CHAPTER IX.

Chapter 1311,949 wordsPublic domain

MILL CALCULATIONS--YARN COUNTS, REEDS, HEALDS, COST OF CLOTH, WARPING AND SIZING LENGTHS, WAGES, SPEEDS, ENGINES.

It is desirable that the calculations connected with cotton manufacturing in all its bearings be treated in a separate chapter. This is not only necessary from their number, but from their great variety and difficulty of classification under different chapter headings, inasmuch as many are applicable to more than one process.

YARN CALCULATIONS.

The fineness of cotton yarn is indicated by the counts (otherwise numbers or grist). The counts refer to the number of hanks in a pound (avoirdupois). The cotton hank is always 840 yards; and, therefore, if we speak of 10’s, we refer to yarn of which 10 hanks or 8400 yards weigh one pound; or in referring to 36’s, of that which 36 × 840 or 30,240 yards weigh one pound. This applies to either twist or weft. The cotton yarn measure is--

120 yards = 1 lea. 7 leas or 840 yards = 1 hank.

and the cotton yarn weight is peculiar, being an avoirdupois pound divided into pennyweights and ounces as in the troy weight.

24 grains = 1 pennyweight. 437-1/2 grains = 18-11/48 pennyweights = 1 ounce. 7000 grains = 16 ounces = 1 lb.

WRAPPING.

1’s are taken as the standard with 840 yards in 7000 grains, and a higher count means finer yarn; then 840 yards of, say 2’s, would weigh 3500 grains, or of 70’s, would weigh 100 grains. If we measure a hank of yarn, and find that it weighs 100 grains, then 7000, divided by 100, gives the counts. It is inconvenient in wrapping yarn to measure 840 yards, therefore a lea of 120 yards is taken as the standard length for 1’s, and also the proportionate weight = 1000 grains. Instead of taking 840 yards and 7000 grains it is usual, then, to take 120 yards and 1000 grains. A wrap reel is 1-1/2 yards in circumference, and, by revolving it 80 times, we can wind 120 yards from a cop placed in the machine. Suppose this lea of 120 yards weighs 25 grains, then 10000/25 = 40’s. Should less than a lea be taken, say 60 yards, then 500 grains must be the dividend. Generally, however, _to obtain the counts_ of any yarn, 120 yards are weighed, and the weight, in grains, divided into 1000.

_Having the Length and Counts given, to find the Weight._--9240 yards of 44’s weft = 9240 yards ÷ 840 = 11 hanks. In the given counts 44 hanks weigh 1 lb., then 11 hanks weigh 11/44 or 1/4 of a lb.

_Counts of Silk, Worsted, Linen._--Single silk is counted same as cotton, except that in two-fold patent silk the actual wrapping is given--say, 30’s/2 in silk will wrap 30’s. In cotton, 2/30’s would wrap 15’s. The worsted hank is 560 yards. The linen “lea” is 300 yards. The French cotton standard is 1000 metres in 500 grammes--equivalent to 992·4 yards in 1 lb. Thus, 1·181’s in English would be 1’s in French. To transfer cotton measure to any other take the cotton count, proportion it inversely to the number of yards in the hanks, say--

20’s cotton equals 30’s worsted, (20 × 840)/560 = 30’s

20’s cotton equals 56’s linen, 300 : 840 :: 20’s : 56’s.

20’s cotton equals 20’s silk. 20’s English equals 16·93’s French.

1·18 : 1 :: 20’s : _x_ _x_ = (1 × 20)/1·181 = 16·93

_Double Yarns (Cotton)._--Two-fold yarns are numbered according to the single yarn counts--thus, 2/80’s = two ends of 80’s twined together, which would wrap 40’s. Actually, to make the resultant count 40’s, the single yarn should be finer than 80’s, because the twist put in the folded yarn contracts it in length and causes the two-fold to be really coarser than would appear. However, neglecting this, suppose we twine one end of 40’s and one of 20’s, the counts would not be 15’s, as a first glance would indicate, but 13·33. This can be proved by taking the weight of a lea of 40 = 25 grains, and of 20’s = 50 grains; total, 75. 75 divided into 1000 gives the counts as 13-1/3. Another rule is, multiply the two counts and divide by their sum--

(40 × 20)/(40 + 20) = 800/60 = 13-1/3

3/300’s = 100’s.

3-fold yarn of 40’s, 80’s, and 120’s would be 21·81.

A lea of 40’s = 25 grains. A lea of 80’s = 12-1/2 " A lea of 120’s = 8-1/8 " ------ 45-5/6

1000/(45-5/6) = 21·81

Or take the highest count and divide it by each of the others and by itself, then divide the total of the quotients into the highest--

120 ÷ 80 = 1-1/2 120 ÷ 40 = 3 120 ÷ 120 = 1 ----- 5-1/2 120/5-1/2 = 21·81

TESTING YARNS.

In addition to wrapping warp yarn to ascertain actual counts, it is frequently tested as to strength; the lea from the reel is placed between two hooks on a testing machine, and by a wheel worm and screw the lower hook is moved downwards, increasing the tension on the yarn. By an index finger this tension is indicated on a face plate, and when the lea is broken the finger stops at the highest weight or strain that the yarn has stood. Below is a table, which will give a general idea of the comparative strength of mule twists, having, for the American cotton, the standard turns in--_i.e._, square root of counts multiplied by 3-3/4.

20’s American Cotton = 80lb.

30’s " " = 54lb.

40’s { " " = 40lb. { Egyptian " = 50lb.

50’s { American " = 28lb. { Egyptian " = 37lb.

60’s " " = 30lb.

70’s " " = 26lb.

In yarn the diameters of the threads do not vary inversely as the counts, but inversely as the square root of the counts. Thus, 16’s is not four times as thick as 64’s, but twice as thick, the square roots being four and eight respectively.

REED COUNTING.

Before entering into the calculations regarding the weight of cloth, it is necessary to familiarise ourselves with some method of counting the ends of warp in the cloth. On the Exchange the system adopted both for ends and pick is their number per quarter inch--_e.g._, a 16 by 14 means 16 ends per 1/4-inch, or 14 picks per quarter. The methods used in the manufactory are based on the counts of reed. Formerly many systems of reed counts prevailed, each town or district having a method peculiar to itself; thus, Blackburn counts, Preston counts and many others were at one time adhered to in their respective districts, but have now fallen into disuse, and almost been forgotten. The Stockport counts is commonest in Lancashire, and is based on the number of dents or splits of the reed in two inches, and as cloth is generally wrought two ends on a dent, this system is often taken as the number of ends in one inch. It is in use in almost every Lancashire manufacturing district, being adopted in consequence of its simplicity and suitability for calculation purposes.

The Bolton counts is still used in some mills in that town and also in Bury and some few other districts. It is based on the number of beers in 24-1/4 inches--a beer comprising 20 dents. A Stockport 40’s reed would have 485 dents on 24-1/4 inches, or 24-1/4 beers Bolton. A Bolton 24-1/4 reed is then equal to a Stockport 40’s. To find the number of splits per inch in a reed having Bolton counts given, multiply those counts by ·8249, or _vice versâ_. This rule shows the number of dents and decimal parts; 8·245 is more often taken, but it gives the number with less exactitude. The fraction is only taken to two places of decimals, showing thus the 100th parts of dents--_e.g._, a 30^0 Bolton has 24-74/100 splits per inch (8·249 × 30 = 24·747). To convert Stockport into Bolton counts multiply by ·60625. To convert Bolton into Stockport multiply by 1·6495. This rule gives the number of ends per inch in Bolton counts, supposing the cloth to be wrought two ends in a dent. The Scotch systems are to take the number of dents or splits in the old Scotch ell, 37 inches, or by the number of porters on the same length. The Scotch porter is equal to the Lancashire beer--20 splits. In the first system, the splits per ell are expressed in hundreds--thus, 17^{00} indicates 1700 splits on 37 inches, almost equal to a 92 reed, Stockport; or a 46 on the Scotch inch scale, which is the number of splits in one inch, and corresponding to the old Radcliffe and Pilkington method in Lancashire.

By the porter system, a 40-porter reed would give 40 × 20 dents = 800 on 37 inches, equal to a 43 reed, Stockport, In Scotland (as in Lancashire) the old complicated systems show a tendency to give way in favour of the simpler systems of counting the dents or ends in one inch.

In the reed table given below, the first row of figures shows the proportion which these reeds bear to one another, and the lower rows indicate the fineness of the different systems for 33 and 40 splits per inch respectively--the calculation results being given, which same might not frequently appear in practice--

The Inch Stockport Bolton Scotch. Scotch Scale. Dents Beers 100 ends Porter. Dents per on on on Porters on Inch. 2 Inches. 24-1/4 Inches. 37 Inches. 37 Inches. 1 2 1·2125 0·37 1·85 33 66 40· 12·20 61 40 80 48·5 14·80 74

HEALDS.

In Stockport counts four healds are considered as a set, and having one thread through each eye are dubbed of similar counts to the reed--_e.g._, a 60’s set of healds has 15 stitches per inch in each set, equalling 60 ends per inch in the reed, which is a 60’s reed, Stockport.

