Part 16

Professor Agassiz considers that the very fact of certain stratified rocks, even among the oldest formations, being almost entirely made up of fragments of organised beings, should long ago have satisfied the most sceptical that both _animal and vegetable life were as active and profusely scattered upon the whole globe at all times, and during all geological periods, as they are now_. No coral reef in the Pacific contains a larger amount of organic _débris_ than some of the limestone deposits of the tertiary, of the cretaceous, or of the oolitic, nay even of the paleozoic period; and the whole vegetable carpet covering the present surface of the globe, even if we were to consider only the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics, leaving entirely out of consideration the entire expanse of the ocean, as well as those tracts of land where, under less favourable circumstances, the growth of plants is more reduced,--would not form one single seam of workable coal to be compared to the many thick beds contained in the rocks of the carboniferous period alone.

ENGLAND IN THE EOCENE PERIOD.

Eocene is Sir Charles Lyell’s term for the lowest group of the Tertiary system in which the dawn of recent life appears; and any one who wishes to realise what was the aspect presented by this country during the Eocene period, need only go to Sheerness. If, leaving that place behind him, he walks down the Thames, keeping close to the edge of the water, he will find whole bushels of pyritised pieces of twigs and fruits. These fruits and twigs belong to plants nearly allied to the screw-pine and custard-apple, and to various species of palms and spice-trees which now flourish in the Eastern Archipelago. At the time they were washed down from some neighbouring land, not only crocodilian reptiles, but sharks and innumerable turtles, inhabited a sea or estuary which now forms part of the London district; and huge boa-constrictors glided amongst the trees which fringed the adjoining shores.

Countless as are the ages which intervened between the Eocene period and the time when the little jawbones of Stonesfield were washed down to the place where they were to await the day when science should bring them again to light, not one mammalian genus which now lives upon our plane has been discovered amongst Eocene strata. We have existing families, but nothing more.--_Professor Owen._

FOOD OF THE IGUANODON.

Dr. Mantell, from the examination of the anterior part of the right side of the lower jaw of an Iguanodon discovered in a quarry in Tilgate Forest, Sussex, has detected an extraordinary deviation from all known types of reptilian organisation, and which could not have been predicated; namely, that this colossal reptile, which equalled in bulk the gigantic Edentata of South America, and like them was destined to obtain support from comminuted vegetable substances, was also furnished with a large prehensile tongue and fleshy lips, to serve as instruments for seizing and cropping the foliage and branches of trees; while the arrangement of the teeth as in the ruminants, and their internal structure, which resembles that of the molars of the sloth tribe in the vascularity of the dentine, indicate adaptations for the same purpose.

Among the physiological phenomena revealed by paleontology, there is not a more remarkable one than this modification of the type of organisation peculiar to the class of reptiles to meet the conditions required by the economy of a lizard placed under similar physical relations; and destined to effect the same general purpose in the scheme of nature as the colossal Edentata of former ages and the large herbivorous mammalia of our own times.

THE PTERODACTYL--THE FLYING DRAGON.

The Tilgate beds of the Wealden series, just mentioned, have yielded numerous fragments of the most remarkable reptilian fossils yet discovered, and whose wonderful forms denote them to have thronged the shallow seas and bays and lagoons of the period. In the grounds of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham the reader will find restorations of these animals sufficiently perfect to illustrate this reptilian epoch. They include the _iguanodon_, an herbivorous lizard exceeding in size the largest elephant, and accompanied by the equally gigantic and carnivorous _megalosaurus_ (great saurian), and by the two yet more curious reptiles, the _pylæosaurus_ (forest, or weald, saurian) and the pterodactyl (from _pteron_, ‘wing,’ and _dactylus_, ‘a finger’), an enormous bat-like creature, now running upon the ground like a bird; its elevated body and long neck not covered with feathers, but with skin, naked, or resplendent with glittering scales; its head like that of a lizard or crocodile, and of a size almost preposterous compared with that of the body, with its long fore extremities stretched out, and connected by a membrane with the body and hind legs.

