CHAPTER VII.

CONCLUSIONS.

What are the conclusions to be drawn from what has gone before? When we sum up the results that we have obtained it becomes plain that economic conditions occupy a much more important place in the etiology of crime than most authors have given them.

First we have seen that the present economic system and its consequences weaken the social feelings. The basis of the economic system of our day being exchange, the economic interests of men are necessarily found to be in opposition. This is a trait that capitalism has in common with other modes of production. But its principal characteristic is that the means of production are in the hands of a few, and most men are altogether deprived of them. Consequently, persons who do not possess the means of production are forced to sell their labor to those who do, and these, in consequence of their economic preponderance, force them to make the exchange for the mere necessaries of life, and to work as much as their strength permits.

This state of things especially stifles men’s social instincts; it develops, on the part of those with power, the spirit of domination, and of insensibility to the ills of others, while it awakens jealousy and servility on the part of those who depend upon them. Further the contrary interests of those who have property, and the idle and luxurious life of some of them, also contribute to the weakening of the social instincts.

The material condition, and consequently the intellectual condition, of the proletariat are also a reason why the moral plane of that class is not high. The work of children brings them into contact with persons to associate with whom is fatal to their morals. Long working hours and monotonous labor brutalize those who are forced into them; bad housing conditions contribute also to debase the moral sense, as do the uncertainty of existence, and finally absolute poverty, the frequent consequence of sickness and unemployment. Ignorance and lack of training of any kind also contribute their quota. Most demoralizing of all is the status of the lower proletariat.

The economic position of woman contributes also to the weakening of the social instincts.

The present organization of the family has great importance as regards criminality. It charges the legitimate parents with the care of the education of the child; the community concerns itself with the matter very little. It follows that a great number of children are brought up by persons who are totally incapable of doing it properly. As regards the children of the proletariat, there can be no question of the education properly so-called, on account of the lack of means and the forced absence of one or both of the parents. The school tends to remedy this state of things, but the results do not go far enough. The harmful consequences of the present organization of the family make themselves felt especially in the case of the children of the lower proletariat, orphans, and illegitimate children. For these the community does but little, though their need of adequate help is the greatest.

Prostitution, alcoholism, and militarism, which result, in the last analysis, from the present social order, are phenomena that have demoralizing consequences.

As to the different kinds of crime, we have shown that the very important group of economic criminality finds its origin on the one side in the absolute poverty and the cupidity brought about by the present economic environment, and on the other in the moral abandonment and bad education of the children of the poorer classes. Then, professional criminals are principally recruited from the class of occasional criminals, who, finding themselves rejected everywhere after their liberation, fall lower and lower. The last group of economic crimes (fraudulent bankruptcy, etc.) is so intimately connected with our present mode of production, that it would not be possible to commit it under another.

The relation between sexual crimes and economic conditions is less direct; nevertheless these also give evidence of the decisive influence of these conditions. We have called attention to the four following points.

First, there is a direct connection between the crime of adultery and the present organization of society, which requires that the legal dissolution of a marriage should be impossible or very difficult.

Second, sexual crimes upon adults are committed especially by unmarried men; and since the number of marriages depends in its turn upon the economic situation, the connection is clear; and those who commit these crimes are further almost exclusively illiterate, coarse, raised in an environment almost without sexual morality, and regard the sexual life from the wholly animal side.

Third, the causes of sexual crime upon children are partly the same as those of which we have been speaking, with the addition of prostitution.

Fourth, alcoholism greatly encourages sexual assaults.

As to the relation between crimes of vengeance and the present constitution of society, we have noted that it produces conflicts without number; statistics have shown that those who commit them are almost without exception poor and uncivilized, and that alcoholism is among the most important causes of these crimes.

Infanticide is caused in part by poverty, and in part by the opprobrium incurred by the unmarried mother (an opprobrium resulting from the social utility of marriage).

Political criminality comes solely from the economic system and its consequences.

Finally, economic and social conditions are also important factors in the etiology of degeneracy, which is in its turn a cause of crime.

Upon the basis of what has gone before, we have a right to say that the part played by economic conditions in criminality is preponderant, even decisive.

This conclusion is of the highest importance for the prevention of crime. If it were principally the consequence of innate human qualities (atavism, for example), the pessimistic conclusion that crime is a phenomenon inseparably bound up with the social life would be well founded. But the facts show that it is rather the optimistic conclusion that we must draw, that where crime is the consequence of economic and social conditions, we can combat it by changing those conditions.

However important crime may be as a social phenomenon, however terrible may be the injuries and the evil that it brings upon humanity, the development of society will not depend upon the question as to what are the conditions which could restrain crime or make it disappear, if possible; the evolution of society will proceed independently of this question.

What is the direction that society will take under these continual modifications? This is not the place to treat fully of this subject. In my opinion the facts indicate quite clearly what the direction will be. The productivity of labor has increased to an unheard of degree, and will assuredly increase in the future. The concentration of the means of production into the hands of a few progresses continually; in many branches it has reached such a degree that the fundamental principle of the present economic system, competition, is excluded, and has been replaced by monopoly. On the other hand the working class is becoming more and more organized, and the opinion is very generally held among working-men that the causes of material and intellectual poverty can be eliminated only by having the means of production held in common.

Supposing that this were actually realized, what would be the consequences as regards criminality? Let us take up this question for a moment. Although we can give only personal opinions as to the details of such a society, the general outlines can be traced with certainty.

The chief difference between a society based upon the community of the means of production and our own is that material poverty would be no longer known. Thus one great part of economic criminality (as also one part of infanticide) would be rendered impossible, and one of the greatest demoralizing forces of our present society would be eliminated. And then, in this way those social phenomena so productive of crime, prostitution and alcoholism, would lose one of their principal factors. Child labor and overdriving would no longer take place, and bad housing, the source of much physical and moral evil, would no longer exist.

With material poverty there would disappear also that intellectual poverty which weighs so heavily upon the proletariat; culture would no longer be the privilege of some, but a possession common to all. The consequences of this upon criminality would be very important, for we have seen that even in our present society with its numerous conflicts, the members of the propertied classes, who have often but a veneer of civilization, are almost never guilty of crimes of vengeance. There is the more reason to admit that in a society where interests were not opposed, and where civilization was universal, these crimes would be no longer present, especially since alcoholism also proceeds in large part from the intellectual poverty of the poorer classes. And what is true of crimes of vengeance, is equally true of sexual crimes in so far as they have the same etiology.

A large part of the economic criminality (and also prostitution to a certain extent) has its origin in the cupidity excited by the present economic environment. In a society based upon the community of the means of production, great contrasts of fortune would, like commercial capital, be lacking, and thus cupidity would find no food. These crimes will not totally disappear so long as there has not been a redistribution of property according to the maxim, “to each according to his needs”, something that will probably be realized, but not in the immediate future.

The changes in the position of woman which are taking place in our present society, will lead, under this future mode of production, to her economic independence, and consequently to her social independence as well. It is accordingly probable that the criminality of woman will increase in comparison with that of man during the transition period. But the final result will be the disappearance of the harmful effects of the economic and social preponderance of man.

As to the education of children under these new conditions it is difficult to be definite. However, it is certain that the community will concern itself seriously with their welfare. It will see to it that the children whose parents cannot or will not be responsible for them, are well cared for. By acting in this way it will remove one of the most important causes of crime. There is no doubt that the community will exercise also a strict control over the education of children; it cannot be affirmed, however, that the time will come when the children of a number of parents will be brought up together by capable persons; this will depend principally upon the intensity that the social sentiments may attain.

As soon as the interests of all are no longer opposed to each other, as they are in our present society, there will no longer be a question either of politics (“a fortiori” of political crimes) or of militarism.

Such a society will not only remove the causes which now make men egoistic, but will awaken, on the contrary, a strong feeling of altruism. We have seen that this was already the case with the primitive peoples, where their economic interests were not in opposition. In a larger measure this will be realized under a mode of production in common, the interests of all being the same.

In such a society there can be no question of crime properly so called. The eminent criminologist, Manouvrier, in treating of the prevention of crime expresses himself thus: “The maxim to apply is, act so that every man shall always have more interest in being useful to his fellows than in harming them.” It is precisely in a society where the community of the means of production has been realized that this maxim will obtain its complete application. There will be crimes committed by pathological individuals, but this will come rather within the sphere of the physician than that of the judge. And then we may even reach a state where these cases will decrease in large measure, since the social causes of degeneracy will disappear, and procreation by degenerates be checked through the increased knowledge of the laws of heredity and the increasing sense of moral responsibility.

“It is society that prepares the crime”, says the true adage of Quetelet. For all those who have reached this conclusion, and are not insensible to the sufferings of humanity, this statement is sad, but contains a ground of hope. It is sad, because society punishes severely those who commit the crime which she has herself prepared. It contains a ground of hope, since it promises to humanity the possibility of some day delivering itself from one of its most terrible scourges.

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NOTES

[1] Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Nevada; Vice-President of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology.

[2] [Note to the American Edition: In my opinion, More is the first author who has noted in a scientific way the relation between criminality and economic conditions. Before him there were other authors, to whom this relationship did not remain totally unperceived; but they treated the subject by chance, as it were, and in a very superficial way. Cf. J. van Kan, “Les Causes économiques de la Criminalité”, pp. 15 ff.]

[3] Pp. 28–36.

[4] “Le testament de J. Meslier.”

[5] Pp. 210–212.

[6] Pp. 214, 215.

[7] P. 67.

[8] Pp. 79, 80.

[9] Pp. 144, 145. See also pp. 38 ff., and pp. 150 ff.

[10] P. 9.

[11] P. 10.

[12] P. 167.

[13] Pp. 284–288.

[14] Pp. 186–189. See also pp. 199, 200, and 207–209.

[15] Pp. 33, 34.

[16] Pp. 36, 37.

[17] Pp. 47, 48. See also pp. 72 ff.

[18] Pp. 37–39.

[19] Pp. 43–45.

[20] Pp. 74, 75.

[21] Pp. 331–333.

[22] Pp. 333, 334.

[23] Pp. 15, 16.

[24] Pp. 455–458.

[25] See also the work entitled: “An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth” (Chapters II and III), by W. Thompson, a disciple of Owen. On page 17 he says: “The unrestrained tendency of the distribution of wealth, being so much toward equality, excessive wealth and excessive poverty being removed, almost all the temptations, all the motives, which now urge to the commission of crime, would be also removed.” In general, the English socialists from the commencement of the nineteenth century (e.g. Charles Hall, Thomas Hodgskin, Charles Bray, and others) have had a notion, more or less clear, of the relation between the nascent industrial capitalism and criminality. Upon these authors cf. Quack, “De Socialisten” (Tome Supplémentaire), and Beer, “Geschichte des Sozialismus in England”, I.

[26] See his “Essays on the Formation of Character”; and “Reports of the Proceedings at the Several Public Meetings held in Dublin.”

[27] One of the laws which, according to Owen, should produce the change from modern society to the society of the future.

[28] Pp. 40–45. It is well known that Owen put his theories into practice when he founded the village of New Lanark. The disastrous consequences of industrial capitalism, such as excessive hours of labor, insufficient nourishment, unsanitary housing, the lack of education for children, etc., were diminished there or altogether avoided. Among the population of the colony, though originally alcoholized and demoralized by capitalism, little by little the favorable environment made itself felt, so that for nineteen years there was no judicial prosecution, and drunkenness and illegitimate births disappeared. (See Denis, “Le socialisme et les causes économiques et sociales du crime”, p. 283, and Quack, “De Socialisten”, II, pp. 279 ff.)

[29] Pp. 315–317.

[30] Pp. 128–131. See also: F. Engels, “Umrisse zu einer Kritik der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 449 and 459; F. Engels and K. Marx, “Die heilige Familie oder Kritik der kritischen Kritik”, pp. 239–241. See also, the following: Plato, “The Republic”, I. 5.; C. A. Helvetius, “De l’homme”, X. p. 49; J. P. Marat, “Plan de la législation criminelle”, pp. 18 ff.; J. Bentham, “Traités de la législation civile et pénale”, III ch. V, pp. 45 ff.; Ch. Fourier, “Théorie des quatre Mouvements”, III; “Théorie de l’unité universelle” (“Traité de l’association domestique-agricole”), Introduction. 2. p. 51; “Le nouveau monde industriel et sociétaire”, Sect. VI; B. P. Enfantin, “Les enseignements”, pp. 92, 93; W. Weitling, “Die Menschheit wie sie ist, und wie sie sein sollte”, p. 47; “Garantien der Harmonie und Freiheit”, pp. 53, 54, and 104, 105; “Das Evangelium eines armen Sünders”, p. 102; V. Considérant, “Théorie du droit de propriété et du droit au travail”, p. 33; L. Blanc, “Organisation du travail”, pp. 57 ff.; C. Pequeur, “Des améliorations matérielles”, pp. 86–88, 232–234, 239–241; J. A. van Royen, “Wetgeving en armoede beschouwd in betrekking tot het misdrijf”, pp. 9 ff.; C. J. A. den Tex, “De causis criminum”, pp. 84 ff.; Chaillou des Barres, “L’influence du bien-être matériel sur la moralité d’un peuple” (“Journal des Economistes”, 1846); E. Mercier, “Influence du bien-être matériel sur la criminalité”; P. J. Proudhon, “De la justice dans la révolution et dans l’église”, pp. 533–534.

[Note to the American Edition: For the opinions of the scientific world of Holland at the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth: J. A. v. Hamel, “Strafrechtspolitiek van voor honderd jaar” (Gids, 1909, II).

See for the same period in England: L. von Thót, “Die positive Strafrechtsschule in einigen europäischen Ländern”, pp. 407 ff. (“Monatschr. f. Kriminal-Psychologie u. Strafrechts-reform”, VIII).]

[31] Pp. 42, 43.

[32] P. 94, I.

[33] Pp. 95–97, I.

[34] Pp. 278, 279.

[35] P. 281.

[36] Pp. 39–46.

[37] P. 47.

[38] “Du Problème de la Misère et de sa solution chez les peuples anciens et modernes”, III (“Peuples modernes”). See also by the same: “Le monde des coquins.”

[39] Pp. 222–224.

[40] P. 2.

[41] [The charts being unnecessarily detailed for the purposes of this work, and the results being sufficiently summed up in the paragraphs which follow, they are omitted in this translation, though given by Dr. Bonger.—Transl.]

[42] Pp. 136, 137.

[43] Pp. 160, 161.

[44] [To avoid awkwardness of expression the term assault will be used for assaults other than those peculiarly against women, the original being about equivalent to our “assault and battery.”—Transl.]

[45] “Essai sur la criminalité” (“Journal des Economistes”, 1868).

[46] P. 64.

[47] P. 82.

[48] See Part II of this work, where I have shown that in my opinion the influence of property upon morality is much more complex than Corne has suggested, and quite different.

[49] Pp. 89, 90.

[50] See Guerry, “Essai sur la statistique morale de la France,” p. 51, and L. del Baere, “De invloed van opvoeding en onderwijs.”

[51] P. 93.

[52] P. 10.

[53] P. 24.

[54] P. 58.

[55] [“Arpents de Magdebourg.”—Transl.]

[56] P. 57.

[57] “Die Moralstatistik in ihrer Bedeutung für eine Socialethik.”

[58] P. 239.

[59] On p. 442 of his “Moralstatistik,” von Oettingen criticises Stursberg for basing his comparison upon the year 1871 in which the figures were very low as a consequence of the war, and for not having taken into account that in the year 1876 the new penal code was put into effect.

[60] P. 58.

[61] “Ueber einige wirthschaftliche und moralische Wirkungen hoher Getreidepreise.”

[62] “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen 1854–1878.” This book (especially the statistical material) has been severely criticized by Mittelstadt (“Zeitschrift für die ges. Strafrechtswissenschaft”, 1884), Aschrott (“Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, etc.” von Schmoller, 1884), and Illing (“Zeitschrift des Königlich Preussischen statistischen Bureaus”, 1885). Körner has refuted their views (“Jahrbücher für d. Nat. Oek. u. Stat. Neue Folge”, Vol. XIII).

[63] It is not possible for me to treat this question at length here. The reader is referred to my studies: “Misdaad en socialisme. Tegelijk eene bijdrage tot de studie der criminaliteit in Nederland” (“Nieuwe Tijd”, XVI), and “Verbrechen und Sozialismus. Zugleich ein Beitrag zum Studium der Kriminalität in Deutschland” (“Neue Zeit”, XXX, 2), where I have proved in a decisive manner, as it seems to me, that the socialistic movement is not productive of crime, but the contrary.

[64] P. 88.

[65] P. 94.

[66] “Die Würtembergische Kriminalität.”

[67] P. 360.

[68] See upon this book the criticism of Professor F. Tönnies in “Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, 1896.

[69] P. 41.

[70] P. 57.

[71] P. 61.

[72] P. 66.

[73] P. 67.

[74] Cf. by the same: “Studien zur Theorie und Geschichte der Handelskrisen in England”, II, Chap. I, where still more explicit data are given.

[75] “La delinquenza e la vita sociale in Russia.” Another publication by the same author is entitled: “Upon the relations between criminality and the price of cereals” (published in Russian). Cf. also: “Le mouvement de la criminalité en Russie, 1874–1894” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XIII.), and “Répartition géographique de la criminalité en Russie” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, XVI.).

[76] P. 4.

[77] Pp. 24, 25.

[78] See Lafargue, “Die Kriminalität in Frankreich, 1840–86.” In France the development of manufacturing did not receive an impetus till 1874, from which year the decrease in crime dates.

[79] P. 56.

[80] Pp. 60, 61.

[81] Pp. 65, 66.

[82] Cf. H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, and my study already cited, “Verbrechen und Socialismus”, pp. 805, 806.

See also: Whitworth Russell, “Abstract of the Statistics of Crime in England and Wales, from 1839 to 1843”; J. Fletcher, “Moral and Educational Statistics of England and Wales”; G. R. Porter, “The Influence of Education Shown by Facts Recorded in the Criminal Tables for 1845 and 1846”; L. Faucher, “Mémoire sur le caractère et sur le mouvement de la criminalité en Angleterre”; J. Clay, “On the Effect of Good or Bad Times on Committals to Prison”; R. Everest, “On the Influence of Social Degradation in Producing Pauperism and Crime, as Exemplified in the Free Coloured Citizens and Foreigners in the United States”; “Criminality Promoted by Distress” (“The Economist”, 1856); R. H. Walsh, “A Deduction from the Statistics of Crime for the Last Ten Years”; W. Westgarth, “Statistics of Crime in Australia”; Bernard, “De la criminalité en France depuis 1826 et de la répression pénale au point de vue de l’amendement des prisonniers”; J. H. Elliot, “The Increase of Material Prosperity and of Moral Agents Compared with the State of Crime and Pauperism”; E. Levasseur, “La population française”, II pp. 442–444; Prof. Dr. B. Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 544 ff.; G. F. Kolb, “Handbuch der vergleichenden Statistik”, pp. 516, 517; M. A. de Malarce, “Moralité comparée des diverses parties de la France d’après la criminalité”; J. E. Wappäus, “Allgemeine Bevölkerungsstatistik”, II, pp. 429, 430; Mayhew and Binny, “The Criminal Prisons of London”, pp. 450, 451; E. Bertrand, “Essai sur la moralité comparative des diverses classes de la population et principalement des classes ouvrières”; G. Lindenberg, “Ergebnisse der deutschen Kriminalstatistik”, 1882–1892, pp. 718 ff.

