CHAPTER II

ELECTRICAL REPRODUCTION OF SPEECH

The art of telephony in its present form has for its problem so to relate two diaphragms and an electrical system that one diaphragm will respond to all the fundamental and harmonic vibrations beating upon it and cause the other to vibrate in exact consonance, producing just such vibrations, which beat upon an ear.

The art does not do all this today; it falls short of it in every phase. Many of the harmonics are lost in one or another stage of the process; new harmonics are inserted by the operations of the system itself and much of the volume originally available fails to reappear. The art, however, has been able to change commercial and social affairs in a profound degree.

Conversion from Sound Waves to Vibration of Diaphragm. However produced, by the voice or otherwise, sounds to be transmitted by telephone consist of vibrations of the air. These vibrations, upon reaching a diaphragm, cause it to move. The greatest amplitude of motion of a diaphragm is, or is wished to be, at its center, and its edge ordinarily is fixed. The diaphragm thus serves as a translating device, changing the energy carried by the molecules of the air into localized oscillations of the matter of the diaphragm. The waves of sound in the air advance; the vibrations of the molecules are localized. The agency of the air as a medium for sound transmission should be understood to be one in which its general volume has no need to move from place to place. What occurs is that the vibrations of the sound-producer cause alternate condensations and rarefactions of the air. Each molecule of the air concerned merely oscillates through a small amplitude, producing, by joint action, shells of waves, each traveling outward from the sound-producing center like rapidly growing coverings of a ball.

Conversion from Vibration to Voice Currents. Fig. 1 illustrates a simple machine adapted to translate motion of a diaphragm into an alternating electrical current. The device is merely one form of magneto telephone chosen to illustrate the point of immediate conversion. _1_ is a diaphragm adapted to vibrate in response to the sounds reaching it. _2_ is a permanent magnet and _3_ is its armature. The armature is in contact with one pole of the permanent magnet and nearly in contact with the other. The effort of the armature to touch the pole it nearly touches places the diaphragm under tension. The free arm of the magnet is surrounded by a coil _4_, whose ends extend to form the line.

When sound vibrates the diaphragm, it vibrates the armature also, increasing and decreasing the distance from the free pole of the magnet. The lines of force threading the coil _4_ are varied as the gap between the magnet and the armature is varied.

The result of varying the lines of force through the turns of the coil is to produce an electromotive force in them, and if a closed path is provided by the line, a current will flow. This current is an alternating one having a frequency the same as the sound causing it. As in speech the frequencies vary constantly, many pitches constituting even a single spoken word, so the alternating voice currents are of great varying complexity, and every fundamental frequency has its harmonics superposed.

Conversion from Voice Currents to Vibration. The best knowledge of the action of such a telephone as is shown in Fig. 1 leads to the conclusion that a half-cycle of alternating current is produced by an inward stroke of the diaphragm and a second half-cycle of alternating current by the succeeding outward stroke, these half-cycles flowing in opposite directions. Assume one complete cycle of current to pass through the line and also through another such device as in Fig. 1 and that the first half-cycle is of such direction as to increase the permanent magnetism of the core. The effort of this increase is to narrow the gap between the armature and pole piece. The diaphragm will throb inward during the half-cycle of current. The succeeding half-cycle being of opposite direction will tend to oppose the magnetism of the core. In practice, the flow of opposing current never would be great enough wholly to nullify and reverse the magnetism of the core, so that the opposition results in a mere decrease, causing the armature's gap to increase and the diaphragm to respond by an outward blow.

Complete Cycle of Conversion. The cycle of actions thus is complete; one complete sound-wave in air has produced a cycle of motion in a diaphragm, a cycle of current in a line, a cycle of magnetic change in a core, a cycle of motion in another diaphragm, and a resulting wave of sound. It is to be observed that the chain of operation involves the expenditure of energy only by the speaker, the only function of any of the parts being that of _translating_ this energy from one form to another. In every stage of these translations, there are losses; the devising of means of limiting these losses as greatly as possible is a problem of telephone engineering.

