PART I.——METRIC EQUIVALENTS.

Table of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights on the metric system, expressed by means of denominations of imperial measures and weights, and of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights of the imperial system, expressed by means of metric weights and measures.

_Measures of Length._

-------------------------------+-------------------------------------- Metric Denominations and Values| Equivalents in Imperial Denominations -------------------------------+------+------+-----+------------------ | Metres. |Miles.|Yards.|Feet.| Inches. Decimals. --------------------+----------+------+------+-----+------------------ | | | | | Myriametre | 10,000 |{ 6 | 376| 0 | 11·9 | |{ or |10,936| 0 | 11·9 Kilometre | 1000 | ... | 1093| 1 | 10·79 Hectometre | 100 | ... | 109| 1 | 1·079 Decametre | 10 | ... | 10| 2 | 9·7079 Metre | 1 | ... | 1| 0 | 3·3708 Decimetre | 1/10 | ... | ...| ... | 3·9371 Centimetre | 1/100 | ... | ...| ... | 0·3937 Millimetre | 1/1000 | ... | ...| ... | 0·0394 --------------------+----------+------+------+-----+------------------

_Measures of Surface._

----------------------------------+------------------------ Metric Denominations and Values. | Equivalents in Imperial | Denominations. --------------------------+-------+------+----------------- |Square |Acres.|Square Decimals. |Metres.| |Yards. --------------------------+-------+------+----------------- Hectare, _i.e._ 100 Ares |10,000 |{ 2 | 2280·3326 | |{ or | 11960·3326 Decare, _i.e._ 10 Ares | 1000 | ... | 1196·0333 Are | 100 | ... | 119·6033 Centiare, _i.e._ 1/100 Are| 1 | ... | 1·1960 --------------------------+-------+------+-----------------

_Measures of Capacity._

+---------------------------------------+-----------------------------+ | Metric Denominations and Values. | Equivalents in Imperial | | | Denominations. | +------------------------------+--------+---+---+---+---+---+---------+ | | | | | | | | | | | Cubic | Q | | | | | D | | |Metres. | u | B | | | | e | | | | a | u | | G | Q | c | | | | r | s | P | a | u | P i | | | | t | h | e | l | a | i m | | | | e | e | c | l | r | n a | | | | r | l | k | o | t | t l | | | | s | s | s | n | s | s s | | | | . | . | . | . | . | . . | +------------------------------+--------+---+---+---+---+---+---------+ |Kilolitre _i.e._ 1000 Litres | 1 | 3| 3| 2| 0| 0|0·77 | |Hectolitre, _i.e._ 100 Litres | 1/10|...| 2| 3| 0| 0|0·077 | |Decalitre, _i.e._ 10 Litres | 1/100|...|...| 1| 0| 0|1·6077 | |Litre | 1/1000|...|...|...|...|...|1·76077 | |Decilitre, _i.e._ 1/10 Litre | 1/10000|...|...|...|...|...|0·176077 | |Centilitre, _i.e._ 1/100 Litre|1/100000|...|...|...|...|...|0·0176077| +------------------------------+--------+---+---+---+---+---+---------+

+--------------------------------+-----------------------------------------+ |Metric Denominations and Values.| Equivalents in Imperial Denominations. | +-------------------+------------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | D D | | | Grams. |Cwts.|Stones.|Pounds.|Ounces.| r e | | | | | | | | a c | | | | | | | | m . | | | | | | | | s | | | | | | | | . | +-------------------+------------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----------+ |Millier | 1,000,000 | 19 | 5 | 6 | 9 |15·04 | |Quintal | 100,000 | 1 | 7 | 10 | 7 | 6·304 | |Myriagram | 10,000 | ... | 1 | 8 | 0 |11·8304 | |Kilogram | 1,000 |{... | ... | 2 | 3 | 4·3830 | | | |{ (or 15432·3487 grs.) | | |Hectogram | 100 | ... | ... | ... | 3 | 8·4383 | |Decagram | 10 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5·6438 | |Gram | 1 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·56438 | |Decigram | 1/10 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·056438 | |Centigram | 1/100 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0056438 | |Milligram | 1/1000 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·00056438| +---------+---------+------------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----------+

_Measures of Length._

+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | Equivalents in Metric Measures. | |Imperial Measures. |-----------+----------+------------+-----------+ | |Millimetre.|Decimetre.| Metre. | Kilometre.| +-------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+ |Inch |= 25·39954 | | | | |Foot or 12 inches | ... |= 3·04794 |= 0·30479| | |Yard, or 3 feet, | | | | | | or 36 inches | ... | ... |= 0·91428| | |Fathom, or 2 yards,| | | | | | or 6 feet | ... | ... |= 1·82877| | |Pole or 5-1/2 yards| ... | ... |= 5·02911| | |Chain, or 4 poles, | | | | | | or 22 yards | ... | ... |= 20·11644| | |Furlong, 40 poles, | | | | | | or 220 yards | ... | ... |= 201·16437| = 0·20116 | |Mile, 8 furlongs, | | | | | | or 1760 yards | ... | ... |= 1609·31493| = 1·60931 | +-------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+