Suddenly this mailed creature rose in the air, and realised or even surpassed in strangeness _the flying dragon of fable_: its fore-arms and its elongated wing-finger furnished with claws; hand and fingers extended, and the interspace filled up by a tough membrane; and its head and neck stretched out like that of the heron in its flight. When stationary, its wings were probably folded back like those of a bird; though perhaps, by the claws attached to its fingers, it might suspend itself from the branches of trees.

MAMMALIA IN SECONDARY ROCKS.

It was supposed till very lately that few if any Mammalia were to be found below the Tertiary rocks, _i. e._ those above the chalk; and this supposed fact was very comfortable to those who support the doctrine of “progressive development,” and hold, with the notorious _Vestiges of Creation_, that a fish by mere length of time became a reptile, a lemur an ape, and finally an ape a man. But here, as in a hundred other cases, facts, when duly investigated, are against their theory. A mammal jaw had been already discovered by Mr. Brodie on the shore at the back of Swanage Point, in Dorsetshire, when Mr. Beckles, F.G.S., traced the vein from which this jaw had been procured, and found it to be a stratum about five inches thick, at the base of the Middle Purbeck beds; and after removing many thousand tons of rock, and laying bare an area of nearly 7000 square feet (the largest cutting ever made for purely scientific purposes), he found reptiles (tortoises and lizards) in hundreds; but the most important discovery was that of the jaws of at least fourteen different species of mammalia. Some of these were herbivorous, some carnivorous, connected with our modern shrews, moles, hedgehogs, &c.; but all of them perfectly developed and highly-organised quadrupeds. Ten years ago, no remains of quadrupeds were believed to exist in the Secondary strata. “Even in 1854,” says Sir Charles Lyell (in a supplement to the fifth edition of his _Manual of Elementary Geology_), “only six species of mammals from rocks older than the Tertiary were known in the whole world.” We now possess evidence of the existence of fourteen species, belonging to eight or nine genera, from the fresh-water strata of the Middle Purbeck Oolite. It would be rash now to fix a limit in past time to the existence of quadrupeds.--_The Rev. C. Kingsley._

FOSSIL HUMAN BONES.

In the paleontological collection in the British Museum is preserved a considerable portion of a human skeleton imbedded in a slab of rock, brought from Guadaloupe, and often referred to in opposition to the statement that hitherto _no fossil human hones have been found_. The presence of these bones, however, has been explained by the circumstance of a battle and the massacre of a tribe of Galtibis by the Caribs, which took place near the spot in which the bones were found about 130 years ago; for as the bodies of the slain were interred on the seashore, their skeletons may have been subsequently covered by sand-drift, which has since consolidated into limestone.

It will be seen by reference to the _Philosophical Transactions_, that on the reading of the paper upon this discovery to the Royal Society, in 1814, Sir Joseph Banks, the president, considered the “fossil” to be of very modern formation, and that probably, from the contiguity of a volcano, the temperature of the water may have been raised at some time, and dissolving carbonate of lime readily, may have deposited about the skeleton in a comparatively short period hard and solid stone. Every person may be convinced of the rapidity of the formation and of the hardness of such stone by inspecting the inside of tea-kettles in which hard water is boiled.

Descriptions of petrifactions of human bodies appear to refer to the conversion of bodies into adipocere, and not into stone. All the supposed cases of petrifaction are probably of this nature. The change occurs only when the coffin becomes filled with water. The body, converted into adipocere, floats on the water. The supposed cases of changes of position in the grave, bursting open the coffin-lids, turning over, crossing of limbs, &c., formerly attributed to the coming to life of persons buried who were not dead, is now ascertained to be due to the same cause. The chemical change into adipocere, and the evolution of gases, produce these movements of dead bodies.--_Mr. Trail Green._

THE MOST ANCIENT FISHES.