[Note to the American Edition: See the following recent statistical studies: For Germany: H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”; R. Wassermann, “Beruf, Konfession, und Verbrechen”; G. Schnapper-Arndt, “Sozialstatistik”, pp. 624 ff.; P. Alterthum, “Das Problem der Arbeitslosigkeit und die Kapitalistische Wirtschaftsentwicklung”, pp. 47 ff.; W. A. Bonger, “Verbrechen und Sozialismus.” For Austria: H. Herr, “Verbrechen und Verbrechertum in Oesterreich.” For the Balkan States: A. Wadler, “Die Verbrechensbewegung im östlichen Europa”, I. For Belgium: C. Jacquart, “La criminalité Belge, 1868–1909.” For the Netherlands: J. R. B. de Roos, “Inleiding tot de beoefening der crimineele aetiologie”; W. A. Bonger, “Misdaad en Socialisme, etc.”; C. A. Verrijn Stuart, “Inleiding tot de beoefening der statistiek”, II, pp. 223 ff.]

[83] See Wulffen, “Psychologie des Verbrechers”, I, p. 369.

[84] See (with regard to the social factors of crime and their importance in comparison with individual causes) my study: “Over de maatschappelijke factoren van de misdaad en hunne beteekenis in vergelijking met de individueele oorzaken” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII, pp. 413 ff.).

[85] See further H. v. Schul, “Kriminalstatistik” (“Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschafte”, VI, p. 246).

[86] See v. Liszt, “Kriminalpolitische Aufgaben” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, IX).

[87] See Levasseur, “La population française”, p. 445; also v. Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, p. 445; Dr. E. Würzburger, “Ueber die Vergleichbarkeit kriminalstatistischer Daten” (“Jahrb. f. Nationalökonomie u. Statistik”, 1887); Tarde, “Penal Philosophy”, pp. 72, 73 (The Modern Criminal Science Series, Little, Brown, & Co., 1912); Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XI, pp. 517–518); de Roos, op. cit., pp. 192 ff.

[88] The opinions of partisans of the Italian school with regard to the correlation between criminality and economic conditions are very different. Garofalo and Ferri especially are not in agreement upon this point. Nevertheless, I have thought that I ought to class them together, because of the uniformity of their point of view with regard to criminality in general.

[89] The Modern Criminal Science Series. Translated by Horton. Boston, Little, Brown, & Co., 1911.

[90] P. 81.

[91] See Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 227, 228.

[92] Bodio includes rural thefts.

[93] P. 121.

[94] P. 122.

[95] As the author himself observes, the conclusions drawn from this table must be taken with reserve, because of the great difference in the penal laws of these countries.

[96] My exposition would be too long if I should examine this explanation (which seems insufficient to me) at length. For the chief explanation of the great number of murders in countries that are intellectually backward, see “L’homicide en Italie”, by Colajanni (“Revue socialiste”, 1901).

[97] P. 131.

[98] Pp. 133, 134.

[99] P. 137.

[100] American edition, “Criminology” (The Modern Criminal Science Series; Little, Brown, & Co., 1913), from which quotations are made. See by the same author, “La superstition socialiste”, and “Le Crime comme phénomène social” (“Annales de l’Inst. intern. de Sociologie”, II).

[Note to the American Edition: See also his report to the Congress of Cologne, “L’influence des prédispositions et du milieu dans la criminalité.”]

[101] Pp. 144, 145.

[102] P. 164.

[103] See also “Studi sulla Criminalità in Francia (1826–1876).”

[104] Although I do not wish to attack the proposition that socialism in Italy at that period (preceding 1880) was unscientific, I cannot conceal my astonishment that Professor Ferri should fulminate against socialism in general “because of its lack of the scientific spirit”, apparently quite ignorant of the scientific socialism of Marx and Engels, which had existed since the middle of the century!

[105] “Sociologie criminelle”, p. 161.

[106] P. 43.

[107] Pp. 150, 151.

[108] “Soc. crim.”, p. 157.

[109] “Les aptitudes et les actes”, pp. 328, 329.

[110] Upon crime and sex see Pt. II, Ch. II, § I, C., d.

[111] “Genèse normale du crime”, p. 451.

[112] Among the anthropological factors Professor Ferri includes also education, profession, civil status, etc., called all together the bio-social conditions. I am of the opinion that these factors ought not to be classed as anthropological, but as social.

[113] [Note to the American Edition: Among the recent works against the Italian school must be named that of Dr. S. Ettinger, “Das Verbrecherproblem”.]

[114] It is not correct, in my opinion, to class agricultural production among the physical factors as Professor Ferri does. It is rather one of the social factors.

[115] Pp. 199–201.

[116] See Niceforo; “Criminalità e condizioni economiche in Sicilia” (“Rivista scientifica del diretto”, 1897), and Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie” (“Revue Socialiste”, July, 1901).

[117] “Criminalité comparée”, p. 153.

[118] It is Colajanni in particular who, in his “Sociologia criminale”, II, has cited a great number of examples of this kind. See Chs. VII, VIII, IX. See also his “Oscillations thermométriques et délits contre les personnes” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, 1886). See also Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XI, p. 544).

[119] “Das Verbrechen in seiner Abhängigkeit von dem jährlichen Temperaturwechsel” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, II, p. 13).

[120] See Colajanni, “Soc. crim.”, II, pp. 427 ff.

[121] See: Tarde, “Penal Philosophy”, p. 303; Quetelet, “Physique sociale”, II, p. 288; Colajanni, “Soc. Crim.”, II, pp. 431 ff.

[122] See “Introduction to the Criminal Statistics of England and Wales, 1905”, p. 53.

[123] Besides the authors cited, see also, as regards the influence of physical factors, Mischler, “Hauptergebnisse in moralischer Hinsicht” (“Handbuch des Gefängniswesens”, II, p. 485); Fr. von Liszt, “Die sozialpolitische Auffassung des Verbrechens” (“Sozialpolitisches Centralblatt”, 1892).

[124] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the relation between criminality and the physical environment see also the recent works: Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 13 ff.; de Roos, “Quelques recherches sur les causes de l’augmentation des vols pendant l’hiver et des coups et blessures pendant l’été” (“Compte rendu du VIe Congrès internat. d’anthrop. crim.”); Wulffen, “Psychologie des Verbrechers”, I, pp. 381 ff.; P. Gaedeken, “Contribution statistique à la réaction de l’organisme sous l’influence physico-chimique des agents météorologiques” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXIV); Verrijn-Stuart, op. cit., pp. 176 ff.; v. Mayr, “Statistik u. Gesellschaftslehre”, pp. 605 ff.

[125] “Zur Kritik der politischen Oekonomie”, Preface, p. xi.

[126] “La conception matérialiste de l’histoire”, pp. 229, 230 (“Devenir Social”, 1897).

[127] See the examples given by Professor Ferri, pp. 197–201.

[128] I will not speak of Ch. VI, which is only a repetition of a theme treated of several times, “how much more scientific the sociologists are than the socialists.”

[129] [See the author’s explanation of his use of this word, in the preface.—Transl.]

[130] See “Le crime comme phénomène social” (“Annales de l’institut international de Sociologie”, 1896, p. 414), and “Kriminelle Anthropologie und Sozialismus” (“Neue Zeit”, 1895–96, II).

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. the recent work of C. Manes (a disciple of Ferri), “Capitalismo e criminalità.”]

[131] P. 217. The author insinuates, without bringing the slightest proof, that persons with criminal dispositions have often contributed to the formation of the socialistic theories.

[132] See my criticisms upon these authors. It is not clear why Ferri is cited as an adherent of the opinion expressed by Dr. Kurella; for he gives an important place in the etiology of crime to economic factors.

[133] P. 179.

[134] “La criminalità e le vicende economiche d’Italia dal 1873 al 1890 e osservazioni sommarie per il Regno Unito della Gran Bretagna e Irlanda (1840–1890) e per la Nova Galles del Sud (1882–1891).”

[135] Excepting rural thefts, included under a.

[136] Excepting fraudulent bankruptcy.

[137] Excepting rebellion and violence to public authorities.

[138] Pp. 166, 167.

[139] “Actes”, p. 240.

[140] “Compte rendu”, p. 232.

[Note to the American Edition: See also Professor Lacassagne’s preface to Laurent’s “Le criminel.”]

[141] “Penal Philosophy”, p. 322.

[142] Op. cit., p. 332.

[143] Op. cit., p. 334.

[144] Op. cit., p. 359.

[145] Op. cit., pp. 362, 363.

[146] Op. cit., pp. 383, 384.

[147] Op. cit., pp. 389–391.

[148] Pp. 392, 393.

[149] On this subject see Kautsky, “Die materialistische Geschichtsauffassung und der psychologische Antrieb”, p. 655 (“Neue Zeit”, 1895–1896, II). See the criticism of the imitation theory by Professor Ferri, in the “Devenir Social”, 1895, entitled “La théorie sociologique de M. Tarde.”

[150] “Crime”, p. 212.

[151] “Compte Rendu”, p. 199.

[152] Ibid., p. 200.

[153] P. 204.

[154] Pp. 203, 204.

[155] P. 142.

[156] P. 430.

[157] P. 431.

[158] Pp. 434, 435.

[159] P. 436.

[160] P. 561.

[161] P. 568.

[162] See also by the same author: “Les crânes des suppliciés”, “Les aptitudes et les actes”, “L’atavisme et le crime”, and his reports to the Congress of Criminal Anthropology at Paris and at Brussels.

[163] Pp. 408, 409.

[164] Pp. 409, 410.

[165] Pp. 414, 415.

[166] Pp. 416, 417.

[167] Pp. 418, 419.

[168] P. 419.

[169] P. 429.

[170] Pp. 431, 432.

[171] Pp. 434–436.

[172] Pp. 445, 446.

[173] Pp. 449, 450.

[174] Pp. 452, 453.

[175] P. 455.

[176] P. 456.

[177] [“Somatisch.” Though capable of being translated thus, this word is plainly not “physical” in the sense in which that is used for one of Ferri’s three causes.—Transl.]

[178] Pp. 410, 411.

See also: Dr. A. Bournet, “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”; G. Richard, “Les crises sociales et la criminalité” (“L’année sociologique”, 1898–99); L. Gumplowicz, “Das Verbrechen als soziale Erscheinung” (“Soziologische Essays”).

[Note to the American Edition: Compare further the recent works of the French school: E. Laurent, “Le criminel”; J. L. de Lanessan, “La lutte contre le crime”; J. Maxwell, “Le crime et la société.”]

[179] P. 13.

[180] Pp. 13–18.

[181] Pp. 19–22.

[182] P. 6.

[183] P. 37.

[184] Cf. Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 558.

[185] Pp. 82, 83.

[186] Pp. 106, 107.

[187] [14% of 7% is about 1%, of course. The mistake is Morrison’s.—Transl.]

[188] In his article, “The Interpretation of Criminal Statistics” (“Journal of the Royal Statistical Society”), 1897, Morrison says: “I am inclined to agree ... that the attempt to institute ... comparisons (of international character) is at present impracticable” (p. 15). It would have been well if he had not forgotten this opinion when he wrote “Crime and its Causes.”

[189] See, by the same author: “Juvenile Offenders” (chaps. VII and VIII).

[190] See, by the same author, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung.”

[191] P. 59.

[192] Pp. 59, 60.

[193] [Note to the American Edition: I am glad to be able to call the reader’s attention to the fact that Professor von Liszt has changed his opinion with regard to the bio-sociological hypothesis of crime, and must now be ranked with the partisans of the environmental school. (See “Die gesellschaftlichen Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 438–439, “Strafrechtliche Aufsätze und Vorträge”, II.)

Chiefly on account of Professor von Liszt’s initiative, there has appeared in Germany a series of monographs upon the criminality of a province, of a district, etc. (criminal topography). Here are the titles in chronological order: K. Böhmert, “Die sächsische Kriminalstatistik mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Jahre 1882–1887” (“Zeitschr. d. K. Sächsische Statistischen Bureaus”, XXXV; Damme, “Die Kriminalität in ihre Zusammenhänge in der Provinz Schleswig-Holstein vom Januar 1882 bis dahin 1890” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrechtsw.”, XII.); W. Weidemann, “Die Ursachen der Kriminalität im Herzogtum Sachsen-Meiningen”; B. Blau, “Kriminalstatistische Untersuchung der Kreise Marienwerder und Thorn”; P. Frauenstädt, “Kriminalistische Heimatkunde” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, VI.); E. Peterselie, “Untersuchungen über die Kriminalität in der Provinz Sachsen”; F. Dochow, “Die Kriminalität im Amtsbezirk Heidelberg”; F. Galle, “Untersuchung über die Kriminalität in der Provinz Schlesien” (“Gerichtssaal” LXXI, LXXII); W. Stöwesand, “Die Kriminalität in der Provinz Posen und ihre Ursachen”; A. Sauer, “Frauenkriminalität in Amtsbezirk Mannheim”.]

[194] To my great satisfaction Dr. Näcke says, in a criticism of my book, that through reading it, from a bio-sociologist he has almost become an out-and-out follower of the environmental theory (of the French school) (“Archiv f. Krim.-anthr. u. Kriminalstatistik,” XXI, p. 188).

[195] Pp. 96, 97.

[196] P. 98.

[197] Pp. 98, 99.

[198] P. 177.

[199] P. 208.

See also, by the same author: “Die neueren Erscheinungen auf kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre Bedeutung” (“Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XIV.).

[Note to the American Edition: See also Näcke’s “Die Ueberbleibsel der Lombrosischen kriminalanthropologischen Theorien” (“Archiv f. Krim.-anthr. u. Kriminalität”, L. (1912), pp. 326 ff.)]

[200] In his introduction this author distinguishes three groups of factors: the cosmic, the biological, and the social. Consequently he can be ranked in the same category with Professor Ferri. However, I have thought that he ought rather to be classed among the bio-sociologists, because he gives a preponderating importance to the social factors. As he himself says (p. vii of the introduction), his work is one of the proofs that the divergences of opinions of the schools of criminologists is not great.

[201] Pp. 371, 372.

[202] P. 97.

[203] P. 90.

[204] Pp. 100, 101.

[205] Pp. 103, 104.

[206] P. 113.

[207] Pp. 115, 116.

[208] [See the author’s explanation of his use of this term in the preface.—Transl.]

[209] See also Chaps. II and IV.

[210] P. 346.

[211] Pp. 348, 349.

[212] P. 355.

[213] Pp. 358, 359.

[214] P. 365.

[215] [“Misère.” The word may mean misery, of course, as the author has interpreted it in proving a contradiction of terms, but Joly seems to use it, as it is generally used, to describe an external condition rather than a mental state. In any case, all that Joly seems to mean is that there are those who deliberately prefer effortless indigence to a competence acquired by toil, being willing to put up with the indigence for the sake of the wished for escape from effort.—Transl.]

[216] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. “La Belgique criminelle”, by the same author.]

[217] “Le crime et la peine.”

[218] Pp. 204, 205.

[219] P. 207.

[220] “Les influences de la misère sur la criminalité.” See also “L’école d’anthropologie criminelle”, by the same author.

[221] See the following chapter.

[222] Pp. 18–20.

[223] Pp. 22, 23.

[224] Pp. 31, 32.

[225] P. 43.

[226] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. also the following authors: Dr. G. von Rohden, “Von den sozialen Motiven des Verbrechens” and “Verbrechensbekämpfung und Verbrechensvorbeugung” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, VII and IX), and F. A. K. Krauss, “Der Kampf gegen die Verbrechensursachen.”]

[227] [Throughout this section the author uses “religion” as meaning a professed connection with a cult and “irreligion” as the repudiation of any such connection. This is not the use we commonly make of these terms in English, but I know of no others that more accurately express Dr. Bonger’s meaning.—Transl.]

[228] See Bonger, “Geloof en misdaad” (Religion and crime), p. 6.

[229] See also, as members of the “Terza Scuola”: Vaccaro, “Genesi e funzione delle leggi penali”; Carnevale, “Una terza scuola di diritto penale”; Alimena, “Naturalismo critico e diritto penale.” In the “Mitteilungen der internationalen kriminalistischen Vereinigung”, Vol. IV, is found an article by Dr. E. Rosenfeld, entitled “Die dritte Schule”, in which the doctrine of this school is fully treated.

In a discourse more distinguished by hatred of Marxism than by a knowledge of that doctrine, Professor Benedikt said at the Congress of Criminal Anthropology held in Brussels: “The partisans of the ‘Terza Scuola’ are in reality only Marxists.” Among those considered as belonging to the Third School, there is only one Marxist as far as I know. Professor Benedikt may have been led into his error by the fact that Dr. Colajanni, one of the principal partisans of the Third School, and also one of the few criminologists of this school who has written upon the affinity between criminality and economic conditions, is in agreement with the Marxists in this, that he finds the causes of crime, in the last analysis, in economic conditions. This is why I speak of Dr. Colajanni, as representing the Third School, and of the socialists in the same chapter. Although Colajanni calls himself a republican in political matters, he is nevertheless a partisan of an eclectic socialism. (See “Il Socialismo.”) It is for this reason also that it is well to name him in this chapter. Other partisans of the Third School are also, as it appears, more or less of this opinion (see p. 18 of “Die dritte Schule”, where Dr. Rosenfeld treats of Professor Carnevale). However, it is evident from the manner in which Dr. Colajanni treats the question, that he is not a Marxist.

[230] P. 42.

[231] P. 201.

[232] P. 202.

[233] Pp. 235–238.

[234] P. 404.

[235] See also his, “La delinquenza della Sicilia e le sue cause”, and “Socialismo e criminalità.”

[236] Dr. Colajanni is in error here. Marx never formulated so strange a theory.

[237] Pp. 456, 457.

[238] For further details see Dr. Colajanni’s report to the Fifth Congress of Criminal Anthropology.

[239] See pp. 494–500, where the author proves this with the aid of numerous quotations.

[240] See pp. 504–510.

[241] P. 513.

[242] With regard to Starke, from whom Dr. Colajanni takes these figures, see Chap. II of this work.

[243] Pp. 562, 563. See also Chap. XIII, in which Dr. Colajanni treats of the influence of militarism upon criminality.

[244] [To this point Dr. H. B. Adams, Walther’s translation, “Woman in the Past, Present, and Future”, (Lovell, 1886) has been followed. The remainder of the quotation is matter added by Bebel since the publication of the edition from which the above translation was made.—Transl.]

[245] [A decimal point is plainly lacking after the first figure in each of these two numbers.—Transl.]

[246] Pp. 295–297.

[247] P. 107.

[248] Pp. 108, 109.

[249] In examining the statistical tables it must be remembered that they give no real picture of criminality during the years 1870–71, on account of the effect of the war.

[250] Lafargue’s idea of combining the curves of failure and of the price of flour is ingenious, but in my opinion does not give a correct notion of the truth, since it is upon the mistaken notion that the effect of these two factors is equal.

[251] P. 116.

[252] Pp. 370, 371. “Actes du troisième Congrès international d’anthropologie criminelle.” See, by the same author, “L’influence de la crise économique sur la criminalité et le penchant au crime de Quetelet”, “Le socialisme et les causes économiques et sociales du crime”, and “Les index numbers (nombres indices) des phénomènes moraux.”

[253] “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch.”

[254] Pp. 143, 144.

[255] In the last two columns “crimes” was later corrected by the author himself to “criminals”. See “Neue Zeit”, 1892–1893, II, p. 179, and 1893–1894, I, pp. 184 and 535.

[256] P. 150.

[257] Pp. 156, 157.

[258] P. 152.

[259] P. 159.

[260] In 1907 a second edition appeared, revised and corrected.

[261] P. 40.

[262] P. 54.

[263] P. 54.