_Measures of Surface._

+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | Equivalents in Metric Measures. | |Imperial Measures. +------------------+---------------+----------+----------+ | |Square Decimetres.| Square Metres.| Ares. |Hectares. | +--------------------------------+------------------+---------------+----------+----------+ |Square inch | = 0·06451 | | | | |Square foot, or 144 square | | | | | | inches | = 9·28997 | = 0·092900 | | | |Square yard, or 9 square feet, | | | | | | or 1296 square inches | = 83·60971 | = 0·836097 | | | |Pole or perch, or 30-1/4 square | | | | | | yards | ... | = 25·291939 | | | |Rood, or 40 perches, or 1210 | | | | | | square yards | ... | ... |=10·116776| | |Acre, or 4 roods, or 4840 square| | | | | | yards | ... | ... | ... |= 0·40467 | |Square mile or 640 acres | ... | ... | ... |=258·98945| +--------------------------------+------------------+---------------+----------+----------+

_Measures of Capacity._

+---------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | Equivalents in Metric Measures. | |Imperial Measures. +-----------+----------+-----------+------------+ | |Decilitres.| Litres. |Decalitres.|Hectolitres.| +---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+ |Gill | = 1·41983 | = 0·14198| | | |Pint or 4 gills | = 5·67932 | = 0·56793| | | |Quart or 2 pints | ... | = 1·13587| | | |Gallon or 4 quarts | ... | = 4·54346| | | |Peck or 2 gallons | ... | = 9·08692| = 0·90869 | | |Bushel, or 8 gallons,| | | | | | or 4 pecks | ... | ... | = 3·63477 | | |Quarter or 8 bushels | ... | ... | ... | = 2·90781 | +---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+------------+

_Cubic Measure._

+-------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | Equivalents in Metric Measures. | |Imperial Measures. +------------+-----------+----------+ | | Cubic | Cubic | Cubic | | |Centimetres.|Decimetres.| Metres. | +-------------------------------+------------+-----------+----------+ |Cubic inch | 16·38618 | | | |Cubic foot or 1728 cubic inches| ... | 28·31531 | | |Cubic yard or 27 cubic feet | ... | ... | 0·76451 | +-------------------------------+------------+-----------+----------+

_Weights._

+---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | Equivalents in Metric Weights. | |Imperial Weights. +-----------+----------+------------+-----------+ | | Grams. |Decagrams.| Kilograms. |Millier or | | | | | |Metric Ton.| +---------------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+ |Grain |=0·06479895| | | | |Dram |=1·77185 | | | | |Ounce, avoirdupois, or | | | | | | 16 drams, or 437·5 grains|=28·34954 |= 2·83495| | | |Pound, or 16 ounces, or 256| | | | | | drams, or 7000 grains |=453·59265 |= 45·35927|= 0·45359| | |Hundredweight or 112 lbs. | ... | ... |= 50·80238| | |Ton or 20 cwt. | ... | ... |= 1016·04754|= 1·01605 | |Ounce, troy, or 480 grains |=31·103496 |= 3·11035| | | +---------------------------+-----------+----------+------------+-----------+

=WELD.= _Syn._ WOALD. The _Reseda luteola_ (Linn.), an herbaceous annual employed by the dyers. A decoction of the stems and leaves gives a rich yellow to goods mordanted with alum, tartar, or muriate of tin. See YELLOW PIGMENTS.

=WELSH RARE′BIT.= _Prep._ Cut slices of bread, toast and butter them; then cover them with slices of rich cheese, spread a little mustard over the cheese, put the bread in a cheese-toaster before the fire, and in a short time serve it up very hot.

=WEN.= The popular name of pulpy, encysted, and fleshy tumours of the face and neck.

=WET (to keep out from Gun Locks).= In giving hints to sportsman going to Norway, Mr. Lock, in his book on ‘Sport in Norway,’ gives some capital advice on this subject, which would be equally serviceable in wet weather in England. Sportsmen will do well, he says, to remove the locks from their rifle and gun, oil them with a little Rangoon oil, lay them on the hob of the fireplace until they are quite hot, and then wipe them as dry as possible with a little cotton waste, so that there will be no superfluous oil left to clog the works. While the locks are getting hot get a little beeswax and melt it in a cup, and with the tip of a penknife carefully pay, as though you were using putty to place in a pane of glass, though more sparingly, the wooden ledges where the lock-plates rest when in their places, in such a manner that none of the wax gets into the places hollowed out to receive the works of the lock. When the warm locks are put back in their places, and screwed up tight, the wax will adhere to the edge of the lock-plates and the wood wherein they bed, and effectually render them impervious to wet. The sportsman can afterwards, when stalking, push his rifle through wet grass, and use his fowling-piece when the water, after a shower, drops from the trees upon him as he forces his way between the wet branches, without fear of the wet making its way into the locks.

