Chapter 3

Of Poetry in General _Socrates_, as _Plato_ tells us, would have _Fable_ to be the _Form_: _Aristotle_ Imitation: I shall not dispute what difference there is between these two, but only inquire whether Imitation be the _Form_ of _Pastoral_: 'Tis certain that _Epick_ Poetry is differenc't from _Tragick_ only by {29} the manner of imitation, for the latter imitates by _action_, and the former by bare _narration_: But _Pastoral_ is the imitation of a _Pastoral_ action either by bare narration, as in _Virgil's_ _Alexis_, and _Theocritus's_ 7th _Idyllium_, in which the Poet speaks all along in his own Person: or by action as in _Virgil's_ _Tityrus_, and the first of _Theocritus_, or by both mixt, as in the Second and Eleventh _Idylliums_, in which the Poet partly speaks in his own Person, and partly makes others speak, and I think the old _Scholiast_ on _Theocritus_ took an hint from these when he says, that Pastoral is a mixture made up of all sorts, for 'tis Narrative, Dramatick, and mixt, and _Aristotle_, tho obscurely, seems to hint in those words, _In every one of the mentioned Arts there is Imitation, in some simple, in some mixt_; now this latter being peculiar to _Bucolicks_ makes its very form and Essence: and therefore _Scaliger_, in the 4th Chapter of his first Book of Poetry, reckons up three Species of _Pastorals_, the first hath but one Person, the second several, which sing alternately; the third is mixt of both the other: And the same observation is made by _Heinsius_ in his Notes on _Theocritus_, for thus he very plainly to our purpose, _the Character of_ Bucolicks _is a mixture of all sorts of Characters, Dramatick, Narrative, or mixt_: from all which 'tis very manifest that the manner of _Imitation_ which is proper to _Pastorals_ is the mixt: for in other kinds of Poetry 'tis one and simple, at least {30} not so manifold; as in _Tragedy Action_: in _Epick_ Poetry _Narration_.

Now I shall explain what sort of _Fable_; _Manners_, _Thought_, _Expression_, which four are necessary to constitute every kind of Poetry, are proper to this sort.

Concerning the Fable which _Aristotle_ calls, *synthesin tôn pragmatôn*, I have but one thing to say: this, as the Philosopher hints, as of all other sorts of Poetry, so of Pastoral is the very Soul. and therfore _Socrates_ in _Plato_ says, that in those Verses which he had made there was nothing wanting but the _Fable_: therefore Pastorals as other kinds of Poetry must have their Fable, if they will be Poetry: Thus in _Virgil's_ _Silenus_ which contains the Stories of allmost the whole Fabulous Age, two Shepherds whom _Silenus_ had often promis'd a Song, and as often deceived, seize upon him being drunk and asleep, and bind him with wreath'd Flowers; _Ægle_ comes in and incourages the timorous youths, and stains his jolly red Face with Blackberries, _Silenus_ laughs at their innocent contrivance, and desires to be unbound, and then with a premeditated Song satisfies the Nymph's and Boys Curiosity; The incomparable Poet sings wonders, the Rocks rejoyce, the Vales eccho, and happy _Eurotas_ as if _Phoebus_ himself sang, hears all, and bids the Laurels that grow upon his Banks listen to, and learn the Song.

{31} Happy _Eurotas_ as he flow'd along Heard all, and bad the Laurels learn the Song.

Thus every Eclogue or Idyllium must have its Fable, which must be the groundwork of the whole design, but it must not be perplext with sudden and unlookt for changes, as in _Marinus's_ _Adonis_: for that, tho the _Fable_ be of a Shepherd, yet by reason of the strange Bombast under Plots, and wonderful occurences, cannot be accounted _Pastoral_; for that it might be agreeable to the Person it treats of, it must be plain and simple, such as _Sophocles's_ _Ajax_, in which there is not so much as one change of Fortune. As for the Manners, let that precept, which _Horace_ lays down in his Epistle to the _Pisones_, be principally observed.

Let each be grac't with that which suits him best.