[264] See also: P. Kropotkin, “Paroles d’un révolté”, pp. 241 ff., and “The Coming Anarchy”, p. 161 (“Nineteenth Century”, 1887); J. Stern, “Einfluss der sozialen Zustände auf alle Zweige des Kulturlebens”, pp. 24 ff.; E. Belfort Bax, “Ethics of Socialism”; T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend und die besitzenden Klassen in Oesterreich”, pp. 132–137, 170–171; J. S(chmidt), “Einfluss der Krisen und der Steigerung der Lebensmittelpreise auf das Gesellschaftsleben”, pp. 16–19, 23; H. Wetzker, “Die Zunahme der Verbrechen” (“Sozialistische Monatshefte”, 1902, II); E. Reich, “Criminalität und Altruismus”; E. Gystrow, “Social-pathologische Probleme der Gegenwart” (“Soz. Monatshefte”, V, 1901).

See also Chapter I, in which I have treated of several socialists, who had to be placed there because they wrote before the rise of modern criminology.

[Note to the American Edition: See also E. Fischer, “Laienbemerkungen zur Reform des Strafrechts” (“Soz. Monatshefte”, X,1 (1906); Dr. S. Ettinger, “Das Verbrecherproblem in anthropologischer und soziologischer Beleuchtung”, which, resting upon the socialist theory, criticises especially the anthropological school; and Robert Blatchford, “Not Guilty”, an original and popular exposition of the theory of the environment.]

[265] P. xi.

[266] I do not mean to deny the importance of historical researches into crime, such as the famous book of Pike, “History of Crime in England”, or the “Documents de criminologie rétrospective” of Corre and Aubry. They can give us valuable information with regard to the etiology of crime, but in my opinion it is indubitable that the historic method never permits us to give the complete etiology of a social phenomenon, like criminality, for example.

[267] This sketch is based upon Karl Marx’s “Kapital” and K. Kautsky’s works primarily, with some indebtedness to Marx’s “Oekonomischen Lehren”, and “Das Erfurter Programm.”

[268] Marx, “Kapital”, I, p. 4.

[269] “Kapital”, I, p. 6. It is plain that in this exposition it is needless to add why this law is discarded under a developed system of capitalism. The exception in no way diminishes the fundamental truth of the proposition.

[270] In his work “The Condition of the Working-class in England”, F. Engels, after speaking of the condition of the English proletariat, says, “The working-class has gradually become a race wholly apart from the English bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie has more in common with every other nation of the earth than with the workers in whose midst it lives. The workers speak other dialects, have other thoughts and ideals, other customs and moral principles, a different religion, and other politics than the bourgeoisie. They are two radically dissimilar nations.” (P. 124. [In original, p. 127].)

[271] Upon the petty bourgeoisie see the excellent article of Dr. B. Schönlank, “Zur Psychologie des Kleinbürgerthums” (“Neue Zeit”, 1890).

[272] Alcoholism being of great importance for criminality I shall treat the etiology of this social phenomenon separately (see Chap. IV).

[273] It is plain that I cannot cite proofs in support of this exposition; I should go beyond the proper limits of this discussion of the present economic system and its consequences. Furthermore it would be useless; for those of my readers who do not know from having seen it that the situation is as I have stated, can be convinced by reading the rich literature upon the subject. I will refer here only to the more noteworthy books; For England: F. Engels, “The Condition of the Working-Class in England” (1845); K. Marx, “Das Kapital” (1867); M. Schippel, “Das moderne Elend und die moderne Ueberbevölkerung” (1888); Chas. Booth, “Life and Labor of the People in London” (1892–1897); R. Blatchford, “Merrie England” (1894), and “Dismal England” (1901); B. S. Rowntree, “Poverty, A Study of Town Life” (1901). For Germany: Dr. H. Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch” (1889); P. Göhre, “Drei Monate Fabrikarbeiter” (1891); Dr. R. Hirschberg, “Soziale Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in Berlin” (1897); H. Herkner, “Die Arbeitsfrage” (1894), treating also of Austria and Switzerland. For Austria: T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend und die besitzenden Klassen” (1894). For Holland: “Rapport der Commissie belast met het onderzoek naar den toestand der kinderen in fabrieken arbeidende” (1872); “Enquête betreffende werking en uitbreiding der wet van 19 September 1874 en naar den toestand van fabrieken en werkplaatsen” (1887); “Enquête gehouden door de staatscommissie benoemd volgens de wet van 19 Jan. 1890” (1800–1894); “Een vergeten hoofdstuk” (1898); H. Roland-Holst, “Kapitaal en arbeid in Nederland” (1902).

Upon the conditions of women’s work see: L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage.” Upon the housing of working-men in the great cities see: A. Braun, “Berliner Wohnungsverhältnisse”; E. von Philippovich, “Wiener Wohnungsverhältnisse” (“Archiv f. soz. Gesetzgeb.” u. Stat. VII).

[Note to the American Edition: The literature upon the social condition of the proletariat has increased considerably in recent years. It would be impossible and also superfluous to cite the whole of this literature; I note only certain works that seem remarkable for one reason or another.

For England: L. G. Chiozza-Money, “Riches and Poverty” (1905). For Germany: K. Fischer, “Denkwürdigkeiten und Erinnerungen eines Arbeiters” (1903–04); M. W. Th. Bromme, “Lebensgeschichte eines modernen Fabrikarbeiters” (1905); and Fr. Rehbein, “Das Leben eines Landarbeiters.” For the United States: R. Hunter, “Das Elend der neuen Welt” (1908). For Russia: K. A. Pashitnow, “Die Lage der arbeitenden Klasse in Russland” (1907). For the Netherlands: J. J. Moquette, “Onderzoekingen over volksvoeding in de gemeente Utrecht”, 1907; “Arbeidersleven in Nederland” (1908); “Onderzoekingen naar de toestanden in de Nederlandsche huisindustrie”, 1911–1912. Upon the condition of working-people in general see especially the very interesting and original work of Niceforo, “Anthropologie der nichtbesitzenden Klassen” (1910). Upon the condition of working-women, see “Die Jugendgeschichte einer Arbeiterin” (1909); R. Kempf, “Das Leben der jungen Fabrikmädchen in München” (1911); the official investigation into the work of married women in the factories in the Netherlands (1911). Upon child-labor: “Das proletarische Kind.”]

[274] See the proof cited by K. Kautsky in his “Sozialreform und soziale Revolution” (pp. 22–25), in support of the assertion that the distance between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat has increased.

[275] What the Germans call “Lumpenproletariat.” [The French is “le bas Prolétariat.” “Submerged class” is perhaps our most common English equivalent.—Transl.] With the lower proletariat we must include prostitutes and a part of the criminals. These two groups we shall naturally treat in detail later.

[276] Pp. 213–215. (“Neue Zeit”, 1884).

[277] Op. cit. p. 215. See also, as regards the condition of the lower proletariat in Germany, Dr. H. Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 32 ff.; for Austria: T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend, etc.” IV, pp. 122 ff.; for Russia: O. Zetkin, “Die barfüssige Bande” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885); for England: Ch. Booth, “Pauperism” and “Life and Labour of the People in London”, VIII; for all Europe: L. M. Moreau-Christophe, “Du problème de la misère,” III; for North America see R. Hunter, “Das Elend der neuen Welt”, pp. 51 ff.

[278] There may be found in Dr. L. Woltmann’s “Die Darwinsche Theorie und der Sozialismus” (pp. 81–135) a detailed résumé of the works of the authors who hold this opinion. Cf. also Herkner, “Die Arbeiterfrage”, pp. 178 ff., where also the literature upon this point is to be found.

[279] P. 527, op. cit. I.

[280] P. 529, op. cit. I.

[281] As is well known, Galton is one of the authors who denies this thesis. One of the rare examples which he produces as proof is d’Alembert, who, notwithstanding an unfavorable educational environment, became a celebrity. (See “Hereditary Genius,” pp. 34–39). Unfortunately for Galton Professor Odin proves that d’Alembert received an excellent education and was brought up in relatively favorable economic conditions. (See “Genèse des grands hommes,” p. 538, I.) See also Professor Odin’s criticism of Galton (pp. 192 ff., op. cit., I).

[282] Op. cit., I, p. 562.

[283] P. 80.

[284] Cf. especially the excellent refutation of the pseudo-Darwinian theory by Professor Bücher in the chapter “Arbeitsgliederung und Soziale Klassenbilderung” from his “Entstehen der Volkswirtschaft.”

[285] See Woltmann, op. cit., pp. 32–81 and pp. 334 ff., where he cites a number of authors who are of this opinion. Upon the whole subject see Dr. A. Ploetz, “Die Tüchtigkeit unsrer Rasse und der Schutz der Schwachen”, and Dr. D. van Embden, “Darwinisme en Demokratie.”

[286] “Menschliche Auslese”, p. 10 (Zukunft, 1894).

[287] Under this heading are included all the children below 14, and the women who live with the person assisted. It is enough to point out that the indigence of these co-assisted persons does not proceed from any cause in the persons themselves, but in their circumstances.

[288] “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich”, X, 1889, pp. 206–208.

[289] Read the following taken from “Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians”, by G. Catlin: “This cruel custom of exposing their aged people, belongs, I think, to all the tribes who roam about the prairies, making severe marches, when such decrepit persons are totally unable to go, unable to ride or to walk,—when they have no means of carrying them. It often becomes absolutely necessary in such cases that they should be left; and they uniformly insist upon it, saying as one old man did, that they are old and of no further use—that they left their fathers in the same manner—that they wish to die, and their children must not mourn for them.” (I, p. 217.)

[290] The figures given by J. S. in “Aus den Ergebnissen der sächsischen Armenstatistik” (“Neue Zeit” 1894–95, II), confirm those in the table I have given, if we do not lose sight of the fact that J. S. does not give the “co-assisted” persons separately. The figures of Charles Booth in his “Pauperism” show that alcoholism forms a more important factor in the two districts that he has studied (12.6% and 21.9%); for laziness the figures are 1.9% and 10.6%. Statistics of the Netherlands confirm in general those of the German Empire:

=========================+========+========++===========================+========+======== Assisted Temporarily. | 1898 | 1899 || Assisted Continuously. | 1898 | 1899 -------------------------+--------+--------++---------------------------+--------+-------- Causes of Indigence. | % | % || Causes of Indigence. | % | % -------------------------+--------+--------++---------------------------+--------+-------- Illness, etc. | 42.3 | 45.1 || Illness or bodily defects | 18.6 | 18.9 Lack or shortage of work | 30.7 | 28.9 || Old age | 45.4 | 47 Alcoholism | 2.6 | 2.6 || Death of breadwinner | 20.0 | 19.2 Other causes | 24.4 | 23.4 || Alcoholism | 1.8 | 1.5 |--------+--------|| Other causes | 14.2 | 13.4 | 100.0 | 100.0 || |--------+-------- | | || | 100.0 | 100.0 =========================+========+========++===========================+========+========

(Verslagen over de verrichtingen aangaande het armbestuur over 1898 en 1899. Bijlage E. Handelingen 2e Kamer der Staten-Generaal 1899–1900, 1900–1901.)

[291] P. 490. “Biologie und Kriminalstatistik.” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrechtswissenschaft”, VII.)

[292] See K. Kautsky’s “Das Erfurter Programm”, p. 64.

[293] Upon the period without class see, among others, L. H. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, and upon the origin of classes H. Cunow, “Arbeitstheilung und Frauenrecht” (“Neue Zeit”, 1900–01, I, p. 178 ff.).

[294] It is well known that sociological studies upon the subject of marriage date from 1861, when Bachofen’s “Das Mutterrecht” came out. Since then a very extensive literature on the subject has appeared, without by any means exhausting the subject. (See Dr. Steinmetz, “Die neueren Forschungen zur Geschichte der menschlichen Familie”, “Zeitschr. für Sozialwissenschaft,” 1899.)

[Note to the American Edition: The literature upon the origin and evolution of marriage and the family has recently been considerably increased. The following books seem to us to be the most important: H. Schurtz, “Altersklassen und Männerbünde”; M. Weber, “Ehefrau und Mutter in der Rechtsentwicklung”; A. Vierkandt, “Das Problem der Familien- und Stammesorganisation der Naturvölker”; E. Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe”, II; F. Müller-Lyer, “Formen der Ehe”, “Die Familie”, and “Phasen der Liebe”; H. Cunow, “Zur Urgeschichte der Ehe und Familie.”]

[295] Westermarck (in his “History of Human Marriage”, pp. 51–133) has led the opposition to the promiscuity theory. It is also combated by Starcke in his “Die primitive Familie” and by Grosse in his “Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirthschaft” (pp. 41–45). For a résumé of the arguments for and against see Dr. C. J. Wynaendts Francken, “De Evolutie van het huwelijk” (pp. 57–65).

[296] See Ch. Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage” (pp. 46–48).

[297] See Fr. Engels, “Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums, und des Staats” (pp. 17–18) [Translated as “The Origin of the family, etc.” Page references are to the original.]; and C. de Kelles-Krauz, “Formes primitives de la famille” (pp. 303–304 of the “Revue Internationale de Sociologie”, VIII).

[298] The following discussion is based upon material drawn from Grosse (op. cit.), and from H. Cunow (“Die ökonomischen Grundlagen der Mutterherrschaft” (“Neue Zeit”, 1897–98).

[299] Op. cit., pp. 60–61.

[300] L. H. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 424; Fr. Engels, op. cit., p. 21; and others.

[301] Westermarck believes that there is an innate aversion to sexual relationships between persons who have lived together from childhood; and that the sexual aversion that exists between near blood-relations is in consequence of the fact that these persons have always lived together. This instinct would thus have been acquired by natural selection, since those who did not have it would run more danger than the others of disappearing in consequence of the injurious effects of such unions. (Op. cit., chaps. xiv and xv.) Cunow on the other hand makes the point that there cannot be an innate aversion between persons who have been raised together, for marriages between such persons do take place, and are not thought at all immoral or contrary to nature. (“Die Verwandtschaftsorganisationen der Australneger,” pp. 184 ff.)

[302] See Steinmetz, op. cit., p. 817.

[303] Upon the origin of agriculture see H. Cunow, “Arbeitstheilung und Frauenrecht” (“Neue Zeit”, 1900–1901; I, pp. 102 ff.).

[304] See C. N. Starcke, “Die primitive Familie”, pp. 106–107.

[305] The “metronymic” system by which the mother has the right to transmit her name to the child (Mutterrecht) is quite distinct from the matriarchate. As to the origin of the matriarchate see Dr. L. v. Dargun, “Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht”, pp. 67 ff.

[306] L. H. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 345; Dargun, op. cit., pp. 131, 132.

[307] See Morgan, op. cit., Pt. II, chap. X and XIII, and F. Engels, “Origin of the Family, etc.”, chap. V, VI, VIII; Gumplowicz, “Grundriss der Soziologie,” pp. 190 ff.; and F. Oppenheimer, “Der Staat.”

[308] Engels, op. cit., p. 51. [Paging of original.]

[309] See Engels, op. cit., pp. 47 ff. [Paging of original.]

[310] See A. Bebel, “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, pp. 265 ff.

[311] See “Neue Zeit”, 188, p. 239; G. v. Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 384; F. v. d. Goes, “Socialisme en Feminisme” (“Tweemaandelijksch Tijdschrift”, VI, 1900) pp. 430–445; Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 166 ff.; C. Zetkin, “Geistiges Proletariat, Frauenfrage und Sozialismus”, pp. 4, 5.

[312] See Bebel, op. cit., chapter entitled “Ehehemmnisse und Ehehindernisse”; v. d. Goes, op. cit., pp. 445–458; Braun, op. cit., pp. 166–170; Zetkin, op. cit., pp. 5–6.

[313] See Bebel, op. cit., p. 159; v. d. Goes, op. cit., pp. 458 ff.; and Braun, op. cit., pp. 165, 166.

[314] See Bebel, op cit., pp. 223 ff.; v. d. Goes, op. cit. (Année VII, 1901), pp. 120 ff.; Zetkin, op. cit., pp. 3, 4, and “Die Arbeiterinnen- und Frauenfrage der Gegenwart”, pp. 3 ff.

[315] See Braun, op. cit., p. 181.

[316] See Braun, op. cit. Pt. II, chaps. IV and V.

[317] [Note to the American Edition: There has appeared, especially recently, an extensive literature criticising the conditions of modern marriage. Cf. among others: Forel, “Die Sexuelle Frage”; M. Weber, op. cit., chap. vi; T. Bloch, “Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit”, chap. x; Havelock Ellis, “Geschlecht und Gesellschaft”, II, chap. x; A. Moll, “Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften”; F. Müller-Lyer, “Die Familie” and “Phasen der Liebe.”]

[318] “Das Weib und der Stier.” (“Neue Zeit”, 1900–1901, II, p. 6–7.)

[319] Upon marriage in the bourgeoisie see Fourier, “Théorie des quatre mouvements” (Complete Works, I, pp. 162 ff.); A. E. F. Schäffle, “Bau und Leben”, etc., III, pp. 36, 50; Nordau, “Die conventionnellen Lügen der Kulturmenschheit”, pp. 263 ff.; Bebel, op. cit., pp. 103 ff.; and Dr. E. Gystrow, “Liebe und Liebesleben im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 26 ff.

[320] It is unnecessary to go into the question of marriage in the petty bourgeoisie, which does not differ fundamentally from that which we have been treating. See Dr. B. Schönlank, “Zur Psychologie des Kleinbürgerthums”, pp. 123–124 (“Neue Zeit”, 1890).

[321] Engels, op. cit., pp. 59, 60, and Dr. A. Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 12.

[322] See “Englands industrielle Reservearmee”, pp. 215–216 (“Neue Zeit”, 1884).

[323] Engels, op. cit., pp. 63–74 [paging of original].

[324] E. Grosse, “Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirthschaft”, pp. 49–53.

[325] See Grosse, op. cit., pp. 78–82, 120–123.

[326] Grosse, op. cit., pp. 183–186.

[327] See Grosse, op. cit., pp. 220–223, 226–228, 230–234.

[328] See v. Dargun, op. cit., p. 12.

[329] See M. Kovalewsky, “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, pp. 150–161.

[330] The law does not produce much change in the situation which would exist without it, since most parents would perform this duty without being compelled.

[331] L. Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, pp. 24–50.

[332] “Der Selbstmord im kindlichen Lebensalter”, p. 48.

[333] Op. cit. This quotation follows directly upon the one given above.

[334] Dr. A. Baer, op. cit., p. 49. See also pp. 58, 59.

[335] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. M. Kauffmann, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechens”, pp. 235 ff.]

[336] C. Zetkin, “Die Arbeiterinnen- und Frauenfrage der Gegenwart”, pp. 23–39.

[337] See J. Stern, “Thesen über den Sozialismus”, p. 24; and C. Zetkin, op. cit., pp. 30 ff.

[338] C. Zetkin, op. cit., p. 24.

[339] L. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 34, 35.

[340] To name one among many: M. Kovalewsky. See his “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, pp. 160, 161.

[341] The number of births is constantly decreasing, and the consequent decrease in the size of families accentuates the tendency to develop egoism in the child.

[342] Compare, among others, E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, p. 316.

[343] “The Book of the New Moral World”, Pt. III., pp. 9–11.

[344] K. Kautsky, “Die Entstehung des Christenthums” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885).

[345] L. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 48.

[346] P. 144 [In original, p. 147]. See also L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 318 ff.; C. Zetkin, op. cit., p. 26; Herkner, op. cit., pp. 36 ff.; and especially Rühle, “Das proletarische Kind”, pp. 42 ff. Upon the education of children of the working class in general, see also: G. Schönfeldt, “Die heutige Arbeiterfamilie und die öffentliche Erziehung vorschulpflichtiger Kinder” (“Neue Zeit”, I, 1898–1899).