=WHEAT.= _Syn._ TRITICUM, L. The ripe seed or fruit of several varieties of _Triticum vulgare_ (Linn.), of which the principal are _Triticum œstivum_, or spring wheat, _Triticum hybernum_, or winter wheat, and _Triticum turgidum_, or turgid wheat, the last two of which include several red and white sub-varieties. Of all the cereal grains wheat appears to be that best adapted for bread corn, not merely on account of its highly nutritious character, but also on account of the power it possesses from its richness in gluten, of forming a light and agreeable loaf by the process of fermentation.

According to Sir H. Davy, good English wheat contains of gluten, 19%; starch, 77%; soluble matter, 4 to 5%.

The average weight of good wheat per bushel is from 58 to 60 lbs.; and its average yield of flour is fully 12-1/2 lbs. for every 14 lbs. The weight of the straw is said to be about double that of the grain. The produce per acre varies from 12 to 60, or even 64, bushels an acre. See FLOUR, STARCH, &c.

=Buckwheat.= _Syn._ FAGOPYRUM. The seed of _Fagopyrum esculentum_, a plant of the natural order _Polygonaceæ_. It makes excellent cakes, crumpets, and gruel. In North America, buckwheat cakes, or rather fritters, are in general use at breakfast, eaten with molasses. In England, buckwheat is cultivated as food for pheasants.

=Wheat, Indian.= See MAIZE.

=Wheat, Steeps for.= Quicklime, sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol, sulphate of copper or blue vitriol, and arsenious acid or white arsenic, are the substances chiefly employed for this purpose. About 5 lbs. of the first (slaked and made into a milk with water), 1-1/4 lb. of the second, 1 lb. of the third, and 3 or 4 oz. of the last, are regarded as sufficient for each sack of seed. The method of applying them is either to dissolve or mix them with just sufficient water to cover the seed, which is then to be soaked in the mixture for a few hours, or a less quantity of water is employed, and the more concentrated solution is, at intervals, well sprinkled, by means of a ‘watering pot,’ over the seed wheat spread upon the barn floor, the action being promoted by occasional stirring.

_Obs._ The first two substances above named have been separately proved to be amply sufficient to destroy the ‘smut’ in seed wheat, and are perfectly harmless in their effects, which renders them greatly preferable to arsenic, or even to sulphate of copper. Nearly all the numerous advertised ‘anti-smuts,’ or nostrums to prevent the smut in wheat, contain one or other of the last three of the above substances.

=WHEY.= _Syn._ SERUM LACTIS, L.; PETIT LAIT, Fr. The liquid portion of milk after the curd has been separated. It consists chiefly of water, holding in solution 3 or 4% of sugar of milk. A pound of milk mixed with a tablespoonful of proof spirit allowed to become sour, and the whey filtered from the sediment, yields, in the course of a few weeks, a good vinegar (whey vinegar), free from lactic acid (Scheele). Skimmed milk may be used.

=Whey, Al′um.= _Syn._ SERUM LACTIS ALUMINATUM, L. _Prep._ Take of powdered alum 1 dr.; hot milk, 1 pint; simmer a few seconds, let it repose for a short time, and strain the whey from the coagulum. Used in diarrhœa, &c.; a wine-glassful after every motion. Acid whey (SERUM LACTIS ACIDUM) may be prepared in a similar manner by substituting 1/2 dr. of tartaric or citric acid for the alum. Orange whey and lemon whey are prepared from the juice of the respective fruits, with a little of the yellow peel to impart flavour.

=WHEY POWDER.= _Prep._ 1. From whey gently evaporated to dryness, and powdered along with about 1-3rd of its weight of lump sugar.

2. Sugar, 7 oz.; sugar of milk, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz. (all in fine powder); mix well. 1 oz. dissolved in 1-1/4 pint of water forms extemporaneous whey.

=WHIS′KY.= Dilute alcohol obtained from the fermented wort of malt or grain. That from the former is the most esteemed. The inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared from barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only of which is malted, or from potatoes mashed with a portion of barley malt, the resulting wash being carelessly fermented and distilled, and purposely suffered to burn, to impart the peculiar empyreumatic or smoky flavour so much relished by the lower orders of whisky drinkers. The malt whisky, sold as such, of the principal Scotch and Irish distillers is fully equal in quality to London gin, from which it merely differs in flavour. The peculiar flavour of whisky may be imitated by adding a few drops each of pure creosote and purified fusel oil to 2 or 3 gallons of good London gin; and the imitation will be still more perfect if the liquor be kept for some months before drinking it.