Magneto Telephones. The device in Fig. 1 is a practical magneto receiver and transmitter. It is chosen as best picturing the idea to be proposed. Fig. 2 illustrates a pair of magneto telephones of the early Bell type; _1-1_ are diaphragms; _2-2_ are permanent magnets with a free end of each brought as near as possible, without touching, to the diaphragm. Each magnet bears on its end nearest the diaphragm a winding of fine wire, the two ends of each of these windings being joined by means of a two-wire line. All that has been said concerning Fig. 1 is true also of the electrical and magnetic actions of the devices of Fig. 2. In the latter, the flux which threads the fine wire winding is disturbed by motions of the transmitting diaphragm. This disturbance of the flux creates electromotive forces in those windings. Similarly, a variation of the electromotive forces in the windings varies the pull of the permanent magnet of the receiving instrument upon its diaphragm.

Fig. 3 illustrates a similar arrangement, but it is to be understood that the cores about which the windings are carried in this case are of soft iron and not of hard magnetized steel. The necessary magnetism which constantly enables the cores to exert a pull upon the diaphragm is provided by the battery which is inserted serially in the line. Such an arrangement in action differs in no particular from that of Fig. 2, for the reason that it matters not at all whether the magnetism of the core be produced by electromagnetic or by permanently magnetic conditions. The arrangement of Fig. 3 is a fundamental counterpart of the original telephone of Professor Bell, and it is of particular interest in the present stage of the art for the reason that a tendency lately is shown to revert to the early type, abandoning the use of the permanent magnet.

The modifications which have been made in the original magneto telephone, practically as shown in Fig. 2, have been many. Thirty-five years' experimentation upon and daily use of the instrument has resulted in its refinement to a point where it is a most successful receiver and a most unsuccessful transmitter. Its use for the latter purpose may be said to be nothing. As a receiver, it is not only wholly satisfactory for commercial use in its regular function, but it is, in addition, one of the most sensitive electrical detecting devices known to the art.

Loose Contact Principle. Early experimenters upon Bell's device, all using in their first work the arrangement utilizing current from a battery in series with the line, noticed that sound was given out by disturbing loose contacts in the line circuit. This observation led to the arrangement of circuits in such a way that some imperfect contacts could be shaken by means of the diaphragm, and the resistance of the line circuit varied in this manner. An early and interesting form of such imperfect contact transmitter device consisted merely of metal conductors laid loosely in contact. A simple example is that of three wire nails, the third lying across the other two, the two loose contacts thus formed being arranged in series with a battery, the line, and the receiving instrument. Such a device when slightly jarred, by the voice or other means, causes abrupt variation in the resistance of the line, and will transmit speech.

Early Conceptions. The conception of the possibility and desirability of transmitting speech by electricity may have occurred to many, long prior to its accomplishment. It is certain that one person, at least, had a clear idea of the general problem. In 1854, Charles Bourseul, a Frenchman, wrote: "I have asked myself, for example, if the spoken word itself could not be transmitted by electricity; in a word, if what was spoken in Vienna might not be heard in Paris? The thing is practicable in this way:

"Suppose that a man speaks near a movable disk sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the voice; that this disk _alternately makes and breaks_ the connection from a battery; you may have at a distance another disk which will simultaneously execute the same vibrations." The idea so expressed is weak in only one particular. This particular is shown by the words italicized by ourselves. It is impossible to transmit a complex series of waves by any simple series of makes and breaks. Philipp Reis, a German, devised the arrangement shown in Fig. 4 for the transmission of sound, letting the make and break of the contact between the diaphragm _1_ and the point _2_ interrupt the line circuit. His receiver took several forms, all electromagnetic. His success was limited to the transmission of musical sounds, and it is not believed that articulate speech ever was transmitted by such an arrangement.

It must be remembered that the art of telegraphy, particularly in America, was well established long before the invention of the telephone, and that an arrangement of keys, relays, and a battery, as shown in Fig. 5, was well known to a great many persons. Attaching the armatures of the relays of such a line to diaphragms, as in Fig. 6, at any time after 1838, would have produced the telephone. "The hardihood of invention" to conceive such a change was the quality required.

Limitations of Magneto Transmitter. For reasons not finally established, the ability of the magneto telephone to produce large currents from large sounds is not equal to its ability to produce large sounds from large currents. As a receiving device, it is unexcelled, and but slight improvement has been made since its first invention. It is inadequate as a transmitter, and as early as 1876, Professor Bell exhibited other means than electromagnetic action for producing the varying currents as a consequence of diaphragm motion. Much other inventive effort was addressed to this problem, the aim of all being to send out more robust voice currents.