Among the important results of Sir Roderick Murchison’s establishment of the Silurian system is the following:

That as the Lower Silurian group, often of vast dimensions, has never afforded the smallest vestige of a Fish, though it abounds in numerous species of the _marine_ classes,--corals, _crinoidea_, _mollusca_, and _crustacea_; and as in Scandinavia and Russia, where it is based on rocks void of fossils, its lowest stratum contains _fucoids_ only,--Sir R. Murchison has, after fifteen years of laborious research steadily directed to this point, arrived at the conclusion, that a very long period elapsed after life was breathed into the waters before the lowest order of vertebrata was created; the earliest fishes being those of the Upper Silurian rocks, which he was the first to discover, and which he described “as the most ancient beings of their class which have yet been brought to light.” Though the Lower Silurian rocks of various parts of the world have since been ransacked by multitudes of prying geologists, who have exhumed from them myriads of marine fossils, not a single ichthyolite has been found in any stratum of higher antiquity than the Upper Silurian group of Murchison.

The most remarkable of all fossil fishes yet discovered have been found in the Old Red Sandstone cliffs at Dorpat, where the remains are so gigantic (one bone measuring _two feet nine inches_ in length) that they were at first supposed to belong to saurians.

Sir Roderick’s examination of Russia has, in short, proved that _the ichthyolites and mollusks which, in Western Europe, are separately peculiar to smaller detached basins, were here (in the British Isles) cohabitants of many parts of the same great sea_.

EXTINCT CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS OF BRITAIN.

Professor Owen has thus forcibly illustrated the Carnivorous Animals which preyed upon and restrained the undue multiplication of the vegetable feeders. First we have the bear family, which is now represented in this country only by the badger. We were once blest, however, with many bears. One species seems to have been identical with the existing brown bear of the European continent. Far larger and more formidable was the gigantic cave-bear (_Ursus spelæus_), which surpassed in size his grisly brother of North America. The skull of the cave-bear differs very much in shape from that of its small brown relative just alluded to; the forehead, in particular, is much higher,--to be accounted for by an arrangement of air-cells similar to those which we have already remarked in the elephant. The cave-bear has left its remains in vast abundance in Germany. In our own caves, the bones of hyænas are found in greater quantities. The marks which the teeth of the hyæna make upon the bones which it gnaws are quite unmistakable. Our English hyænas had the most undiscriminating appetite, preying upon every creature, their own species amongst others. Wolves, not distinguishable from those which now exist in France and Germany, seem to have kept company with the hyænas; and the _Felis spelæa_, a sort of lion, but larger than any which now exists, ruled over all weaker brutes. Here, says Professor Owen, we have the original British Lion. A species of _Machairodus_ has left its remains at Kent’s Hole, near Torquay. In England we had also the beaver, which still lingers on the Danube and the Rhone, and a larger species, which has been called Trogontherium (gnawing beast), and a gigantic mole.

THE GREAT CAVE TIGER OR LION OF BRITAIN.

Remains of this remarkable animal of the drift or gravel period of this country have been found at Brentford and elsewhere near London. Speaking of this animal, Professor Owen observes, that “it is commonly supposed that the Lion, the Tiger, and the Jaguar are animals peculiarly adapted to a tropical climate. The genus Felis (to which these animals belong) is, however, represented by specimens in high northern latitudes, and in all the intermediate countries to the equator.” The chief condition necessary for the presence of such animals is an abundance of the vegetable-feeding animals. It is thus that the Indian tiger has been known to follow the herds of antelope and deer in the lofty mountains of the Himalaya to the verge of perpetual snow, and far into Siberia. “It need not, therefore,” continues Professor Owen, “excite surprise that indications should have been discovered in the fossil relics of the ancient mammalian population of Europe of a large feline animal, the contemporary of the mammoth, of the tichorrhine rhinoceros, of the great gigantic cave-bear and hyæna, and the slayer of the oxen, deer, and equine quadrupeds that so abounded during the same epoch.” The dimensions of this extinct animal equal those of the largest African lion or Bengal tiger; and some bones have been found which seem to imply that it had even more powerful limbs and larger paws.