[347] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the situation of illegitimate children see Rühle, op. cit. pp. 63 ff., and especially the interesting works of Dr. Spann, “Untersuchungen über die uneheliche Bevölkerung in Frankfurt a/M.” and “Die unehelichen Mündel des Vormundschaftsgerichtes in Frankfurt a/M.”]

[348] Dr. C. Hugo, “Kind und Gesellschaft”, p. 562 (“Neue Zeit”, 1894–1895, I). See also L. Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter.”

[Note to the American Edition: At this moment I have before me the “Annual Report, 1912–1913”, where it is shown that the total number of children for whom the society in question has cared has increased to 2,101,130 in 29 years, an annual average, therefore, of about 75,000. For the year of the report the number was 159,000.

Cf. Rühle, op. cit., and especially the report upon Austria of Dr. J. M. Baernreither, “Die Ursachen, Erscheinungsformen und die Ausbreitung der Verwahrlosung von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Oesterreich.”]

[349] For a criticism of the present educational system see A. C. F. Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, p. 262; Ch. Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 444; E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, pp. 109 ff.; Th. Schlesinger Eckstein, “Die Frau im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 54–56.

[350] [Note to the American Edition: There has also appeared in recent times a considerable literature upon the etiology of prostitution. We note the following: A. Forel, “Die sexuelle Frage”, chap. x; P. Kampffmeyer, “Die Prostitution als soziale Klassenerscheinung und ihre sozialpolitische Bekämpfung”; T. Hermann, “Die Prostitution und ihr Anhang”; T. Bloch, “Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit”, chap. xiii, and “Die Prostitution”, I (chiefly historical); A. Pappritz, “Die Welt von der man nicht spricht”; H. Arendt, “Menschen die den Pfad verloren”; M. Minovici, “Remarques sur la criminalité en Roumanie”; C. K. Schneider, “Die Prostituirte und die Gesellschaft”; G. Schnapper-Arndt, “Sozial-Statistik”, chap. viii; Quiros and Aguinaliedo, “Verbrechertum und Prostitution in Madrid”; R. Hessen, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland”; A. Blaschko, “Prostitution” (“Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften”, VI); H. Ellis, “Geschlecht und Gesellschaft”, II, chap. viii; “The Social Evil in Chicago” (“Report of the Vice Commission of Chicago”); A. Moll, “Handbuch der Sexualwissenschaften”, chap. iv; E. von Grabe, “Prostitution, Kriminalität, und Psychopathie”; A. Neher, “Die geheime und öffentliche Prostitution in Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, und München.”]

[351] C. Zetkin, “Geistiges Proletariat, Frauenfrage, und Sozialismus”, pp. 5, 6; Dr. J. Jeannel, “De la prostitution dans les grandes villes au XIXe siècle”, pp. 187, 188.

[352] Each consequence becomes in its turn a cause; as in this case, for, while prostitution is largely a consequence of the impossibility of marrying, prostitution in its turn becomes, through the demoralizing influence of the prostitutes, a reason why some men do not marry although their means would permit it.

[353] See also by the same author: “Die moderne Prostitution”, pp. 14, 15 (“Neue Zeit”, 1891–92, II), and “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”, p. 39; Dr. V. Augagneur: “La prostitution des filles mineures” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, III, p. 224).

[354] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the demoralization of poor children see the works of Baernreither and Rühle already cited, and H. Arendt, “Kleine Weisse Sklaven.”]

[355] This study may be found in the second volume of Parent-Duchatelet’s work: “De la Prostitution dans la ville de Paris.”

[356] P. 39 (Session 1882).

[357] Vol. I, pp. 91, 92.

[358] “La Prostitution à Paris et à Londres”, p. 125.

[359] Op. cit., p. 211.

[360] “Le Crime à Deux”, pp. 205, 206. For figures for Berlin see Dr. B. Schoenlank, “Zur Statistik der Prostitution in Berlin”, pp. 335, 336 (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgeb. u. Stat.”, VII.).

[361] “La prostitution en Russie”, p. 195 (“Progrès médical”, 1893).

[362] “Die Beziehungen der Prostitution zum Verbrechen”, p. 8 (“Archiv f. Kriminal Anthropologie u. Kriminalstatistik”, XI.).

[363] “Zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums,” p. 188 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XXXIII).

[364] Op. cit. I, pp. 92, 93.

[365] Op. cit., p. 210.

[366] Op. cit., pp. 215, 216.

[367] “Reports of the Select Committee”, Appendix B, p. 52.

[368] Pp. 42–44 and 46–66.

[369] Appendix B, p. 52.

[370] P. 133.

[371] Op. cit., p. 108.

[372] Op. cit., p. 196.

[373] Op. cit., I, pp. 67–70.

[374] Op. cit., I, p. 68.

[375] Op. cit., I, p. 71. The data of the same author show that out of 3,095 fathers of prostitutes, 1,078 (35%) could not sign their names.

[376] Op. cit., I, p. 108.

[377] “Moralstatistik”, p. 216. Upon this cause of prostitution see also: Dr. G. Richelot, op. cit., pp. 582, 583; Dr. C. Röhrmann, “Der sittliche Zustand von Berlin”, pp. 45, 46; “Die Prostitution in Berlin”, pp. 86, 87; L. Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, p. 74; Lecour, op. cit., pp. 202–204; Carlier, op. cit., pp. 35, 36; G. Tomel and H. Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 156 ff.; L. Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, p. 161; Dr. O. Commenge, “La prostitution clandestine à Paris”, pp. 33–35.

[378] Op. cit., p. 216.

[379] Appendix B, p. 52.

[380] P. 42.

[381] Op. cit., p. 108.

[382] Op. cit., p. 197.

[383] Op. cit., I, p. 102.

[384] Op. cit., I, p. 102. Upon this cause of prostitution see further: Dr. Richelot, op. cit., pp. 574, 575; Dr. Fr. S. Hügel, “Zur Geschichte, Statistik, und Regelung der Prostitution”, pp. 206, 207; Dr. Jeannel, op. cit., pp. 145, 146; A. C. Fr. Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, p. 261; H. Stursberg, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland und ihre Bekämpfung”, pp. 44, 45; Dr. E. Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 585–589 (description of types); G. Schönfeldt, “Beiträge zur Geschichte des Pauperismus und der Prostitution in Hamburg”, p. 269.

[385] A. Pappritz, “Die wirthschaftlichen Ursachen der Prostitution”, p. 14.

[386] “Wiener Wohnungsverhältnisse”, pp. 221–223 (“Archiv f. soz. Gesetzg. u. Statist.” VII).

[387] “Bijdragen tot de Statistiek van Nederland XXIV, Uitkomsten der woning-statistiek”, p. 52.

[388] Op. cit., p. 98.

[389] Pappritz, op. cit., p. 15.

[390] v. Philippovich, op. cit., p. 222.

[391] P. 42. See also: Richelot, op. cit., pp. 573, 574; W. Acton, “Prostitution Considered in its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects”, pp. 131 ff.; Jeannel, op. cit., p. 143; Lecour, op. cit., p. 246; “Reports of the Select Committee, etc.”, p. 39 (Session of 1882); Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 46, 47; Commenge, op. cit., p. 32.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Th. M. Raest van Limburg, “In den strijd tegen de ontucht.” P. Kampffmeyer, “Das Wohnungselend der Grossstädte und seine Beziehungen zur Verbreitung der Geschlechtskrankheiten und zur Prostitution”, and “Die Wohnungsmissstände im Prostitutions- und im Schlafgängerwesen und ihre gesetzliche Reform”; Pfeiffer, “Das Wohnungselend der grossen Städte und seine Beziehungen zur Prostitution und den Geschlechtskrankheiten.”]

[392] Op. cit., p. 54.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. especially the “Report of the Departmental Committee on the Employment of Children, Oct., 1903.”]

[393] Op. cit., p. 247. See also Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I. p. 103; Röhrmann, op. cit., p. 44; Jeannel, op. cit., pp. 146–148; “Reports”, etc. (Session of 1882), pp. 15–17; K. Struntz, “Die erwerbsmässige Kinderarbeit und die Schule”, pp. 183 ff. (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, I).

[394] Dr. A. Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 22; “Hygiene der Prostitution”, pp. 40, 41.

[395] Appendix B, p. 52.

[396] Dr. Bonhoeffer, op. cit., p. 109.

[397] See the detailed statistics, op. cit., I, pp. 79–84.

[398] Op. cit., p. 148.

[399] Op. cit., p. 336.

[400] Op. cit., p. 197.

[401] Pp. 148, 149 [in original, pp. 151, 152]. See also: L. Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 276, 277; M. de Baets, “Les influences de la misère sur la criminalité”, pp. 35, 36; Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 49, 50; Commenge, op. cit., pp 13–15; L. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p 467.

[402] Op. cit., p. 149 [in original, p. 152]. For analogous cases see A. Bebel, “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, pp. 195–197; “Les Scandales de Londres”, pp. 235–238; “Enquête betreffende werking en uitbreiding der wet van 19 September 1874 en naar den toestand van fabrieken en werkplaatsen”, 1887, deel V, p. 77; Dr. H Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 135, 136; Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 46–48; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 15–17; G. S., “Die weibliche Lohnarbeit und ihr Einfluss auf die Sittlichkeit und Kriminalität”, p. 748 (“Neue Zeit”, 1899–1900, II); L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, p. 308.

[403] See “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 23, 24.

[404] L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 409–411; G. S., op. cit., pp. 754–756.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon servants cf. further: O. Spann, “Die geschlechtlich-sittlichen Verhältnisse im Dienstboten und Arbeiterinnenstande”; and R. de Ryckère, “La servante criminelle”, ch. IX.]

[405] Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 48–50.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: C. Jellinek, “Kellnerinnenelend” and Dr. H. Peters, “Zur Lage der Kellnerinnen im Grossherzogtum Baden.” Upon prostitution in the theater see V. v. Lepel, “Prostitution beim Theater.”]

[406] Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 55, 57; Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 42, 43; Pappritz, op. cit., pp. 13, 14.

[407] Op. cit., I, p. 107.

[408] Appendix B, p. 52.

[409] P. 169.

[410] H. Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, p. 97; Lecour, op. cit., p. 244; L. Taxil, “La corruption fin-de-siècle”, p. 42; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 17–20; A. Aletrino, “Over eenige oorzaken der prostitutie”, pp. 21, 22; E. Gystrow, “Liebe und Liebesleben im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 22.

[411] Op. cit., I, p. 107.

[412] Op. cit., I, p. 99.

[413] Op. cit., I, pp. 104, 105.

[414] Session 1882, Appendix B, p. 52.

[415] Op. cit., p. 169.

[416] “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 17, 18. See also B. Schönlank, “Zur Lage der in der Wäschefabrikation und Konfektionsbranche Deutschlands beschäftigen Arbeiterinnen”, pp. 126, 127 (“Neue Zeit”, 1888); Hirsch, op. cit., p. 46; Pappritz, op. cit., p. 10.

[417] Hirsch, op. cit., p. 57.

[418] P. 161. See also Faucher, op. cit., I, p. 277; Bebel, op. cit., p. 194; and Schäffle, op. cit., I, p. 261. Cf. Neher, op. cit., pp. 13 ff.

[419] Pp. 8, 9.

[420] P. 188 (“Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung, und Volkswirthschaft”, XII, 2). See also L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 227 ff., and 287 ff.

[421] I, p. 65.

[422] III, p. 168. See also “Reports of the Select Committee,” etc. (Session 1882), pp. 15, 16.

[423] Op. cit., I, pp. 103–104. See also: Richelot, op. cit., pp. 577–579; Frégier, op. cit., I, pp. 97, 98; Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, I, p. 315; “Die Prostitution in Berlin” (Anon.), pp. 84, 85; Loewe, “Die Prostitution”, pp. 135, 136; Röhrmann, op. cit., pp. 24, 25; Moreau-Christophe, op. cit., III, pp. 167, 168; Acton, op. cit., pp. 180 ff.; Hügel, op. cit., p. 208; Jeannel, op. cit., pp. 140–142; Lecour, op. cit., p. 248; Müller, “De Prostitutie”, pp. 10–11; du Camp, “Prostitution à Paris”, pp. 257, 258 (“Journal des économistes”, 1872); Kühn, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 37, 38; Schäffle, op. cit., p. 261; von Oettingen, op. cit., pp. 212, 213; Domela Nieuwenhuis, “Zur Frage der Prostitution”, pp. 254 ff. (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 51–53; Lux, “Die Prostitution”, pp. 10–12; Schönfeld, op. cit., pp. 269 ff.; Teifen, “Das Soziale Elende und die besitzenden Klassen in Oesterreich”, pp. 150 ff.; Taxil, op. cit., pp. 33–38; De Baets, op. cit., pp. 36, 37; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 28, 29, 36, 37; Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 16–21.

[424] L. Braun, op. cit., p. 555; Röhrmann, op. cit., pp. 46, 47; Pappritz, op. cit., p. 12.

[425] Kühn, op. cit., p. 38.

[426] Hatzig, “Der Mädchenhandel”, p. 514 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XX); Bebel, op. cit., pp. 190–192; “Reports of the Select Committee”, etc. (Session 1881); “Les scandales de Londres”, passim; Collard, “De handel in blanke slavinnen”, pp. 4–56.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: A. Mackirdy and W. N. Willis, “The White Slave Market”; Willis, “The White Slaves of London”; and H. Wagener, “Der Mädchenhandel.”]

[427] Pp. 514, 515.

[428] Collard, op. cit., pp. 13–15. Upon the procurer’s trade in general see: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I, pp. 430–436; Richelot, op. cit., pp. 583–588; Acton, op. cit., p. 165; Lecour, op. cit., pp. 195–202; Carlier, op. cit., chap. II; Stursberg, op. cit., p. 53; Commenge, op. cit., pp. 60–90; Blaschko, “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”, pp. 37, 38.

[429] Op. cit., pp. 600 and 637.

[430] P. 52 (Session 1882), Appendix B.

[431] Op. cit., I, p. 86.

[432] Op. cit., p. 334.

[433] Richelot, op. cit., pp. 664, 665; Acton, op. cit., p. 165; Pappritz, op. cit., pp. 17, 18.

[434] Tarnowsky, “Prostitution und Abolitionismus”, pp. 108 ff.

[435] Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 212.

[436] Op. cit., p. 581.

[437] P. 132.

[438] Op. cit., p. 574.

[439] Op. cit., pp. 118, 119.

[440] See some typical examples cited by Dr. Magnan in his report to the second Congress of Criminal Anthropology: “De l’enfance des criminels dans les rapports avec la prédisposition naturelle au crime.” (“Actes,” pp. 60–63.)

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. H. F. Stelzner, “Die psychopathischen Konstitutionen und ihre sociologische Bedeutung.”]

[441] Commenge, op. cit., p. 107.

[442] Op. cit., I, p. 106.

[443] See further against Lombroso’s theory: R. Calwer, “Die erbliche Belastung der Prostituirten” (“Neue Zeit”, XII, 2); Hirsch, op. cit., pp. 15 ff.; Pappritz, op. cit., pp. 3–6.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Näcke, “Die Ueberbleibsel der Lombrosischen kriminalanthropologischen Theorien.”]

[444] See for example Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 9.

[445] “The History of Human Marriage”, pp. 70, 71.

[446] [Note to the American Edition: Notable recent works are: E. Vandervelde, “Le socialisme et l’alcool” (“Essais socialistes”); E. Wurm, “Die Alkoholfrage”; A. Pistolese, “Alcoolismo e delinquenza”; and A. Dix, “Alkoholismus und Arbeiterschaft.”]

[447] The abuse of alcohol is much more extensive than is generally believed. Dr. Grotjahn gives as the amount that a normal man can take without being injured by it, 30–45 grams of absolute alcohol, the amount contained in a liter of beer, or a half-liter of light wine. (“Der Alkoholismus”, p. 143.)

[448] Pp. 126, 127.

[449] Op. cit., pp. 287, 288.

[450] Op. cit., p. 288.

[451] Holst, “Arbeiders en Alkohol” (“Nieuwe Tijd”, VII), p. 527, and Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 225.

[452] Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 215, 216.

[453] Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 35–41.

[454] See J. Rae, “Der Achtstunden-Arbeitstag”, pp. 249, 250, where mention is made of the opposition of public-house keepers in Australia to the movement for an eight-hour day. Upon the shortening of the day and the decrease in the use of alcohol, see pp. 96, 107, 108 in the same work; Lux, “Socialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 328–329; Dr. G. M. den Tex, “Verkorting van den arbeidsdag”, pp. 28, 29, 34, 80, 117–120, 140; “Onmatig lange arbeidstijd en misbruik van sterken drank” (Anon.), pp. 17–20; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 288–289; Roland-Holst, op. cit., pp. 530–532; Augagneur, “Les vraies causes et les vrais remèdes de l’alcoolisme”, pp. 76–77 (“Mouvement Socialiste”, 1900); Verhaeghe, “Le parti socialiste et la lutte contre l’alcool”, pp. 25–26 (“Mouvement Socialiste”, 1900).

[455] Given in detail in Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 277–283.

[456] See also Colajanni, “L’alcoolismo”, pp. 153 ff.; Zerboglio, “L’alcoolisme: causes et remèdes”, pp. 123, 124 (“Devenir Social”, 1895); Vandervelde, op. cit., p. 260, and “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp. 747, 748 (“Neue Zeit”, 1901–1902, I); Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 203–205.

Upon the fact that the abuse of alcohol has consequences much more injurious for the badly nourished man than for others, see: A. Baer, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 286; Colajanni, op. cit., p. 183; Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 273; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 203.

[457] Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 177, 178; Braun, “Berliner Wohnungsverhältnisse”, p. 22; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 290–292; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 205–208 and 217; Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, p. 747.

[458] P. 533.

[459] Zerboglio, op. cit., p. 125. See also Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 212; Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 181, 182.

[460] See upon this subject Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 168, 169; Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 222, 223; Holst, op. cit., p. 528.

[461] Pp. 75, 76. See also Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 169–173; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 289–298; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 225–227.

[462] Holst, op. cit., pp. 534, 535.

[463] Kautsky, “Der Alkoholismus und seine Bekämpfung” (“Neue Zeit”, 1890–91, II); Vandervelde, “Het alkoholisme en de arbeidsvoorwaarden in België,” pp. 268, 271, 272; Holst, op. cit., pp. 528–536.

[464] See, among others, Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 296–298.

[465] “Condition of the Working Class”, pp. 102, 103 [in original pp. 105, 106]. See also: Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, I, pp. 352 ff.; Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 415–417.

[466] “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”, I, p. 139.

[467] “Zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums. Zweiter Beitrag: Prostituirte”, p. 119 (“Zeitsch. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XXIII). See also: Logan, “The Great Social Evil”, pp. 55–56, 59; Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime et la folie”, pp. 7–14; Colajanni, op. cit., p. 179; Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 538.

[468] Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 211; see also Colajanni, op. cit., p. 183; and Kautsky, op. cit., p. 50.

[469] Pp. 50, 51. See also Battaglia, op. cit., pp. 418–420, and Zerboglio, op. cit., p. 125.

[470] “Ergebnisse einer Umfrage über den Alkoholgenuss der Schulkinder in Nieder-Oesterreich”, p. 82. See also Ducpetiaux, op. cit., pp. 367–370.

[471] See Baer, op. cit., pp. 144, 145; Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 139–142; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 178, 179; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 209–211; Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp. 741, 742.

[472] Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 300, 301.