In spaced healds some are knitted finer than others and consequently numbered differently. In this point draft:--

5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 1

twelve ends are drawn on five healds, one end on the 1st heald, two on the 2nd, three on the 3rd, four on the 4th, and two on the 5th. Four different degrees of fineness are required in the five heald staves, and the above draft is given to the knitter with instructions for so many patterns to the inch. Say five patterns per inch: 5 × 12 would give a 60 reed, and the number of stitches per inch would be respectively 5, 10, 15, 20 and 10--the front one being equal to a Stockport 20’s, for if there were four similar to it in a set, the number of ends would be 20. Similarly the second stave equals a Stockport 40’s, the third 60’s, the fourth 80’s, and the fifth same as the second, a 40’s. To prove this, the requisite set of five staves might be obtained by taking one stave out of a plain 20’s set, two staves of a plain 40’s, one stave from a 60’s, and one from an 80’s set.

WEIGHT OF A PIECE.

In calculating the weight of a piece, the warp weight is obtained from the number of ends, based upon the width in the reed. This is multiplied by the sizing length and brought into hanks, from which the weight can be obtained by dividing by the counts. The weft is calculated from the picks to the inch, the reed width, and the actual length of piece. Example--A piece has to be made full dimensions, 36 inches wide, 36 yards long, 16 square (1/4 inch)--_i.e._, 64 ends per inch and 64 picks; yarns 30’s/36’s, the first number being the warp, sized 25 per cent. In the reed it would stand 38 inches, about six per cent. being allowed for contraction. Of course, if the yarn were coarser, the pick heavier, and the reed finer, more than this would be allowed. Supposing that a 60’s reed (Stockport) is used, the number of ends would be 38 × 60 = 2280; the length of warp, say 38 yards, allowing six per cent.--then

(2280 × 38)/840 = 103-1/7 hanks,

Divided by 30’s gives 3lb. 7oz.

_Weft._--The weft, 37-1/2 inches wide, 64 picks; length of piece, 36 yards.

(37-1/2 × 64 x 36)/(840 × 36’s) = 2lb. 13-3/4oz.

37-1/2 × 64 gives the number of inches of weft in one inch of cloth, or, what is the same, yards of weft in one yard of cloth.

_Size._--

3lb. 7oz. = 55oz. 25 per cent. on 55 = 55 × 25 ÷ 100 = 13-3/4oz.

The weight of the piece is then--

Twist 3 : 7 Size 13-3/4 ----------------------- 4 : 4-3/4 Weft 2 : 13-3/4 ---------- 7 : 2-1/2

When the piece is measured by the long stick, about half an inch more to the yard must be reckoned--_e.g._, 38-inch: 14/14, 37-1/2 yards L.S., 38’s weft, to be 8-1/4lb. in weight; this would be perhaps 38-1/4 yards long S.S.

_Weft._--

(40 × 56 × 38-1/4)/(840 × 38) = 2 : 10-3/4

Leaving 5: 9-1/4 for twist and size, say of the latter 100 per cent., then 2: 12-1/2 would be twist--

(40 × 52 × 41)/840 = 101-1/2 hanks

required to be found in 2: 12-1/2 of yarn; then if 2: 12-1/2 = 101-1/2 hank:: 1lb. equals 36’s twist about.

This cloth would then be composed of--

Warp 2 : 12-1/4 Size 2 : 13 Weft 2 : 10-3/4 ---------- 8 : 4

For quoting purposes the weight of the yarn is taken at the market price, say that of the cloth No. 1--

lb. oz. 3 7 of 30’s T at 8d. = 2 : 3-1/2 2 13-3/4 of 36’s W at 8d. = 1 : 11 Weaving Price = 9-1/2

To this is added a sum sufficient to cover cost--winding, warping, sizing, power, miscellaneous expenses, waste (which sum varies considerably, and depends mainly upon the situation of the producers as regards the amount at which he can produce this cloth). Often, for lightly-sized goods, the weaving price is doubled, making this piece cost 5s. 9-1/2d. Should it be a dhootie, then an addition is made for coloured yarns for heading and border, and if a figured cloth extras are included for increased cost of production.

The examples given are supposititious ones, for, as has been said, the exact details of weight and quoting prices are decided purely by local or temporary position, and fixed data cannot be given as a standard for every case.

STRIPE PATTERNS.

In case of stripes with two counts of warp yarn, for example, the number of ends of each must be obtained. If there are 38 stripes each of 15 ends, 40’s twist, with a ground cloth between each of 45 ends warp, 60’s T, separate calculations for each must be made.

38 × 15 = 570 stripe ends. 38 × 45 = 1710 ground ends.

ALTERING.

When the pick or reed is altered, the weight of the weft or warp is altered in proportion; when the length or width is altered, the weight of the piece is altered in proportion; when the counts of yarn are altered, the weight alters inversely proportionately.

OTHER REEDS.

Although the 1/4-inch scale is mostly used for calculating warps in Lancashire, we give an example of a calculation with the Bolton reed. To get the number of ends, multiply the reed counts by the width of your warp in the reed, and by 1·6495--thus, Bolton 36’s, 39 inches in the reed, would give 2238 ends. The calculation is then proceeded with in the ordinary manner. In the Scotch ell standard system, the dimensions of the cloth before-mentioned would be 36 inches wide, 36 yards long, 11^{00} reed, 11-1/2 shots to the glass, yarns 30’s/36’s. To calculate the weight of warp, add six per cent. to the 36 inches, making it 38 inches wide in the reed. If there are 1100 splits on 37 inches, then the number on 38 inches will be proportional.

(1100 × 38)/37 = 1130.

Multiply by 2, as it is always understood that there are two ends in a split, and we get 2260 ends. The calculation is then continued in the usual way.

(2260 × 38)/(840 × 30) = 3·407lb.

_Weft._---- The meaning of shots on the glass refers to a counting glass used in Glasgow district, one two-hundredth part of a yard in width; 11-1/2 shots will then give 11-1/2 × 200 = 2300 picks in a yard.

(2300 × 37-1/2 inches wide)/(36’s × 36 inches to the yard × 840) = 2·85lb.

If required to be left in hank, omit to divide by the counts in each case. In other materials, the length of the hank varies, and, in the case of single worsted, we should have divided in the previous calculations by 560 instead of 840, in linen by 300, or in single silk by 840.

WARPING AND SIZING CALCULATIONS.

In getting an order passed through a weaving shed the first point, after calculating the particulars for each piece or cut, is to get the length for warping and sizing. In the case of an order for 3750 pieces of the before-mentioned dimensions, the total length of warp is calculated thus--38 yards for one piece × 3750 = 142,500 yards, allowing nothing for waste in length, as the tension on the yarn in process will stretch it sufficiently to allow for that, and perhaps a little more. At the warping mill the length is taken in wraps of 3564 yards, subdivided into teeth of 27 yards. In this case, four wraps or 14,256 yards would be taken to a set of back beams; therefore, this order would be run in ten separate sets.

The number of back beams for the sizing machine is proportioned to the capacity of the warping mill--say five beams, the length on each beam must be 14,256 yards, and the total number of ends on the beams equal to the ends in the piece--say 5 at 456 each = 2280.

_To Calculate the Counts of Yarn after Warping._--Divide the length by the weight and 840. A beam weighs 301lb., carrying 504 ends, each 14,256 yards long--

(14,256 × 504)/(301 × 840) = 28·41’s.

Having 375 pieces to make from the set of beams, which will probably weigh about 1300lb. for 30’s twist, to this add 25 per cent. for size =

(1300 × 325)/100 = 325 1300 ---- 1625 Divide by 375) 1500 (4lb. 5oz. ---- 125 16 ---- 2000

4lb. 5oz. being about the size required (_vide_ page 150).

_Actual Size._--To find the size actually put on the yarn, subtract the weight of the unsized yarn less waste from the sized yarn--_e.g._,

1639 Actual sized weight. 1300 ---- 339 = Weight of size.

1300) 33900 (26·07 per cent. actual. 2600 ---- 7900 7800 ---- 100

_Counts after Sizing._--

(14256 × 2280) / (1639 × 840) = 23·61’s

_To Calculate the Percentage of Waste._--Multiply the waste made by 100 and divide by the weight of yarn used. If eleven skips of twist, weighing 3189lb., make 33lb. of waste--

3189 ) 3300 ( 1·034 per cent. 3189 ------ 11100 9567 ------ 15330

WAGES--STANDARD LISTS.

In those towns where a uniform class of goods is made of simple weave, it is possible to formulate and adhere to a standard method of payment such as is done in Burnley, Blackburn, and other towns. In other districts, such as Bolton and Preston, the sorts are so varied and difficult to classify that at many mills a private list is adhered to with satisfaction to the employer and employed. For the benefit of some readers a typical calculation will be given, based on the 1853 Blackburn list, as in 1883 this list was adopted in Preston, Chorley, and other towns. This may be considered a list of medium position with regard to other lists--Burnley being lower for plains, Ashton list being considered a low one for fancies.

The Blackburn list is based on a 40-inch loom, weaving from 36 to 41-inch cloth, 60 reed Stockport counts, 16 picks per 1/4 inch, 37-1/2 yards, from 30’s to 60’s weft, and from 28’s to 45’s twist, for 12·25d.