We are indebted to ‘Land and Water’ for the following interesting particulars relating to Irish whiskey:

“Genuine unadulterated Irish whisky has, of late years, become a great desideratum as a wholesome and agreeable beverage, and in the article produced by the large and successful company whose premises and business I am about to describe, the consuming public have every guarantee of its excellence and purity, as far as can be insured by the use of the very best materials, great skill and care in the manufacturing processes, and the valuable and extensive buildings in which the spirit is stored until it attains the maturity and mellowness which age alone can confer.

“No blending process of new whiskies can effect this, no distiller who has not very extensive bonded warehouses is to be trusted. Acre after acre of cellars, vault after vault, corridor after corridor, each and all dim, damp, and dark, and guarded by the exciseman’s talismanic padlock——all these are necessary for the soundness of the distillery. For to secure age and quality, the effect of several years storage in these vaults is required. If you wish to see such store-rooms to perfection, go to Cork, which may be considered the capital of the Irish whisky trade. Even Dublin, with its Jamiesons, its Powers, and its Roes, must bow down before it.

“But what is most singular of all, one company represents that important branch of manufacture, and have therefore a good right to their title of ‘Cork Distilleries Company.’ A little over a quarter of a century ago there were five distilleries in Cork——Wise’s, Hewett’s, Daly’s, Murphy’s, and Waters’. In 1867, however, an amalgamation took place, and the present company was started, and the work of the five distilleries was concentrated into three——the North Mall, still known as Wise’s (that proprietor wisely allowing himself to be bought out, after having made one of the largest private fortunes in Ireland); the Midleton, situated at a pretty village of that name, about ten miles from Cork, and the Watercourse, in the north-western suburb of the city. The three distilleries are capable of producing 1,000,000 gallons each per annum, which represents an annual duty of one million and a half pounds sterling. Their paid-up capital is a quarter of a million, and a very large rest fund. Their works and property are insured for over three-quarters of a million sterling, and they find employment for about 1000 men.

“_The Brewing Process._——I shall have occasion to describe each of these three distilleries during the course of this paper, but it would perhaps be as well to run hurriedly through the several processes of whisky distillation. It may be divided roughly into brewing and distilling. Malt and barley, are, of course, the ingredients used. Barley as it comes from the market is distinguished by the appellation ‘green.’ This is either steeped and converted into malt, or kiln-dried and ground. It is then removed to the mash-tuns, where water is added, and the whole mixed by revolving machinery. After some hours’ steeping, the water has soaked all the desired properties from the grain, and is known as wort. This is led away or pumped by a complicated series of pipes to the top of the manufactory, where it undergoes a cooling process. When of the desired temperature it is conducted to the fermenting vats——vast wooden vessels of imposing appearance ranged in rows. The brewing processes end with this fermentation.

“_The Distilling Processes._ When this is done, which generally takes five days, the fermented liquor is conducted to the ‘wash’ charger, and from thence pumped to the intermediate charger, where it is heated before undergoing the first process of distillation, which now takes place. The still is a vast copper vessel, shaped exactly like an inverted funnel, with the pipe leading to the roof. The ‘wash’ or liquor from the charger is conducted into this vessel. Beneath it are two furnaces, which soon raise the temperature of the vessel to boiling point. When evaporation commences the steam (which is the spirit, and is technically known as ‘low wines’) is conducted up the copper pipe into a refrigerator, known as the ‘worm.’ This worm is, in reality, a continuation of the pipe of the still twisted into regular coils in and about a vessel filled with the coldest water obtainable. By this means the steam is converted into liquor. This liquor passes into the close safe, a glass vessel somewhat like an aquarium tank. The distiller stands by and watches the running liquor, and his practised eye and educated palate immediately detects any fault in the distillation. He is not allowed to open his tank, however, except by notice in the presence of the excise officer, one or more of whom are always present in every distillery. Through this tank it runs into ‘low wines’ receiver, a large tank placed below, and from these it again passes to ‘feints chargers’ _en route_ to the ‘low wines still,’ where the second distillation takes place. I forgot to say that the refuse liquor left after the first distillation is much valued by farmers for its milk-producing qualities, and is bought up by them for cow food. The refuse liquor from the second distillation, however, is only water, and the refuse liquor from the third and final distillation is water also.

“The second distillation is like the first——the same process of ‘worm’ cooling, conducting, and charging is carried on. The third still is known as the spirit still. The spirit is now considered perfect, and is led off to the large vats in the spirit stores, where it is reduced to desired strength, racked off into casks, and removed to bonded warehouses for maturity. Such are the processes carried on here——such are the processes carried on by all honest distillers during the last century; but modern science has discovered that many very common——tasteless, I grant, but easily flavoured——vegetables will yield ardent spirits, and there are not wanting those who will take advantage of the discovery.