Other Methods of Producing Voice Currents. Some of these means are the variation of resistance in the path of direct current, variation in the pressure of the source of that current, and variation in the electrostatic capacity of some part of the circuit.

_Electrostatic Telephone._ The latter method is principally that of Dolbear and Edison. Dolbear's thought is illustrated in Fig. 7. Two conducting plates are brought close together. One is free to vibrate as a diaphragm, while the other is fixed. The element _1_ in Fig. 7 is merely a stud to hold rigid the plate it bears against. Each of two instruments connected by a line contains such a pair of plates, and a battery in the line keeps them charged to its potential. The two diaphragms of each instrument are kept drawn towards each other because their unlike charges attract each other. The vibration of one of the diaphragms changes the potential of the other pair; the degree of attraction thus is varied, so that vibration of the diaphragm and sound waves result.

Examples of this method of telephone transmission are more familiar to later practice in the form of condenser receivers. A condenser, in usual present practice, being a pair of closely adjacent conductors of considerable surface insulated from each other, a rapidly varying current actually may move one or both of the conductors. Ordinarily these are of thin sheet metal (foil) interleaved with an insulating material, such as paper or mica. Voice currents can vibrate the metal sheets in a degree to cause the condenser to speak. These condenser methods of telephony have not become commercial.

_Variation of Electrical Pressure._ Variation of the pressure of the source is a conceivable way of transmitting speech. To utilize it, would require that the vibrations of the diaphragm cause the electromotive force of a battery or machine to vary in harmony with the sound waves. So far as we are informed this method never has come into practical use.

_Variation of Resistance._ Variation of resistance proportional to the vibrations of the diaphragm is the method which has produced the present prevailing form of transmission. Professor Bell's Centennial exhibit contained a water-resistance transmitter. Dr. Elisha Gray also devised one. In both, the diaphragm acted to increase and diminish the distance between two conductors immersed in water, lowering and raising the resistance of the line. It later was discovered by Edison that carbon possesses a peculiarly great property of varying its resistance under pressure. Professor David E. Hughes discovered that two conducting bodies, preferably of rather poor conductivity, when laid together so as to form a _loose contact_ between them, possessed, in remarkable degree, the ability to vary the resistance of the path through them when subject to such vibrations as would alter the _intimacy of contact_. He thus discovered and formulated the principles of _loose contact_ upon which the operation of all modern transmitters rests. Hughes' device was named by him a "microphone," indicating a magnification of sound or an ability to respond to and make audible minute sounds. It is shown in Fig. 8. Firmly attached to a board are two carbon blocks, shown in section in the figure. A rod of carbon with cone-shaped ends is supported loosely between the two blocks, conical depressions in the blocks receiving the ends of the rod. A battery and magneto receiver are connected in series with the device. Under certain conditions of contact, the arrangement is extraordinarily sensitive to small sounds and approaches an ability indicated by its name. Its practical usefulness has been not as a serviceable speech transmitter, but as a stimulus to the devising of transmitters using carbon in other ways. Variation of the resistance of metal conductors and of contact between metals has served to transmit voice currents, but no material approaches carbon in this property.

Carbon. _Adaptability._ The application of carbon to use in transmitters has taken many forms. They may be classified as those having a single contact and those having a plurality of contacts; in all cases, the _intimacy of contact_ is varied by the diaphragm excursions. An example of the single-contact type is the Blake transmitter, long familiar in America. An example of the multiple-contact type is the loose-carbon type universal now. Other types popular at other times and in particular places use solid rods or blocks of carbon having many points of contact, though not in a powdered or granular form. Fig. 9 shows an example of each of the general forms of transmitters.

The use of granular carbon as a transmitter material has extended greatly the radius of speech, and has been a principal contributing cause for the great spread of the telephone industry.

_Superiority._ The superiority of carbon over other resistance-varying materials for transmitters is well recognized, but the reason for it is not well known. Various theories have been proposed to explain why, for example, the resistance of a mass of carbon granules varies with the vibrations or compressions to which they are subjected.

Four principal theories respectively allege:

First, that change in pressure actually changes the specific resistance of carbon.

Second, that upon the surface of carbon bodies exists some gas in some form of attachment or combination, variations of pressure causing variations of resistance merely by reducing the thickness of this intervening gas.