_Reeds._--A 60 reed or 30 dents, being the standard, is made the starting point, and 3/4 per cent. is deducted for every two ends or counts of reeds, from 60 to 48; but no deduction is made below 48 reed, and 3/4 per cent. is added for every two ends or counts of reed above 60. _Weft._--All weft from 30’s to 60’s, both included, is considered medium, and reckoned equal, but all weft above 60’s to be allowed 1 per cent. for every 10 hanks,

and all below 30’s to 26’s to be allowed 2 per cent. on list. " 26’s to 20’s " 5 " " 20’s to 16’s " 8 " " 16’s to 14’s " 10 "

_Twist._--All twist from 28’s to 45’s, both included, is considered medium, and reckoned equal, but all twist above 45’s up to 60’s to be allowed 1-1/2 per cent., and all above 60’s 1 per cent. for each 10 hanks,

and all below 28’s to 20’s to be allowed 1 per cent. on list. " 20’s to 14’s " 2 "

_Additions for Picks._--All picks above 8 and up to 18 are considered proportionate, but 8 picks and all below and all above 18, to have 1 per cent. allowed for every pick over and above the proportionate difference in the number of picks.

_Width of Looms._--A 40-inch loom being the standard, is taken as the starting point, and all additions or deductions are made therefrom. (The reed space is measured from back board to forkgrate.)

25-inch loom has 2-1/2 per cent. deducted from 30-inch loom. 30-inch " 5 " " 35-inch " 35-inch " 5 " " 40-inch "

40-inch loom (45-inch reed space) the standard--

45-inch loom has 5 per cent. added to 40-inch loom. 50-inch " 10 " " 45-inch " 55-inch " 10 " " 50-inch " 60-inch " 10 " " 55-inch "

_Looms of Intermediate Width._--One per cent. per inch is to be deducted from 40 down to 30-inch loom; below 30 to 26-inch loom 5/8 per cent. per inch to be deducted. Above 40-inch and up to 45-inch loom, 1 per cent. per inch to be added, and all above 45-inch 2 per cent. per inch.

_Narrow Cloth in Broad Looms._--Suppose a 40-inch loom should be weaving cloth 36 to 31-1/4 inches in width, take off one-half the difference between 40 and 35-inch loom price; and if weaving cloth 31 to 27-1/4 inches wide, take off one-half the difference between 40 and 30-inch loom price; or if weaving 41-1/4 to 46-inch cloth in a 50-inch loom, take off one-half the difference between 50 and 45-inch loom, and so on with all other widths.

_Range of Cloths._--

26-inch loom allowed to weave cloth up to 27 inches. 35-inch " " from 31 to 36 inches. 40-inch " " " 36 to 41 " 45-inch " " " 41 to 46 " 50-inch " " " 46 to 52 "

_Basis of Calculations._--The calculations in the Blackburn list are based upon the picks counted by the glass when the cloth is laid upon the counter. Forty yards short stick to be taken as 39 yards long stick.

To find price for a 44-inch cloth in 45-inch loom = 66’s reed, 44 change pinion, 528 dividend, 75 yards long, 34’s/36’s--

12·25 Standard. Add 5 per cent. loom ·61 ----- 12·86 Add 2-1/4 per cent. reed ·28 ----- 13·14 Calculate in proportion to pick 16 to 12 = 9·86 Calculate proportion length 37-1/2 to 75 = 19·72 = List price. Double Deduct 10 per cent. = 1·97 ----- 17·78 = Present price.

or from list under heading, 45-inch loom--

66 reed, 37-1/2 yards = ·822 for 1 pick. 9·86 for 12 picks. 19·72 for 75 yards.

SPEEDS OF SHAFTS, ETC.

In calculating the speed of a shaft driven from another by pulleys or gearing, multiply the speed of the first shaft by the driving pulley or wheel, and divide by the driven one. A shaft makes 100 revolutions per minute and carries a 40-inch drum driving a 16-inch pulley on another shaft; the speed of the second shaft would be 250, thus:--

(100 × 40)/16 = 250.

The same rule and calculation would apply if the first shaft had carried a 40-teeth cog-wheel, and the second a 16-teeth wheel.

In taking the dimensions of a pulley for calculations the diameter is often taken; it does not matter, though, if the circumference be taken, but care must be exercised in taking the same dimension for the driven as is taken for the driver. If the diameter is taken of one, the diameter must be taken of the other.

_To get Speed of Loom from Engine._--Multiply the engine speed by all the driving pulleys, and divide by the driven ones. If the engine make 46 strokes per minute, spur-wheel 105 teeth, second motion pinion 52 teeth; also on same a 52 driving a 49 on line shaft in shed. Pulley on line shaft on which is a 15-inch drum driving a loom pulley on the crank-shaft of 8 inches.

The driving and driven pulleys are always alternate; then as the first must be a driver--

(46 × 105 × 52 × 15)/(52 × 49 × 8) = 185 nearly.

The answer gives the _calculated_ picks per minute. About 4 per cent. must, however, be allowed for slippage, reducing the 185 to an actual speed of about 177.

_To find the Size of Pulley for any required Speed._--Find the ratio of the given speed and arrange size of pulley accordingly. Suppose a shaft running at 100 revolutions per minute has to drive a loom-shaft at a speed of 180 picks per minute the ratio of speed is as 100 to 180 or as 5 to 9; arrange the pulleys in this proportion--say 10 inches and 18 inches, the larger pulley being on the driving shaft.

_To alter Speeds._--Calculate in proportion to the alteration. If a twill-shaft is driven by a 30-cog wheel, and revolves at a speed of 45 revolutions per minute for a 4-leaf twill, and it is desirable to change this to a 3-leaf twill with the twill-shaft at 60 revolutions per minute, then, as 45 is to 60, so 30: _x_--

_x_ = (60 × 30)/45 = 40

A 40 wheel must now _drive_ the wheel on the twill-shaft, and the speed will be increased one-third more.

ENGINES.

The strength of a steam engine is indicated in horse-powers. A horse-power is taken as the capacity of performing 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute; lifting 3300lb. 10 feet high, or 10lb. 3300 feet high would be 33,000 foot-pounds of work.

_To obtain the Indicated Horse-power--the most usual Standard._--A diagram is taken from the engine by a small apparatus, and this diagram, when measured and averaged at different points of its length, gives the mean pressure of steam in the cylinder. Multiply this by the speed of the piston, by the area of the piston, and divide by 33,000, and the I.H.P. is to hand. 39·81 average pressure per square inch, area of piston 400 square inches, length of stroke 5-1/2 feet, strokes per minute 40 (or 11 feet both ways)--

(39·81 × 400 × 11 × 40)/33,000 = 212·32 I.H.P.

Nominal horse-power (condensing) = area of piston divided by 22; ditto high pressure = area of piston divided by 11.

2-1/2 to 3 looms, with preparation, are reckoned to 1 indicated horse-power.

_Coal._--A good quality of coal should evaporate 8lb. of water for each 1lb. burnt, and for a manufacturing concern (including sizing, which takes a great amount of steam) the consumption of coal should be about 3-1/4lb. per I.H.P. per hour. Thus 600 horse-power should use about 24 tons per week; excluding sizing, 2-3/4lb. would suffice.

_To find the Circumference of a Circle._--Multiply the diameter by 3·1416 or (roughly) by 3-1/7.

_To find the Area of a Circular Space._--Square the diameter and multiply by ·7854.

_To find the Cubical Contents of a Rectangular Block._--Multiply the depth, length and breadth together.

CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

_TECHNOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS._

19B.--COTTON MANUFACTURE.

SECTION I.--COTTON SPINNING.

=I. Syllabus.=--The Examination will include questions founded on such subjects as the following:--

1. The geographical position of the world’s cotton fields, and suitable regions to which it may be introduced.

2. Cotton cultivation and the various causes of damage to the fibre during growing and picking seasons, with the dates of planting and picking in all cotton-growing countries.

3. The mode of preparing the raw material, cotton gins, ginning, packing, &c. Means and methods of adulteration.

4. Commercial handling of the raw material up to the spinning mill.

5. The nature and properties of the various kinds of raw material--Sea Island, Queensland, Fiji, Egyptian, New Orleans, Uplands, Boweds, Dollerah, Hinghinghat, Surat, Brazilian, &c.

6. The selection of, and advisability, or otherwise, of mixing various cottons with a view to the full utilization of every kind.

7. The development of and the principles involved in the construction of the several machines used in cotton spinning.

8. Cleaning cotton by opening, scrutching, carding and combing machines.

9. Processes of attaining a parallel arrangement of fibres by carding, and the attenuation of the sliver through drawing, slubbing, intermediate and finishing roving frames.

10. Spinning operations upon the throstle, mule, and ring frames.

11. The doubling of single yarns for lace, hosiery, sewing thread, and kindred purposes.

12. Warping and bundling for the home trade and export, with the accompanying processes of winding and reeling.

13. Packing and commercial dealing with yarns in the process of distribution.

* * * * *

In the Honours Examination more difficult questions in the above subjects will be set than in the Ordinary Grade.

