_su_r Kh.

138-422 Umayyads of Cordova.

140 Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ killed.

143 Halley’s comet.

144 ‘Amr b. ‘Ubayd d.?

145 Baghd_a_d founded; ‘_A_’isha d. of Ja‘far a_s_-_Sa_diq d.

147 Homage to al-Mahd_i_ as successor in Kh.

148 Ja‘far a_s_-_Sa_diq d.

150 Ab_u_ _H_an_i_fa d.; trace of _Su_f_i_ monastery in Damascus.

157 Al-Awz_a_‘_i_ d.

158-169 Al-Mahd_i_ Kh.; John of Damascus d.?

161 Sufy_a_n ath-Thawr_i_ d.; Ibr_a_h_i_m b. Adham d.

165 D_a’u_d b. Nu_s_ayr d.

167 Bashsh_a_r b. Burd killed.

170-193 H_a_r_u_n ar-Rash_i_d Kh.

172-375 Idr_i_sids.

179 Malik b. Anas d.

182 The Q_adi_ Ab_u_ Y_u_suf d.

187 Fall of Barmecides; al-Fu_d_ayl b. ‘Iy_ad_ d.

189 M. b. al-_H_asan d.

198-218 Al-Ma’m_u_n Kh.

200 Ma‘r_u_f of al-Karkh d.; trace of _Su_f_i_ monastery in Khur_a_s_a_n.

204 Ash-Sh_a_fi‘_i_ d.

208 Ab_u_ ‘Ubayda d.; the Lady Naf_i_sa d.

211 Theodorus Abucara d.

212 Decree that the Qur’_a_n is created.

213 Thum_a_ma b. Ashras d.

215 Ab_u_ Sulaym_a_n of Damascus d.; 2nd decree.

218-234 The Mi_h_na; Al-Mu‘ta_s_im Kh.

220 Ma‘mar b. ‘Abb_a_d.

223 F_at_ima of Nays_a_b_u_r d.

226 Ab_u_ Hudhayl M. al-‘All_a_f d.

227 Bishr al-_Ha_f_i_ d.; al-W_a_thiq Kh.

231 An-Na_zza_m d.

232 Al-Mutawakkil Kh.

234 Decree that Qur’_a_n is uncreated; Scotus Erigena transl. pseudo-Dionysius, A.D. 850.

240 Ibn Ab_i_ Duw_a_d d.

241 A_h_mad b. _H_anbal d.

243 Al-_Ha_rith al-Mu_ha_sib_i_ d.

245 Dh_u_-n-N_u_n d.; al-Kar_a_b_i_s_i_ d.

250-316 ‘Alids of Zaydite branch in north Persia.

255 Al-J_ah_i_z_ d.

256 Ibn Karr_a_m d.

257 Al-Bukh_a_r_i_ d.; Sar_i_ as-Saqa_ti_ d.

260 Al-Kind_i_ d.? M. b. al-_H_asan al-Munta_z_ar vanished.

261 Muslim d.; Ab_u_ Yaz_i_d al-Bis_ta_m_i_ d.

270 D_a’u_d a_z_-_Za_hir_i_ d.

273 Ibn M_a_ja d.

275 Ab_u_ D_a’u_d as-Sijist_a_n_i_ d.

277 Qarma_t_ians hold fortress in Arab ‘Ir_a_q.

279 At-Tirmidh_i_ d.

280 Zaydite Im_a_ms at as-Sa‘da and San‘_a_.

289 ‘Ubayd All_a_h al-Mahd_i_ in North Africa.

295-320 Al-Muqtadir ‘Abb_a_sid Kh.

297 First F_at_imid Kh.; al-Junayd d.

300 Return of al-Ash‘ar_i_.

303 An-Nas_a‘i_ d.; Al-Jubb_a‘i_ d.

309 Al-_H_all_a_j executed.

317 Umayyads of Cordova take title of Commander of the Faithful; Qarma_t_ians in Mecca.

320-447 Buwayhids; al-Ash‘ari d.?

322 Ibn ash-Shalmagh_a_n_i_.

331 A_t_-_T_a_ha_w_i_ d.

333 Al-M_a_tar_i_d_i_ d.

333-356 Sayf ad-Dawla.

334 Buwayhids in Baghd_a_d; ash-Shibl_i_ d.

339 Return of Black Stone by Qarma_t_ians; al-F_a_r_a_b_i_ d.

356 F_at_imids conquer Egypt; Cairo founded.

360 Ikhw_a_n a_s_-_S_af_a_ fl.

362 Ibn H_a_ni d.

381-422 Al-Q_a_dir Kh.

386 Ab_u_ _Ta_lib al-Makk_i_ d.

388-421 Ma_h_m_u_d of Ghazna.

403 Al-B_a_qil_a_n_i_ d.

408 Persecution of Mu‘tazilites under al-Q_a_dir.

411 Al-_Ha_kim F_at_imid Kh. vanished; Firdaws_i_ d.

428 Ibn S_i_n_a_ d.

434 Ab_u_ Dharr d.

440 Al-B_e_r_u_n_i_ d.

447 _T_ughril Beg, the Saljuq, in Baghd_a_d.

449 Ab_u_-l-‘Al_a_ al-Ma‘arr_i_ d.

450 Persecution of Ash‘arites.

455 Alp-Arsl_a_n; Ni_za_m al-Mulk Waz_i_r; end of persecution of Ash‘arites.

456 Ibn-_H_azm a_z_-_Za_hir_i_ d.

465 Al-Qushayr_i_ d.

478 Im_a_m al-_H_aramayn d.

481 N_a_sir b. Khusraw d.

483 _H_asan b. a_s_-_S_abb_ah_ seizes Alam_u_t.

485 Ni_za_m al-Mulk assass.

488 Al-Ghazz_a_l_i_ leaves Baghd_a_d.

505 Al-Ghazz_a_l_i_ d.

515 ‘Umar al-Khayy_a_m d.

516 Al-Baghaw_i_ d.

524 Ibn T_u_mart al-Mahd_i_ d.

524-558 ‘Abd al-Mu’min.

524-667 The Muwa_hh_ids.

533 Ab_u_ Bakr b. B_a_jja d.

537 Ab_u_ _H_afs an-Nasaf_i_ d.

538 Az-Zamakhshar_i_ d.

540 Yehuda Halevi d. = A.D. 1145.

546 Ab_u_ Bakr b. al-‘Arab_i_ d.

548 Ash-Shahrast_a_n_i_ d.

558 ‘Abd al-Mu’min the Muwa_hh_id d.

558 ‘Ad_i_ al-Hakk_a_r_i_ d.

558-580 Ab_u_ Ya‘q_u_b the Muwa_hh_id.

561 ‘Abd al-Q_a_dir al-J_i_l_a_n_i_, founder of order of darw_i_shes, d.

567 Conquest of Egypt by Saladin and end of F_at_imids.

576 Order of Rif_a_‘ites founded.

580 Ab_u_ Ya‘q_u_b d.

580-596 Ab_u_ Y_u_suf al-Man_su_r.

581 Ibn _T_ufayl d.

587 As-Suhraward_i_ executed.

589 Saladin d.

590 Ab_u_ Shuj_a_‘ d.?

595 Ibn Rushd d.; Ab_u_ Y_u_suf al-Man_su_r the Muwa_hh_id d.

601 Maimonides d. = A.D. 1204.

606 Fakhr ad-D_i_n ar-R_a_z_i_ d.

620 Ab_u_-l-_H_ajj_a_j b. _T_uml_u_s d.; Fakhr ad-D_i_n b. ‘As_a_kir d.; St. Francis of Assisi d. = A.D. 1226.

625-941 _H_afsids at Tunis.