For this, as 'tis a rule relateing to _Poetry_ in general, so it respects this kind also of which we are treating; and against this _Tasso_ in his _Amyntas_, _Bonarellus_ in his _Phyllis_, _Guarinus_ in his _Pastor Fido_, _Marinus_ in his _Idylliums_, and most of the _Italians_ grievously offend, for they make their _Shepherds_ too polite, and elegant, and cloth them with all the neatness of the Town, and Complement of the Court, which tho it may seem very pretty, yet amongst good _Critics_, let _Veratus_ {32} say what he will in their excuse, it cannot be allowed: For 'tis against _Minturnus's_ Opinion, who in his second Book _de Poetâ_ says thus: _Mean Persons are brought in, those in Comedy indeed more polite, those in Pastorals more unelegant, as suppos'd to lead a rude life in Solitude_; and _Jason Denor_ a Doctor of _Padua_ takes notice of the same as a very absurd Error: _Aristotle_ heretofore for a like fault reprehended the _Megarensians_, who observ'd no _Decorum_ in their _Theater_, but brought in mean persons with a Train fit for a _King_ and cloath'd a Cobler or Tinker in a Purple Robe: In vain doth _Veratus_ in his Dispute against _Jason Denor_, to defend those elaborately exquisite discourses, and notable sublime sentences of his _Pastor Fido_, bring some lofty _Idylliums_ of _Theocritus_, for those are not acknowledged to be Pastoral; _Theocritus_ and _Virgil_ must be consulted in this matter, the former designdly makes his Shepherds discourse in the _Dorick_ i. e. the Rustick Dialect, sometimes scarce true Grammar; & the other studiously affects ignorance in the persons of his Shepherds, as _Servius_ hath observ'd, and is evident in _Melibæus_, who makes _Oaxes_ to be a River in _Crete_ when 'tis in _Mesopotamia_: and both of them take this way that the Manners may the more exactly suit with the Persons they represent, who of themselves are rude and unpolisht: And this proves that they scandalously err, who make their Shepherds appear polite and elegant; nor can I imagine what _Veratus_ {33} who makes so much ado about the polite manners of the _Arcadian_ Shepherds, would say to _Polybius_ who tells us that _Arcadians_ by reason of the Mountainousness of the Country and hardness of the weather, are very unsociable and austere.

Now as too much neatness in _Pastoral_ is not to be allow'd, so rusticity (I do not mean that which _Plato_, in his Third Book of a Commonwealth, mentions which is but a part of a down right honesty) but Clownish stupidity, such as _Theophrastus_, in his Character of a _Rustick_, describes; or that disagreeable unfashionable roughness which _Horace_ mentions in his Epistle to _Lollius_, must not in my opinion be endur'd: On this side _Mantuan_ errs extreamly, and is intolerably absur'd, who makes Shepherds blockishly sottish, and insufferably rude: And a certain Interpreter blames _Theocritus_ for the same thing, who in some mens opinion sometimes keeps too close to the _Clown_, and is rustick and uncouth; But this may be very well excus'd because the Age in which he sang was not as polite as now.

But that every Part may be suitable to a Shepherd, we must consult unstain'd, uncorrupted Nature; so that the manners might not be too Clownish nor too Caurtly: And this mean may be easily observed if the manners of our Shepherds be represented according to the _Genius_ of the _golden Age_, in which, if _Guarinus_ may be believ'd {34}, every man follow'd that employment: And _Nannius_ in the Preface to his Comments on _Virgil's_ _Bucolicks_ is of the same opinion, for he requires that the manners might represent the Golden Age: and this was the reason that _Virgil_ himself in his _Pollio_ describes that Age, which he knew very well was proper to _Bucolicks_: For in the whole course of a Shepherds life there can be no form more excellent than that which was the practise of the Golden Age; And this may serve to moderate and temper the affections that must be exprest in this sort of Poetry, and sufficiently declare the whole Essence of it, which in short must be taken from the nature of a Shepherds life to which a Courtly dress is not agreeable.

That the Thought may be commendable, it must be suitable to the _manners_; as those must be plain and pure that must be so too: nor must contain any, deep, exquisite, or elaborate fancies: And against this the _Italians_ offend, who continually hunt after smart witty sayings, very foolishly in my opinion; for in the Country, where all things should be full of plainess and simplicity who would paint or endeavor to be gawdy when such appearances would be very disagreeable and offend? _Pontanus_ in this matter hath said very well, _The Thought must not be to exquisite and witty, the Comparisons obvious and common, such as the State of Persons and Things require_: Yet tho too scrupulous a Curiosity in Ornament ought to be rejected, {35} yet lest the Thought be cold and flat, it must have some quickness of Passion, as in these.

Cruel _Alexis_ can't my Verses move? Hast thou no Pitty? I must dye for Love_.

And again,

He neither Gods, nor yet my Verse regards.

The Sense must not be long, copious, and continued, For _Pastoral_ is weak, and not able to hold out; but of this more when I come to lay down rules for its Composure: But tho it ought to imitate _Comedy_ in its common way of discourse, yet it must not chose _old Comedy_ for its pattern, for that is too impudent, and licentiously abusive: Let it be free and modest, honest and ingenuous, and that will make it agreeable to the Golden Age.