=II. Full Technological Certificate.=--The candidate, who is not otherwise qualified (see Regulations 33 and 34), will be required, for the full Certificate in the Ordinary Grade, to have passed the Science and Art Department’s Examination, in the Elementary Stage at least, and for the full Certificate in the Honours Grade, in the Advanced Stage at least, in two of the following Science subjects:--

II. Machine Construction and Drawing. III. Building Construction. VI. Theoretical Mechanics. VII. Applied Mechanics. XV. Elementary Botany.

Certificates, showing that the candidate has passed the Second Grade Examination of the Science and Art Department in Geometrical Drawing as well as in Freehand or Model Drawing, will be accepted in lieu of one of the above Science subjects for the full Technological Certificate in either grade of the Examination.

SECTION II.--COTTON WEAVING.

The Examination in the Ordinary Grade will consist of a paper of questions only.

=I. Syllabus.=--The Examination will include questions founded on such subjects as the following:--

1. Winding Machines for warping and pirns.

2. Warping.--Mill, beam and sectional.

3. Sizing.--Ball, hank, dressing, slashing upon both cylinder and hot-air frames.

4. Beaming and Scotch Dressing.

5. Reeds and Healds (Counts Setting, &c.), Drawing in and Twisting.

6. Comparative merits of Hand and Power Looms.

7. The Power Loom--its parts, the principle governing each, with the relation and timing of each to the other.

8. Shedding Motions--as Tappets with their over and under motions. Dobbies or witches.

9. Picking motions, alternate and “pick and pick.”

10. Beating up, shuttle box, and minor motions.

11. Necessary calculations for the power loom.

12. The various makes of cloth produced by Tappets and Dobbies as plain cloth, twills, satins, and small figured effects, with one warp and weft, or with the addition of extra warp for figuring, as in Dhooties.

13. Method of making designs, drafts, and tie-ups for the above.

14. Colour and colour blending as applied to the coloured branches of the industry.

15. Calculations for warp and weft and method of costing goods.

* * * * *

The Examination for the Honours Grade will consist of more advanced questions on the preceding subjects, especially those enumerated in Sections 7 to 11; and, in addition, questions relating to the following:--

1. Construction of the various Jacquard machines in use, and their relative suitability to various goods, and the system of mounting Jacquard looms.

2. Construction, merits and uses of the hand loom.

3. Principles of cloth structure, and the mechanism required for the production of the following typical fabrics:--Plain cloth, twills, diapers, brocades, damasks, coloured stripes and checks, warp spots, repps, weft spots produced with circles, swivels or extra shuttles, backed cloths, double cloths, 3, 4, 5, &c., ply fabrics, tapestries, velveteens, cords, Terry fabrics, plain and figured gauze, lappets, plain and figured leno.

4. Principles of designing and card cutting involved in producing the above fabrics, giving preference to the actual designing and working of such patterns as shall be practically useful as articles of commerce.

5. Analysis of samples of woven fabrics to determine pattern, draft, tie-up, and counts of material used.

6. Composition of the various yarns used in the production of mixed fabrics.

7. Latent and other defects in fabrics caused by faulty construction and unequal balancing of warp and weft.

8. Selection of warp and weft yarns suitable for the fabrics required.

9. Proportioning of fabrics so as to maintain the original structure with an increased or diminished weight.

10. Method of calculating the cost of a fabric from given data of values of material and labour, by ascertaining the fibre, counts, ends, picks and weight.

11. Actual Weaving.--Each candidate will be required, during the year preceding the Examination, to design and execute in suitable material an original pattern, of not less than 200 ends and 200 picks in a complete pattern, and to forward the same (carriage paid) to London a fortnight prior to the day of the Examination, together with a certificate signed by his employer, or by the class teacher and a member of the School Committee, stating that the work has been executed by the candidate without assistance. The specimen of weaving, showing the complete pattern, must not be less than one yard in length and at least 24 inches in width: it must be properly dyed or finished, and constructed in such a manner as to be a saleable article.

II. Machine Construction and Drawing. III. Building Construction. VI. Theoretical Mechanics. VII. Applied Mechanics. XV. Elementary Botany.

GLOSSARY OF TRADE TERMS.

_Am._--AMERICAN. _Sc._--SCOTCH.]

_Some words not mentioned here are explained in previous parts of the book, and will be found in the General Index._

=Apex=--The tip or point--_e.g._, of a cone or wedge.

=Backed Cloth=--Cloth which, in addition to the faced fabric, bears bound underneath a layer either of extra weft, extra warp, or of another cloth. The term is usually applied to the first-named variety.

=Bar=--A term applied to a single strip of coloured weft, used as heading or cross border.

=Beam=--The flanged roller on which the warp yarn is wound, either at the beam, warping, sizing, or dressing machines; also applied to the full beam.

=Beer=--Twenty dents or splits in a reed, also 40 ends--_i.e._, two ends to each split.

=Bevel=--A cog wheel, having the teeth set at an angle with the shaft on which it moves, but in the some plane, unless a skew-gear bevel.

=Bitting=--Drawing in additional ends at the side of healds and reeds in case of a wider warp having to be used.

=Bobbin=--A flanged wooden cylinder.

=Borders=--The stripe running along the side of a piece of cloth--formed either by different colour, counts of yarn, or weave, from the centre.

=Box Motion=--Arrangement for operating the shuttle boxes in check weaving.

=Bracket=--An attachment bolted to a framing for the support of other apparatus.

=Cam or Camb=--A plate revolving on a shaft, having its circumference other than circular, thus giving a reciprocating motion to any lever actuated by it.--Applied in some districts to the shedding tappets and picking plates.

=Cellulose=--A botanical term referring to an organic substance of which the cotton fibre principally consists, and being composed of six atoms of carbon with five of water, or C{6}H{10}O{5}.

=Cloth=--The technical name for woven cotton fabrics: although cloth is the popular name for woollen and worsted fabrics, and cotton is usually called calico, or some such name, yet in the trade the name of cloth is always given to cotton goods.

=Compass Board=--Another name for the cumber board.

=Cop=--The cylindrical coil of yarn formed at the mule, or, in the case of two-fold yarn, at the twiner.

=Cord=--The bands used in attaching the healds to the heald-rollers, or lambs--_i.e._, heald cords; also a very coarse thread, used as a heading or stripe border; a name given to a cloth bearing a stripe, formed by using cord warp yarn; and also a contraction of corduroy.

=Counts=--A system of indicating the fineness of yarn, written by placing ’_s_ after the figures signifying the number of hanks per lb.--thus, “40’s”; otherwise, _grist_ or _numbers_.

=Cover=--A name given to the downy appearance of cloth or yarn.

=Cross-band=--Sometimes applied to yarns spun twist-way, in contradistinction to _open-band_.

=Cross-border=--A heading to a piece of cloth or handkerchief, either formed by coloured or other weft, or by a change in the pattern.

=Cumber Board=--The perforated frame for the guidance of the harness in the jacquard or some dobby shedding motions.

=Cutting=--The severance of the pile warp or pile weft in a fabric which requires the slitting of some filament, so as to produce a nap, formed by short threads presenting their section on the face of the cloth.

=Cut=--A length of warp required to weave a piece of cloth; also the piece when woven.

=Deliquescent=--A substance which tends to liquefy in the air--thus, chloride of magnesium tends to retain dampness and cause a fabric in which it is present to become moist.

=Dent=--A space between the wires of a reed, otherwise _split_.

=Draft=--A plan showing the order in which the ends are drawn through the healds (_see_ page 94).

=Elongated Twills=--Twilled cloth, in which the wale extends a greater distance than usual before reaching the other side of the fabric, caused by weaving two or more picks before altering the risen ends forming the wale. These twills do not run at an angle of 45 degrees.

=End=--The technical name for a thread.

=Entering Draft=--The system of drawing the warp through the healds (_see_ Draft).

=Fell (of Cloth)=--The edge of the fabric (in the loom) which has most recently been woven.

=Filling=--_Am. for_ weft.

=Fixing=--_Am. for_ tackling.

=Flue=--One lap of the folded cloth.

=Flushing=--Bringing the warp or weft to the surface of the cloth without interweaving.

=Fly-reed=--_Sc. for_ loose reed.

=Gaws=--_Sc. for_ goal.

=Gears=--_Sc. for_ healds.

=Goal=--A gap caused in a piece by the cloth being drawn forward without the weft interweaving, especially when used to mark the end of a piece.

=Grey=--Yarn or cloth in an undyed or unbleached state.

=Grist=--Synonymous with counts (_Sc._).

=Ground=--That portion of a fabric, usually of a simple weave, which serves as a base on which to display a figure.

=Hank=--A measurement of yarn. In cotton, 840 yards.

=Harness=--The arrangement of leashes in a jacquard. (_Am. for_ a heald.)

=Heald=--The arrangement of top and bottom staves, carrying the leashes with eyes for use in stave work.--_Sc._, heddle; _Am._, harness.

=Lag=--A bar of the lattice used in dobby work.

=Lathe= (_South Lancashire_)--Synonymous with slay.

=Lay=--_Am._ and _Sc. for_ slay.

=Leaf=--A heald or a plate of the shedding tappet--_e.g._, three-leaf twill = three-stave twill.

=Lingo=--The weight below the leashes in the jacquard.

=L.S.=--Abbreviation of “long stick.”

=Mail-eye=--The aperture in the harness for the reception of the thread.

=Manufacturing=--(_Vide_ Chapter I.).