630-640 _A_r-Rash_i_d the Muwa_hh_id.

632 ‘Umar b. al-F_a_ri_d_.

638 Ibn ‘Arab_i_ d.

648 Frederick II. d. = A.D. 1250.

654 End of Assassins by Mongols; Ash-Sh_a_dhil_i_, founder of order of darw_i_shes, d.

667 Ibn Sab‘_i_n d.; end of Muwa_hh_ids.

672 Jal_a_l ad-D_i_n ar-R_u_m_i_ d.

675 A_h_mad al-Badaw_i_, founder of order of darw_i_shes, d.

681 Ibn Khallik_a_n d.

685 Al-Bay_da_w_i_ d.

693, 698-708, 709-741 Mu_h_ammad An-N_as_ir, Maml_u_k Sul_t_an, reg.

719 An-Na_s_r al-Manbij_i_ d.?

724 Ibn Rushd is still studied at Almeria.

728 Ibn Taym_i_ya d.; Meister Eckhart d. = A.D. 1328.

730 ‘Abd ar-Razz_a_q d.

756 Al-‘_I_j_i_ d.; Heinrich Suso d.

791 At-Taft_aza_n_i_ d.; an-Naqshband_i_, founder of order of darw_i_shes, d.

808 Ibn Khald_u_n d.

857 Capture of Constantinople by Ottomans and office of Shaykh al-Isl_a_m created = A.D. 1453. Thomas à Kempis d. = A.D. 1471.

895 M. b. Y_u_suf as-San_u_s_i_ d.

907 Accession of _S_afawids.

922 Conquest of Egypt by Ottoman Turks.

945 Death of al-Mutawakkil, last ‘Abb_a_sid.

951 Beginning of Shar_i_fs of Morocco.

973 Ash-Sha‘r_a_n_i_ d.

1201 ‘Abd al-Wahh_a_b d. = A.D. 1787.

1205 Sayyid Murta_da_ d.; al-Fu_da_l_i_ fl. circ. 1220.

1252 Foundation of Brotherhood of as-San_u_s_i_ = A.D. 1837.

1260 Ibr_a_h_i_m al-B_a_j_u_r_i_ d.; Decree of Porte that apostate Muslims should not be put to death.

1275 Death of founder of Brotherhood of as-San_u_s_i_ = A.D. 1859.

FOOTNOTES

[1] For Muslim eschatology reference may still be made to Sale’s introduction to the Qur’an, § 4. The punishment of the grave is what, in the case of unbelievers, follows the inquisition by the two angels _Munkar_ and _Nakir_; see on them Lane’s _Modern Egyptians_, chap. xxviii; on the whole subject, see translations by Gautier and Wolff and tractate by Rüling (Bibliography, p. 367).

[2] This, one of the dividing questions between Sunnites and Shi‘ites, belongs to theology as well as law. See p. 314 and Goldziher, _Zur Literaturgeschichte der Si‘a_, p. 87.

[3] The Mu‘tazilites held that articles of sustenance of a forbidden nature, such as pork or wine, could not be called _rizq_ in this technical sense; that God could not so use them. The orthodox retorted that a man might live his life out on forbidden things; had he then been independent of God as to his sustenance? The Mu‘tazilites defined _rizq_ as “a possession which its possessor eats” and as “that from which one is not hindered from profiting”; the orthodox, as a name for that which God sends to man and the other animals and they eat it and profit by it.

[4] Some will run into the fire and find themselves immediately in Paradise; these would have been believers. Others will refuse, and will be treated as their parents.

[5] This is not the normal doctrine of Islam and the commentators have to explain this passage away. Consult in the chapters on theology, the whole Sufi development and especially the views of al-Ghazzali. Al-Mataridi was greatly influenced by Abu Hanifa, who was hostile to mystics. Notice, too, the philosophical basis and beginning of this creed.

[6] A sect of the Mu‘tazilites held that a man could have two _ajals_, one his end by a natural death appointed by God, the other his end by a violent death, not so appointed. The “Philosophers” are said to have held that one _ajal_ would be when the mechanism of the body ceased to work through the failing of its essential moisture and heat, and another _ajal_ might come through sicknesses and accident generally.

[7] See in bibliography, S. Keijzer, _Précis, etc_. Much help as to details of religious ritual and law will be found in Hughes’s _Dictionary of Islam_, Sachau’s _Muhammedanisches Recht_, Lane’s _Modern Egyptians_, and commentary to his translation of the _Arabian Nights_, Burton’s _Pilgrimage_, and Sell’s _Faith of Islam_.

INDEX OF NAMES AND ARABIC WORDS

Abad_i_, 300

Al-‘Abb_a_s, 10, 32

‘Abb_a_sids, 10, 32, 34, 39, 45, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 91, 92-94, 97, 98, 132-135, 153, 154, 167, 169, 174

‘Abd, 294

‘Abd All_a_h, father of Mu_h_ammad, 350, f.

‘Abd All_a_h ibn az-Zubayr, 23, 25

‘Abd All_a_h ibn Maym_u_n, 40, 42-44

‘Abd All_a_h ibn ‘Umar, 298

‘Abd al-Mu’min, 248, 252

‘Abd al-Mu_tt_alib, 351

‘Abd al-Q_a_dir al-J_i_l_a_n_i_, 267

‘Abd ar-Ra_h_m_a_n, the Umayyad, 33

‘Abd ar-Razz_a_q, 271, f.

‘_A_bid, 173, 174

‘_A_bida, 174

Abkam, 340

Abraham, also Ibr_a_h_i_m, 43, 226, 345

Ab_u_ ‘Abd All_a_h ibn Karr_a_m; see Ibn Karr_a_m

Ab_u_-l-‘Al_a_ al-Ma‘arr_i_, 199

Ab_u_ Bakr, 1st Kh., 13-16, 23, 24, 36, 56, 71, 165, 200, 250, 268, 297, 307, 313, 346

Ab_u_ D_a_’_u_d as-Sijist_a_n_i_, 81

Ab_u_ Dharr, 207

Ab_u_-l-_H_ajj_a_j ibn _T_uml_u_s, 260

Ab_u_ _H_an_i_fa, 94-102, 106, 121, 127, 193, 309

Ab_u_ H_a_shim, 159, f.

Ab_u_ Hudhayl, 136-139, 159, 248

Ab_u_ Sahl, 325

Ab_u_ Shuj_a_‘ al-Ispah_a_n_i_, 351

Ab_u_ Sufy_a_n, 22

Ab_u_ Sulaym_a_n of Damascus, 175

Ab_u_ _Ta_lib, 10

Ab_u_ _Ta_lib al-Makk_i_, 176, f.