“_Within a Distillery._ But the distillery itself, who can describe it——its story upon story of granaries——its kilns, floored with perforated tiles——its steeping vats and its low-roofed malting sheds——its roaring mills——its terrible and mysterious tanks——its inextricable machinery——its innumerable rafters and false roofs——its ladders perched up in inaccessible places——its bewildering passages——and far away, above all, its immense chimneys towering up to the sky? But this is not all——the bonded warehouses have to be gone through. The excise officer has to be called, and the sealed lock has to be broken, and you enter into the vast cool place. Black as night is everything around you; the lamps which the attendants hold are utterly incapable of dissipating the darkness, and only cast a strong orange glare upon the faces of the men who hold them. To show one the dimensions of the place a man is sent to the opposite end. Away he goes, only traceable by the lamp he bears, and before he waves it to show that the opposite end of the vault is reached, it has become a scarcely discernible glimmer. As we become more used to the darkness we see straight passages leading in every direction, and lined on every side by barrels piled almost to the ceiling.

“_The North Mall._ The first of the Cork distilleries I visited was the one at North Mall, formerly, and, in fact, still known as Wise’s. It is in a western suburb of the town out among the meadows. The Lee winds its silvery course between tall alders close by it, and a branch stream is made to do much of the work of the immense manufactory. On approaching it it has a picturesque effect. It lies underneath a tall bank, over which the road to Sunday’s Well leads. Looking down from this road the whole of its vast dimensions can be taken in at a glance. The extensive yard, where one would imagine enough coal was stored to supply the whole city, is being raised from the adjoining fields. I was looking over an old history of Cork, published by a certain Dr Smith, over a century ago, and I find that formerly on this spot a Franciscan monastery stood. Such discipline was preserved here that it was called the Mirror of Ireland, and their sacerdotal character was so great that they had the power of curing sore eyes. The only remains of this ancient edifice now visible is a carved stone built into the wall of the great bonded warehouses in the Sunday’s Well Road. It was here that the noted water oozed out of the red-stone rock Whether it is ever now used in making the agreeable beverage manufactured from the old whisky stored below I did not ascertain. These old Franciscan fathers had, doubtless, a good cellar of their own; but what would they have said of the vast, well-filled vaults which now are found upon perhaps the identical spot? But, large as these are, they are not large enough for the requirements of the distillery, and other extensive premises have been secured in Leitrim Street, which are now used as bonded warehouses.

“The whisky produced at this distillery is, if possible, still better now than it was in Wise’s time; the same distiller who worked the concern for him for twenty years is still there, and none but the very finest description of malt and barley (a large proportion of the former) is used. Its production, as well as those of the other two distilleries of the company, gained a first-class medal last year at Philadelphia, and the jurors described it as ‘very fine, full flavour, and good spirit.’ As a natural consequence, there is a demand for this whisky all over the world, and there are very few large towns in either hemisphere where it is not represented by an agent.

“_The ‘Watercourse,’_ By-the-bye these lie on our way to the celebrated Watercourse Distillery, the second of those used by this great firm. Entering through the broad portals, long ranges of old-fashioned buildings spread out on every side. Here is the mill, gaunt and square and stolid; those jealously guarded doors to the right are the bonded warehouses; the buildings across the yard are devoted to the coopers’ and smiths’ work, which in all three distilleries is done on the premises.

That tall black and white building far away on the opposite side is the grain store; this, nearer to you, with the irregular roofs, the complicated piping and open walled structures running away overhead, is the distillery proper. This distillery is about of equal size to that at North Mall. It has an older and more venerable appearance. It turns out as good and extensive work, and, like it, is not satisfied with the extensive storing facilities at its command, but must needs go abroad to an old, unused distillery, further in the suburbs, where it hides most of its rich and treasured productions. A picturesque old place is this; the ruins of the old works are still standing, and their architecture is such that it only requires a mantle of ivy to transform it into a remnant of feudal savagery.