=Mash=--(_Vide_ Index).--Otherwise smash, or trap.

=Mitre Wheels=--Bevel wheels which gear with and are exactly similar to each other.

=Open-band Yarn=--Yarn spun weft-way--that is, twisted over to the right.

=P.C.=--Pin cop--_i.e._, weft size of cop.

=Pick=--The insertion of a thread of weft; the propulsion of the shuttle through the shed; the time occupied in the opening of the shed, the picking, and beating up.--A term used to signify the number of picks in a quarter-inch.

=Pirn=--A wooden tube on which is wound the weft used for headings, etc.

=Ply=--A thickness or layer of fabric--thus, two-ply, three-ply, refer to double or triple cloth.

=Positive Motion=--A motion driven by gearing as distinct from one driven by friction or some non-positive force.

=Pure Size=--Sizing with vegetable or animal substances, used for light percentages.

=Range=--A series of cloths similar in style, but varying in width or other dimensions.

=Reed=--(_Vide_ Chapter III.).--Also the number of ends per quarter-inch.

=Run=--A stripe of colour in a fabric.

=Scobs=--_Sc. for_ slattering.

=Selvage=--The sides of a fabric.

=Sett=--The fineness of reeds--reed counts. Also signifying the amount of warp on the beams which are sized at one time.

=Shaft=--A heald.

=Shed=--The opening made in the warp for the passage of the shuttle; also, a weaving mill.

=Shot=--_Sc. for_ pick.

=Slay=--Otherwise _lay_ or _lathe_ (_vide_ Index).

=Smash=--Synonymous with mash or trap (_vide_ Index).

=Split=--Dent.

=S.S.=--Abbreviation of “short stick.”

=Stave=--Equivalent to shaft.

=Strip=--A narrow bar of heading.

=Stud=--A short projecting pin to carry a wheel or wheels.

=Tapes=--Borders of cramped or coarse warp.

=Tappet=--(_See_ Index).--_Sc. for_ wiper.

=Technical=--Specially appertaining to an industrial art, business, or profession.

=Technology=--The branch of knowledge dealing with the systematic study of the industrial arts.

=Terry=--Uncut or loop pile.

=Trap=--Synonymous with mash.

=Trevette=--A knife used in cutting the pile wires out of the cloth.

=Tuning=--Tackling.

=Turns (per inch)=--The extent of the torsion in yarn.

=T.W.=--Twist-way yarn or thread, which, in being spun, has been twisted over to the left--distinct from weft-way.

=Tweel=--_Sc. for_ twill.

=Twist=--Warp yarn.

=Up-taking=--_Sc. for_ the take-up motion.

=Warp=--The yarn arranged length-way of the cloth--the full beam of warp yarn.

=Water T.=--Throstle twist.

=Waves=--Zigzag twill pattern.

=Wax=--Cotton wax is a substance coating the outside of cotton fibres, and present to the extent of about 1/2 per cent. It is a brownish horny vegetable wax.

=Weft=--The yarn arranged across the cloth.

=Weft-way=--Yarn twisted over to the right in spinning. Weft may be either twist-way or weft-way.

=W.W.=--Weft-way.

=Whip-roll=--_Am. for_ back-rest.

=Whip-thread=--The crossing thread in gauze.

=Woof=--The weft.

=Wraith, Wrathe, or Rathe=--The reed comb used for guiding the yarn to the beam.

=Wrap (Warper’s)=--_Vide_ index.

=Wyper or Wiper=--_Sc. for_ tappets.

=Yarn=--The thread of twisted fibres.

INDEX.

Accrington trade, 12 Adhesive substances, 34, 37 American cotton, 16 American trade terms, 165 Analysis of patterns, 90 Antiseptics, 34, 36 Area (circular), 159 Arrangement of looms, 71 Arrangement of shed, 19

Back beams, 40 Ball sizing, 48 Ball warping, 30 Ball warps, 29 Bare cloth, 81 Beaming or beam warping, 25 Beating up, 55, 61 Becks, 37 Blackburn dobby, 108 Blackburn pick, 59 Blackburn standard list, 154 Blackburn trade, 11 Black oil, 82 Bleaching, 83 Bobbin warpers, 22 Bolton quilts, 131 Bolton reed counts, 147 Bolton trade, 12 Bottoming, 73, 81 Bradford loom, 58 Brake, 69 Brocade, 130 Bullhide, 102 Burnley trade, 12 Bury trade, 13

Calculations for-- Cloth, 149 Counts, 143 Engines, 158 Healds, 148 Jacquards, 129 Reeds, 146 Sizing, 149, 152 Speeds, 76, 156 Capital invested, 9 Card cutting, 127 Carding, 17 Cards for drop-box, 140 _Cartwright’s_ loom, 4 Casting out, 129 Centre tie, 126 Checks, 133 Checked shirtings, 134 China clay, 36 Chloride of magnesium, 36 Chloride of zinc, 36 Circle swivels, 141 Circular boxes, 140 Circumference, to find, 158 Classification of fancy cloths, 89 Cloth, cotton, 80 Cloth, cover of, 81 Cloth, faults in, 81 Cloth looking, 80 Cloth, uneven, 81 Coal, 158 Cockly cloth, 81 Coloured spots, 141 Coloured warping, 28 Coloured winding, 24 Combing, 17 Common dobby, 108 Contraction, 149 Cop, 21 Cop bottoms, 21 Cop nose, 21 Cords, 87, 102 Cotton, 14 Cotton cloth, 80 Cotton cultivation, 14 Cotton districts, 16 Cotton fibre, 14 Cotton lands, 14 Cotton manufacture--syllabus, 161 Cotton plant, 14 Cotton, selection of, 16 Counterpanes, 131 Counts on beam, 153 Counts, reed, 146 Counts, single yarn, 143 Counts, two and three-fold, 145 Cracks, 81 Creel, 25 Cretonnes, 87 Cross borders, 82 Crossing thread, 111

Damask, 130 Darwen trade, 12 Designing, 93 Designs, 92 Dhootie marker, 48 Dhooties, 84 Dhooties, figured, 110 Diameter threads, 146 _Diggle’s_ chain, 135 Dimity, 130 Dividend of loom, 66 Divisions of the industry, 1 Dobbies, 100, 103 Dobby sides, 110 Domestics, 85 Double cloth, 109 Double lift, 104 Double yarn, 145 Doup, 77 Doup healds, 112 Draft for plain, 55 Drafting, 94 Drag take-up, 103 Drawing, 17 Drawing-in, 49 Dressing machine, 5 Dressing, old system, 5 Drop box, 134 Drying cylinders, 41 Dwell of slay, 62

Eccentricity of slay, 62 Engines, horse-power, 158 Examples wage calculations, 154 Expanding comb, 26, 42 Exports, cotton cloth, 10, 84, 85, 86, 87

Factory Acts, 7 Falling rods, 26 Fancy cloth, classification of, 89 Farina, 35 Fast reed, 64 Faults in cloth, 81 Feel, 32 Fermenting flour, 34, 39 Figured canvas, 130 Figured cloth, 90 Figured dhooties, 110 Figured gauze, 130 FIGURES:-- Frontispiece: Single-action jacquard loom 1 Perfect cotton fibre 2 Section of same 3 Imperfect fibre 4 Section of same 5 Seed and fibres 6 Section of fibres 7 Winding frame 8 Traverse (winding) 9 Warping, falling rods 10 Stop-motion warping, elev. 11 " " plan 12 Beam gearing, slasher, section 13 " " elev. 14 Presser " plan 15 " " section 16 Slow motion " plan 17 Dhootie marker 18 Heald 19 Metallic heald 20 Reed 21 Plain loom, front view 22 Plain loom (right hand), back view 23 Bradford loom 24 Diagram--eccentricity of slay 25 Shuttle-box and frog, fast reed 26 Take-up motion 27 Weft stop motion 28 Plain tappet 29 Point paper 30 Plain cloth 31 Plan of cloth 32 Design 33 Draft 34 Lifting plan and tie 35 Draft 36 Draft 37 Design, etc. 38 Draft and tie 39 Sateen 40 Plain 41 Sateen and plain 42 Plate, sateen tappet 43 _Smalley’s_ motion on loom 44 Four-leaf twill 45 Four-leaf twill 46 Velveteen 47 Constitution cord 48 Keighley dobby 49 Dobby lattice 50 Dobby pegging 51 Blackburn dobby 52 Dobby pegging 53 Gauze--sketch 54 Gauze--section 55 Leno--sketch 56 Draft--gauze 57 Doup heald 58 Netting 59 Netting 60 Figured gauze--sketch 61 Handkerchief loom 62 Jacquard--section, single-action 63 Needles, jacquard 64 Double-action jacquard--single cylinder 65 Double-action jacquard--double cylinder 66 London tie 67 Straight tie 68 Lay-over tie 69 Centre tie 70 Piano card-cutting machine 71 _Diggle’s_ chain 72 Chain links for ditto 73 _Wright Shaw’s_ drop box 74 Plates for ditto _(Also vide Plates.)_ Finishing, 83 Floats, 81 Flour, 34 Flour, testing, 34 Fork and grid motion, 68 Friction--sizing, 43 Fustian, 102