Let the Expression be plain and easy, but elegant and neat, and the purest which the language will afford; _Pontanus_ upon _Virgils_ Bucolicks gives the very same rule, _In Bucolicks the Expression must be humble, nearer common discourse than otherwise, not very Spirituous and vivid, yet such as shows life and strength_: Tis certain that _Virgil_ in his _Bucolicks_ useth the same words which _Tully_ did in the _Forum_ or the _Senate_; and _Tityrus_ beneath his shady Beech speaks as pure and good _Latin_ as _Augustus_ in his Palace, as _Modicius_ in his _Apology_ for _Virgil_ hath excellently observ'd: {36} This rule, 'tis true; _Theocritus_ hath not so strictly follow'd, whose Rustick and Pastoral Muse, as _Quintilian_ phraseth it, _not only is affraid to appear in the_ Forum, _but the City_, and for the very same thing an _Alexandrian_ flouts the _Syracucusian Weomen_ in the Fifteenth _Idyllium_ of _Theocritus_, for when they, being then in the City, spoke the _Dorick_ Dialect, the delicate Citizen could not endure it, and found fault with their distastful, as he thought, pronunciation: and his reflection was very smart.

Like Pidgeons you have mouths from Ear to Ear.

So intolerable did that broad way of pronunciation, tho exactly fit for a Clowns discourse, seem to a Citizen: and hence _Probus_ observes that 'twas much harder for the _Latines_ to write _Pastorals_ than for the _Greeks_; because the _Latines_ had not some _Dialects_ peculiar to the Country, and others to the City, as the _Greeks_ had; Besides the _Latine_ Language, as _Quintilian_ hath observ'd, is not capable of the neatness which is necessary to Bucolicks, no, that is the peculiar priviledge of the _Greeks_: _We cannot_, says he, _be so low, they exceed us in subtlety, and in propriety they are at more certainty than We_: and again, _in pat and close Expressions we cannot reach the Greeks_: And, if we believe _Tully_, _Greek is much more fit for Ornament than Latin_ for it hath much more of that neatness, {37} and ravishing delightfulness, which _Bucolicks_ necessarily require.

Yet of Pastoral, with whose Nature we are not very well acquainted, what that _Form_ is which the _Greeks_ call the _Character_, is not very easy to determine; yet that we may come to some certainty, we must stick to our former observation, _viz._ that _Pastoral_ belongs properly to the _Golden Age_: For as _Tully_ in his Treatise _de Oratore_ says, _in all our disputes the Subject is to be measur'd by the most perfect of that kind_, and _Synesius_ in his _Encomium_ on _Baldness_ hints the very same, when he tells us that Poetry fashions its subject as Men imagine it should be, and not as really it is: *pros doxan, ou pros alêtheian*: Now the Life of a Shepherd, that it might be rais'd to the highest perfection, is to be referr'd to the manners and age of the world whilst yet innocent, and such as the Fables have describ'd it: And as Simplicity was the principal vertue of that Age, so it ought to be the peculiar Grace, and as it were _Character_ of _Bucolicks_: in which the Fable, Manners, Thought, and Expression ought to be full of the most innocent simplicity imaginable: for as Innocence in Life, so purity and simplicity in discourse was the Glory of that Age: So as gravity to _Epicks_, Sweetness to _Lyricks_, Humor to _Comedy_, softness to _Elegies_ and smartness to _Epigrams_, so simplicity to _Pastorals_ is proper; and one upon _Theocritus_ says, _that the Idea of his Bucolicks is in every part pure, and in all {38} that belongs to simplicity very happy_: Such is this of _Virgil_, unwholsome to us Singers is the shade

Of Juniper, 'tis an unwholsome shade:

Than which in my opinion nothing can be more simply; nothing more rustically said; and this is the reason I suppose why _Macrobius_ says that this kind of Poetry is creeping and upon mean subjects; and why too _Virgils Tityrus_ lying under his shady Beech displeaseth some; Excellent Criticks indeed, whom I wish a little more sense, that they might not really be, what they would not seem to be, _Ridiculous_: _Theocritus_ excells _Virgil_ in this, of whom _Modicius_ says, _Theocritus deserves the greatest commendation for his happy imitation of the simplicity of his Shepherds_, Virgil _hath mixt Allegories, and some other things which contain too much learning, and deepness of Thought for Persons of so mean a Quality_: Yet here I must obviate their mistake who fancy that this sort of _Poetry_, because in it self low and simple, is the proper work of _mean_ Wits, and not the most _sublime_ and _excellent_ perfections: For as I think there be can nothing more elegant than easy naked simplicity, so likewise nothing can require more strength of Wit, and greater pains; and he must be of a great and clear judgment, who attempts _Pastoral_, and comes of with Honor. For there is no part of _Poetry_ that requires more spirit, for if any part is not close and well compacted the whole Fabrick will be ruin'd, and the {39} matter, in it self humble, must creep; unless it is held up by the strength and vigor of the _Expression_.