Ab_u_ ‘Ubayda, 150

Ab_u_ Ya‘q_u_b ibn ‘Abd al-Mu’min, 252-255

Ab_u_ Y_u_suf, the Q_adi_, 96-99

Ab_u_ Y_u_suf al-Man_su_r, 252, 255

Active Intellect, 236, 250-253, 256, 265

‘_A_da, 113

‘Adad, 326

_A_dam, 42, 43, 171, 232, 312, 332, 346

‘Adam, 316

‘Ad_i_ al-Hakk_a_r_i_, 267

‘_A_dil, 356

‘Adl, 291

Africa, 59

Africa, East, 24, 26

Africa, North, 26, 35, 45, 46, 62, 243

Ahl al-ahw_a_, 122, 299

Ahl at-taw_hi_d wal-‘adl, 136

Ahl kit_a_b, 24

A_h_mad al-Badaw_i_, 267, 269

A_h_mad al-Malaw_i_, 331

A_h_mad ar-Rif_a_‘a, 267

A_h_mad ibn ‘Abd All_a_h ibn Maym_u_n, 44

A_h_mad ibn Ab_i_ Duw_a_d, 156

A_h_mad ibn _H_anbal, 79, 103, 110, 157, 158, 172, 175, 176, 187, 274, 277, 293

‘_A_’isha, wife of Mu_h_ammad, 10, 13, 21

‘_A_’isha, daughter of Ja‘far a_s_-_Sa_diq, 173

Ajal, 298, 311

Al-Ajh_u_r_i_, 346

‘Ajz, 317, 339

Al-Akh_t_al, 89

‘_A_lam al-jabar_u_t, 234

‘_A_lam al-malak_u_t, 234, 235

‘_A_lam al-mulk, 234

Alam_u_t, 49, 169, 224

Alastu bi-rabbikum, 171

Aleppo, 162

Alexandria, 241

Algeria, 24, 26, 62

‘Alids, 18, 32-35, 37, 51, 155, 157, 166, 187

‘Al_i_ ibn Ab_i_ _Ta_lib, 18-31, 36, 37, 44, 45, 88, 121, 155, 182, 249, 259, 275, 297, 307, 313, 314, 346

‘_A_lim, 337; cf. ‘ulam_a_

All_a_h, 127, 161, 321, 327

Almeria, 260

Alp Arsl_a_n, 213

Alphonso the Wise, 233

Al-‘Alqam_i_, 346

A‘m_a_, 340

‘Am_a_, 340

‘Amal, 294, 296, 312

Am_a_na, 347

‘Amr ibn ‘Ubayd, 129

Am_i_na, mother of Mu_h_ammad, 351

Anima Mundi, 232

An_sa_r, 9, 13, 18

‘Aq_i_da, 316

‘Aq_i_qa, 356

‘Aql, 120, 136, 148, 157, 214, 269, 272, 292, 308, 316

Al-’aql al-fa‘ ‘_a_l; see Active Intellect

Arabs, 8, 14, 17, 24, 40, 44-46, 50, 51, 60, 67, 68, 74, 124, 125, 127, 133, 134, 150, 157, 243, 305

Arabia, 15, 23, 25, 36, 37, 131

Arabia, South, 28, 36, 37, 45, 59

Arab ‘Ir_a_q; see al-‘Ir_a_q

‘Arad, 159, 309, 320

Ar_h_amu-r-r_ah_im_i_n, 210

Aristotelians, Aristotelianism, 134, 140, 144, 161-163, 168, 196, 198, 201, 202, 286

Aristotle, 134, 138, 140, 144, 161-164, 198, 221, 232, 236, 248, 253, 255, 256, 260, 264

‘Arsh, 301

Asal, 253, 254

A_s_amm, 340

Al-asharatu-l-mubashshara, 268, 297, 314

Al-Ash‘ari, 187-190, 192, 193, 200, 208, 214, 217, 218, 220, 226, 229, 230, 293, 308, 319, 341

Ash‘arites, 191, 201, 207-213, 241-247, 272, 273, 276, 280, 291, 292, 338

‘_A_sh_u_r_a_, day of, 28

A_s_l, 107, 109

A_s_la_h_, 190, 292, 311; see, too, _s_al_ah_

Al-asm_a_ al-_h_usn_a_, 210, 280, 321, 341

Assassins, 27, 49, 53, 59, 169, 170, 196; see, too, Ism_a_‘_i_lians, B_at_inites, Ta‘l_i_mites

‘At_a_ ibn Yass_a_r, 128

Athos, Mount, 178

Augustine, 132, 215, 216

Avenpace, 250; see, too, Ibn B_a_jja

Averroes, Averroism, 251; see, too, Ibn Rushd

Avicenna, 197; see, too, Ibn S_i_n_a_

Awl_a_d ‘Ilw_a_n, 268

Awwal_i_y_a_t, 260

Al-Awz_a_‘_i_, 98

‘Ayn, 191, 309, 319, 341

Azal_i_, 291, 300, 309, 322, 343

B_a_bism, 5

Bad_a_ha, 308

Badakhsh_a_n, 170

Badan, 141

Badawite darw_i_shes, 267

Al-Baghaw_i_, 81, 207

Baghd_a_d, 5, 50-53, 56, 111, 133, 159, 162, 166-168, 175, 184, 185, 190, 194, 195, 207, 213, 217, 220, 226, 267

Baghd_a_d, Pashalik of, 60

Bakam, 340

Bal_a_da, 347

Balkh, 174

Baq_a_, 323

Al-B_a_qil_a_n_i_, 200, 201, 207

Barmak, Barmecides, 50

Ba_s_ar, 294, 333

Bashsh_a_r ibn Burd, 150

Ba_s_ir, 337

Al-Ba_s_ra, 18, 23, 25, 83, 150, 159, 167, 174, 187, 188

Ba‘th, 296, 311, 329

B_at_in, 314

B_at_inites, 42, 196

Ba_t_n, 42

Bay‘, 353

Al-Bay_da_w_i_, 195, 241

Al-Bayj_u_r_i_, 315

Baytu-l-‘izza, 335

Bedaw_i_s, 62

Berbers, 45, 243, 244, 248, 249

Al-B_e_r_u_n_i_, 170, 197

Beyrout, 84

Bid‘a, 74, 78, 148, 186, 297, 299, 307

Bil_a_ kayfa wal_a_ tashb_i_h, 147, 171, 191, 208, 294, 344; cf. kayfa

Bil-fi‘l; see Fi‘l

Bishr al-_Ha_f_i_, 175, 176

Bishr al-Mar_i_s_i_, 155

Bishr ibn al-Mu‘tamir, 142, 143, 151, 152

Al-Bis_ta_m_i_, Ab_u_ Yaz_i_d, 183, 188, 225, 268

Brotherhood of as-San_u_s_i_, 61, ff.