[473] Holst, op. cit., p. 530.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon alcoholism among the Jews, Dr. L. Cheinisse, “Die Rassenpathologie und der Alkoholismus bei den Juden.”]

[474] Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp. 742, 743.

[475] See Zerboglio, op. cit., pp. 125–127; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 149–155; Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 187–189.

[476] This has actually happened, certain distilleries in the whisky trust being closed to increase the profits.

[477] See Vandervelde, “Het alcoholisme en de arbeidsvoorwaarden in België”, p. 268.

[478] See Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 219–221.

[479] See Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 5–12.

[480] Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 9. See also: Hirschfeld, “Die historische Entwicklung des Alkoholmissbrauchs” (VIII Intern. Cong. gegen den Alkoholismus).

[481] The assertion that the Germans were addicted to alcohol before the invasion is erroneous. Agriculture was not sufficiently developed among these peoples for a regular consumption of alcohol. See Kautsky, op. cit., pp. 46, 47, and Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 13–15.

[482] See Kautsky, op. cit., p. 47, and Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 20 ff.

[483] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon the whole subject of this chapter: J. Makarewicz, “Einführung in die Philosophie des Strafrechts.”]

[484] [The author disregards the legal distinction between the words crime and délit as being “without interest in a sociological work.” The latter word will appear in this translation as “misdemeanor” or “offense” according to the context.—Transl.]

[485] See upon this subject: Post, “Die Geschlechtsgenossenschaft der Urzeit und die Entstehen der Ehe”, p. 156; Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 365 ff.; Makarewicz, “L’évolution de la peine”, p. 137 (“Archives d’Anthropologie Criminelle”, XIII). Upon the vengeance of blood see especially Kohler, “Shakespeare vor dem Forum der Jurisprudenz.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. also H. Berkusky, “Die Blutrache” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, XII).]

[486] The so-called offenses of omission are so few and unimportant that they may be left out of account.

[487] Albrecht, “Actes du Ier congrès d’anthr. crim.”, pp. 110 ff.; Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 201, 202; “Genesi e funzione delle leggi penali”, pp. 211, 212; Manouvrier, “Genèse normale du crime”, pp. 451, 452 (see also Part One of the present work, on Manouvrier); Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 96.

[488] A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 224.

[489] Steinmetz, “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle” (“Compte rendu du Ve Cong. d’anthr. crim.”, p. 105).

[490] It is unnecessary to treat of the origin of punishment. For this subject the works of Steinmetz and Makarewicz already cited may be consulted, together with Westermarck’s “Der Ursprung der Strafe” (“Zeitschrift für Socialwissenschaft”, 1900).

[491] [Note to the American Edition: Recent works of importance are: P. Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid”; L. T. Hobhouse, “Morals in Evolution”; K. Kautsky, “Ethik und Materialistische Geschichtsauffassung”; E. Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe.”]

[492] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Ch. Vallon and G. Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).]

[493] See, among others, Spencer, “Principles of Sociology”, I, p. 79, where he says “Sociality, strong in the civilized man, is less strong in the savage man.”

[494] Chap. iv, pp. 97–99. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1883); Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, pp. 59–64; and Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Animals” (“Nineteenth Century”, 1890).

[495] “Eskimo Life”, p. 101.

[496] Op. cit., p. 106.

[497] Op. cit., p. 158.

[498] Op. cit., p. 187.

[499] Op. cit., II, pp. 342, 343.

[500] “Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians”, pp. 9, 10.

[501] “Ancient Society”, pp. 85, 86.

[502] “Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines.” For the facts with regard to the North American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains, see Waitz, op. cit., III, pp. 160 ff.

[503] “The Malay Archipelago”, II, p. 283; see also Waitz, op. cit., III; Spencer, “Descriptive Sociology”, No. 6 (“American Races”), pp. 31, 32.

[504] Pp. 225, 226.

[505] “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle”, pp. 100, 101.

[506] “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la propriété”, p. 56. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); and Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages” (“Nineteenth Century”, 1891), and “Mutual Aid among the Barbarians” (ibid., 1892).

[507] See Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 505.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the origin of slavery cf. H. J. Nieboer: “Slavery as an Industrial System.”]

[508] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Kautsky, op. cit., pp. 99, 100.]

[509] See Maine, op. cit., pp. 227, 228.

[510] P. 50.

[511] See Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt”, and also “Die Indianerfrage” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885) by the same author.

[512] See Steinmetz, “Classification des types sociaux et catalogue des peuples” (“Année sociologique”, III).

[513] Upon the dualism of ethics see: Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern” (“Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie”, 1885); Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 558, 559; Kovalewsky, “Les origines du devoir”, pp. 85 ff. (“Revue internationale de sociologie”, II).

[514] See Sutherland, op. cit., I, x, for example, and compare Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, p. 55.

[515] In the discussion which follows I have made large use of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt.”

[516] See Galton, “Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development”, pp. 68–82.

[517] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 102; Sutherland, op. cit., I, x; Ammon, “Der Ursprung der sozialen Triebe” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft” IV); H. Schultz, “Altersklassen und Männerbünde”, I, 2.

[518] See the quotation from Darwin earlier in this section, in which he speaks of cases of self-sacrifice among animals.

[519] I make great use here of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt.”

[520] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 105.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the social origin of man see Müller-Lyer, “Die Familie”, pp. 12 ff.]

[521] “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt”, p. 27.

[522] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, pp. 95, 96, 106.

[523] See Maine, “Village Communities”, p. 68.

[524] Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 100, 101.

[525] See Dargun, op. cit., p. 34.

[526] See Letourneau, “L’évolution de la propriété”, pp. 72–75.

[527] See Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 552, 553; and Sutherland, op. cit., I, vi.

[528] See Kropotkin, op. cit., pp. 553, 554.

[529] Pp. 335, 336.

[530] Compare Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 527.

[531] See Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp. 36, 37; Jhering, “Der Zweck im Recht”, I, p. 117.

[532] Lassalle, “Die Feste, die Presse und der Frankfurter Abgeordnetentag”, II, p. 646; Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen Körpers”, I, pp. 461–466, and IV, pp. 68–70; Mandl, “Die Wiener Presskorruption” (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); Stern, “Einfluss der sozialen Zustände auf alle Zweige des Kulturlebens”, pp. 33–37.

[533] P. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, p. 80; Cuénoud, “La criminalité à Genève au XIXe siècle”, pp. 93–96; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 84–106; “De l’influence contagieuse de la publicité des faits criminels” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, VIII); Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 106, 107 and 282, 283; Lombroso, “Crime, its Causes and Remedies”, pp. 54, 55.

[Note to the American Edition: Besides the influence of the sensational press, and harmful literature, we must now mention the cinematograph.

From the literature upon the whole subject we select the following: S. Türkel, “Einfluss der Lektüre auf die Delikte phantastischer jugendlicher Psychopathen” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.” XLII); S. Sighele, “Littérature et criminalité”, chap. v; M. Homburger, “Der Einfluss der Schundlitteratur auf jugendliche Verbrecher und Selbstmörder” (“Monatschr. f. Krim. Psych. und Straf.”, VI); F. Fenton, “The Influence of Newspaper Presentations upon the Growth of Crime and Other Anti-social Activity”; A. Hellwig, “Die Beziehungen zwischen Schundlitteratur, Schundfilms, und Verbrechen” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, LI); Meyer, “Schundlitteratur und Schundfilm” (“Arch. f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, LIII).]

[534] P. 242.

[535] “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51).

[536] From “Crimineele Statistiek” for the years given, and “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling” and “Uitkomsten der beroepstelling van 1899.”

[537] This number is below the reality; they have classed among persons without trade those whose trade was unknown.

[538] [Note to the American Edition: For North America cf. Fehlinger, “Erwerbsarbeit und Kriminalität von Kindern u. Frauen in den Vereinigten Staaten.”]

[539] See “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, I, pp. 52 ff., and “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, pp. xlix, l.

[540] [Note to the American Edition: For Germany the “Kriminalstatistik” of 1891, 1901, and 1902 contain data upon this point; see II, p. 32. For Austria, cf. Herz, “Verbrechen und Verbrechertum in Oesterreich”, pp. 121 ff.]

[541] “Die berufliche und soziale Gliederung des Deutschen Volkes nach der Berufszählung vom 14 Juni, 1895” (“Stat. des Deutschen Reichs. Neue Folge”, Band 111).

[542] Op. cit., pp. 143 and 144.

[543] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896. Erläuterungen”, I, pp. 22, 23.

[544] [Note to the American Edition: Juvenile criminality in Germany increased up to 1906, when a fairly regular decrease began. The law upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” dates from the beginning of the century.]

[545] Calculated from the work cited, I, pp. 18–21.

[546] “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich”, 1896, p. 5.

[547] Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 5.

[548] [Note to the American Edition: According to recent statistics juvenile delinquency in England has decreased rather than increased.]

[549] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Part I, Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 64.

[550] The “Summary Jurisdiction Act” gives the English judges the right not to convict, even though the proof may be sufficient, when they deem the offense not grave enough. 20% of those so discharged are added to the figures to allow for this.

[551] Op. cit., p. 65.

[552] P. L., “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899.”

[553] [Note to the American Edition: After the period cited juvenile crime in Austria has increased further. Cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 107 ff. See also Hoegel, “Die Grenzen der Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 414 ff.]

[554] Op. cit., pp. l–li.

[555] Calculated from “Administration de la Justice criminelle et civile de la Belgique, période de 1881–1885. Résumé statistique”, p. 81.

[Note to the American Edition: In Belgium no criminal statistics appeared from 1886 to 1897. For the period after 1898 see Jacquart, “La criminalité belge.” Here there appears rather a decrease than an increase of juvenile delinquency for this period.]

[556] Figured from p. cix, Table No. 3 of the “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.” (Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900.)

[557] Figured from op. cit., p. cxvi, Table No. 8.

[558] See Grosmolard, “Criminalité juvénile” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XVIII), and Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, p. 194.

[559] [Note to the American Edition: Upon France cf. especially Dr. G. Jacquetty, “Étude statistique de la criminalité juvénile en France.” According to this study the crimes of minors under 16 years of age have remained stationary as regards crimes against persons, and have decreased as regards crimes against property; misdemeanors, however, have increased. The crimes committed by minors between 16 and 20 have remained the same in comparison with the criminality of adults; on the other hand there has been a constant increase of misdemeanors. The increase of crimes and misdemeanors of violence committed at this age has been considerable. See also: G. L. Duprat, “La criminalité dans l’adolescence.”]

[560] According to the “Compte Général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, p. 32, Table XVI.

[561] According to op. cit., p. 54, Table XXIX.

[562] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1899”, p. cxvii.

[563] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. xli. In the period from 1896–1900 juvenile criminality increased further in a striking manner.

[564] Op. cit., p. xlvii.

[565] I have not been able to get data for the United States. The American criminologist, A. Drähms, says that the criminality of the young is increasing in the United States (“The Criminal”, p. 279), and W. D. Morrison makes a similar statement (“Juvenile Offenders”, p. 17).

[566] From “De Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden” for the years 1896 to 1899, and from “Bijdragen tot de Statistiek van Nederland, Nieuwe volgreeks XVII, XXVII. Crimineele statistiek over de jaren 1900 en 1901.”

[567] Taken from “Crimineele Statistiek over het jaar 1901.” In the criminal statistics of the Netherlands the system was changed in 1901. Before this year convictions were counted, and from that year on, individuals convicted.

[568] See also Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, Bk. I, ch. 2; Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, pp. 210, 211; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144 ff., 177–185; “Entartete Mütter” and “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 443, 444, 458–475; Agahd, “Die Erwerbsthätigkeit schulpflichtiger Kinder im Deutschen Reiche” (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, XII); Struntz, “Die erwerbsmässige Kinderarbeit und die Schule” (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, I); Dix, “Die Jugendlichen in der Sozial- und Kriminalpolitik”; Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, pp. 41–43; Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 119–123; Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, pp. 24, 25, 126.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works: Baernreither, op. cit., passim; P. Pollitz, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechers”, pp. 112 ff.; Duprat, op. cit., pp. 125 ff.; M. Homburger, “Ueber den Zusammenhang zwischen den Zahlen der in den Fabriken beschäftigten Personen unter 18 Jahren und der Zahl der Verbrechen solcher Personen”; H. W. Gruhle, “Die Ursachen der jugendlichen Verwahrlosung und Kriminalität”, pp. 104 ff.]

[569] See also Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England,” pp. 118, 119.

[570] See: Brace, “The Dangerous Classes of New York”, pp. 51 ff.; O. S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, pp. 120 ff. (“Zeitschr. f. d. gesammte Strafrechtswissenschaft”, V); Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p. 548 (ibid., XI); Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 58 ff.; Philippovich, “Wiener Wohnungsverhältnisse”, p. 264 (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, VI); Dix, “Sozial-Moral”, pp. 15–18; Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 444 ff.; Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, p. 22; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and Problems from London Police Courts”, pp. 70 ff.; Albanel, op. cit., pp. 11 ff.; Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 115.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Baernreither, op. cit., passim.]

[571] P. 10.

[572] P. 12.

[573] P. 12.

[574] See Laspeyres, pp. 86–91.

[575] Laspeyres, op. cit., pp. 19 and 21.

[576] See Engels, “Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 76 ff.

[577] “Condition of the Working Class in England”, p. 116.

[578] For the different opinions see Dr. L. DelBaere, “De invloed van opvoeding en onderwijs op de criminaliteit”, pp. 23 ff., and Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 552–559 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XI).

[579] The figures for prisoners are from Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 74; those in the last column from “The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1902, p. 1203.

[580] From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii.

[581] Taken from the “Judicial Statistics of England and Wales”, Part I, Criminal Statistics, 1894–1900. The last two columns are taken from “The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1892, p. 39.

[582] Figured from the table F. A II of the “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1899. The number of illiterates in the total population 16 and over, was about 24%.

[583] Taken from Jacquart, op. cit., p. 104.

[584] “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 31.

[585] The last two columns are taken from “l’Annuaire Statistique de la France,” xvi ff.; the others from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1882–1898.

[586] From 1886 to 1891 women and men are reported together under this heading.

[587] After Table XXIV of the “Report of the Judicial Statistics of Scotland for the Year 1910.”

[588] “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.”

[589] “Judicial Statistics, Ireland”, 1905, I, “Criminal Statistics,” p. 24.

[590] The last two columns are taken from the “Annuario Statistico Italiano”, 1900, p. 214; the others from the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1881 to 1889.

[591] Men playing a larger part in crime than women, I have thought it well to give the figures for illiterate men also.

[592] Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1889.]

[593] From the “Year-Book of the New York State Reformatory”, for the years in question. In “The Dangerous Classes of New York” (p. 32), Brace mentions that in 1870 about 31% of the adult criminals in the State of New York were illiterate, while of the adult non-criminals of the population only 6.08% were illiterate.

[594] Taken from the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Rijk in Europa”, 1901, p. 47.

[595] de Roos, op. cit., p. 108.

[596] Figured from Table II of the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900.

[597] Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen” (“Zeitschr. des Kön. Preuss. Stat. Bureaus”, XXXIX), p. 197; the last figure from “Stat. Jahrb. f. d. Deutsche Reich”, 1896, 1897, and 1898.

[598] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 38 (“Schweizerische Statistik”, Pt. 125).

[599] Ibid.

[600] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan states see Wadler, op. cit., pp. 176 ff.]

[601] Taken from “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1887, 1888, 1889.

[602] Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1889.

[603] From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii.

[604] Figured from Table F. a. II in “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899.”

[605] [“Fortune” here has not exactly the connotation of our English word, but as “money” and “property” would be equally inexact it seems better to keep the author’s term. Transl.]

[606] [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 8 ff.]

[607] Figured from the table on p. 199 of Evert’s “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.”

[608] From “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 37.

[609] Concerning Hungary Prof. Földes says (without giving the year) that 92% of the crimes are committed by persons without fortune, while these represent only 85% of the population in general (“Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw., XI, p. 545).

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan States cf. Wadler, op. cit., pp. 164 ff.]

[610] Taken from Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität” (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw. XXII). The figures for criminality are the average figures for the years 1894–1896. The figures for the occupations are those of the census of occupations of June 14, 1895.

[611] Servants only.

[612] Taken from “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896” (Erläuterungen) II, pp. 38, 39.

[613] This category includes the unskilled workmen, as the author of this table says himself, this heading is not very exact, since it includes those who without following a fixed occupation call themselves working-men.

[Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik 1908” gives the statistics of the criminality of the different occupations, figured from the census of occupations of 1907.]

[614] Pp. 585, 586.

[615] Figured from the “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900.

[Note to the American Edition: The English Criminal Statistics for 1905 contain a table upon the occupations of prisoners convicted during the years 1896–1905.]

[616] From the “Rapport au Président de la république française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxvi.

[617] From the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895.

[618] Furnishing trade only.

[619] Vagrants and prostitutes.

[620] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. lxi. As the calculations are based upon the census of 1881 the accuracy of the table is not absolute.

[621] Op. cit., p. lxxxii.

[622] Op. cit., pp. lxxxiii–lxxxiv.

[623] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. the recent works upon the relation between occupation and criminality: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 56 ff.; H. Lindenau, “Beruf und Verbrechen”; Peterselie, op. cit., pp. 106 ff.; Wassermann, “Beruf, Konfession, und Verbrechen”; Galle, op. cit., pp. 93 ff.; Stöwesand, op. cit., pp. 99 ff.; for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 449 ff.; and pp. 134 ff.; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 137 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 132 ff.; Verrijn Stuart, op. cit. II, pp. 244 ff.; for France: G. Bertrin, “De la criminalité en France dans les congrégations, le clergé et les principales professions.”]

[624] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. lxviii.

[625] Prinzing, “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 41; and “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe” (“Zeitschrift f. Sozialwissenschaft”, II), p. 437.

[626] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. lii.

[627] “Rapport au Président de la République française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, p. xxiii.

[628] Figured from “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling”, and the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek over 1899.”

[629] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 21.

[630] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 556–557.

[631] “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 42.

[632] Op. cit., p. 117. The figures for criminality are the average figures for the years 1882–1893. They all give the number to 100,000 persons of each category.

[633] Op. cit., p. 117.

[634] Op. cit., p. 119.

[635] Op. cit., p. 111.

[636] Op. cit., p. 112.

[637] Op. cit., p. 109.

[638] Op. cit., p. 113.

[639] Op. cit., p. 114.

[640] Op. cit., p. 114.

[641] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 559.

[642] “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe”, p. 437.

[643] This table and those which follow all belong to the period from 1882 to 1893, and are figured for 100,000 of each category. They are taken from the work cited, pp. 438–444.

[644] [“Rebellion” has a wider significance in French than in English, any violence to public officials being so designated. The word is retained, however, for brevity.—Transl.]

[645] Cf. F. Prinzing, “Ueber frühzeitige Heiraten, deren Vorzüge und Nachteile.” See also Durkheim, “Le suicide”, pp. 186 ff.

[646] P. 40.

[647] Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works upon the relation between marriage and criminality: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 139 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 34 ff.; for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 16 ff.; Herz, op. cit., pp. 127 ff.; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 128 ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 80 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 122 ff. See further N. Muller, “Biografisch-aetiologisch onderzoek over occidivie, etc.”

[648] “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, Erläuterungen, II, p. 33.

[649] [Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1903” contains very important data bearing upon the period 1882–1902, with regard to feminine criminality in Germany.]

[650] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I, Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 55, with separate calculations made for 1900.

[651] “The Statesman’s Yearbook, 1902”, p. 14.

[652] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Criminal Statistics, 1894”, p. 19.

[653] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlix.

[654] “Rapport au président de la république française sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, pp. xix, cxvi.