THE MAMMOTHS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

Dr. Buckland has shown that for long ages many species of carnivorous animals now extinct inhabited the caves of the British islands. In low tracts of Yorkshire, where tranquil lacustrine (lake-like) deposits have occurred, bones (even those of the lion) have been found so perfectly unbroken and unworn, in fine gravel (as at Market Weighton), that few persons would be disposed to deny that such feline and other animals once roamed over the British isles, as well as other European countries. Why, then, is it improbable that large elephants, with a peculiarly thick integument, a close coating of wool, and much long shaggy hair, should have been the occupants of wide tracts of Northern Europe and Asia? This coating, Dr. Fleming has well remarked, was probably as impenetrable to rain and cold as that of the monster ox of the polar circle. Such is the opinion of Sir Roderick Murchison, who thus accounts for the disappearance of the mammoths from Britain:

When we turn from the great Siberian continent, which, anterior to its elevation, was the chief abode of the mammoths, and look to the other parts of Europe, where their remains also occur, how remarkable is it that we find the number of these creatures to be justly proportionate to the magnitude of the ancient masses of land which the labours of geologists have defined! Take the British isles, for example, and let all their low, recently elevated districts be submerged; let, in short, England be viewed as the comparatively small island she was when the ancient estuary of the Thames, including the plains of Hyde Park, Chelsea, Hounslow, and Uxbridge, were under the water; when the Severn extended far into the heart of the kingdom, and large eastern tracts of the island were submerged,--and there will then remain but moderately-sized feeding-grounds for the great quadrupeds whose bones are found in the gravel of the adjacent rivers and estuaries.

This limited area of subsistence could necessarily only keep up a small stock of such animals; and, just as we might expect, the remains of British mammoths occur in very small numbers indeed, when compared with those of the great charnel-houses of Siberia, into which their bones had been carried down through countless ages from the largest mass of surface which geological inquiries have yet shown to have been _dry land_ during that epoch.

The remains of the mammoth, says Professor Owen, have been found in all, or almost all, the counties of England. Off the coast of Norfolk they are met with in vast abundance. The fishermen who go to catch turbot between the mouth of the Thames and the Dutch coast constantly get their nets entangled in the tusks of the mammoth. A collection of tusks and other remains, obtained in this way, is to be seen at Ramsgate. In North America, this gigantic extinct elephant must have been very common; and a large portion of the ivory which supplies the markets of Europe is derived from the vast mammoth graveyards of Siberia.

The mammoth ranged at least as far north as 60°. There is no doubt that, at the present day, many specimens of the musk-ox are annually becoming imbedded in the mud and ice of the North-American rivers.

It is curious to observe, that the mammoth teeth which are met with in caves generally belonged to young mammoths, who probably resorted thither for shelter before increasing age and strength emboldened them to wander far afield.

THE RHINOCEROS AND HIPPOPOTAMUS OF ENGLAND.

The mammoth was not the only giant that inhabited England in the Pliocene or Upper Tertiary period. We had also here the _Rhinoceros tichorrhinus_, or “strongly walled about the nose,” remains of which have been discovered in enormous quantities in the brickfields about London. Pallas describes an entire specimen of this creature, which was found near Yakutsk, the coldest town on the globe. Another rhinoceros, _leptorrhinus_ (fine nose), dwelt with the elephant of Southern Europe. In Siberia has been discovered the Elaimotherium, forming a link between the rhinoceros and the horse.

In the days of the mammoth, we had also in England a Hippopotamus, rather larger than the species which now inhabits the Nile. Of our British hippopotamus some remains were dug up by the workmen in preparing the foundations of the New Junior United Service Club-house, in Regent-street.

THE ELEPHANT AND TORTOISE.

The idea of an Elephant standing on the back of a Tortoise was often laughed at as an absurdity, until Captain Cautley and Dr. Falconer at length discovered in the hills of Asia the remains of a tortoise in a fossil state of such a size that an elephant could easily have performed the above feat.