Buddhists, 134

Al-Bukh_a_r_i_, 79, 80, 147, 148

Burgundy, 83

Burh_a_n, 259, 260

Buwayhids, 51, 52, 167, 194, 195, 197, 208

Cæsarea, 84

Cairo, 49, 166, 173, 195, 241, 244, 277

Camel, Battle of the, 21

Carthage, 82, 243

Charles the Hammer, 83

Chinese Muslims, 59

Christians, Christianity, 24, 47, 48, 125, 130-134, 137, 144, 147, 151, 181, 194

Companions; see _Sah_ibs

Code Napoléon, 114

Constantine in Algeria, 45

Constantinople, 54, 113

Crusaders, 49

Ad-Dajj_a_l, 298, 315

Dal_i_l, 109, 315

_D_am_a_n, 354

Damascus, 14, 82, 88, 131, 175, 177

D_a_r al-_H_arb, 55

D_a_r al-Isl_a_m, 55

_D_ar_u_r_i_, 308

Darw_i_shes, 5, 61, 179, 182, 183, 203, 244, 266, 268

D_a_’_u_d a_z_-_Za_hir_i_, 103, 108-110

D_a_’_u_d ibn Nusayr, 174

Dauphiné, Le, 83

Dawr, 323

Dhikrs, 174, 178, 179

Dhuh_u_l, 340

Dh_u_-l-faq_a_r, 20

Dh_u_-l-Kifl, 346

Dh_u_-n-N_u_n, 176

Dh_u_-n-N_u_rayn, 313

D_i_n, 293, 297, 298, 305, 307

Diya, 355

Diy_a_na, 293

Druses, 27, 48, 59, 170

Eckart, the mystic, 180

Edict of the Prætor, 87

Egypt, Egyptians, 14, 21, 23, 30, 45-49, 53, 62, 82, 187, 244, 277, 287

Emessa, 163

Erigena, Scotus, 182

Euchites, 178

Euclid, 134

Euphrates, 133

Fakhr ad-D_i_n ar-R_a_z_i_, 241

Fakhr ad-Din ibn ‘As_a_kir, 273

Fan_a_, 338

Faq_i_h, fuqah_a_, 73, 85, 270

Faq_i_rs, 268

Al-F_a_r_a_b_i_, 162-164, 165, 167, 169, 181, 196, 215, 221, 236, 250

Far_a_gh, 317

Far_d_, 73

Far_id_a, 354

Al-F_a_r_u_q, 313

Fa_ta_na, 347

F_at_ima, daughter of Mu_h_ammad, 20, 30, 36, 346, 347

F_at_ima of Nays_a_b_u_r, 173

F_at_imids, 27, 36, 45, 47, 49, 165-167, 169, 173, 184, 197, 224, 241, 244, 251

Fatw_a_, 115, 184, 276, 277

Fay’, 356

Bil-fi‘l, 328

F_i_ ma_h_all; see ma_h_all

Fiqh, 77, 87, 116, 132, 208, 209, 245, 252, 261, 270, 279, 282; cf. faq_i_h

Firdaws_i_, 170

St. Francis of Assisi, 180

Frederick II., the Hohenstaufen, 263

Friday, 35, 51, 235, 298, 313

Al-Fud_a_l_i_, 191, 315

Al-Fu_d_ayl ibn ‘Iy_ad_, 174, 175

Fus_tat_, 83

Galen, 134

Ghafala, 340

Al-Gh_a_n_i_, 327

Ghan_i_ma, 356

Gha_s_b, 354

Al-Ghayb, 139, 281, 314

Al-Ghazz_a_l_i_, 139, 165, 176, 183, 195, 199, 207, 215-241, 245-249, 253, 257, 260-264, 267, 270, 284-286, 300, 309

Gh_i_ba, 349

Ghusl, 352

Gond_e_sh_a_p_u_r, 134

Greek monks, 178

Greek philosophy, science, etc., 133, 138, 140, 144, 159, 161, 162

_H_ab_i_b, 175

_H_add, 314, 355

_H_ad_i_th, 75, 77, 78, 87, 94, 121, 190, 209, 261, 270

_Ha_dith, 320, 322, 328, 332

_H_ad_i_th an-nafs, 273, 336, 350

_H_a_d_ramawt, 60

_H_af_s_ids, 265

_Ha_’il, 60

_H_ajar as-saf_i_h, 354

_Ha_jj, 275, 278, 292, 353

Al-_H_ajj_a_j, 209, 298

Al-_Ha_kim Bi’amrillah, 47, 48

Al-_H_akam ibn ab_i_-l-‘_As_, 17

_Ha_l, 160, 176, 227, 310, 319, 322, 337

_Ha_l nafs_i_, 319

_H_al_a_l, 298

Al-_H_all_a_j, 183-185, 298

Halley’s comet, 34

Hamd_a_nids, 162, 165

Hamilton, Sir William, 237

_H_anbalites, 115, 121, 158, 167, 190, 191, 200, 207, 208, 212-214, 237, 273, 274, 278

_H_an_i_f, 125

_H_anifites, 115

_H_aq_i_qa, 328, 329

_H_aqq, 356

_H_ar_a_m, 73, 298, 311

Al-_H_ar_a_m_a_n, 56, 213

Al-_Ha_rith al-Mu_ha_sib_i_, 175, 177, 187, 225

Harr_a_n, 133, 134

H_a_r_u_n ar-Rash_i_d, 50, 97, 98, 144, 153, 155, 175

_H_asad, 349

Al-_H_asan, 20, 27, 28, 35

Al-_H_asan al-Ba_s_r_i_, 128, 129, 130, 172, 173

_H_asan ibn a_s_-_S_abb_ah_, 224

H_a_shim, 10, 17, 32, 313, 351

_H_aw_a_la, 354

_H_aw_d_, 249, 296, 306, 311, 349

_H_ay_a_h, 332

_H_ayy, 337

Al-_H_ayy, 211

_H_ayy ibn Yaq_za_n, 253, 254

Hebron, 226

Hegel, 143, 233

Her_a_t, 82, 207

Hesychasts, 178

Hiba, 354

_H_id_a_na, 355

Hidden Im_a_m, 31, 37, 41, 56, 116; cf. Im_a_m, Im_a_mites

Hierotheos, 181

Al-_H_ij_a_z, 212

Hippocrates, 134

H_u_d, 346

_H_ud_u_th, 320, 338; cf. _ha_dith, mu_h_dath

_H_ukm, 292

H_u_l_a_g_u_, 49, 53

_H_ul_u_l, 228

Hume, 229, 230

Al-_H_usayn, 20, 28

Huwa-l-_h_aqq, 203

I‘_a_ra, 354

Ib_ad_ites, 5, 26, 54, 115, 117, 126

Ibn‘Abd al-Wahh_a_b; see Mu_h_am, mad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahh_a_b

Ibn Ab_i_ ‘Awj_a_, 80

Ibn al-‘Arab_i_, 316, 322, 323, 328

Ibn ‘Arab_i_, 241, 261, 264, 271, 277, 280

Ibn ash-Shalmagh_a_n_i_, 185

Ibn B_a_jja, 250, 252, 255, 257

Ibn H_a_ni, 170

Ibn _H_azm, 209-212, 245-248, 261, 275, 280

Ibn Ib_ad_, ‘Abd All_a_h, 25, 26, 116

Ibn Karr_a_m, 170, ff.

Ibn Khald_u_n, 50, 81, 242, f.

Ibn Khallik_a_n, 185

Ibn M_a_ja, 81

Ibn al-Muqaffa‘, 150

Ibn Rushd, 161, 163, 195, 206, 215, 236, 248, 252, 255, 256-261, 264-286

Ibn Sab‘_i_n, ‘Abd al-_H_aqq, 263, 264, 267, 277

Ibn S_i_n_a_, 163, 171, 197, 221, 228, 236, 241, 250, 257

Ibn Taym_i_ya, 270-278, 283-285

Ibn _T_ufayl, 252-256, 261

Ibn T_u_mart, 207, 245-248, 252, 275

Ibr_a_h_i_m ibn Adham, 174, 268

Al-id_a_fatu-l-‘_a_mm lil-kh_ass_, 337

Al-id_a_fatu-l-bay_a_n_i_ya, 337

‘Idda, 355

Idr_i_s, 346

Idr_i_s ibn ‘Abd All_a_h, 35

Idr_i_sids, 34, 102

I_hat_a, 332

I_h_s_a_n, 293

I_h_tiy_a_j il_a_ ma_h_all, 339

I_h_y_a_, 338

I_h_y_a_ of al-Ghazz_a_l_i_, 285, 300

I_h_y_a_ al-maw_a_t, 354

Ij_a_ra, 354

I‘j_a_z, 151

Al-‘_I_j_i_, 241, 269

Ijm_a_‘, 57, 58, 72, 94, 101, 105, 209, 292, 328, 351

Ijm_a_l_i_, 316

Ikhtil_a_f, 116

Ikhtiy_a_r, 192, 310, 339, 345

Ikhw_a_n a_s_-_s_af_a_, 167, 169, 194, 196, 199

Iktis_a_b, 280; cf. kasb

Iktis_a_b_i_, 309

_I_l_a_, 355

Il_ha_d, 314

Ilh_a_m, 281, 309

Ilj_a_m al-‘aw_a_mm‘an ‘ilm al-kal_a_m of al-Ghazz_a_l_i_, 260

‘Illa, 107, 319, 337; cf. ta‘l_i_l

‘Ilm, 201, 294, 332

‘Ilw_a_n, the Shaykh, 268

Im_a_m, 26, 29, 31, 36-38, 41-43, 46, 54, 57, 142, 155, 165, 167, 188, 197, 212, 224, 286, 292, 293, 297-299, 311, 313, 318, 350