Gaiting warps, 72 Gauze, 111 Gingham, 134 Goods made--1800-1860, 8 Goods made--present time, 83 Grist, 143 Ground for jacquard patterns, 109, 129

Handkerchiefs, 115, 134 Handkerchief loom, 116 Hands of looms, 71 Hank, 143 Hank, winding from, 25 Haslingden trade, 12 Headings, 82 Headles, 51 Heald counts, 148 Heald motions, 79 Healds, 51 Heck box, 30 Heddles, 51 Heddling, 94 History of trade, 3 Honeycomb, 95, 131 Hooking, 80 Horse-power, 158 Hydrometer, 38

ILLUSTRATIONS:-- Beam gearing, slasher, plan, 42 " " section, 43 Blackburn dobby, 107 Bradford loom, 59 Centre tie, 126 Chain links, _Diggle’s_ motion, 137 Constitution cord, 102 Cotton fibre, 15 " section, 15 Design, 92, 96, 98, 101 and 102 Dhootie marker, 47 _Diggle’s_ chain drop box, 136 Dobbies, 104, 107 Dobby pegging, 106, 108 Dobby lattice, 106 Double-action jacquard, Single cylinder, 123 Ditto, double cylinder, 124 Doup healds, 113 Drafts, 92, 94, 95 Eccentricity of slay, 62 Fast reed loom, 64 Figured gauze, 115 Four-leaf twill, 2 Gauze, 112 Handkerchief loom, 116 Healds, 50 Heald motions, 56 Imperfect cotton fibre, 15 " section, 15 Jacquard loom, single action, _Frontispiece_ Jacquard loom, single action, section, 119 Jacquard loom, double action, 123 Jacquard loom, double action, double cylinder, 124 Keighley dobby, 104 Lay-over tie, 126 Leno, 112 Lifting plan, 92, 97 Looms, 53, 59 London tie, 125 Metallic healds, 50 Needles, 122 Netting, 114, 115 Parts of loom, 56 Pegging for dobby, 106, 108 Perfect cotton fibre, 15 Piano card-cutting machine, 128 Plain cloth, 91 Plain loom, 53 Plain loom in parts, 56 Plain tappets, 75 Plates, _Wright Shaw’s_ loom, 140 Point paper, 90 Plan of cloth, 91 Plan of shed--Plate I., 19 Presser, slasher, plan, 45 " section, 45 Reed, 50 Sateen, 98 Sectional warping--Plate III., 29 Seed and fibre, 15 Shuttle box and frog, 64 Slasher sizing machine, 40 Slow motion, 46 _Smalley’s_ motion, 99 Stop motion, warping, plan, 27 " " section, 27 Straight tie, 125 Take-up motion, 26 Tappet plates, 75 Ties, 125, 126 Traverse motion, winding frame, 23 Velveteen, 101 Warping, falling rods, 24 " stop motion, 27 Weft stop motion, 68 Winding frame, 22 _Wright Shaw’s_ drop box, 138 Indian cotton, 16 Ingredients, size, 34 Introduction, 1 Inventions, 3 Ireland, cotton trade of, 14

Jacconetts, 86 Jacquard, 119 Capacity, 118 Cards, 120, 127 Cloth, 129 Weaving, 127

Keighley dobby, 104

Lappet weaving, 142 Lay-over tie, 126 Lease, 30 Leash, 110, 120 Legislation, 6 Length warps, 149, 152 Leno, 88, 112, 114 Liability for mildew, 37 Lifting plan, 96 Limited liability, 7, 9 Linen counts, 144 Long cloths, 85 Long stick, 167 Loom, 52 Loom fixing, 71 Looming, 49 Looms, number of, 11 Loose reed, 4, 63

Madapollams, 85 Madras muslin, 130 Manchester trade, 12 Mangle wheel motion, 23 Manufacturing, meaning of term, 1 Manufacturing processes, 19 Market town, 2 Marking motions, 47 Mashes, 81 Measuring motion--warping, 28 " " --weaving, 117 Merchandise Marks Act, 8 Metallic healds, 51 Metal size, 36 Mexicans, 85 Mildew , 36 Mildew, liability for, 37 Mildew, prevention of, 36 Milling up, 149 Mixings, cotton, 17 Mixings, size, 37 Mixings, light size, 39 Mixings, medium size, 39 Mixings, heavy size, 39 Movements of loom, 55 Mull, 86

Netting, 115 Non-positive take-up, 103 Number of machines in shed, 19

Oatmeal cloth, 109, 129 Oldham trade, 13 Opening, 17 Overlookers (loom), 72 Overpick, 59 _Osbaldeston, John_, 4

Packing, 83 Parts of a loom, 55, 56 Pattern pricking, 90 Pegging for dobby, 106, 109, 111 Percentages of size, 33, 38, 149, 153 Percentages of waste, 27, 154 Picking, 55, 59 Pile weaving, 101, 131 Pillow-slip weaving, 109 Plain cloth, 84, 90, 91 Plain drafting, 55 Plain loom, 52 Plaiting, 80 Plan of shed, 18 PLATES:-- I. Plan of shed, 19 II. Stop-motion warping, 27 III. Sectional warping, 29 IV. Slasher sizing machine, 40 V. Plain loom in parts, 56 VI. Heald top motions, 56 VII. Dobbied loom, 104 Point paper, 90 Position of warp, 58 Potato starch, 35 Preparatory processes, 19, 21 Pressers, 45 Preston trade, 12 Printers, 86 Processes, spinning, 17 Processes, weaving, 19

Quilts, 131

Raising, 83, 103 Rating goods, 149 Reed and pick, 85 Reed counts, 146 Reeds, 51 Reed space, 79 Reed table, 148 Reedy cloth, 81 Repeating jacquard cards, 128 Rice starch, 35 Ring bobbins, 24 Rochdale trade, 13 Roving, 17

Sago, 35 Satin, 98, 100 Sateens, 87 Sateen motion, 99 Scotch reed counts, 147 Scotch trade, 13 Scroll pick, 78 Scutching, 17 Sea Island cotton, 16 Sectional warping, 28 Selection, warp, 21, 33 Selection, weft, 60 Selection, yarns, 21, 60 Shed, 19 Shedding, 57 Shedding motion, 79 Shed (warp), 54, 58 Shirtings, 84 Short stick, 168 Shuttle, 60 Shuttle flying, 73 Shuttle race, 60, 63 Side tappets, 58 Silk counts, 144 Site for shed, 20 Size of warp shed, 58 Sizing calculations, 149, 152 Sizing--drying, 41 Sizing headstock, 42 Sizing machinery, 5, 39 Sizing materials, 34 Sizing--object, 32 Sizing--percentages, 33, 38 Sizing rollers, 40 Sizing under pressure, 41 Slasher, 39 Slashing, 39 Slay, 60 Slow motion, 45 Slubbing, 17 _Smalley’s_ motion, 99 Smash, 81 Snarls, 22 Snicks, 22 Soap, 35 Soda, 36 Softener, 34, 35, 37 Sow box, 40 Specification shed, 19 Speed loom, 79 Speed shafts, 156 Speed tappet shaft, 76 Spindles, number of, 11 Spinning department, 16 Spinning--mule, throstle, ring, 18 Split motion, 78 Split rods, 42 Splits, 77 Standard goods, 88 Starches, 34, 37 Statistics, 9 Steeping flour, 34, 39 Stockport counts, 147 Stockport trade, 13 Stop motion, warping, 26 Straight tie, 125 Stripes, 101, 133 Surat cotton, 16 Syllabus--Cotton manufacture, 161 Syllabus--Weaving and pattern designing, 162

Tackling, 72 Take-up motions, 65, 103 Tallow, 35 Taping, 39 Tappets, 55, 57, 75, 97 Tappets, construction, 57, 99 Tappets, plain, 55, 57 [T]-cloth, 85 Terry towels, 132 Temple rollers, 4, 69 Testing yarn, 146 Thick sets, 102 Throstle bobbins, 24 Tie, 97 Tie for jacquard, 124 Toilet cloth, 131 Top motions, 79 Timing, 70 Tooth, 28 Traverse, 23 Treading plan, 97 Turkey-reds, 86 Turkish towels, 132 Twaddle, 38 Twill shaft speed, 76, 157 Twist, 21, 33 Twisting, 49 Two and three-fold yarn, 145

Under pick, 78 Uneven cloth, 81 Uplands cotton, 16

Varieties of goods, 83 Velveteens, 87, 101

Wages--looming, 50 Wages--weaving, 74 Wages--winding, 24 Wages--standard list, 154 _Ward’s_ dobby, 105 Warp, 21, 33 Warping (beam), 25 Warping calculations, 28, 29, 30, 152 Warping mill, 30 Warping several counts, 28 Warping stop motion, 26 Warp line, 58 Warp pile, 90, 131 Waste, 27, 74 Waste, weaver’s, 74 Wax, 35 Weavers, 74 Weaving, 52 Weaving and pattern designing syllabus, 162 Weft, 61 Weft pile, 101 Weft stop motion, 4, 67 Weight-giving size, 36 Weight piece, 149 Weight size in piece, 149, 153 Weight warp in piece, 149 Weight weft in piece, 149 Winding, 22 Winding frame, 22 Witch machine, 108 Working design, 97 Workpeople, number of, 11 Worsted counts, 144 Woven pile, 90, 101, 131 Wrap reel, 144 Wrap, warpers’, 28 Wrapping, 144 _Wright Shaw’s_ drop box, 138

Yarn calculations, 143 Yarn measure, 143 Yorkshire loom, 58

Zinc, muriate of, 36

PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. EDINBURGH AND LONDON

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“MODERN COTTON SPINNING MACHINERY,”

ITS PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION.