[655] Figured from “Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, pp. 30–31.

[656] Op. cit., pp. 54–62, Tab. XXIX.

[657] For the years 1884–1889 taken from the “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, and for the years following from the “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–95.”

[658] The fact that a new penal code went into effect in 1890 makes a noticeable change in the total figures.

[659] Op. cit., p. xxxvii.

[660] “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 948.

[661] Taken from “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”, 1896–1899, and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900. For more detailed information upon the Netherlands see Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp. 8–30.

[662] Figured from “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901.”

[663] “Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 27. See in the same place the reason for thinking that the figures quoted for the number of women acquitted are too small. Morrison says that in England one woman in four is acquitted, and one man in six. (“Juvenile Offenders”, p. 46.)

[664] “Rapport”, etc., p. xxxiv.

[665] Op. cit., p. lvi.

[666] See Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 83; Földes, op. cit., pp. 630, 631; and Morrison, op. cit., p. 46.

[667] “Criminal Statistics of England and Wales, 1899”, p. 54.

[668] Loosjes, op. cit., p. 50.

[669] Figured from Tables 23 and 24 of the “Rapport au président de la république française”, etc.

[Note to the American Edition: Wadler tells us that in Servia the percentage of feminine criminality is between 3.71 (1893) and 6.25 (1903); in Greece, about 2 (1899–1902); in Bulgaria, about 3.2 (1899–1906); in Bosnia and Herzegovina, between 5.07 (1899) and 6.69 (1902) (op. cit., pp. 94, 102–104). In Rumania, Minovici tells us, the percentage is 2.42 (1874–1890).]

[670] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, II, p. 73.

[671] “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 47.

[672] “Die Straffälligkeit des Weibes”, p. 253 (Archiv f. Krim. Anthr. u. Kriminalstatistik, V).

[673] Galicia, Western and Eastern separately.

[674] Tyrol and Vorarlberg separately.

[675] From “Kriminalstatistik”, 1888, 1894, 1896, 1898, and 1900.

[676] “Die Ergebnisse, etc.”, p. xlviii.

[677] [Note to the American Edition: Wadler points out that in the Balkan States the percentage of feminine criminality is rapidly increasing.]

[678] See Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 11, 12.

[679] See Loosjes, op. cit., p. 12, where he demonstrates that the decrease in the percentage of female criminality is in great measure due to the diminution of mendicity.

[Note to the American Edition: French and German statistics bearing upon a long period show that the economic criminality of woman tends to decrease, and that against persons to increase. The last fact corresponds, therefore, with the thesis that the social situation of woman explains her criminality. The first fact is explained perhaps by the decrease of poverty resulting from the greater participation of woman in the economic life.]

[680] For opinions of other authors see Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 75–108.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon feminine criminality in general see further the following recent works: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 135 ff.; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 402 ff., and II, pp. 258 ff.; O. Mönkemöller, “Korrektionsanstalt und Landarmenhaus”; Galle, op. cit., pp. 68 ff.; Stöwesand, op. cit., pp. 23 ff.; Sauer, op. cit., pp. 57 ff. For Austria: Herr, “Die Kriminalität des Weibes nach den Ergebnissen der neueren österreichischen Statistik” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, XVIII), and op. cit., pp. 78 ff.; Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 410 ff. For the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 93 ff. For Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 67 ff. For France: C. Granier, “La femme criminelle”; de Lanessan, op. cit., pp. 145 ff.; H. Lacaze, “De la criminalité féminine en France”; H. Leale, “De la criminalité des sexes” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXV). For the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 76 ff.; Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., pp. 190 ff. For Rumania: Minovici, op. cit. Upon female criminality in relation to special occupations, see: R. de Rijcken, “La servante criminelle”.]

[681] Liszt, “Die gesellschaftlichen Ursachen des Verbrechens”. (See discussion of this work in Pt. I of the present work.)

[682] P. 96, chap. IV.

[683] “Nos jeunes détenus”, pp. 24, 25.

[684] See what is said in criticism of Professor Ferri in Pt. I of this work.

[685] “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 34. See the whole section “L’hypocrisie dans l’éducation” (pp. 29–49), where the author criticises contemporary education severely.

[686] See Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 327, 328, and Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 284–295, 372, 373.

[687] There are other reasons for this, of course, besides better education: the absence of poverty, pleasures within easy reach, etc.

[688] Taken from Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 160.

[689] Morrison, op. cit., p. 159.

[690] Figured from “L’annuaire statistique de la France”, V–IX.

[691] Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1890–1895.

[692] Raux (“Nos jeunes détenus”) and Grosmolard (“Criminalité juvénile”, p. 199) come to the same conclusion.

[693] “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 76 and 440.

[694] Plasz, “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51). According to the statistics upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” there were between 1901 and 1906 among the parents of the children on an average: 7.1% without income, 71.5% with an income under 900 marks, 14.1% with an income between 900 and 3000 marks, 0.1% between 3000 and 6000 marks, and 7.2% with income unknown. See F. Frank, “Das Fürsorgeerziehungsgesetz in Preussen” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVII, p. 460).

[695] L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 279–280.

[696] Op. cit., p. 320.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. W. Feld, “Die Kinder der in Fabriken arbeitenden Frauen und ihre Verpflegung.”

[697] Braun, op. cit., p. 278.

[698] See Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes ouvriers”, pp. 199 ff., and Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 330–332.

[699] Op. cit., p. 9.

[700] In the following list I do not give the statistics for Germany as a whole, as I have been able to procure them for certain states, only. For Germany see: Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, pp. 161, 162; von Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, pp. 22, 23; W. Rein, “Jugendliches Verbrecherthum” (“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, III); H. Wetzker, “Die Zunahme der Verbrechen”; Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 107–116; see also the section on Hirsch in Pt. I of this work.

[Note to the American Edition: Besides the works of Neumann, Spann, Pollitz, and Rühle, already cited, the following recent publications must be named: Mönkemöller, “Zur Kriminalität des Kindesalters” (“Archiv f. Krim. Anthrop. u. Kriminalstatistik”, XL); H. W. Gruhle, “Die Ursachen der jugendlichen Verwahrlosung und Kriminalität”; A. Hamburger, “Lebensschicksale geisteskranker Strafgefangener”.]

[701] “Statistisches Uebersicht der Verhältnisse der Oesterreichischen strafanstalten und der Gerichtsgefängnisse”, 1883 and 1884, Table IV and IVa.

[702] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1896 and 1899.

[703] Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197.

[704] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria, cf. Baernreither, op. cit.]

[705] J. S., “Zur Verwahrlosung der Kinder in der kapitalistischen Gesellschaft” (“Neue Zeit”, 1893–94, II).

[706] Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197.

[707] Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, pp. 122–147.

[708] Tönnies, “Jugendliche Kriminalität und Verwahrlosung in Gross-Britannien”, p. 904 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XIII).

[709] Morrison, op. cit., pp. 148–151.

[710] W. H. Douglas, “The Criminal; Some Social and Economic Aspects”, p. 106 (“Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow”, vol. XXXIII, 1901–1902).

[711] Lenz, “Die Zwangserziehung in England”, p. 38.

[712] With regard to England see also: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18–19, 37–42.

[713] Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895.

[714] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[715] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[716] A. von Oettingen says that in 1864 there were in France, out of 8,006 young prisoners, 60% who were illegitimate children or orphans, and 38.5% who were descended from criminals, vagrants, and prostitutes (“Moralstatistik”, p. 335).

[717] P. 17.

[718] Op. cit., p. 48.

[719] Op. cit., p. 201.

[720] Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, p. 37. See the whole of chap. III.

[721] “Le crime dans la famille”, pp. 27, 38.

[722] Motet, “De l’éducation correctionnelle”, p. 186 (“Actes du IIe Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[723] Raux, op. cit., p. 181.

[724] Raux, op. cit., p. 211. See also the following authors with regard to France: Joly, “La France criminelle”, Ch. VI; Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 485–490; Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”; and Aubry, “La Contagion du meurtre”, pp. 17–51.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Duprat and de Lanessan, op. cit.; E. Laurent, “La criminalité infantile”; L. Manouvrier, “Quelques cas de criminalité juvénile et commençante” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVII); E. Martin, “Études sur l’enfance coupable” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).]

[725] Lenz, op. cit., p. 70.

[726] From Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 107, and the “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, p. CXV.

[727] “Annuario statistico italiano 1900”, p. 95.

[728] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[729] P. 164.

[730] P. 76.

[731] “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, pp. 237 and 250. For Italy see also: Carrara, “Les petits criminels de Cagliari” (“Compte rendu du Ve Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[732] Figured from “Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der Nederlanden”, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899, and “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900 and 1901.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further the work of de Roos already cited, pp. 117 ff. Dr. J. P. F. A. Noorduijn, “De Observatie, na de invoering der Kinderwetten, etc.” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII), and J. Feith, “Misdadige Kinderen”.]

[733] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[734] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[735] P. 85.

[736] See Drähms, “The Criminal”, Ch. XI.

[737] “Beretning om Rigets Strafarbeidsanstalter for 1897–1898, 1898–1899”, and for 1899–1900 from Weinberg, “Der werdende Verbrecher”, p. 16. (“Neue Zeit”, 1902–1903, II).

[738] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[739] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[740] Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 105.

[741] Mayr, op. cit., pp. 197 and 282.

[742] Based on Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.”

[743] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 34.

[744] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[745] “Die Ergebnisse etc.”, pp. 35, 37, 38.

[746] Weinberg, op. cit., p. 19.

[747] Mayr, op. cit., p. 283. The other data are taken from Sichart, “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens.” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” X.)

[748] P. 298.

[749] P. 10.

[750] Richelot, “La Prostitution en Angleterre”, p. 571.

[751] Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Table CXVIII.

[752] Parent-Duchatelet, “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”, II, p. 612.

[Note to the American Edition: The “Criminal Statistics, Ireland” (1905) even gives a percentage as high as 38.5, of prostitutes among female prisoners (p. 25).]

[753] G. S., “Die weibliche Lohnarbeit und ihr Einfluss auf die Sittlichkeit und Kriminalität”, p. 751 (“Neue Zeit”, 1899–1900, II).

[754] After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–95.”

[755] P. 173.

[756] See further: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., pp. 139–142; Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 77, 78; C. L. Brace, “The Dangerous Classes in New York”, pp. 116, 117; “Einiges über die Prostitution in Gegenwart und Zukunft”, p. 519 (“Neue Zeit”, 1891–92, I); Commenge, “La prostitution clandestine à Paris”, pp. 29–131; Blaschko, “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 27, 28.

[757] Upon “souteneurs” and the part they play in crime see: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I, Chap. II, § 12; Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses”, I, pp. 168–170; Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime, et la folie”, p. 16; Sichart, “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 44; Baumgarten, op. cit., pp. 17–19; Stursberg, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland und ihre Bekämpfung”, pp. 76–82.

[Note to the American Edition: See further Hermann, op. cit., pp. 68 ff.; Brusse, op. cit.; and H. Ostwald, “Das Zuhältertum in Berlin”.]

[758] P. 138. See also: Engels, “Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats”, p. 63; Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 28, 29; Faure, “Souvenirs de la Roquette”, p. 360; Baumgarten, op. cit., p. 20; Blaschko, op. cit., pp. 28, 29.

Upon the relation between prostitution and criminality in general see: Moreau-Christophe, “Du problème de la misère”, III, pp. 167–170; Richelot, op. cit., pp. 610–615; Avé-Lallemant, “Das Deutsche Gaunerthum”, II, pp. 28, 29, and 336, III, pp. 157 and 165; Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, pp. 224–232; Ladame, op. cit., pp. 15 ff.; Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, pp. 535–538.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further the recent studies: A. H. Hübner, “Ueber Prostituirte und ihre strafrechtliche Behandlung” (“Monatschr. f. krim. Psych. und Strafrechtsreform”, III); O. Mönkemöller, “Die Kriminalität der Korrigendin” (“Monatschr.” etc. V) and “Korrektionsanstalt und Landarmenhaus”, ch. III.]

[759] See among others: Krauss, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechens”, pp. 68, 69; Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 87.

[760] “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 411, 413, 415 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”, 1896).

[761] “La prophylaxie et le traitement du criminel récidiviste”, p.64 (“Compte rendu Ve congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[762] Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, p. 511 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII).

[763] Dalhoff, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, pp. 40, 41. (“Actes du Congrès pénitentiaire internat. de Bruxelles”, IV.)

[764] For the years 1858–1862 taken from Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Tab. CXVIII; and for the other years from “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1897.

[765] In these tables the term “drinker” is used for one who drinks to excess.

[766] Upon England see further: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 17, 20–22; J. Baker, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, and W. C. Sullivan, id. (“Actes du Cong. pén. internat. de Brux.” 1900, IV).

[Note to the American Edition: The “Report on the Judicial Statistics of Scotland for the year 1908” contains data upon criminality and alcoholism.]

[767] “Actes,” p. 112.

[768] “Actes”, p. 106. See also upon France: Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 297 ff.; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, pp. 182 ff., and Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 144.

[Note to the American Edition: See also the “Compte général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1907”, pp. xx ff.]

[769] “Der Alcoholismus”, p. 348.

[770] Op. cit., p. 351.

[771] “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI).

[772] “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, p. 296.

[773] [Note to the American Edition: “The criminal statistics of the Netherlands for 1904” contain data upon the subject in question. Cf. further de Roos, op. cit., pp. 175 ff., and “Parallelismen tusschen alcoholisme en criminaliteit” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII); Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.; A. Ariëns, “Criminaliteit en drankmisbruik.”]

[774] P. 66.

[775] “The Jukes”, p. 85.

[776] Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 198.

[777] Wieselgren, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p. 164 (“Actes du Congr. pénit. de Bruxelles”), cf. Kinberg, “Alcool et criminalité” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).

[778] Schaffroth, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p. 128 (“Actes du Cong. pén. intern. de Bruxelles”).

[779] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 36.

[780] “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 42.

[781] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. besides the works of de Roos, Verrijn Stuart, Ariëns, and Kinberg, already cited, the following of recent date: H. Hoppe, “Alkohol und Kriminalität”; A. Pistolese, “Alcoolismo e delinquenza”; Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 397 ff.; K. W. F. Boas, “Alkohol und Verbrechen nach neueren Statistiken”; Aull, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”; A. Ley et R. Charpentier, “Alcoolisme et criminalité”; G. B. Gruber, “Der Alkoholismus.” All these authors recognize, though not all in the same degree, that the influence of alcoholism upon crime is great; Pistolese alone denies it almost wholly.]

[782] The question must be looked at from the other side also, and it must be admitted that military service can have a favorable effect upon totally lawless individuals, who thus learn order and discipline; this, however, does not prevent the disadvantages from remaining.

[783] Quoted by Oettingen in his “Moralstatistik”, p. 481.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: upon Germany: H. Dietz, “Die Militärstrafrechtspflege im Lichte der Kriminalstatistik”; for France: A. Corre, “Aperçu général de la criminalité militaire en France”; for Italy: L. Ferrero di Cavallerleone and C. Placido, “Essais de criminologie militaire.”]

[784] See also Oettingen, op. cit., p. 687; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp. 572–589; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, p. 337; Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 250; Wagner, “Die Sittlichkeit auf dem Lande”, pp. 77–81; Lombroso, “Crime, its Causes and Remedies”, pp. 201–203; Steinmetz, “Der Krieg als sociologisches Problem”, p. 37; Bleibtreu, op. cit., p. 16; Hamon, “Psychologie du Militaire professionnel”, Chs. V–VIII.

[785] See also: Corre, “Essai sur la criminalité”, p. 78 (“Journal des Economistes”, 1868); Colajanni, op. cit. II, pp. 572–589; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 247–249; Prof. Fr. v. Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, p. 17.

[Note to the American Edition: See further upon the demoralizing consequences of war: Steinmetz, “Die Philosophie des Krieges”, ch. III, 5, and my criticism of this book under the title “An apology for war” (“Nieuwe Tijd”, XIII, pp. 488 ff.). Think of the horrible cruelties committed in the recent wars in the Balkans (see the report of the Commission of the Carnegie Foundation); no one can any longer deny the demoralizing consequences of war!] [It may be of interest to the reader to know that the author wrote the foregoing in the spring of 1914.—Transl.]

[786] Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, p. 70; see also Ch. III, and Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 229.

[787] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1895”, I, p. 31.

[788] “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1900”, I, pp. 18–19.

[789] “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1895”, I, p. 25.

[790] Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 228, and “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XXXV.

[791] After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table IX.

[792] “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. li.

[793] The figures for 1850–1880 are taken from Bournet, “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 31, for the Assizes, and from Joly, “La France criminelle”, p. 166, for the others; the figures for 1881–1900 are from the “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. lxii.

[794] “Rapport etc.”, pp. lxiv and lxv.

[795] After Bournet “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 32, and “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1881–1889. The criminal statistics for 1890–95 contain all those convicted including those brought before the justices of the peace, which makes them not comparable with those given above. The average figure for 1891–95 was 25.27%, and for 1896–1900, 30.19% (“Notizie complementari etc.”, 1896–1900).

[796] After the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”, 1901, p. 121.

[Note to the American Edition: The general percentage of recidivism in the Netherlands had risen to 44.5% in 1908.]

[797] On short imprisonments for minor offenses see von Liszt, “Kriminalpolitische Aufgaben”, V, “Die kurzzeitige Freiheitsstrafe” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” IX).

[798] See Gautier, “Le monde des prisons” (“Archives d’anthropologie criminelle”, III) p. 563; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp. 671–679; Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 592–596; Havelock Ellis, “Verbrecher und Verbrechen”, pp. 266–276; Moreau, “Le monde des prisons”, pp. 280–282; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, Ch. II; Lombroso, “Les palimpsestes des prisons”, pp. 379–381.

[799] Pp. 142, 143.

[800] Op. cit., p. 22.

[801] I will mention the following: Prins, “Criminalité et répression”, Ch. V; Ferri, “La sociologie criminelle”, pp. 546–554, and “Eine Verirrung des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts” (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II); Sacker, op. cit., pp. 70–74; Roos, “De strafmiddelen in de nieuwere strafrechtswetenschap”, Ch. VIII; Leuss, op. cit., pp. 176–193.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: G. Gradnauer, “Das Elend des Strafvollzugs”, and A. Aletrino, “Is celstraf nog langer geoorloofd en gewenscht?”]

[802] See the Reports already cited, and Winter, “The New York State Reformatory in Elmira.”

[803] As was pointed out in Part I, Tarde is the author who has drawn attention to the rôle of imitation in the etiology of crime; but see also: Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, “La foule criminelle”, and “La psychologie des sectes”; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 203–211.

[804] P. 37.

[805] See Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 120 ff.

[806] “Criminal statistics”, 1894 and 1898, pp. 24 and 31.

[Note to the American Edition: In the “Crim. Stat. England and Wales, 1905” there is a special study of crime in some of the great cities (pp. 62 ff.).]

[807] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 565, 566.

[808] “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxix.

[809] “Rapport etc.”, p. xxx.

[810] “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901”, pp. xvii and xviii.

[811] See also A. Mayer, “Die Verbrechen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit den wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen im Kanton Zürich.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: for Germany: J. Galle, “Die Kriminalität in Stadt und Land in ihrer Beziehung zur Berufsverteilung”; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 155 ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 86 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 222 ff., and Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., p. 239.]

[812] See, among others, de Vries, “Eenheid in Veranderlijkheid”, pp. 3–6.

[813] [Note to the American Edition: In present day sociology it is almost universally accepted that there is only a quantitative difference between criminals and other men, and that the “homo criminalis” does not exist. An interesting contribution to this question is given by Dr. Finkelnburg in his “Die Bestraften in Deutschland”. His statistical calculations bring him to the conclusion that in Germany there is one person out of every 12 (over 20 years of age) convicted!]