Im_a_m al-_H_aramayn, 212, 213, 217, 230, 317

Im_a_mites, 37, 57, 59, 116, 126, 142, 247

_I_m_a_n, 126, 127, 292-296, 311, 312, 318, 350

Im_a_ta, 338

Imd_a_d_a_t, 330

Imti_ha_n, 148; cf. mi_h_na

India, 51, 55, 56, 59, 61

India, Emperor of, 55

Indian Mu‘tazilism, 286

Inj_i_l, 304

In sh_a_’ All_a_h, 272

Iqr_a_r, 312, 354

Ir_a_da, 330

Al-‘Ir_a_q, 209

‘Ir_a_q, Arab, 44

Ir_da_, 355

Irj_a_, 292; cf. Murji’ites

‘_I_s_a_; see Jesus

Isl_a_m, 7, 13-15, 19-27, 37, 40-48, 52-55, 58, 59, 68, 71-74, 118-120, 124, 130, 136, 141, 142, 149, 151-154, 158-161, 167, 173, 176, 177, 180-183, 186, 190, 191, 206, 212-215, 218, 226, 228, 230, 231, 233, 235, 238-244, 248, 261, 262, 270, 278, 282-284, 292, 296, 312

‘I_s_ma, 247, 292, 314, 347

Ism_a_‘_i_l, 41, 42, 43

Ism_a_‘_i_lians, 42, 44, 57, 59, 169, 170, 196

Isn_a_d, 75, 78, 79

Ispahan, 195

Istaw_a_, Istiw_a_, 186, 294, 301

Istidl_a_l_i_, 308

Isti_h_s_a_n, 87, 94, 96

Isti_s_l_ah_, 87, 100, 101

Isti_ta_‘a, 310

Istiw_a_; see Istaw_a_

I‘tazala ‘ann_a_, 130

Ithn_a_ ‘Ashar_i_ya, 38

I‘tib_a_r, 201, 341

I‘tib_a_r ikhtir_a_‘_i_, 342

I‘tib_a_r intiz_a_‘_i_, 342

I‘tid_a_l, 221

I‘tik_a_f, 353

‘Itq, 357

Itti_ha_d, 228, 277

Ja‘_a_la, 354

Jabarites, 292, 344

Jabr, 291, 344

Jacob, 350

Jadl_i_ya, 259

Ja‘far a_s_-_Sa_diq, 42, 173

Al-Jafr, 249

Jahannam, 306

Al-J_a_hil_i_ya, the Barbarism, or the Ignorance, 8, 74, 77, 173

Al-J_ah_i_z_, 160, 161

Jahl, 340

Jahm ibn _S_afw_a_n, 126, 138, 146, 150

Jahmites, 294, 299

J_a_’iz, 73, 316, 348

Jal_a_l ad-D_i_n ar-R_u_m_i_, 267

J_a_mi‘, 80

Jarab_u_b, 62

Jawhar, 159, 309

Jawhar r_uha_n_i_, 231

Jerusalem, 14, 40, 42, 146, 226

Jesus, ‘_I_s_a_, 42, 146, 315, 345

Jews, 24, 47, 68, 70, 133, 134, 144, 194

Jibr_i_l, 292, 293, 335, 336

Jih_a_d, 55, 63, 246, 356

Jin_a_ya, 355

Jinn, Jinn_i_, J_a_nn, 76, 281, 283, 286, 299, 304, 305, 324

Jirm, 317, 320

Jism, 143, 309

Jizya, 15, 356

John of Damascus, 89, 131, 132, 137, 146

Al-Jubb_a_‘_i_, 159, 160, 172, 188-190

Al-Junayd, 176, 177, 183, 187, 225, 282

Jurisprudentes, 85, 86

Juththa, 334

Al-Juwayn_i_; see Im_a_m al-_H_aramayn

Ka‘ba, 149, 268, 278

Kab_i_ra, 127, 296, 311, 349

Kaf_a_la, 354

Kaf_i_r, 295, 316, 328, 350; cf. kufr, takf_i_r

“Kalila and Dimna,” 150

K_a_hin, 314

Kal_a_m, 147, 149, 151, 157, 175, 186, 188, 193, 200, 206, 208, 214, 216, 241, 242, 245, 276, 278, 286, 294, 309, 315, 335

Kal_a_m All_a_h, 146

Kal_a_m nafs_i_, _h_ad_i_th fi-n-nafs, 273, 336

Kalimat_a_-sh-shah_a_da, 300

Al-kalimat_a_n, 30

Kallima-ll_a_hu M_u_s_a_ takl_i_m_a_, 149

Kamm munfa_s_il, 325

Kamm mutta_s_il, 325

Kant, 191, 200, 201

Al-Kar_a_b_i_s_i_, 187

Kar_a_ha, 339

Kar_a_ma, 174, 213, 228, 230, 274, 281, 282, 313

Karbala, 28

Karr_a_mites, 170, 191, 195, 291, 292

Kasb, 179, 192, 292; cf. iktis_a_b

Kashf, 120, 172, 179, 215, 269

Kashsh_a_f of az-Zamakhshar_i_, 195

Kawn, 309; cf. takw_i_n

Kawn ‘_a_jiz, 340

Kawn j_a_hil, 340

Kawn k_a_rih, 340

Kawn mayyit, 340

Kawn mur_i_d, 337

Kawn q_a_dir, 336

Al-Kawthar, 306, 349

Kayfa, 297

Kayf_i_ya, 309, 334

Kempis, Thomas à, 177, 180

Khabar, 308

Khad_i_ja, 347

Al-Kha_d_ir, 281, 283

Khal_i_fa, Khalifate, 13-28, 32-38, 45, 47, 51-58, 297, 313; cf. al-Khulaf_a_

Khalq, 338

Kh_a_nq_a_h, 229, 266

Khar_a_j, 15

Kharas, 340, 341

Kh_a_rijites, 23-27, 32, 40, 44, 57, 59, 123-126, 131, 172, 212, 292, 294, 296

Kha_t_ar_a_t, 331

Khi_ta_b_i_ya, 259

Khi_t_ba, 355

Khiy_a_na, 347

Khuffs, 298, 314, 347, 352, 355

Khul‘, 355

Al-Khulaf_a_-ar-r_a_shid_u_n, 22, 87, 99, 105, 114

Khur_a_s_a_n, 171, 174, 177

Khu_t_b_a_, 56

Khuzist_a_n, 25, 134

Kibr, 349

Kidhb, 347

Al-Kind_i_, 155, 161, 187

Kit_a_ba, 357

Kitm_a_n, 347

Kubr_a_ of as-San_u_s_i_, 316

Al-K_u_fa, 18, 23, 28, 83

Kufr, 157, 296, 311, 332, 349; cf. takf_i_r, k_a_fir

Lab_i_d, 149

Laf_z_, 147, 335

Laqab, 347

Laq_it_, 354

L_a_ shay’, 328

Al-law_h_ al-ma_h_f_uz_, 335

Laylatu-l-qadr, 335

Lebanon, 48

Leibnitz, 192, 200, 203

Li‘_a_n, 355

Logos, 146-148, 151

Lucretius, 200

Luq_t_a, 354

Lu_t_f, 292

Ma‘bad al-Ju_h_ani, 128

Al-Mad_i_na, 7, 8, 18, 35, 56, 67, 69-71, 72, 82, 87, 88, 99, 101, 102, 165, 213, 216, 226, 278, 284, 346