Third, that the change of resistance is caused by variations in the length of electrical arcs between the particles.

Fourth, that change of pressure changes the area of contact, as is true of solids generally.

One may take his choice. A solid carbon block or rod is not found to decrease its resistance by being subjected to pressure. The gas theory lacks experimental proof also. The existence of arcs between the granules never has been seen or otherwise observed under normal working conditions of a transmitter; when arcs surely are experimentally established between the granules the usefulness of the transmitter ceases. The final theory, that change of pressure changes area of surface contact, does not explain why other conductors than carbon are not good materials for transmitters. This, it may be noticed, is just what the theories set out to make clear.

There are many who feel that more experimental data is required before a conclusive and satisfactory theory can be set up. There is need of one, for a proper theory often points the way for effective advance in practice.

Carbon and magneto transmitters differ wholly in their methods of action. The magneto transmitter _produces_ current; the carbon transmitter _controls_ current. The former is an alternating-current generator; the latter is a rheostat. The magneto transmitter produces alternating current without input of any electricity at all; the carbon transmitter merely controls a direct current, supplied by an external source, and varies its amount without changing its direction.

The carbon transmitter, however, may be associated with other devices in a circuit in such a way as to _transform_ direct currents into alternating ones, or it may be used merely to change constant direct currents into _undulating_ ones, which _never_ reverse direction, as alternating currents _always_ do. These distinctions are important.

_Limitations._ A carbon transmitter being merely a resistance-varying device, its usefulness depends on how much its resistance can vary in response to motions of air molecules. A granular-carbon transmitter may vary between resistances of 5 to 50 ohms while transmitting a particular tone, having the lower resistance when its diaphragm is driven inward. Conceive this transmitter to be in a line as shown in Fig. 10, the line, distant receiver, and battery together having a resistance of 1,000 ohms. The minimum resistance then is 1,005 ohms and the maximum 1,050 ohms. The variation is limited to about 4.5 per cent. The greater the resistance of the line and other elements than the transmitter, the less relative change the transmitter can produce, and the less loudly the distant receiver can speak.

Induction Coil. Mr. Edison realized this limitation to the use of the carbon transmitter direct in the line, and contributed the means of removing it. His method is to introduce an induction coil between the line and the transmitter, its function being to translate the variation of the direct current controlled by the transmitter into true alternating currents.

An induction coil is merely a transformer, and for the use under discussion consists of two insulated wires wound around an iron core. Change in the current carried by one of the windings _produces_ a current in the other. If direct current be flowing in one of the windings, and remains constant, no current whatever is produced in the other. It is important to note that it is change, and change only, which produces that alternating current.

Fig. 11 shows an induction coil related to a carbon transmitter, a battery, and a receiver. Fig. 12 shows exactly the same arrangement, using conventional signs. The winding of the induction coil which is in series with the transmitter and the battery is called the primary winding; the other is called the secondary winding. In the arrangement of Figs. 11 and 12 the battery has no metallic connection with the line, so that it is called a _local battery_. The circuit containing the battery, transmitter, and primary winding of the induction coil is called the _local circuit_.

Let us observe what is the advantage of this arrangement over the case of Fig. 10. Using the same values of resistance in the transmitter and line, assume the local circuit apart from the transmitter to have a fixed resistance of 5 ohms. The limits of variations in the local circuit, therefore, are 10 and 55 ohms, thus making the maximum 5.5 times the minimum, or an increase of 450 per cent as against 4.5 per cent in the case of Fig. 10. The changes, therefore, are 100 times as great.

The relation between the windings of the induction coil in this practice are such that the secondary winding contains many more turns than the primary winding. Changes in the circuit of the primary winding produce potentials in the secondary winding correspondingly higher than the potentials producing them. These secondary potentials depend upon the _ratio_ of turns in the two windings and therefore, within close limits, may be chosen as wished. High potentials in the secondary winding are admirably adapted to transmit currents in a high-resistance line, for exactly the same reason that long-distance power transmission meets with but one-quarter of one kind of loss when the sending potential is doubled, one-hundredth of that loss when it is raised tenfold, and similarly. The induction coil, therefore, serves the double purpose of a step-up transformer to limit line losses and a device for vastly increasing the range of change in the transmitter circuit.