232 Detailed Drawings of the Latest Types of Machines.

_Price 15s., delivered free in the United Kingdom._

"The best and most complete book extant on the machinery employed in cotton spinning."--_Textile Manufacturer_, September 15, 1890.

"No student or spinner should be without it."--_Textile Manufacturer_, October 15, 1890.

"Cannot fail to be the standard authority for many years."--_Textile Recorder_, November 15, 1890.

"Has the essential merit of attaining what it aims at--namely, completeness."--_Manchester Examiner and Times._

"A work of great value to all who are interested in the manufacture or use of cotton spinning machinery."--_Manchester Guardian._

MANCHESTER: JOSEPH NASMITH, 61 Barton Arcade.

Established 1791.

JOHN WHITELEY & SONS, Limited, BRUNSWICK MILLS, HALIFAX, ENGLAND.

Manufacturers of Card Clothing in Mild, and Hardened and Tempered Steel Wire, for Cotton, Wool, Worsted, and Silk, with Round, Flat, Flat-to-Bend, Angular, and Convex Wire, Plated Wire, Music Wire, and GROUND NEEDLE POINTS.

PATENT SPECIAL POLISHED _PLOUGH-GROUND_ CARD CLOTHING.

The Sides of the Teeth of the _Plough-Ground_ Card Clothing made by JOHN WHITELEY & SONS, Limited, are so smooth that it is being used extensively on the Finest Cottons. We shall be glad to furnish Users with enlarged Micro-Photographs illustrating the remarkable smoothness attained.

IMPROVED TAKERS-IN AND DIRT ROLLERS.

Card Tacks. Gauges for Setting Cylinders, Doffers, Flats, &c. Flats Re-cut and Clothed with Whiteley’s Patent Clasp, Ashworth’s Methods or Lead Rivets, and Trued, Tested, and Ground ready for use.

WHITELEY’S IMPROVED TENSION MACHINE FOR MOUNTING FILLETS. NEEDLE-POINTED STRIPPING ROLLERS, BURNISHING BRUSHES, SPIRAL FLAT STRIPPING BRUSHES. CARDING ENGINES CLOTHED, GROUND, AND STARTED BY EXPERIENCED MEN. _Samples and Estimates on Application._

JAMES BRIGGS & SONS, LION OIL WORKS, BLACKLEY, MANCHESTER.

MANUFACTURERS OF ALL CLASSES OF OILS for

MACHINERY, SPINDLES AND LOOMS.

OILS for MARINE AND STATIONARY ENGINES.

OILS for SHAFTING, CYLINDERS, AND VALVES.

_As Used by some of the Largest Mills, Steamships, &c._

Cable and Telegraphic Address--“SAMOHT, MANCHESTER.”

GEO. THOMAS & CO., 28 DEANSGATE, MANCHESTER,

_ENGINEERS, CONTRACTORS, and EXPORTERS of all Classes of MACHINERY and ACCESSORIES, &c._ N.B.--Representatives in all the Industrial Centres of the World.

MACHINERY for SPINNING and WEAVING Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Flax, Hemp, Jute, Silk, &c. BLEACHING, DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING Textile Fabrics.

Steam Boilers, Steam Engines, Economisers, Turbines, Mill Gearing, Electric Lighting and Gas Plant; Hoists, &c.

Ironwork for Mills from A to Z--Fireproof, &c., Roofing and Patent Glazing; Heating and Ventilating Apparatus.

Paper, Rice, Sugar, Ice, Flour, Oil, Chemical, Distillery, Iron and Steel Plants.

Portable and Permanent Railway Plant, Rolling Stock, Locomotives, Steam Ships, Steam Launches, Dredgers, &c. Hydraulic Machinery and Tools.

SOLE MAKERS AND PROPRIETORS OF THE PATENT UNIVERSAL YARN ASSORTING BALANCES.

British Patent, No. 6,703, 1886. U.S.A. Patent, No. 380,826, 1888. New Patents, No. 15,454 1889, and No. 9,264, 1890.=

_N.B_.--These Balances or Yarn Testers (indispensable to Spinners, Manufacturers, and Merchants) indicate the Counts of Yarn in small lengths, or from bits of cloth, in either Cotton, Woollen, Worsted, Linen, Jute, or other Fibre.

“SIMPLEX” BALANCE.

_Crown 8vo. Paper Covers. One Shilling._ Weaving Examination Questions.

CONTENTS.--Six Years’ Weaving and Pattern Designing Questions.--Lists of Examiners, Rules of Examination, &c.--The Syllabus for Study in each of the following Subjects:--Woollen and Worsted Cloth Weaving, Cotton Weaving, Linen Weaving, Silk Weaving, and Jute Weaving.

_Post Free, 1s. 1d._

C. P. BROOKS, THE MOUNT, BLACKBURN.

BOBBINS, TUBES, SKEWERS, SHUTTLES, &c.

WILSON BROTHERS, LIMITED. Cornholme Mills, TODMORDEN. Telegrams--WILSONS, CORNHOLME. Telephone, No. 7.

ORIGINAL INVENTORS AND MAKERS OF STEEL AND BRASS PLATED BOBBINS AND TUBES.

We make a speciality of =Light Cardroom Tubes= with small diameters for fine counts. We have excellent facilities for cutting, seasoning, and partially preparing both Tubes and Bobbins before turning. We have large stocks of regular sizes always seasoning, the process occupying from two months up to two years. We are thus enabled to guarantee =exact and uniform diameters=.

We are the largest makers of =Ring Twist Bobbins= and =Ring Weft Pirns=. Every Bobbin is carefully balanced. =Rabbeth Ring Twist Bobbins, with Wilson Brothers’ Patent “G” Shield=, are the strongest Bobbins in the market, and capable of resisting 50 per cent. more pressure than any other protected Bobbins, and 150 per cent. more than Bobbins without metal Protectors.

=Warping and Winding Bobbins= fitted with =Wilson Brothers’ Patent Flange Binders= cannot open at the Joints, and are so made that it is almost impossible for them to be broken with ordinary usage.

We have put down a plant for making =Wood= Bobbins and Skewers =Damp and Steam Proof=. We Enamel Rabbeth Ring Twist and Ring Weft Pirns, also Lancewood Cop Skewers, so that Yarn can be conditioned on the Bobbin or Skewer without damage.

_THE OLDEST JACQUARD MACHINISTS IN THE WORLD._

DEVOGE & CO. Works--SYCAMORE STREET, OLDHAM ROAD,} City Office--15a YORK STREET, } MANCHESTER.

MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF JACQUARD MACHINES.

Single-Lift, Double-Lift, Double-Cylinder, and Compound Jacquards; Double-Shed Jacquards; Lace Jacquards; Wood Machines for Hand-loom; Jacquard Dobbies; Driving Motions; all kinds of Wire and Wire Work; Lead and Iron Wire Lingoes; Comberboards and Slips; Glass, Brass, and Steel Mails; Couplings and Leashes; Harness Thread; Springs, &c., and every requisite for Fancy Weaving.

NEW PATENT LENO JACQUARD.

JACQUARD HARNESS BUILDERS. _ALL KINDS OF HARNESSES, INCLUDING PATENT EXPANDING HARNESS._ NEW PLANT RECENTLY ERECTED FOR BORING COMBERBOARD SLIPS.

MAKERS OF ALL KINDS OF Card-Cutting Machines.

Piano Machines to cut from design; Table Repeaters, with Vertical and Railway Presses; Card Cutting Plates and Punches of every kind; and Devoge’s celebrated Self-Acting Repeater, which cuts 40 Cards per minute.

_Illustrations of three of our Machines may be seen on pages 123, 124, and 128 of this work._

An Illustrated Circular will be sent on application.

JAMES WALMSLEY & SONS (ESTABLISHED 1848), Leather Curriers, Strapping Manufacturers, and Mill Furnishers WORKS:--AVENUE PARADE, ACCRINGTON.

MAKERS OF ALL KINDS OF

ROLLER SKINS, SINGLE LEATHER BELTING, DOUBLE LEATHER BELTING, GREEN PICKING BANDS, OAK-TANNED PICKING BANDS, LEATHER PICKERS, LACES, BUFFALO SKIPS AND PICKERS, LOOM FITTINGS, &c.

And all other kinds of =LEATHER GOODS= used in the Spinning and Manufacturing of Cotton, Woollen, Silk, or Jute.

Telegrams--“Abbey, Accrington.” Telephone--No. 23.

JOSEPH CASARTELLI, MANUFACTURER OF ALL KINDS OF _INSTRUMENTS FOR USE IN MILLS, MANUFACTORIES, ENGINEERING WORKS, &c._

NEW MICROSCOPE CLOTH COUNTING GLASS OF HIGH POWER, suitable for counting all Cloths and Coloured Borders. FOLDING CLOTH COUNTING GLASSES, English and Foreign Measurements, of _Guaranteed Accuracy_

_PATENT IMPROVED RICHARDS’ STEAM ENGINE INDICATORS AND SPRINGS._ PRESSURE AND VACUUM GAUGES, ENGINE COUNTERS, THERMOMETERS, HYGROMETERS, PYROMETERS, &c., &c.