[814] I speak neither of all the crimes nor of all the motives of those of which I do treat. For a complete enumeration of the motives of crimes, see Starke, “Des éléments essentiels qui doivent figurer dans la statistique criminelle et des moyens de les rendre comparables”, pp. 77, 78 (“Bulletin de l’institut international de statistique”, 1889), and von Liszt, “Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”, pp. 490–494 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XVI).

[815] After the “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1900”, II, pp. 7–13.

[816]

[817] After the “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, Tables 1, 2, and 7.

[818] After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, pp. x and xi.

[819] After the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1897–1899, and the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900–1901.

[820] “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, p. xxxvii.

[821] Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, p. 328, for 1880, and for 1881, from “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1881”, pp. xc and xci.

[822] [There seems no better way to designate a classification that does not exist in English than by taking over this French term.—Transl.]

[823] Pp. 6, 14–18.

[824] “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, pp. 40, 41. On the relation between vagrancy and mendicity, and criminality see also: Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, I, pp. 478, 479 (quoted in Part I of this work); Kurella, “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, pp. 206, 207; Sacker, “Der Rückfall”, pp. 56, 57; Fornasari de Verce, “La criminalità e le vicende economiche d’Italia”, p. 19; A. Meyer, “Die Verbrechen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit den wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen im Kanton Zürich”, p. 59; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144 ff.; Bérard, “Le vagabondage en France”, pp. 609, 610 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” XIII); Florian and Cavaglieri, “I Vagabondi”, II, pp. 181–197; Löwenstimm, “Das Bettelgewerbe”, pp. 124–128 (“Kriminalistische Studien”); Rivière, “Mendiants et vagabonds”, pp. 227, 228.

[825] “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 443.

[826] Ostwald, “Das Leben der Wanderarmen”, p. 313 (“Archiv f. Kriminalanthr. u. Kriminalstat.” XIII).

[827] “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 58.

[828] Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313.

[829] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. xl and xli.

[830] See the works of Fornasari di Verce, Tugan-Baranowsky, and G. Mayr, cited in Part I.

[Note to the American Edition: In his “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, III, p. 653, G. V. Mayr gives statistics of vagrancy and mendicity for Germany (1877–1888), in which there appears a formidable increase during the years 1877–1880 (the end of the economic crisis), and a decrease after 1880. For Austria cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 49 ff.]

[831] [Note to the American Edition: Upon Bavaria, cf. F. Knoblauch, “Bettel und Landstreicherei im Königreiche Bayern”, 1893–99.]

[832] For France see also Bérard, op. cit., pp. 607, 608.

[833] Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313. Cf. upon the periods 1866–1870 and 1877–1884, H. Bennecke, “Bemerkungen zur Kriminalstatistik des Grossherzogtums Hessen”, pp. 369 ff.

[834] Cf. K. Böhmert, “Die Sächsische Kriminalstatistik mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Jahre 1882–1887.”

[835] See Bérard, op. cit., pp. 605, 606.

[836] Flynt, op. cit., p. 170.

[837] “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXI).

[838] See Ostwald, op. cit., pp. 306, 307.

[839] After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XIII. In studying these figures it must not be lost sight of that in general a workman is soon worn out and after that is no longer hired.

[840] After “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1896–1899 and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1901.

[841] After pp. 30, 31.

[842] Pp. 40, 41.

[843] “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, p. 208.

[844] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 22. See also the whole of Sec. 5, IV, Chap. 2, of the same authors.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon this subject cf. K. Wilmanns, “Zur Psychopathologie des Landstreichers”, and Stelzner, op. cit., pp. 92 ff.]

[845] See Dugdale, “The Jukes”, pp. 47 and 49; and Flynt, op. cit., p. 6.

[846] See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 34, 35, 177, 178.

[847] See Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 55–76; Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, pp. 217–230; Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, p. 88; Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 89–99; Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, pp. 60 ff.

[848] Op. cit., pp. 31, 32.

[849] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 52. See also: Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, pp. 199, 200; Tomel and Rollet, op. cit., pp. 28–45; and Albanel, op. cit., p. 78.

[850] Op. cit., p. 2.

[851] Flynt, op. cit., p. 49; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and Problems of London Police Courts”, p. 64; and others.

[852] Upon vagrancy and mendicity of children see further: J. Délie, “Le vagabondage des mineurs”; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144–155; and Flynt, op. cit., pp. 28–60.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon pathological children see P. Schroeder, “Das Fortlaufen der Kinder” (“Monatschr. f. Krim. Psychologie u. Strafr. reform”, VIII); and E. Stier, “Wandertrieb und pathologisches Fortlaufen bei Kindern.”]

[853] See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 11–14.

[854] See, for example, Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 17 and 92.

[855] See Bérard, op. cit., p. 605.

[856] See Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 177 ff., and “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 460 ff.

[857] Op. cit., pp. 97, 103, 110, 182, and 244.

[858] Op. cit., p. 38.

[859] Op. cit., I, pp. 111, 112.

[860] Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 151–154. Tomel and Rollet, op. cit., pp. 24–27.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Haury, “La paresse pathologique” (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.” XXVIII).]

[861] “Die Vagabondage und ihre Behandlung”, p. 715 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XI).

[862] [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon vagrancy and mendicity we would call attention to the following: K. Wilmanns, “Das Landstreichertum, seine Bekämpfung und Abhilfe”; A. Aletrino, “Handleiding bij de studie der crimineele anthropologie”, II, ch. VI; Rotering, “Das Landstreichertum der Gegenwart”; Riebeth, “Ueber den geistigen und körperlichen Zustand der Korrigenden”; de Roos, op. cit., pp. 151 ff.; A. Marie and R. Meunier, “Les vagabonds”; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 95 ff.; A. Pagnier, “Le vagabond”; Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 97 ff.; H. T. de Graaf, “Karakter en behandeling van veroordeelden wegens landlooperij en bedelarij.”]

[863] Marx, “Kapital”, I, ch. XXLV, pp. 699 ff.

[864] Upon the impossibility of innate moral concepts see Näcke, “Die neueren Erscheinungen auf kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre Bedeutung”, p. 342 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XIV).

[865] “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und Ungerechten”, pp. 470, 471. (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II.)

[866] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53.

[867] The figures in the line a are the absolute figures (annual averages), those in the line b the relative numbers, i.e. what the daily average for that month would be if the daily average for the year were 100.

[868] “Marche de la criminalité en France, 1825–1880” (“Revue scientifique”, 1881), to be found also in Levasseur’s “La population française”, II, p. 458.

[869] Taken from the “Kriminalstatistik”, 1895, 1907, 1908 and 1911, and from the “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich.”

[870] The figures from 1906 on are comparable with those preceding, only with reserve.

[871] The figures from 1907 on are not comparable with those preceding.

[872] For details see my study already cited, “Verbrechen und Sozialismus.”

[873] [Note to the American Edition: The English criminal statistics for 1905 show an interesting diagram upon the connection between the trend of economic crime and that of business from 1885 to 1905 (Int. p. 24).]

[874] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Jacquart, op. cit. pp. 109 ff.]

[875] [Note to the American Edition: For the period 1896–1908 I have shown in my study “Crime et Socialisme” the striking parallel between economic crime and the business situation.]

[876] There are still to be mentioned as authors who have treated the dynamics of criminality: J. Sacker, “Der Rückfall” (pp. 39, 40); Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung” (pp. 89 ff.); and H. Leuss, “Aus dem Zuchthause” (pp. 228 ff.).

[Note to the American Edition: See further: for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 369 ff., Herz, op. cit., pp. 40 ff.; for Saxony: Böhmert, op. cit., and Wulffen, op. cit., I pp. 390 ff.; for Servia: Wadler, op. cit., p. 73 ff. Cf. also in general: V. Mancini, “Le varie specie di furto nella storia e nella sociologia”, III 3, Ch. IV.]

[877] Cf. further: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; Eggert, “Not und Verbrechen”; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 395 ff.; v. Rohden in “Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, VII, pp. 522 ff., and IX, pp. 229 ff.

[878] Cf. the recent study of Prinzing, “Die soziale Lage der Witwe in Deutschland” (“Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, III).

[879] In general, criminals are distinguished as occasional, habitual, and professional. Habitual criminals, however, are also occasional criminals, for they do not seek the occasion for their crimes like criminals by profession, but profit by it whenever it presents itself. They are the bond of union between the first and third kind of criminals, and in my opinion, it is unnecessary to treat of them separately.

[880] See the passage from Mably, Pt. I, p. 14; also Lassalle, “Offenes Antwort-Schreiben” (“Reden und Schriften”, II, pp. 426–427).

[881] Cf. Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p. 548.

[882] Cf. Ryckère, “La servante criminelle”, ch. III.

[883] As to the literature upon theft in stores, etc., see especially Lacassagne, “Les vols à l’étalage et dans les grands magasins” (“Compte rendu du IVe Congrès d’anthr. crim.”) and Dubuisson, “Les voleuses des grands magasins” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, XVI.); also Lombroso and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, pp. 481, 482; Albanel, op. cit., pp. 91–95.

[884] An interesting proof of the truth of this assertion may be found in an article by Dr. P. v. Gizycki, entitled “Wie urteilen Schulkinder über Funddiebstahl?” (“Zeitschrift für Kinderforschung”, VIII). One day this author gave young girls (between 11 and 15 years of age) in a school of the poor in Berlin, the following composition: “You are going to the Christmas fair without money, for your parents are poor. Your father is out of work. You find a pocket book containing a five-mark piece. What do you do with it?” The children had not been prepared for the subject and had received no indication of how they ought to treat it. Only five per cent. of the girls said that they would return the money, because they would pity the person who lost it, and who might also be poor. All the others among those who also wished to return the money (53%) had other motives. Those who, on the contrary, wished to retain the money, wanted, without exception, to use it to give their parents things they needed. Who will still dare to say that the children who wanted to keep the money (most of them believing in good faith that they had a right to it) in order to give it to others, had feelings less social than most of the rich who, without blushing, see the misery of the poor?

[885] Upon the bad surroundings of the childhood of thieves see further: Raux, “Nos jeunes détenus”, p. 42, and Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 264 ff.

[886] Op. cit., p. 28.

[887] “Das Verbrechen, etc.”, p. 123.

[888] Op. cit., p. 42.

[889] Cf. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 39, and Sighele, “Psychologie des sectes”, pp. 141, 142.

[890] Ferriani, op. cit. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894).

[891] “Aus dem Zuchthause”, p. 122.

[892] “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, I, p. 14.

[893] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–1895”, p. viii.

[894] Tönnies, “Das Verbrechen als soziale Erscheinung”, p. 334 (“Arch. f. Soz. Gesetzgeb. u. Stat.”, VIII).

[895] Tarde, “Les délits impoursuivis”, p. 207 (“Essais et mélanges sociologiques”).

[896] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1894”, p. lxxxii. See also the detailed statistics cited by Ferriani, op. cit., pp. 112–118.

[897] “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, 5. 139.

[898] “Les transformations de l’impunité”, p. 167 (published by Professor Lacassagne in “Vacher l’éventreur et les crimes sadiques”).

[899] “Betrachtungen über ein Sammeln der verbrecherischen Motive”, p. 278 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XVII). See also Földes, op. cit., pp. 516–519.

[900] In a work upon the etiology of crime it is unnecessary to set forth in detail the numerous ruses that professional criminals make use of to dupe the public and the police. We merely note here a few important works dealing with this subject: Frégier, “Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, Part II, Chap. VII; Avé-Lallemant, “Das deutsche Gaunerthum”, III, pp. 118–340; O. S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, III (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, V); Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Herz, op. cit., Ch. IVa, and E. Wulffen, “Gauner- und Verbrechertypen.”]

[901] Cf. the following passage from “Tramping with Tramps”, by Josiah Flynt: “One more regret which nearly all criminals of the class I am considering have experienced at one time or another in their lives, is that circumstances have led them into a criminal career. Their remorse may be only for a moment, and an exaggerated indifference often follows it; but while it lasts it is genuine and sincere. I have never known a criminal well who has not confessed to me something of this sort; and he has often capped it with a further confidence—his sorrow that it was now too late to try anything else” (pp. 25–26).

[902] Op. cit., pp. 131, 132. As regards the education of children in thieving, see also: Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 89 ff.; Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 195–197.

[903] Although there are some works upon this subject, criminal sociology would derive great profit from the publication of a great number of biographies of criminals, and especially of great criminals.

[Note to the American Edition: Dr. N. Muller in his work already referred to, “Biografisch-aetiologisch onderzoek etc.”, has made a noteworthy beginning in this field, by giving biographies of 24 great criminals. The “Verbrechertypen” edited by Gruhle and Wetzel, promises much.]

[904] See, among others, G. Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande Roquette”, I. p. 27, and “Le monde des prisons”, pp. 11, 16; L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18 ff.

[905] Op. cit., pp. 21, 22.

[906] Op. cit., p. 22.

[907] Op. cit., pp. 23, 24. To the same effect see O. S., op. cit., pp. 136, 137.

[908] Op. cit., pp. 5, 6; see also pp. 11–12. To the same effect: Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 221; Havelock Ellis, “Verbrecher und Verbrechen”, pp. 24, 25; and Leuss, “Aus dem Zuchthause”, p. 125.

[909] [Note to the American Edition: Muller mentions further as a result of his researches that criminals by profession show in general an adventurous and unstable character. Cf. Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 160 ff.]

[910] “Actes du IIe Congrès d’Anthr. Crim.”, p. 163.

[911] IV., pp. 386–388. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté”, pp. 385 ff.

[912] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further (besides the works of Muller and Kauffmann): Wulffen, II, pp. 284 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 124 ff.; also Brusse’s brochure, already cited, “Het rosse”, etc.]

[913] Cf. A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 293, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, pp. 421 ff.

[914] In his “Grundriss, etc.”, II, p. 213, Dr. Post names different peoples who do not consider theft as blamable but as praiseworthy. It is very probable that this relates to theft committed to the detriment of another group, and not to the prejudice of the members of the thief’s own group. It is plain that it is only the latter kind of theft that we treat of in a work upon crime. Cf. Kovalewsky, “Les origines du devoir”, pp. 88, 89 (“Revue internationale de sociologie”, II).

[915] To the same effect see Kovalewsky, op. cit., pp. 88, 89, note.

[916] “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 286, 287. See by the same author, “Grundriss etc.”, II, p. 429, and “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, pp. 114, 115. Cf. Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, II, p. 252.

[917] Cf. the quotation from Morgan on p. 386 of this work.

[918] See Dargun, “Ursprung und Entwicklungsgeschichte des Eigenthums”, pp. 81–83.

[919] Cf. Post, “Bausteine etc.”, I, p. 288 ff.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe”, II, ch. 24.]

[920] Cf. v. Liszt, “Das gewerbmässige Verbrechen”, pp. 126, 127 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI).

[921] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, pp. cliv–clv.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon Austria: Herz, op. cit., pp. 39 ff.; upon the Balkan states: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 46 and 54.]

[922] “Della statistica dell’omicidio negli stati Uniti d’America” (“Bulletin de l’Institut intern. de statistique”, X), pp. 40 ff.

[923] Cf. Niceforo, “Les transformations du crime et la civilisation moderne”, pp. 642 ff. (“Scuola Positiva”, XI).

[924] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53.

[925] H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp. 10, 18.

[Note to the American Edition: After 1898, also, the influence of the economic situation made itself felt in these crimes.]

[926] P. 47. See plate, pp. 40, 41.

[927] [Note to the American Edition: Wadler has shown the connection of these two phenomena for Servia (op. cit., p. 83).]

[928] Taken from Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, pp. 122–125.

[929] Taken from “Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie und Kriminalstatistik”, XI, pp. 307 ff.

[930] Baer, “Ueber jugendliche Mörder und Todtschläger” (“Archiv f. Krim.-Anthr. und Krim.”, XI).

[931] Op. cit., pp. 166, 167.

[932] “Les enfants en prison”, p. 215.

[933] Cf. Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 279 ff.

[934] Taken from Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande Roquette”, II, ch. VIII. See also Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 97 ff.

[935] Cf. Manouvrier, “Les crânes des suppliciés” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I), where he shows that the conformation of the skulls of assassins is simply of a coarser type than others.

[936] Pp. 47–48.

[937] “Tramping with Tramps”, p. 24. Cf. Moreau, “Le monde des prisons”, p. 621, and Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 163, 164 and 203–206.

[938] Cf. Post, “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 116, “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 300–302, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 444.

[939] P. 318.

[940] For Germany see also H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, p. 18.

[941] Pp. 375, 376.

[942] Where capitalism is beginning to develop, adulteration, etc., is the order of the day (e.g. in Japan in our day. See “Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, N. F. IV, p. 503); later a certain honesty, based upon interest, especially in the wholesale business, becomes the rule. (Cf. Engels, “Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England”, Preface pp. vii–viii.)

[943] See Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894); also Ferriani, “Glückliche und schlaue Verbrecher”, IV.

[944] Laschi, op. cit., pp. 72, 73.

[945] Laschi, op. cit., p. 106.

[946] Laschi, op. cit., pp. 97 ff.

[947] Pp. xx and xxi.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. B. Kritschewsky, “Die Korruption in der französischen Demokratie” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVIII2), pp. 12 ff.]

[948] See Laschi, op. cit., p. 107.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the way in which great fortunes have been amassed, see F. Kummer, “Die Geschichte der grossen amerikanischen Vermögen” (“Neue Zeit”, XXX2).]

[949] For descriptions of cases see Zola, “L’argent”, and Wulffen, op. cit., II, p. 334.

[950] Laschi, op. cit., p. 180.

[951] Pp. 147, 148.

[952] P. 128 (in the original, p. 131).

[953] Cf. Post, “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 359; Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 257; Lafargue, “Der Ehebruch in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit” (“Neue Zeit”, VII); and Ferrero, “Le crime d’adultère—son passé, son avenir” (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, IX).

[954] “Les criminels dans l’art et la littérature”, p. 141. Cf. also Letourneau, “Évolution du mariage”, pp. 282, 283.

[955] Pp. 444, 445.

[956] Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 13. Cf. A. v. Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, pp. 221, 222; Prof. Tardieu, “Étude médico-légale sur les attentats aux mœurs”, pp. 22, 23; Dr. P. Bernard, “Des viols et attentats à la pudeur sur adultes”, p. 562 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” II); also the German criminal statistics.

[957] “Das Verbrechen in seiner Abhängigkeit von dem jährlichen Temperaturwechsel” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, II).

[958] See G. v. Mayr, “Gesetzmässigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben”, pp. 239 ff., and “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, pp. 170, 171.

[959] “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France”, p. 60. Dr. A. Bournet, in “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 68, and Ferri, op. cit., p. 39, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 566, come to the same conclusion.

[960] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 61 and 69. See also Ferri, op. cit., p. 43.

[961] Socquet, op. cit., p. 60.

[962] Cf. Bournet, op. cit., p. 68, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 567.

[963] The first two columns are taken from Bernard, op. cit., p. 569; the last is figured from the “Annuaire statistique de la France”, VII, p. 526.

[Note to the American Edition: The same thing is shown by the criminal statistics of the Netherlands. Cf. de Roos, op. cit., p. 114, and my own study already cited, “Misdaad en Socialisme”, pp. 34–35.]

[964] “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen in Deutschland in kriminalstatistischer Beleuchtung”, p. 266. Cf. Wittenberg and Wagner, “Die geschlechtlich sittlichen Verhältnisse der evangelischen Landbewohner im Deutschen Reiche”, and Wagner, “Die Sittlichkeit auf dem Lande.” See also Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 96 ff., and L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 385, 386.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Herz, op. cit., p. 35; Bonger, op. cit., pp. 33, 34; Baernreither, op. cit. passim; and Geill, “Kriminal-anthropologische Untersuchungen dänischer Sittlichkeitsverbrecher”, p. 358.]