“_The Midleton Distillery._ The company have handsome and extensive offices on Morrison’s Island, in the centre of the city, and close to the water’s edge. Here the directors sit day after day, and the scores of clerks attend to the interests of 4000 customers. But I cannot linger here, for I have another distillery to visit. Another, the brightest of all, far out in the beautiful country, at the town of Midleton, situate at the north-east extremity of Cork’s magical harbour. Approaching the distillery from the town, it has somewhat the appearance of a fortress. A massive stone gateway bars the entrance, and heavy walls encompass it. But when once admittance is gained the sternness of the approach vanishes. Great buildings loom aloft, but they have all a bright look; trees are on every side, and handsome garden plots, and clinging ivy, relieve the monotony of the high square structures. Here, I believe, is the largest still in the world——certainly the largest in Ireland. No work was in progress at the time of my visit, save the work of repairs and the storage of coal. Here, as at North Mall, water gives considerable aid in driving the machinery, a canal having been raised after considerable engineering difficulties and much expense. The vast works of Midleton Distillery cover over eight acres. It was a hot July day when I paid my visit, not at all the day to attempt remarkable pedestrian feats. Will it be forgiven me, therefore, if I forsook Irish whisky for Irish hospitality? Under the very shadow of the tall manufactory, yet altogether hidden from it, there is a luring lawn, a cool shrubbery, and an elegant villa radiant with flowers. Is it not more pleasant to lounge through conservatories than to climb staircases, to drink iced claret cup than to sip raw spirit, or to examine the points of a horse than to note the intricacies of machinery? Beyond the garden and the tennis court and the conservatory is a grotto, so cunningly placed that none but the initiated can find it; the air there is deliciously cool, a luxuriant growth of honeysuckle and dog rose and fern surrounds you, and at your feet is a spring of as pure water as ever mortal tasted. With pleasant society, and chat and gossip to while away the time, will it be deemed strange that I stayed there until it was impossible to see more of the distillery, and that it would only be possible to catch my last train by a hard and almost break-neck gallop?” See GIN, SPIRITS, and USQUEBAUGH.

=WHITE AR′SENIC.= ARSENIOUS ACID.

=WHITE-BAIT.= The _Clupea Latulus_ (_Clupea alba_, Yarrell), a very small and delicate fish, common in the brackish waters of the Thames from April to September. When fried in oil it is esteemed a great luxury by epicures.

=WHITE COPPER.= See GERMAN SILVER and PACKFONG.

=WHITE HEL′LEBORE.= _Syn._ VERATRUM (Ph. L. & E.); VERATRI ALBI RADIX, L. “The rhizome of _Veratrum album_, Linn., or white hellebore.” (Ph. L.) A powerful acrid cathartic, emetic, and sternutatory. It is now seldom exhibited internally, and its external use over a large or ulcerated surface is not unaccompanied with danger.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr. of the powder, made into a pill; in gout, mania, &c.; or 1 to 3 gr., carefully triturated with 12 or 15 gr. of liquorice powder, as an errhine, in amaurosis, &c.

=WHITE LEAD.= _Syn._ FINE WHITE, FLAKE W., CARBONATE OF LEAD, CERUSE, MAGISTERY OF LEAD; CERUSSA, PLUMBI CARBONAS (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Made by suspending rolls of thin sheet lead over malt liquor, or pyroligneous acid, in close vessels, the evaporation from the acid being kept up by the vessels being placed in a heap of dung, or a steam bath.

_Obs._ Commercial carbonate of lead, however prepared, is not the pure carbonate of lead, but always contains a certain proportion of hydrate. It is generally largely adulterated with native sulphate of baryta (‘heavy spar’), and sometimes with chalk. The former may be detected by its insolubility in dilute nitric acid, and the latter by the nitric solution yielding a white precipitate with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia, after having been treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, or a hydrosulphuret, to throw down the lead. “Pure carbonate of lead does not lose weight at a temperature of 212° Fahr.; 68 gr. are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted with 1 fl. oz. of distilled water; and the solution is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 60 gr. of phosphate of soda.” (Ph. E.) The solution in nitric acid should not yield a precipitate when treated with a solution of sulphate of soda.——Used as a superior white paint, and, in medicine, as an external astringent, refrigerant, and desiccant. The particles of carbonate of lead prepared by precipitation, or by any of the quick processes, are in a somewhat crystalline and semi-translucent condition, and hence do not cover so well as that just noticed. The following are some of the varieties of ‘white lead’ found in commerce:

1. (DUTCH WHITE LEAD.)——_a._ (Finest.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 3 cwt.——_b._ (Ordinary.) Flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 7 cwt. These form the best white lead of the shops.

2. (ENGLISH WHITE LEAD.) Flake white lowered with chalk. Covers badly, and the colour is inferior to the preceding.

3. (FRENCH WHITE LEAD; BLANC DE PLOMB, Fr.) From litharge dissolved in vinegar, and the lead thrown down by a current of carbonic acid gas from coke. Does not cover so well as flake white.

4. (GRACE’S WHITE LEAD.) Made from sheet lead, with the refuse water of the starch-maker’s, soured brewer’s grain, &c.

5. (HAMBURG WHITE, HAMBURG WHITE LEAD.) From flake white, 1 cwt.; cawk, 2 cwt. Also sold for best Dutch white lead.