_Illustrated Price List Post Free._

43 MARKET STREET, MANCHESTER. Established upwards of Seventy Years.

SIZING INGREDIENTS AND FILLING MATERIALS

Used by Sizers, Manufacturers, Finishers, &c.

Solid and Liquid Chloride of Zinc. } _Pure_ Chloride of Calcium and Magnesium. } _Anti-Septics._ China Clay, French Chalk, and Barytes. Epsom and Glauber Salts. Hard and Soft Soaps. Paraffin, Spermaceti and Japan Wax. Sizing Grease, Composition, and Tallow. Cocoa Nut, Palm, Castor, and Olive Oils. Soluble Oil, Oleine, Glycerine, and Glucose. Soluble Blue, Colours, and Irish Moss. Sago, Rice, Tapioca, and Wheat Sizing Flour. Scotch and Foreign Farina. Dextrine and Gum. Maize, Wheat, Potato, and Rice Starch. Gum Tragacanth, Gelatine, and Bone Size.

SOLE MAKERS OF LANCASHIRE ACME SIZE. SOLE AGENTS FOR THE GLOY MANUFACTURING CO. STOCKS KEPT FOR IMMEDIATE DELIVERY. Shipping Orders Carefully Packed. A long experience among Sizers and Finishers often enables us to materially help our clients to get at results they specially want.

For Prices, Samples, Particulars, &c., apply to ADLEY, TOLKIEN, & CO., Chemical Manufacturers, Drysalters, and Produce Merchants, NOVAS CHEMICAL WORKS, Paterson Street, BLACKBURN.

Telegraphic Address:--"ADTOLCO, BLACKBURN. Telephone No. 184. Manchester Royal Exchange:--Box 40 and Pillar 12, every Tuesday and Friday. London Office:--14 to 20 St. MARY AXE, e.c. London Works:--Penton Street, PENTONVILLE, n.

Established 1843. Telegrams--“KERSHAW, HOLLINWOOD.”

JOSEPH KERSHAW & CO.’S

_NON-CONDUCTING COMPOSITION_

IS pronounced by practical Civil, Gas, Mining, and other Engineers, and a large number of Firms who have tested its value, to be the =Best=, =Most Durable=, and =Cheapest Non-Conducting Material= in the market, effecting a considerable saving in fuel by preventing the radiation of heat. Saves cost in a few weeks. Will not burn. Numerous Testimonials, and over Nine Thousand References.

Some idea may be gathered of the saving effected by our Composition from the fact that in scores of cases extending over a period of twenty years, where concerns have been worked by four boilers, after being coated with our Composition they have been enabled to work the concern with three boilers, and allow one to be at rest.

Will Last Twenty Years. Does not Shrink.

Awarded Certificate of Merit at the Industrial and Art Exhibition, Manchester, 1880. The only Award given in this Department, after a severe competition with other competitors, and Honourable Mention at Manchester Smoke Abatement Exhibition, 1882. See page 182 of the Official Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee, held at Grosvenor House, Grosvenor Square, London, on Friday, July 14, 1882, under the Presidency of His Grace the Duke of Westminster, K.G.

ASBESTOS COATING, SILICATE COTTON OR SLAG WOOL COATING.

WHEEL GREASES. LOCOMOTIVE AND WATER WHEEL GREASES. Rope Driving Composition. Black and Brown Banding Compositions.

RED, BLACK, AND OTHER COLOURED VARNISHES. DETERGENT COMPOSITION, For Removing and Preventing Scale in Steam Boilers.

Lead Ore. Engine and Bolton Polishes. White Curd Soap. White Soft Soap, for Cop Bottoms. Soft Soap. Belting Syrup. White Lead. Oxide and Other Coloured Paints.

_In Extra Strong Casks for Exportation._

GREASE, VARNISH, COMPOSITION, AND SOAP WORKS, HOLLINWOOD, near OLDHAM.

HOWARD & BULLOUGH, Limited, ACCRINGTON (England),

MAKERS OF

Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing MACHINERY

Of the most modern and approved principle, with all Brackets and Seatings milled by Special Machinery to Standard Templets.

_SPECIALITIES_:

ANGLO-AMERICAN OPENERS AND SCUTCHERS.

New Patent REVOLTING FLAT CARDING ENGINE, With =rigid= bend--110 Flats--43 working. Over 6000 Cards at work.

DRAWING FRAMES, with Electric Stop Motion. Reliable--quick--not liable to get out of order. Already applied to over 35,000 deliveries.

SLUBBING, INTERMEDIATE, & ROVING FRAMES, With Patent Differential Motion, Patent Cone Lifting Motion, Patent Cap Bars, and Patent Method of Balancing Top Rail, &c., &c.

We have applied Electric Stop Motion to over 200,000 Intermediate Spindles with marked success for the prevention of “Single.”

RING SPINNING FRAME. THE LARGEST MAKERS IN THE WORLD. Over 4,500,000 Spindles supplied.

RING WEFT FRAMES. References given on application, comprising leading and extensive mills where the Weft Ring has entirely displaced the Mule.

RING DOUBLING FRAMES, Made on either the English or Scotch System, For Ordinary Doubling or for Sewing Cottons.

COMPOUND SIZING MACHINES. One 9 ft. Cavity Cylinder and 3 to 7 Fans.

=Howard & Bullough’s Air-Drying and Cylinder Sizing= Machines of all sizes from 3 ft. to 9 ft., in Tin and Copper, with some or all of the following improvements, are found in all countries wherever Cotton Manufacturing is carried on.

=Hitchon’s Patent Safety Compound Friction Motion= for coarse or fine counts.

=Hitchon’s Patent “Self-Traversing” Yarn Beam Presser.=

=Hitchon’s Patent "Self-Expanding and Contracting"= Double Roller Yarn Beam Presser.

=Hitchon’s Patent Adjustable Measuring Indicator=, will mark any length of yarn from 1/4 to 200 yards or metres (REQUIRES NO CHANGE WHEELS).

=Hitchon’s Patent "Self-Regulating"= High Pressure Size Boiler.

=Hitchon’s Patent Yarn Relieving Motion= for size box.

=New Patent Light Running Beaming Machine= (“Improved Singleton”), with Patent Self-Stopping Measuring Motion, adjustable for any number of yards.

This machine has so rapidly superseded all others--our own six patents included--as to be practically the =only one recognised in the market=.

HOWARD & BULLOUGH, Limited, ACCRINGTON, LANCASHIRE. Accrington is distant from Manchester only 20 miles. Frequent trains run daily from Victoria or Salford Stations on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.

Attend Exchange, Manchester, every Tuesday and Friday, No. 10 Pillar, One to Two o’clock.

ESTABLISHED 1863.

Practical Experience in Weaving and Loom Making for 36 Years.

HENRY LIVESEY, Limited, BLACKBURN, MAKERS of LOOMS

For Weaving Printers, Shirtings, T Cloths, Domestics, Linen and Sail Cloths, Double Lift Dobbies up to 40 Shafts.

Makers of the Improved “Slasher” Sizing, Cop and =Ring Winding= and Self-stopping =Beaming= Machines, =Plaiting= Machines, =Looming= and =Drawing-in= Frames, &c. =Drum= Winding and =Spooling= Machines for Coloured Yarns, =Hydraulic= Cloth Presses, &c., &c. Makers also of =Bobbins=, =Tubes=, =Shuttles=, =Pickers=, &c., &c. Loom Sides Planed and Cross Rails cut to exact length.

CRANK and TAPPET SHAFT BUSHES, also BEARINGS of PICKING SHAFTS, with their respective SEATINGS on Loom Sides, are Planed; these improvements secure more solidity in build of Loom, and thereby effect a great saving in wear and tear, require less power, and give more uniform working with greater speed.

_Illustrated Catalogues on Application._

Plans and Estimates furnished for every description of Weaving Machinery.

Transcriber’s notes:

In the text version, italics are represented by _underscores_, and bold and black letter text by =equals= symbols. Superscripts are represented by ^{} and subscripts by _{}.

Missing or incorrect punctuation has been repaired. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation have been left. This book uses both high level and standard "." in decimal numbers.

In the html version, dittos have been replaced by the repeated text so that text alignes for easier reading.

The following mistakes have been noted:

p. 12. Egyptain changed to Egyptian. p. 18. Symbol [C] represents a C rotated by +90deg. p. 25. Symbol [V] represents a large V symbol. p. 56. Labels, 31, 133 and 156 - 162 are missing. p. 85. Symbol [T] represents a large T. p. 86. similiar has been changed to similar. p. 93. tranferred has been changed to transferred. p. 109. thus-- changed to :-- to match next paragraph. p. 153. For the calculation on actual size at the bottom of this page to make sense, 2600 should be 26000. This has been left unchanged

Adverts. p. 13. Telegraphic Address:--"ADTOLCO, BLACKBURN. Telephone No. 184. has no closing quote, this has been left.