Another qualification and excellence of _Pastoral_ is to imitate _Timanthes's_ Art, of whom _Pliny_ writes thus; _Timanthes was very Ingenious, in all his peices more was to be understood than the Colours express'd, and tho his Art was very extraordinary yet his Fancy exceeded it_: In this _Virgil_ is peculiarly happy, but others, especially raw unexperienced Writers, if they are to describe a Rainbow, or a River, pour out their whole stock, and are unable to contain: Now 'tis properly requisite to a Pastoral that there should be a great deal coucht in a few words, and every thing it says should be so short, and so close, as if its chiefest excellence was to be spareing in Expression: such is that of _Virgil_;

These Fields and Corn shall a Barbarian share? See the Effects of all our Civil War.

How short is that? how concise? and yet how full of sense in the same _Eclogue_.

I wonder'd why all thy complaints were made, Absent was _Tityrus_:

And the like you may every where meet with, as

_Mopsus_ weds _Nisa_, what may'nt Lovers hope?

and in the second _Eclogue_,

{40} Whom dost thou fly ah frantick! oft the Woods Hold Gods, and _Paris_ equal to the Gods.

This Grace _Virgil_ learn'd from _Theocritus_, allmost most all whose Periods; especially in the third _Idyllium_, have no conjunction to connect them, that the sense might be more close, and the Affection vehement and strong: as in this

Let all things change, let Pears the Firs adorn Now _Daphnis_ dyes.

And in the third _Eclogue_.

But when she saw, how great was the surprize! &c.

And any one may find a great many of the like in _Theocritus_ and _Virgil_, if with a leisurely delight he nicely examines their delicate Composures: And this I account the greatest grace in _Pastorals_, which in my opinion those that write _Pastorals_ do not sufficiently observe: 'Tis true Ours (the _French_) and the _Italian_ language is to babling to endure it; This is the Rock on which those that write _Pastorals_ in their _Mother_ tongue are usually split, But the _Italians_ are inevitably lost; who having store of _Wit_, a very subtle invention and flowing fancy, cannot contain; everything that comes into their mind must be poured out, nor are they able to endure the least restraint: as is evident from _Marinus's_ _Idylliums_, and a great many of that nation who have ventur'd on such composures; For unless there are many {41} stops and breakings off in the series of a _Pastoral_, it can neither be pleasing nor artificial: And in my Opinion _Virgil_ excells _Theocritus_ in this, for _Virgil_ is neither so continued, nor so long as _Theocritus_; who indulges too much the garrulity of his _Greek_; nay even in those things which he expresseth he is more close, and more cautiously conceals that part which ought to be dissembled: And this I am sure is a most admirable part of Eloquence; as _Tully_ in his Epistle to _Atticus_ says, _'Tis rare to speak Eloquently, but more rare to be eloquently silent_: And this unskillful _Criticks_ are not acquainted with, and therefore are wont oftner to find fault with that which is not fitly exprest, than commend that which is prudently conceal'd: I could heap up a great many more things to this purpose, but I see no need of such a trouble, since no man can rationally doubt of the goodness of my Observation. Therefore, in short, let him that writes Pastorals think brevity, if it doth not obscure his sense, to be the greatest grace which he can attain.

Now why _Bucolicks_ should require such Brevity, and be so essentially sparing in _Expression_, I see no other reason but this: It loves _Simplicity_ so much that it must be averse to that Pomp and Ostentation which _Epick_ Poetry must show, for that must be copious and flowing, in every part smooth, and equal to it self: But _Pastoral_ must dissemble, and hide even that which it would {42} show, like _Damon's_ _Galatea_, who flies then when she most desires to be discovered.

And to the Bushes flys, yet would be seen.

And this doth not proceed from any malitious ill-natur'd Coyness, as some imagine, but from an ingenuous modesty and bashfulness, which usually accompanies, and is a proof of _Simplicity: Tis very rare_, says Pliny, _to find a man so exquisitely skillful, as to be able to show those Features in a Picture which he hides_, and I think it to be so difficult a task, that none but the most excellent Wits can attempt it with success: For small Wits usually abound with a multitude of words.