Madrasa, 229

Ma‘d_u_m, 159, 314, 319; cf. ‘adam

Maf_a_t_ih_ al-ghayb of ar-R_a_z_i_, 241

Magians, 144

Al-Maghrib, 243

Ma_h_all, 317, 325

Mahall (fi), 137

Al-Mahd_i_, 27, 34, 45, 63, 114, 244-249

Al-Mahd_i_, the ‘Abb_a_sid Khal_i_fa, 35, 134

Al-Mahd_i_ya, 165, 244

M_a_h_i_ya, 309

Ma_h_m_u_d of Ghazna, 170, 195, 197

Mahr, 355

Maimonides, 237

Maine, Sir Henry, 65, 85, 114

Maj_a_z_i_, 329

M_a_j_u_j, 315

Makhl_u_q_a_t, 324

Makr_u_h, 73, 347

Malay Archipelago, 62

M_a_lik ibn Anas, 35, 78, 99-103, 106, 147, 186, 245, 346

M_a_likites, 115

Ma‘mar ibn ‘Abb_a_d, 143

Maml_u_ks, 53, 54, 275

Al-Ma’m_u_n, 50, 110, 140, 144, 154-159, 162, 166, 277

Mand_u_b, 73, 347

Manichæans, 133, 134

Mansel, H. L., 237

Al-Mans_u_r, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 33, 34, 50, 134, 153, 154

Maq_a_ma, 176

Al-Maq_a_sid, 346

Maqb_u_l_a_t, 259

Mar’an, 314

Ma‘rifa, 201, 350

Mar_i_ya the Copt, 347

Ma‘r_u_f of al-Karkh, 175

Marw_a_n II., 32

Marw_a_n ibn al-_H_akam, 17

Mas_a_b_ih_ as-sunna of al-Baghaw_i_, 81

Mas_h_, 298, 314

Mashh_u_r_a_t, 259

Mashya, 294

Ma_s_la_h_a, 101

Masy_a_f, 49

Al-M_a_tar_i_d_i_, 187, 193, 207, 308

M_a_taridites, 200, 207, 337, 338

Matn, 75, 78

Maw_a_qif of al ‘_I_j_i_, 241

Mawj_u_b, 347; cf. w_a_jib

Mawj_u_d, 159, 191, 314, 319; cf. wuj_u_d

Mawlawite darw_i_shes, 267

Mawqif, 296, 349

Maw_s_il, 267

Mawt, 340

Maym_u_n, 40

Ma_z_n_u_n_a_t, 259

Mecca, 9, 17, 23, 25, 32, 46, 56, 62, 68, 174, 184, 213, 217, 226, 265, 285, 296, 346

Merv, 217

Mesnev_i_, The, 267

Mesopotamia, 23, 44, 82, 131, 187

Mi_h_na, 156, 157

Minister of Justice, 114

Mi‘r_a_j, 298, 312

Mongols, 49, 52, 53, 169

Monophysites, 181

Morocco, 35, 62

Moses, 42, 149, 192, 295, 296, 304, 336, 345

Mu‘_a_wiya, 21-23, 28, 88

Mub_ah_, 73, 348

Mubtadi‘, 307; cf. bid‘a

Muft_i_, 115; cf. fatw_a_

Muh_a_jirs, 8, 13, 20

Mu_h_ammad, the Prophet, 7-13, 16-22, 28, 30, 35, 37, 42-45, 56, 57, 58, 67-75, 83, 86-89, 95, 104-106, 112, 120-133, 140-150, 155, 160, 161, 164, 165, 171, 172, 175-180, 188, 210, 227-231, 243, 245, 249, 253, 254, 263, 270, 275-278, 284, 285, 292-294, 298, 305, 308, 312, 335, 336, 345, 346, 349, 350, 351

Mu_h_ammad II., Ottoman Sul_ta_n, 113

Mu_h_ammad al-‘All_a_f; see Ab_u_ Hudhayl

Mu_h_ammad al-Munta_z_ar, 187

Mu_h_ammad an-Naqshband_i_, 267

Mu_h_ammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahh_a_b, 60, 283

Mu_h_ammad ibn Ab_i_ Bakr, 18

Mu_h_ammad ibn al-_H_anaf_i_ya, 29, 31

Mu_h_ammad ibn al-_H_asan, 38, 96, 102

Mu_h_ammad ibn ‘Al_i_ as-San_u_s_i_; see as-San_u_s_i_

Mu_h_ammad ibn Ism_a_‘_i_l, 42, 43, 45

Mu_h_arram, 347

Al-Mu_ha_sib_i_; see Al-_Ha_rith

Mu_h_dath, 309; cf. _ha_dith, _h_ud_u_th

Mu_h_dith, 309, 321

Mu_h_san, 355

Mu_h_y_i_ ad-D_i_n ibn ‘Arab_i_; see Ibn ‘Arab_i_

Al-Mu‘izz, F_at_imid Khal_i_fa, 170

Mujassim, 191, 291; cf. jism’, tajs_i_m

M_u_jid, 325

Mu‘jiza, 141, 151, 313, 345

Mujtahid, 38, 116, 275, 287, 315

Mujtahid_u_n bil-fatw_a_, 113

Mujtahid_u_n fi-l-madh_a_hib, 113

Mujtahid_u_n mu_t_laq, 112

Mukallaf, 280, 317, 318, 321, 323, 342, 345; cf. takl_i_f

Muk_a_shafa, 227

Mukh_a_bara, 354

Mukh_a_lafa lil-_h_aw_a_dith, 205, 210, 232, 280, 324

Mukha_ss_i_s_, 325

Mum_a_thala, 338

Mu’min, 126, 130, 350

Mumkin_a_t, 330

Munkar, 296, 298, 305, 311

Munazzah, 324

Munta_z_ar, 313; see, too, Mu_h_ammad al-Munta_z_ar

Muqallad, 316, 350; cf. taql_i_d

Al-Muqanna‘, 30

Munqidh min a_d_-dal_a_l of al-Ghazz_a_l_i_, 216, 225, 239

Muqarrab, 306

Al-Muqtadir, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 184

Mur_a_bi_t_s, 246, 251

Marji’ites, 122-127, 129, 131, 132, 171, 193, 214, 292

Murtadd, 24, 297

M_u_s_a_, see Moses

M_u_s_a_ al-Qazam, 42

Mus_a_q_a_t, 354

Musallam_a_t, 259

Musannaf, 79

Musaylima, 150

Mushabbih, 191; cf. bil_a_ kayfa

Mush_a_hada, 327

Mushrik, 284, 299; cf. shirk, shar_i_k

Muslim, 80

Musnad, 79, 110

Al-Mu_st_af_a_, 300

Musta_h_abb, 73

Musta_hi_l, 316

Mustan_s_ir, F_at_imid Kh., 170

Mutakallims, 147, 186, 193-196, 215, 231, 262, 276, 337

Al-Mu‘tasim, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 157, 158, 162, 163

Mutaq_a_bil_a_t, 330

Al-Mutawakkil, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 157, 162

Mutaw_a_tir, 308

Mu‘tazilites, 37, 57, 120, 130, 135-138, 140, 143-146, 151-159, 166, 168, 171, 172, 175, 176, 184-196, 200, 207, 208, 211-214, 220-226, 241, 248, 291-294, 298, 299, 311, 336, 337, 343, 344