Fig. 13 is offered to remind the student of the action of an induction coil or transformer in whose primary circuit a direct current is increased and decreased. An increase of current in the local winding produces an impulse of _opposite_ direction in the turns of the secondary winding; a decrease of current in the local winding produces an impulse of _the same_ direction in the turns of the secondary winding. The key of Fig. 13 being closed, current flows upward in the primary winding as drawn in the figure, inducing a downward impulse of current in the secondary winding and its circuit as noted at the right of the figure. On the key being opened, current ceases in the primary circuit, inducing an upward impulse of current in the secondary winding and circuit as shown. During other than instants of opening and closing (changing) the local circuit, no current whatever flows in the secondary circuit.

It is by these means that telephone transmitters draw direct current from primary batteries and send high-potential alternating currents over lines; the same process produces what in Therapeutics are called "Faradic currents," and enables also a simple vibrating contact-maker to produce alternating currents for operating polarized ringers of telephone sets.

Detrimental Effects of Capacity. Electrostatic capacity plays an important part in the transmission of speech. Its presence between the wires of a line and between them and the earth causes one of the losses from which long-distance telephony suffers. Its presence in condensers assists in the solution of many circuit and apparatus problems.

A condenser is a device composed of two or more conductors insulated from each other by a medium called the _dielectric_. A pair of metal plates separated by glass, a pair of wires separated by air, or a pair of sheets of foil separated by paper or mica may constitute a condenser. The use of condensers as pieces of apparatus and the problems presented by electrostatic capacity in lines are discussed in other chapters.

Measurements of Telephone Currents. It has been recognized in all branches of engineering that a definite advance is possible only when quantitative data exists. The lack of reliable means of measuring telephone currents has been a principal cause of the difficulty in solving many of its problems. It is only in very recent times that accurate and reliable means have been worked out for measuring the small currents which flow in telephone lines. These ways are of two general kinds: by thermal and by electromagnetic means.

_Thermal Method_. The thermal methods simply measure, in some way, the amount of heat which is produced by a received telephone current. When this current is allowed to pass through a conductor the effect of the heat generated in that conductor, is observed in one of three ways: by the expansion of the conductor, by its change in resistance, or by the production of an electromotive force in a thermo-electric couple heated by the conductor. Any one of these three ways can be used to get some idea of the amount of current which is received. None of them gives an accurate knowledge of the forms of the waves which cause the reproduction of speech in the telephone receiver.

_Electromagnetic Method_. An electromagnetic device adapted to tell something of the magnitude of the telephone current and also something of its form, _i.e._, something of its various increases and decreases and also of its changes in direction is the oscillograph. An oscillograph is composed of a magnetic field formed by direct currents or by a permanent magnet, a turn of wire under mechanical tension in that field, and a mirror borne by the turn of wire, adapted to reflect a beam of light to a photographic film or to a rotating mirror.

When a current is to be measured by the oscillograph, it is passed through the turn of wire in the magnetic field. While no current is passing, the wire does not move in the magnetic field and its mirror reflects a stationary beam of light. A photographic film moved in a direction normal to the axis of the turn of wire will have drawn upon it a straight line by the beam of light. If the beam of light, however, is moved by a current, from side to side at right angles to this axis, it will draw a wavy line on the photographic film and this wavy line will picture the alternations of that current and the oscillations of the molecules of air which carried the originating sound. Fig. 14 is a photograph of nine different vowel sounds which have caused the oscillograph to take their pictures. They are copies of records made by Mr. Bela Gati, assisted by Mr. Tolnai. The measuring instrument consisted of an oscillograph of the type described, the transmitter being of the carbon type actuated by a 2-volt battery. The primary current was transformed by an induction coil of the ordinary type and the transformed current was sent through a non-inductive resistance of 3,000 ohms. No condensers were placed in the circuit. It will be seen that the integral values of the curves, starting from zero, are variable. The positive and the negative portions of the curves are not equal, so that the solution of the individual harmonic motion is difficult and laborious.

These photographs point out several facts very clearly. One is that the alternations of currents in the telephone line, like the motions of the molecules of air of the original sound, are highly complex and are not, as musical tones are, regular recurrences of equal vibrations. They show also that any vowel sound may be considered to be a regular recurrence of certain groups of vibrations of different amplitudes and of different frequencies.