[965] See among others Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, pp. 53 and 86.

[966] “Actes du congrès pénitentiaire international de Bruxelles.”

[967] Loeffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 518–521 (“Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII).

[968] P. 113. See also Bournet, op. cit., p. 69.

[969] “Crimineele Statistiek voor het jaar 1901”, p. xxvii.

[970] “Actes etc.”, p. 167.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the influence of alcohol upon sexual crimes see further Geill, op. cit., p. 362; Aschaffenburg, “Zur Psychologie der Sittlichkeitsverbrechen”, p. 408; Bonhoeffer, “Sittlichkeitsdelikt und Körperverletzung”, p. 469.]

[971] “Die Ergebnisse der schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der Jahre 1892–1896.”

[972] See “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 112; “Die Grundlagen des Rechts etc.”, p. 377; and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p. 382.

[973] See among others Garraud and Bernard, “Des attentats à la pudeur et des viols sur les enfants”, pp. 404–405 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I).

[974] See Lafargue, p. 293; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., pp. 408–409.

[975] Cf. “Reports on the law relating to the protection of young girls”, 1882, p. 37; Dr. Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime, et la folie”, pp. 24–26; and Amschl, “Aberglauben als Heilmittel”, pp. 397, 398 (“Archiv f. Krim.-Anthr. und Kriminalstatistik”, XV).

[976] Cf. Tardieu, op. cit., pp. 21, 22; Levasseur, “La population française”, II, p. 448; Starke, op. cit., pp. 172, 173.

[977] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 68.

[978] In his “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, Bebel gives almost the same proportion for Germany without indicating the source from which he takes his figures. As he remarks the percentage of the rich and well-to-do would be larger if those interested did not often succeed in hushing the matter up. We need only recall the revelations made by the “Pall Mall Gazette” (see “Les scandales de Londres”).

[979] Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 432.

[980] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 69.

[981] Cf. Bournet, op. cit., pp. 66–68; Socquet, op. cit., p. 73; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 435.

[982] The author makes the mistake of omitting here the words “of children.” Statistics show that it is especially the country, where the sexual life is characterized rather by grossness than by perversion, that produces these crimes. Dr. Després has been led to this error through studying the geography of rape upon children and upon adults at the same time—by which method they are seen to be most numerous in the cities where prostitution exists exclusively. An examination of the two crimes separately gives different results.

[983] P. 43.

[984] Op. cit., p. 24. Cf. Tarde, “Penal Philosophy”, p. 355, and Leuss, op. cit., p. 106.

[985] Op. cit., p. 36.

[986] Cf. Bérard des Glajeux, “Les passions criminelles”, pp. 121, 122.

[Note to the American Edition: Additional works that have appeared recently are: R. Quanter, “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen”; F. Leppmann, “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrecher” (very interesting!); de Roos, “De sexueele criminaliteit”; L. Wachholz, “Zur Lehre von den sexuellen Delikten”; E. Wulffen, “Der Sexualverbrecher”; L. Ferrante Capetti, “Reati e psicopatie sessuali”; J. Werthauer, “Sittlichkeits-Delikte der Gross-Stadt”; Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 133 ff.; M. R. Senf, “Geschlechtstrieb und Verbrechen.”]

[987] For a complete enumeration of the motives of crime see: Liszt, “Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”, pp. 490–494 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XVI) and Starke, “Des éléments essentiels qui doivent figurer dans la statistique criminelle et des moyens de les rendre comparables”, pp. 77, 78 (“Bulletin de l’inst. intern. de statistique”, 1889).

[Note to the American Edition: See further the recent studies upon superstition and crime: Löwenstimm, “Aberglaube und Verbrechen”, “Aberglaube und Gesetz”; Wulffen, “Psychologie des Verbrechens”, II, pp. 219–229; Helling, “Verbrechen und Aberglaube”.]

[988] Upon the psychology of vengeance see Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 99 ff.

[989] Upon the instinct of vengeance see: A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, pp. 140 ff.; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 64; Letourneau, “L’évolution juridique”, pp. 7 ff.; Lafargue, “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und Ungerechten”, p. 421 (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II).

[990] Cf. Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 558, and Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 135.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. especially: Müller-Lyer, “Phasen der Liebe”, pp. 47 ff.]

[991] See Ferriani, “L’amore in tribunali”, and L. Holtz, “Les crimes passionels”, upon crimes of this class.

[992] II, p. 131.

[993] “Eskimo Life.”

[994] See Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 275.

[995] See Steinmetz, op. cit., II, p. 303, and Sutherland, op. cit., I, chap. VIII.

[996] It is plain that this influences also those relationships that are not sanctioned by law.

[997] There is almost no mention of sexual jealousy where men and women both occupy an independent position. Cf. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 431.

[998] Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 52–54.

[999] Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 147–149.

[1000] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 52.

[1001] In his “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland”, H. Berg shows that crimes against persons in Germany were not influenced by economic occurrences during the years 1882–1898 (pp. 31 ff.).

[Note to the American Edition: I have proved the same for 1898–1908. (See my study, “Verbrechen und Socialismus”, p. 808.)]

[1002] [Note to the American Edition: The same is true in the Netherlands. In Austria, Herz has shown a certain relation between the phenomena in question after 1863, but not in recent years.]

[1003] The figures for homicide, etc., are taken from Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, pp. 246–248. The figures for illiteracy in Italy, Belgium, France, Germany, and Holland are taken from the official statistics, the others from the “Statesman’s Year Book, 1902.”

[1004] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 176 ff., upon the Balkan States, where the crimes in question are very frequent, and the degree of civilization is very low. (In Servia, for example, in 1900 there was a percentage of illiteracy of about 79!)]

[1005] From Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, p. 49 (“Revue Socialiste”, 1901).

[1006] The first column is taken from “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1898”, II, pp. 27–30; the second from “Statistisches Jahrbuch f. d. Deutsche Reich, 1894”, p. 151; the last is figured from “Statistik der Reichstagswahlen von 1898”, p. 3.

[Note to the American Edition: In my study already quoted, “Verbrechen und Socialismus”, I have given figures for 1903–1907, which show in general the same results.]

[1007] I have chosen the crime of serious assault, because it is committed especially out of revenge, and because the figures for homicide are too small in Germany to answer for this table.

[1008] Later I will explain why these figures are added.

[1009] From Boies, “Science of Penology”, Appendix B.

[1010] From Ferri, “Atlante dell’omicidio”, pp. 250, 251; the figures for illiteracy are from “Annuario statistico italiano, 1900”, pp. 177, 178.

[1011] To my regret I have been unable to procure the figures for 1880–1883; the differences between the provinces were, however, probably the same as for 1896.

[1012] The first column is from “De crimineele statistiek van 1901”, the second from “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1901”, p. 47.

[Note to the American Edition: In my study, “Misdaad en socialisme”, I have given the figures for a longer period (1901–1905), which confirm in general the results given above (p. 35).]

[1013] Cf. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, pp. 53 and 77; Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, pp. 73 and 167, and “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 134 ff.

[1014] Cf. E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, p. 149.

[1015] Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 299 ff.

[1016] Cf. Colajanni, op. cit., p. 39.

[1017] For Italy, in addition to the official statistics already cited, see Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, pp. 43, 44, 51–52. I have not been able to procure figures for the movement of these crimes in other countries.

[Note to the American Edition: Herz mentions, for Austria (1862–1899) a decrease of crimes in their most serious form and an increase in the less serious. For Scotland and Ireland the criminal statistics show a remarkable decrease; in England this decrease has been very considerable in recent years, and for all forms of these crimes. In Belgium there is a decrease for the more serious forms, the others remaining stationary. In the Netherlands there has been a decrease in recent years. In the United States the crimes in question seem to be increasing (cf. J. W. Garner, “Homicide in American Cities” (“Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology”, III, p. 675).]

[1018] Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 236, and Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp. 34 ff.

[1019] Cf. Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 152.

[1020] [Note to the American Edition: Later it has been shown that the last remark is perfectly correct. In recent years (about the beginning of the century), the consumption of alcohol has decreased, and also the crimes in question: cf. my study “Verbrechen und Sozialismus”, pp. 807 ff.]

[1021] “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 57. Cf. O. Lang, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 50, 51.

[1022] See A. Baer, “Der Alcoholismus”, pp. 30 ff.; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 52 ff.; Aschaffenburg, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 73–77 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XX. This is also to be found in “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 69–72).

[1023] “Sociologie criminelle”, p. 222.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. for Germany Bonger, op. cit., pp. 807 ff.; for Austria: Herz, op. cit., pp. 57 ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; and for the Netherlands: Bonger, op. cit., p. 27.]

[1024] The first two columns have been taken from Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 533, 534; the third from Lang, op. cit., p. 43; and the two others from Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 86 and 88.

[Note to the American Edition: See also: E. Kürz, “Zur Prophylaxe der Roheitsdelikte”, and C. Hotter, “Alkohol und Verbrechen in Niederbayern.”]

[1025] P. 92. See also Merens, “Over het onderzoek naar den invloed der dronkenschap op de criminaliteit”, pp. 170–200.

[1026] See the criticism of these methods in Merens, op. cit., pp. 128 ff.

[1027] Löffler, op. cit., pp. 518–521.

[1028] Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 85.

[1029] Masoin, “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 410–414 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”, 1896).

[Note to the American Edition: For Austria see Herz, op. cit., pp. 31 ff., and for the Netherlands: Bonger, op. cit., p. 35.]

[1030] “Actes etc.”, p. 113.

[Note to the American Edition: For France see also M. Yvernès, “L’alcoolisme et la criminalité” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVII).]

[1031] “Actes etc.”, p. 58.

[1032] Merens, op. cit., p. 126.

[1033] Merens, op. cit., p. 107.

[1034] “Crimineele Statistiek, 1901”, pp. xxvi–xxvii.

[1035] Wieselgren, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité” (“Actes du Congrès pénitent. de Bruxelles”).

[1036] P. 36.

[1037] [Note to the American Edition: In his “Anthropologie der nichtbesitzenden Klassen”, Niceforo defends the thesis that the crimes in question are caused by the physiological poverty of the poor classes, in its turn a consequence of environment (pp. 369 ff.).]

[1038] Cf. Steinmetz, op. cit., I, Pt. III.

[1039] T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend und die besitzenden Klassen in Oesterreich”, p. 171.

[1040] Socquet, “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France, 1876–1880”, p. 41.

[1041] Op. cit., p. 36.

[1042] Cf. Dr. Audiffrent, “Quelques considérations sur l’infanticide”, p. 5 (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, XVII).

[1043] Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 156; Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp. 164, 165; Lombroso, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 494; Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 263, 264.

[1044] In his “L’évolution de la morale”, Letourneau points out that in countries where public opinion is very indulgent to female frailty, infanticide is almost unknown (p. 73).

[1045] Cf. Brissot de Warville, “Théorie des lois criminelles”, I, p. 95. Of a literature that has long been copious may be named, especially, the interesting work of Pestalozzi, “Ueber Gesetzgebung und Kindermord.”

[1046] Cf. Sutherland, “Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct”, I, pp. 113 ff.

[1047] [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon infanticide I would call attention to: W. Gleispach, “Ueber Kindesmord”; A. Amschl, “Das Verbrechen des Kindesmordes nach oesterreichischem Recht”; G. van Dijck, “Eenige beschouwingen over het misdrijf van kindermoord”; W. Kürbitz-Sonnenschein, “Der Geisteszustand der Kindermörderinnen.”]

[1048] It seems to me that Lombroso and Laschi extend the conception of political crime too much in making it any revolt against the authorities, as they do in their work, “Der politische Verbrecher und die Revolutionen”. Very often these troubles are only more or less serious fights with the police and have no political character at all. Opinions may differ as to the value of Professor Lombroso’s works, but I cannot imagine how any one can admire his work upon political crime. It is full of mistakes and superficial observations.

[1049] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Vallon and Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVIII).]

[1050] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon political crimes in Russia: E. Tarnowsky, “Les crimes politiques en Russie” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XII), and A. Wadler, “Die politische Verbrechen in Russland” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIX).]

[1051] See Dubois, “Le péril anarchiste”, pp. 25 ff.; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 256 ff.; and Enthoven, “Het anarchisme van de daad”, ch. II.

[1052] Cf. Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, p. 116.

[1053] Cf. Hamon, “Psychologie de l’anarchiste-socialiste”, ch. IV.

[1054] Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, pp. 143, 144.

[1055] Cf. Seuffert, “Anarchismus und Strafrecht”, pp. 12 ff.

[1056] Cf. Hamon, op. cit., ch. V, and Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, pp. 131 ff.

[1057] Some authors claim that active anarchists are ordinary criminals. But see Hamon, op. cit., p. 15.

[1058] With regard to Caserio see Lacassagne, “L’assassinat du président Carnot”, pp. 535 and 539, and the unsigned article, “Caserio en prison”, both in “Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, LX and XVI respectively.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon Lucheni see further Forel, “Verbrechen und konstitutionelle Seelenabnormitäten” and Ladame and Régis, “Le régicide Lucheni.” The books of H. Varennes, “De Ravachol à Caserio”, and of Hesse, “Les criminels peints par eux-mêmes” III, “L’apostolat”, contain interesting information upon the active anarchists.]

[1059] An exposition of the anarchistic theories has been given by Dr. Eltzbacher, “Der Anarchismus”, and a very just critique of this subject is that of Plechanow, “Anarchismus und Sozialismus.”

[Note to the American Edition: Upon Anarchism in general see further: H. Zoccoli, “Die anarchie.”]

[1060] Tarde, “Les crimes de haine” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, IX, reproduced also in “Essais et mélanges sociologiques”).

[1061] It is impossible to fix the percentage of these cases, the judges in general not being enough in touch with modern ideas etc.

[1062] See Benedikt, “Biologie und Kriminalstatistik”, p. 489 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, VII); Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 175; “Die neueren Erscheinungen auf kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre Bedeutung”, p. 340 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XIV).

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Th. Ziehen, “Die Erkennung der psychopathischen Konstitutionen und die öffentliche Fürsorge für psychopathisch veranlagte Kinder”, and Stier, op. cit., p. 99.]

[1063] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. R. Gaupp, “Ueber den heutigen Stand der Lehre vom ‘geborenen’ Verbrecher”, and J. Longard, “Ueber ‘Moral insanity.’” De Lanessan truly says that although these individual causes are found in equal proportions in the two sexes, women are much less criminal than men (“La lutte contre le crime”, p. 146).]

[1064] See above, pp. 439 ff. Also Patijn, “Atavisme en Misdaad” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafr.”, V).

[1065] P. 106, “Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, VI.

[1066] P. 339. In further refutation from the anthropological standpoint see Ch. Féré, “Dégénérescence et criminalité”, ch. V; Manouvrier, “L’atavisme et le crime” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894); Dallemagne, “Les théories de la criminalité”, ch. I; and Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 170, 171.

[1067] Upon the criminal as morally insane see: Baer, op. cit., pp. 380 ff.; Näcke, op. cit., p. 341; and Dallemagne, op. cit., ch. III.

Upon the criminal as epileptic see: Baer, op. cit., pp. 384 ff.; Dallemagne, op. cit., ch. III; and Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 172.

[1068] Cf. Lacassagne and E. Martin, “Des résultats positifs et indiscutables que l’anthropologie criminelle peut fournir à l’élaboration ou l’application des lois” (Compte rendu du Ve Congrès d’anthrop. crim.).

[1069] Kurella is one of the rare authors who denies this (see “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, pp. 258 ff.).

[1070] Upon page 107 of the article cited Professor Jelgersma shows that certain really atavistic stigmata found in some criminals are very well explained by degeneracy.

[1071] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: K. Birnbaum, “Die psychopathischen Verbrecher”, and Stelzner, op. cit.]

[1072] “La famille névropathique”, p. 10.

[1073] “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 168.

[1074] Op. cit., p. 102. See also Kende, “Die Entartung des Menschengeschlechts”, p. 34.

[1075] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the relation between disease and society see the fundamental work “Krankheit und soziale Lage” (edited by M. Mosse and Tugendreich with collaboration of several authorities).

It should also be mentioned here that the eugenists (e.g. Schallmayer in the book just cited, pp. 841 ff.) deny that the causes mentioned under first and second have any significance in heredity.]

[1076] “Les causes de la folie”, p. 34.

[1077] Stinca, “Le milieu social comme facteur pathologique”, p. 148 (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894).

[1078] See Féré, “La famille névropathique”, pp. 133 ff.

[1079] “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 155.

[1080] Cf. Maudsley, “The Physiology and Pathology of Mind”, pp. 232, 233.

[1081] Quoted by Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 71, 72.

[1082] Cf. Zadek, “Die Achtstundentag eine gesundheitliche Forderung”, pp. 12 ff.

[1083] Quoted by Lux, p. 173. See also Toulouse, op. cit., p. 68.

[1084] See Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 312 ff.

[1085] Cf. Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 196.

[1086] Upon the relation of the condition of the poorer classes to degeneracy, cf. Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose” (“Devenir Social”, I) and “Les bases économiques de la santé” (“Devenir Social”, III); “Die Not des Vierten Standes” (anonymous); Fornasari di Verce, “La criminalità e le vicende economiche in Italia”, pp. 5–10; Dallemagne, “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 142; and Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 172.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Niceforo, op. cit., pp. 474 ff.]

[1087] Cf. Toulouse, op. cit., p. 86, and Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose”, p. 630.

[1088] Pp. 103, 104.

[1089] Op. cit., pp. 233–235.

[1090] Cf. Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, p. 412; Näcke, op. cit., p. 156; Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose”, p. 629. Toulouse, op. cit., p. 85; Kraepelin, “Psychiatrie”, I, pp. 88, 89; Hellpach, “Soziale Ursachen und Wirkungen der Nervosität” (“Politisch-anthropologische Revue”, i).

[1091] Cf. Toulouse, op. cit., pp. 224 ff.

[1092] “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 33; see also by the same author, “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”, pp. 7 ff. Cf. also Kende, op. cit., p. 90, and Dr. M. Alsberg, “Erbliche Entartung bedingt durch soziale Einflüsse”, p. 20.

[1093] “Hygiene der Prostitution etc.” p. 35.

Above we have seen that prostitution increases and diminishes with the fluctuations of economic conditions. Dr. Schoenlank proves in his “Die Syphilis und die Sozialzustände” (“Neue Zeit”, 1887) that syphilis also increases and diminishes in these periods, an added proof of the intimate connection of syphilis and prostitution.

[1094] Cf. Hellpach, “Der Kampf gegen die Geschlechtskrankheiten”, p. 197 (“Sozialistische Monatshefte”, VII).

[1095] Blaschko, “Die Prostitution etc.”, p. 32.

[1096] “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 167.

[1097] Some authorities are of the opinion that children conceived during a state of intoxication run the danger of being degenerates; others, however, doubt this. See Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 165.

[1098] “Conséquences sociales de l’alcoolisme des ascendants au point de vue de la dégénérescence, de la morale et de la criminalité”, pp. 160–165 (“Compte Rendu IVe Congr. d’anthr. crim.”). For other figures see also: de Vaucleroy, “Influence de l’hérédité alcoolique sur la folie et la criminalité” (“Actes du IIIme Congr. d’anthr. crim.”); Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 166 ff.; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 112 ff.

[1099] See Toulouse, op. cit., pp. 163–167; and Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 220.

[1100] See Toulouse, op. cit., p. 178.