Muwa_hh_ids, 179, 207, 246-257, 261-265, 284, 296, 307

Muwa_tt_a’ of M_a_lik ibn Anas, 78, 82, 101, 102

Al-Muzd_a_r, 151

Mzab in Algeria, 26, 59

Nabateans, 44

Nab_i_, 263, 312, 345

Nab_i_dh, 314

Nadhr, 356

Nafaqa, 355

Naf_i_sa, The Lady, 173

Nafs, 234, 272, 334

Nah_a_wand, 14, 133

Naj_a_s_a_t, 352

Najd, 60

Najj_a_rites, 292

Nak_i_r, 296, 298, 305, 311

Naq_i_b, 268

Naql, 120, 148, 157, 214, 269, 297, 310

Naqshbandite darw_i_shes, 267

Narbonne, 83

An-Nasaf_i_, 193, 207, 277, 308

An-Nas_a_’_i_, 81, 152

N_a_sir ibn Khusraw, 170

An-N_as_ir, Maml_u_k Sul_ta_n, 277

An-Na_s_r al-Manb_i_j_i_, 277

Na_ss_, 29, 95, 292

Nays_a_b_u_r, 217, 229

Na_z_r, 208

An-Na_zza_m, 140, 143, 152

Neo-Platonism, 163, 164, 168, 180, 181, 196, 232, 235, 236, 253, 255, 264, 272

Nik_ah_, 354

Nisba, 337

Ni_za_m al-Mulk, 213, 217, 218

Ni_za_mite Academy, 213, 217

Noah, or N_uh_, 42, 43, 345

Nu_s_ayrites, 59

Old Man of the Mountain, Shaykh al-jabal, 49

Ottoman Sul_ta_n, 10, 56, 58, 59

Ottoman Turks, 36, 52, 53, 54, 60

Pan-Isl_a_mic movement, 59

Parsees, 194

People of Paradise, 139

People of the Sunna, 336, 337

Persia, Persian, 14, 23, 31, 36-41, 44, 49, 50, 51, 82, 131-134, 150, 155, 157, 184

Persian Gulf, 60

Persian mysticism, 5

Plato, 134, 162-165, 235

Plotinus, Plotinian, 163-165, 182, 231, 256, 269, 280

Porphyrius, 163

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, 181, 182

Ptolemaic system, 233

Ptolemy, 134

Pythagoreanism, 168, 170

Qa_da_, 291, 295, 342, 356

Qadar, 128, 135-137, 242, 291, 293, 295, 342

Qadarites, 122, 127-132, 135, 137, 140, 292, 344

Q_adi_, 115, 156, 245, 356

Qad_i_m, 143, 300, 322, 343

Al-Q_a_dir, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 193-195

Q_a_dir, 319

Q_a_dirite darw_i_shes, 267, 269

Al-Q_a_dis_i_ya, 14, 133

Q_a_n_u_ns, 114

Qarma_t_ians, 44, 46, 170, 184, 188

Qasm, 356

Qatt_a_t, 350

Qawl, 296

Qidam, 322

Qir_ad_, 354

Qi_sas_, 355

Al-Qiy_a_ma, 349; cf. Yawm

Qiy_a_m bin-nafs, 325

Qiy_a_s, 87, 94, 209, 247, 347

Qub_d_a, 329

Qudra, 192, 234, 294, 310, 319, 322, 328, 344

Al-Qudra al-azal_i_ya, 234

Qur’_a_n, 24, 42, 62, 69-71, 76, 77, 85, 94-96, 99, 103-106, 109, 117, 121, 128-130, 135, 138-141, 145-152, 155-158, 161-163, 171, 178, 188, 190, 195-198, 206, 209, 210, 231, 235, 238, 241, 245-249, 252, 253, 257-259, 263, 271, 272-275, 282-284, 295, 297, 303, 304, 310, 335, 345, 346

Quraysh, 10, 57, 305, 313

Al-Qushayr_i_, 213

Qu_t_b, 268, 282

Q_u_wa, 328

Rabelais, 199

R_a_bi‘a, 173

R_a_fi_d_ites, 212

R_a_hib, 125, 172

Rahn, 354

Rama_da_n, 188, 292, 293

Ar-R_a_shid, the Muwa_hh_id, 263, 264

Ras_a_’il ikhw_a_n a_s_-_s_af_a_, 168

Ras_u_l, 263, 308, 312, 345

Ra’y, 86, 94

Razq, 338

Red Sea, 60

Responsa prudentium, 85

Ri_da_, 310

Rif_a_‘ite darw_i_shes, 267, 268

Ris_a_la, 292

Ris_a_la of al-Qushayr_i_, 213

Ritschl, 238

Rizq, 179, 298, 299, 311, 317

R_uh_, 141, 231, 272

Rukh_s_a, 283

Ru’ya, 310, 344

As-s_a_‘a, 293, 294, 315

Sab_i_l All_a_h, 18

Sab‘_i_nite darw_i_shes, 267

Sab‘_i_ya, 42

Sa‘da, 36

Sa‘d ad-D_i_n; see at-Taft_a_z_a_n_i_

_S_afawids, 38

As-Saff_ah_, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 32

_S_agh_i_ra, 127, 311, 349

Sahara, 62

_Sah_iba, 294

_Sah_ibs, 9, 16, 19, 71, 72, 75, 79, 88, 101, 105, 147, 180, 275, 276, 282, 283, 293, 297, 307, 314, 346

_S_a_h_’fa, 75, 77, 335

_S_a_hi_fa of al-Bukh_a_r_i_, 35, 79-81

_S_a_hih_ of Muslim, 80, ff.

Sa‘_i_d ibn A_h_mad ibn ‘Abd All_a_h, 45

Sa’i_h_s, 172

Saladin; see _S_al_ah_ ad-D_i_n

As-salaf, 157, 190, 297

_S_al_ah_, 292, 343; cf. A_s_la_h_

_S_al_ah_ ad-D_i_n, 49, 241

Salam, 353

Salam_a_n, 253, f.

Salam_i_ya, 44

_S_al_a_t, _S_alaw_a_t, 178, 292, 293, 352

_Sa_li_h_, the prophet, 346

Sal_i_m, Ottoman Sul_ta_n, 56

Salj_u_qs, 207

_S_al_uhi_ qad_i_m, 328

Sam‘, 292, 294, 333

Sam_a_’ ad-Dunya, 297

_S_amam, 340

S_a_m_a_nids, 36

Samarqand, 82, 187, 207

Sam_i_‘, 337, 349

_S_an‘_a_, 36

As-San_u_s_i_, Mu_h_ammad ibn ‘Al_i_, 61, 120, 244, 269, 273, 284

As-San_u_s_i_, Mu_h_ammad ibn Y_u_suf, 315-318, 322, 323, 328, 334, 341, 347

Sar_i_ as-Saqa_ti_, 175-177, 268

Satan, 298, 299; cf. shay_ta_n

_S_awm, 292; cf. _S_iy_a_m

Sayf ad-Dawla, the Hamd_a_nid, 162, 165

Sayyid Murta_da_, 285, 300

Semites, Semitic, 5, 51, 125, 126, 182

Sergius, father of John of Damascus, 131

Seth, 43

Ash-Sh_a_dhil_i_, 267, 269

Sh_a_dhilite darw_i_shes, 267

Shah_a_da, 356

Shaf_a_‘a, 174, 296, 307, 311, 349

Ash-Sh_a_fi‘_i_, 67, 103-111, 173, 187

Sh_a_fi‘ites, 110, 115

Sh_a_hs of Persia, 38

Shakk, 332

Shar’, 345

Ash-Sha‘r_a_n_i_, 279, 281, 283, 285

Ash-Sh_a_hrast_a_n_i_, 213, 224, 291, 293

Shar_i_‘a, 282

Shar_if_s of Mecca, 58, 265

Shar_if_s of Morocco, 35, 59, 247

Shar_i_k, 300, 321, 326; cf. shirk, mushrik

Shay’, 159, 314, 322

Shaykh, 177

Shaykh al-Isl_a_m, 113

Shaykh ‘_I_lw_a_n, 268

Shay_ta_ns, 304

Shem, 43

Ash-Shibl_i_, 176, 177, 225

Shih_a_b ad-D_i_n as-Suhraward_i_, 241

Sh_i_‘ites, Sh_i_‘a, 5, 13, 19, 26-36, 39-41, 48, 51, 52, 56, 59, 115, 116, 121, 123, 131, 159, 165, 184, 185, 193-195, 212, 247, 249, 292, 298