COEXISTENCE OF MAN AND THE MASTODON.

Dr. C. F. Winslow has communicated to the Boston Society of Natural History the discovery of the fragment of a human cranium 180 feet below the surface of the Table Mountain, California. Now the mastodon’s bones being found in the same deposits, points very clearly to the probability of the appearance of the human race on the western portions of North America at least before the extinction of those huge creatures. Fragments of mastodon and _Elephas primigenius_ have been taken ten and twenty feet below the surface in the above locality; where this discovery of human and mastodon remains gives strength to the possible truth of an old Indian tradition,--the contemporary existence of the mammoth and aboriginals in this region of the globe.

HABITS OF THE MEGATHERIUM.

Much uncertainty has been felt about the habits of the Megatherium, or Great Beast. It has been asked whether it burrowed or climbed, or what it did; and difficulties have presented themselves on all sides of the question. Some have thought that it lived in trees as much larger than those which now exist as the Megatherium itself is larger than the common sloth.[35] This, however, is now known to be a mistake. It did not climb trees--it pulled them down; and in order to do this the hinder parts of its skeleton were made enormously strong, and its prehensile fore-legs formed so as to give it a tremendous power over any thing which it grasped. Dr. Buckland suggested that animals which got their living in this way had a very fair chance of having their heads broken. While Professor Owen was still pondering over this difficulty, the skull of a cognate animal, the Mylodon, came into his hands. Great was his delight when he found that the mylodon not only had his head broken, but broken in two different places, at two different times; and moreover so broken that the injury could only have been inflicted by some such agent as a fallen tree. The creature had recovered from the first blow, but had evidently died of the second. This tribe had, as it turns out, two skulls, an outer and an inner one--given them, as it would appear, expressly with a view to the very dangerous method in which they were intended to obtain their necessary food.

The dentition of the megatherium is curious. The elephant gets teeth as he wants them. Nature provided for the comfort of the megatherium in another way. It did not get new teeth, but the old ones went on for ever growing as long as the animal lived; so that as fast as one grinding surface became useless, another supplied its place.

THE DINOTHERIUM, OR TERRIBLE BEAST.

The family of herbivorous Cetaceans are connected with the Pachydermata of the land by one of the most wonderful of all the extinct creatures with which geologists have made us acquainted. This is the _Dinotherium_, or Terrible Beast. The remains of this animal were found in Miocene sands at Eppelsheim, about forty miles from Darmstadt. It must have been larger than the largest extinct or living elephant. The most remarkable peculiarity of its structure is the enormous tusks, curving downwards and terminating its lower jaw. It appears to have lived in the water, where the immense weight of these formidable appendages would not be so inconvenient as on land. What these tusks were used for is a mystery; but perhaps they acted as pickaxes in digging up trees and shrubs, or as harrows in raking the bottom of the water. Dr. Buckland used to suggest that they were perhaps employed as anchors, by means of which the monster might fasten itself to the bank of a stream and enjoy a comfortable nap. The extreme length of the _Dinotherium_ was about eighteen feet. Professor Kemp, in his restoration of the animal, has given it a trunk like that of the elephant, but not so long, and the general form of the tapir.--_Professor Owen._

THE GLYPTODON.

There are few creatures which we should less have expected to find represented in fossil history by a race of gigantic brethren than the armadillo. The creature is so small, not only in size but in all its works and ways, that we with difficulty associate it with the idea of magnitude. Yet Sir Woodbine Parish has discovered evidences of enormous animals of this family having once dwelt in South America. The huge loricated (plated over) creature whose relics were first sent has received the name of Glyptodon, from its sculptured teeth. Unlike the small armadillos, it was unable to roll itself up into a ball; though an enormous carnivore which lived in those days must have made it sometimes wish it had the power to do so. When attacked, it must have crouched down, and endeavoured to make its huge shell as good a defence as possible.--_Professor Owen._

INMATES OF AN AUSTRALIAN CAVERN.