6. (VENETIAN WHITE, VENETIAN WHITE LEAD; CERUSA VENETA, L.) From flake white, or pure white lead and cawk, equal parts. (_See below._)

=White Precip′itate of Lead.= _Syn._ MINIATURE PAINTER’S WHITE, SULPHATE OF LEAD. From an acetic or nitric solution of litharge, precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid, and the white powder washed and dried. The clear liquid decanted from the precipitate is poured on fresh litharge, when a second solution takes place; and this may be repeated for any number of times. Used in miniature painting, being a beautiful and durable white.

=Whi′′ting.= The same as prepared chalk, but prepared more carelessly, in horse-mills.

=White, Wilkinson’s.= From litharge ground with sea water until it ceases to whiten, and then washed and dried.

=White, Zinc (Hubbuck’s).= A hydrated oxide of zinc. It possesses the advantage of being innocuous in use, and not being blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen, like white lead.

=WHITE PIG′MENTS.= _Syn._ PIGMENTA ALBA, L. The following list embraces the more important white pigments of commerce:

=White, Alum.= _Syn._ BAUMÉ’S WHITE. Take of powdered Roman alum, 2 lbs.; honey, 1 lb.; mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish to whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautiful and permanent white, both in oil and water.

=White, Derbyshire.= From cawk or heavy spar, by grinding and elutriation.

=White, Flake.= The finer kinds of white lead are so called.

=White, Min′eral.= Precipitated carbonate of lead.

=White, Newcastle.= White lead made with molasses vinegar.

=White, Nottingham.= White lead made with alegar. Permanent white is now commonly sold for it.

=White, Pearl.= _Syn._ FARD’S SPANISH WHITE. Trisnitrate of bismuth.

=White, Per′manent.= Artificial sulphate of baryta, prepared by precipitating chloride of barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of glauber salts. A good fast white, unchanged by sulphurous fumes. Used to mark jars and bottles for containing acids or alkalies, as it is affected by very few substances; also to adulterate white lead.

=White, Spanish.= _Syn._ BLANC D’ESPAGNE, BLANC DE TROYES, Fr. The softest and purest white chalk, elutriated, made into balls, and well dried. Used as a cheap white paint.

=WHITE SWEL′LING.= _Syn._ HYDRARTHRUS, L. A variety of indolent, malignant, scrofulous tumours, attacking the knee, ankle, wrist, and elbow, especially the first.

=WHITES (Sharp).= _Prep._ 1. From wheaten flour and powdered alum, equal parts, ground together.

2. (STUFF; BAKER’S STUFF.) From alum, ground to the coarseness of common salt, 1 lb.; common salt, 3 lbs.; mix together. Both the above are used by bakers for the purpose of clandestinely introducing alum into their bread.

=WHITE′WASH.= Whiting is made into a milk with water, and a small quantity of melted size or dissolved glue added. It is applied to walls or ceilings with a broad, flat brush, worked in a uniform direction. Should the surface have been previously whitewashed, it is requisite first to remove the dirt by washing it with a brush and abundance of clean water.

“LIME-WASHING is, from the cleansing action of the quicklime, much the more effectual mode of purification, but is less frequently had recourse to, from the general ignorance respecting the proper mode of preparing the lime-wash. If glue is employed, it is destroyed by the corrosive action of the lime, and, in consequence, the latter easily rubs off the walls when dry. This is the case also if the lime be employed, as is often absurdly recommended, simply slaked in water, and used without any fixing material. Lime-wash is prepared by placing some freshly-burned quicklime in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water to cover it; ‘boiled oil’ (linseed) should then be immediately added, in the proportion of a pint to a gallon of the wash. For coarser work, any common refuse fat may be used instead of the boiled oil. The whole should then be thinned with water to the required consistency, and applied with a brush. Care should be taken not to leave the brush in the lime-wash for any length of time, as it destroys the bristles.” (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

=WHI′′TING.= See WHITE PIGMENTS.

=WHITING.= The _Gadus merlangus_ (Linn.), a member of the cod family of fishes. It is a very light and nutritious fish, and well adapted to dyspeptics and invalids; but it has too little flavour to be a favourite with gourmands.

=WHIT′LOW.= _Syn._ WHITLOE; PARONYCHIA, L. A painful inflammation, tending to suppuration and abscess, at the ends of the fingers, and mostly under or about the nails. Emollient poultices are useful in this affection; extreme tension and pain may be relieved by an incision, so as to allow the exit of the pus or matter from under the nail. The treatment must also be directed to establish the general health, as without this local remedies often fail.

=WHOOP′ING-COUGH.= _Syn._ CHIN-COUGH, HOOPING-C., KIN-C.; PERTUSSIS, L. A convulsive strangling cough, characterised by peculiar sonorous or whooping inspirations, from which its popular name is taken. It comes on in fits, which are usually terminated by vomiting. It is infectious, chiefly attacks children, and, like the small-pox, only occurs once during life.