Shirk, 123, 127; cf. shar_i_k, mushrik

Shirka, 354

Shu‘ayb, 346

Shuf‘a, 354

A_s_-_S_idd_i_q, 313

_S_idq, 347

_S_ifa nafs_i_ya, 319

_S_if_a_t, 136, 151, 291, 309

_S_if_a_t adh-dh_a_t, 291

_S_if_a_t al-fi‘l, 291, 338

_S_if_a_t al-ma‘_a_n_i_, 337

_S_if_a_t ‘aql_i_ya, 190

_S_if_a_t at-ta’th_i_r, 333

_S_if_a_t ma‘naw_i_ya, 337

_S_if_a_t salab_i_ya, 328

Sijist_a_n, 171

A_s_-_S_ir_at_, 296, 306, 311, 349

_S_iy_a_m, 353

Solomon, 286

Spain, 33, 82, 132, 194, 209, 246

Spanish Isl_a_m, 132

Stephen bar Sudaili, 181

Stewart (Balfour) and Tait, 235

Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, 48

_Su_f, 130

_Su_f_i_, _Su_f_i_ism, 130, 172, 173, 176-178, 185, 213, 216-219, 222, 225-229, 232, 235, 236, 239, 248, 250, 252, 253, 261, 262, 264, 267, 268, 274, 276-278, 282, 284, 309

S_u_fis_t_iq_i_ya, 308

_Su_f_i_ya, 173

Sufy_a_n ath-Thawr_i_, 97, 98

_S_ughr_a_ of as-San_u_s_i_, 341

As-Suhraward_i_; see Shih_a_b ad-D_i_n

Sulaym_a_n the Great, 54

_S_ul_h_, 354

Sunna, 74, 75, 88, 190, 282, 293, 297, 298, 307, 345

Sunan, 75, 81

Sunnites, 19, 35, 38, 51, 52, 59, 116, 194, 247, 298

_Su_ra, 232

Suso, the mystic, 180

Syria, 21-23, 28, 45, 46, 49, 50, 82, 84, 98, 131, 226

Ta‘addud, 339

Ta‘allaqa, 328

Ta’alluqu-l-qab_d_ati, 329

Tab‘, 328, 339

Tabarist_a_n, 36

Tabi‘_i_y_u_n, 161, 221, 293, 346

Tabl_i_gh, 347

Tabor, Mount, 178

Tadb_i_r, 357

Ta_d_l_i_l, 292

Taf_si_l_i_, 316

At-Taft_a_z_a_n_i_, 242, 269, 308, 318, 345, 346

Tah_a_fut of al-Ghazz_a_l_i_, 229, 237, 240, 257, 286

_T_ah_a_ra, 351

A_t_-_T_a_ha_w_i_, 187, 193

Ta_h_l_i_l, 276

Ta_h_s_i_n, 292

Tajs_i_m, 209, 246

Takallam, 147

Takf_i_r, 292

Takl_i_f, 137, 310

Takw_i_n, 310, 338

_T_al_a_q, 355

_T_al_h_a, 21, 25

Ta‘l_i_l, 339

Ta‘l_i_m, 197

Ta‘l_i_mites, 197, 219, 224, 228

Tanj_i_z_i_, 328

Taqb_ih_, 292

Taq_i_ya, 126

Taql_i_d, 209, 217, 246, 261, 270, 286, 316, 318, 323, 350

_T_ar_i_qa, 282

Tasalsul, 201, 322

Tasd_i_q, 312, 350

Tawallud, 142, 144

Tawakkul, 179, f.

Tawba, 292, 349

Taw_hi_d, 156, 175, 176, 246, 291, 300, 315, 349; cf. muwa_hh_id

Ta’w_i_l, 246

Tawl_i_d, 142

Tawr_a_t, 303

Tayammum, 352

Theodoras Abucara, 132

Thiqa, 293, 296

The Thousand and One Nights, 97, 286

Thum_a_ma ibn Ashras, 144

Tigris, 50, 133

At-Tirmidh_i_, 81

Toledo, 82

Tours, 82, f.

Tripolis, 62

_Tu_f_a_n, 329, f.

Tughril Beg, 52, 207, 212, f.

Turkish mysticism, 5

_Tu_s, 216, 229, 230, 267

The Twelve Tables, 85

‘Ubayd All_a_h al-Mahd_i_, 45, 46, 244

U_dh_iya, 356

‘Ulam_a_, 54, 233, 307

Ul_u_h_i_ya, 326

Ul_u_-l-‘azm, 345

‘Um_a_n, 24, 26, 59

‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Az_i_z, Umayyad Kh., 104

‘Umar ibn al-Kha_tta_b, 2nd Kh., 13-19, 23, 24, 36, 44, 56, 86, 93, 165, 275, 297, 307, 313, 346

‘Umar al-Khayy_a_m, 198, 199

‘Umar ibn al-F_a_ri_d_, 266

Umayya, 10, 16

Umayyads, 9, 17-19, 22, 25, 27, 32, 33, 53, 77, 78, 88-93, 104, 123, 131, 133, 153, 209

Umayyads of Cordova, 45

Umm walad, 357

‘Urf, 94, 113

‘Uthm_a_n ibn ‘Aff_a_n, 3rd Kh., 17-22, 25, 36, 71, 297, 307, 313, 346

Vincent of Lerins, 101

Volubilis, 35

Wa‘d, 292

Wad_i_‘a, 354

Wa_h_d_a_n_i_ya, 325

Al-Wahh_a_b, 211

Wahh_a_bites, 60-62, 109, 113, 115, 120, 273, 278, 279, 283-285

Al-W_a_hib, 211

Wa_h_y, 281

Wa‘_i_d, Wa‘_i_dites, 129, 292

W_a_jib, 73, 316, 318

Wak_a_la, 354

Wal_a_, 357

Walad, 294, 330

Wal_i_, 139, 173, 263, 267, 268, 274, 275, 281-285, 313, 326

Wal_i_ma, 355

Wal_i_ya, 173

Waqf, 354

W_a_rith, 354

W_a_sil ibn ‘At_a_, 37, 129, 135, 136, 150

Wa_si_ya, 354

Wa_si_ya of Ibn S_i_n_a_, 198, 228

Al-W_a_thiq, ‘Abb_a_sid Kh., 157

Wu_du_, 318, 352

Wuj_u_d, 159, 191, 316-319, 352

Wu_su_l, 228

Y_a_j_u_j, 315

Al-Yaman, 60, 284

Yam_i_n, 356

Ya‘q_u_b; see Jacob

Yathrib, 67

Yawm al-qiy_a_ma, 295, 349

Yaz_i_d, 19, 28

Yehuda Halevi, 237

Zabb_u_r, 304

Zab_i_d in Tih_a_ma, 285

Z_a_hid, 173, 180

Z_a_hida, 173

_Za_hir, 314

_Za_hirites, 110, 112, 208, 209, 247, 249, 252, 261, 264, 287

_Za_hr, 42

Zak_a_t, 292, 293, 353

Az-Zamakhshar_i_, 195

_Z_ann, 332

Zanzibar, 26, 59, 115

Zaydites, 36, 37, 46, 57, 59, 116, 188

_Z_ih_a_r, 355

Zin_a_, 355

Zind_i_qs, 134

Zoroastrianism, 133, 134, 183

Az-Zubayr, 21, 25

Az-Zuhr_i_, 91

The Semitic Series

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