The third Grace of _Bucolicks_ is _Neatness_, which contains all the taking prettiness and sweetness of Expression, and whatsoever is call'd the Delicacies of the more delightful and pleasing _Muses_: This the Rural _Muses_ bestow'd on _Virgil_, as _Horace_ in the tenth _Satyr_ of his first Book says,

And _Virgils_ happy Muse in Eclogues plays, soft and facetious;

Which _Fabius_ takes to signify the most taking neatness and most exquisite Elegance imaginable: For thus he explains this place, in which he agrees with _Tully_, who in his _Third Book de Oratore_, says, the _Atticks_ are Facetious _i.e._ elegant: Tho the common Interpreters of these words are not of the same mind: But if by _Facetious Horace_ had meant _jesting_, and such as is design'd to make men laugh, and apply'd that to _Virgil_, nothing {43} could have been more ridiculous; 'tis the design of _Comedy_ to raise laughter, but _Eclogue_ should only delight, and charm by its takeing _prettiness_: All ravishing _Delicacies_ of Thought, all sweetness of Expression, all that Salt from which _Venus_, as the Poets Fable, rose; are so essential to this kind of _Poetry_, that it cannot endure any thing that is scurillous, malitiously biteing, or ridiculous: There must be nothing in it but _Hony, Milk, Roses, Violets_, and the like sweetness, so that when you read you might think that you are in _Adonis's_ Gardens, as the _Greeks_ speak, _i.e._ in the most pleasant place imaginable: For since the subject of _Eclogue_ must be mean and unsurprizing, unless it maintains purity and neatness of Expression, it cannot please.

Therefore it must do as _Tully_ says his friend _Atticus_ did, who entertaining his acquaintance with Leeks and Onions, pleas'd them all very well, because he had them serv'd up in wicker Chargers, and clean Baskets; So let an _Eclogue_ serve up its fruits and flowers with some, tho no costly imbellishment, such as may answer to the wicker Chargers, and Baskets; which may be provided at a cheap rate, and are agreeable to the Country: yet, (and this rule if you aim at exact simplicity, can never be too nicely observ'd,) you must most carefully avoid all paint and gawdiness of Expression, and, (which of all sorts of Elegancies is the most difficult to be avoided) {44} you must take the greatest care that no scrupulous trimness, or artificial finessess appear: For, as _Quintilian_ teaches, _in some cases diligence and care most most troublesomly perverse_; and when things are most sweet they are next to loathsome and many times degenerate: Therefore as in Weomen a careless dress becomes some extreamly. Thus _Pastoral_, that it might not be uncomely, ought sometimes to be negligent, or the finess of its ornaments ought not to appear and lye open to every bodies view: so that it ought to affect a studied carelessness, and design'd negligence: And that this may be, all gawdiness of Dress, such as Paint and Curls, all artificial shining is to be despis'd, but in the mean time care must be taken that the Expression be bright and simply clean, not filthy and disgustful, but such as is varnisht with Wit and Fancy: Now to perfect this, _Nature_ is chiefly to be lookt upon, (for nothing that is disagreeable to Nature can please) yet that will hardly prevail naked, by it self, and without the polishing of Art.

Then there are three things in which, as in its parts, the whole _Character_ of a _Pastoral_ is contain'd: _Simplicity_ of Thought and expression: _Shortness_ of Periods full of sense and spirit: and the _Delicacy_ of a most elegant ravishing unaffected neatness.

Next I will enquire in to the _Efficient_, and then into the _Final_ Cause of _Pastorals_.

{45} _Aristotle_ assigns two efficient Causes of _Poetry_, The natural desire of Imitation in Man whom he calls the most imitative Creature; and Pleasure consequent to that Imitation: Which indeed are the _Remote_ Causes, but the _Immediate_ are _Art_ and _Nature_; Now according to the differences of _Genius's_ several _Species_ of Poetry have been introduced. For as the _Philosopher_ hath observ'd, *diespathê kata ta oikeia êthê hê poiêsis* Thus those that were lofty imitated great and Illustrious; those that were low spirited and groveling mean Actions: And every one, according to the various inclination of his _Nature_, follow'd this or that sort of _Poetry_: This the _Philosopher_ expresly affirms, And _Dio Chrysostomus_ says of _Homer_ that he received from the Gods a Nature fit for all sorts of Verse: but this is an happiness which none partake but, as he in the same place intimates, Godlike minds.