The treatment of whooping-cough consists, chiefly, in obviating irritation, and in exciting nausea and occasional vomiting. For the first, aperients and sedatives (hemlock or henbane), in small doses, may be given; for the second intention, an extremely weak sweetened solution of tartarised antimony, or a mixture containing squills or ipecacuanha, may be administered in small doses every hour or two, according to the effect produced. In full habits, blisters and leeches may be resorted to; and in all cases opiate and stimulating embrocations may be applied to the chest and spine with advantage. Whenever the head is affected, the use of narcotics is contra-indicated. The hot bath is often serviceable. “A mixture of cochineal and carbonate of potassa is by some regarded as almost a specific for this disease; but our own observations lead us to look with more favour on anatomical nauseants and emetics.” (Cooley.) Other medicinal agents employed in pertussis are alum, bromide of ammonium, sulphate of zinc, belladonna, tincture of myrrh, carbolic acid, and lobelia. See ANTIMONIALS, DRAUGHTS, MIXTURE, OXYMEL, SYRUP, WINES, &c.

=WHOR′TLEBERRY.= (Bear’s). _Syn._ UVÆ URSI FOLIA (B. P.), UVA URSI (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The leaf of _Arctostophylos Uva Ursi_, trailing arbutus, or Bearberry, Astringent.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. of the powder, thrice daily. See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=WIK′ANA.= _Syn._ WACAKA DES INDS, Fr. _Prep._ (Guibourt.) Roasted chocolate nuts (ground), 2 oz.; powdered cinnamon, 2 dr.; powdered vanilla, 1/2 dr.; ambergris, 3 gr.; musk, 1-1/2 gr.; sugar, 6 oz.; well mixed together. A teaspoonful is boiled with 1/2 pint of milk, or arrow-root, as a stimulating diet for convalescents.

=WILD CHERRY.= The _Prunus Virginiana_, a beautiful tree, growing wild in the western states of America. The inner bark (wild-cherry bark) is officinal in the Ph. U. S., and is a valuable sedative tonic. It is specially adapted for the alleviation of the distressing cough which is so harassing to patients with pulmonary disease. See INFUSION.

=WILD′FIRE RASH.= _Strophulus volaticus._

=WILLOW.= _Syn._ SALIX, L. The barks of _Salix alba_ or white willow, _Salis fragilis_ or crack willow, and _Salix Caprea_ or great round-leaved willow (WILLOW BARKS; SALICIS CORTICIS——Ph. E.), were officinal in the Ph. D. 1826; and, with that of _Salix Russelliana_, and other species, are rich in salicin, and hence possess considerable febrifuge power.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr., either in powder or made into a decoction; as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in agues, hectics, debility, dyspepsia, &c.

=WIN′DOWS.= A prismatic or crystalline appearance may be imparted to windows by several expedients:

1. Mix a hot solution of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) with a clear solution of gum Arabic, and lay it on hot. For a margin, or for figures, wipe off the part you wish to remain clear with a wet towel as soon as the surface has become cold and hard. The effect is very pretty, and may be varied by substituting oxalic acid, red or yellow prussiate of potash, or any other salt (not efflorescent), for the sulphate of magnesia. Sulphate of copper gives a very beautiful crystallisation of a blue colour.

2. Evenly cover the surface of the glass with a layer of thin gum water, and sprinkle any of the saline crystals before noticed over it whilst wet. The gum water may be tinged of any colour to vary the effect.

A blinded appearance, more or less resembling ground glass, may be given as follows:

1. By evenly dabbing the surface with a piece of soft glazier’s putty.

2. A coating of stained rice jelly, laid on with a painter’s brush (sash tool), and afterwards dabbed with a duster brush, applied endways.

3. Tissue paper, either white or coloured, applied by means of clear gum water or some pale varnish. The pattern may be lined with a pencil, and, when the whole is somewhat dry, but not hard, the lines may be cut through, and the pattern stripped off with the flat point of a knife.

4. The surface of the glass being coated with mucilage, or any pale varnish, as before, coarsely powdered glass or quartz, reduced to a uniform state of grain by a sieve, may be sprinkled over it; when dry, the loose portion should be removed with a soft brush.

=WINE.= _Syn._ VINUM, L.; VIN, Fr. The fermented juice of the grape. The general characters and quality of wine are principally influenced by climate, soil, and aspect, the nature and maturity of the grape, and the method of conducting the fermentation. The sp. gr. of the ‘must’ varies from 1·063 to 1·285, from which the proportion of saccharine matter and the ultimate alcoholic richness of the wine resulting from its fermentation may be inferred. That of Rhenish grapes seldom exceeds 1·095 to 1·100. Want of space compels us to confine our remarks chiefly to the properties, uses, and management of grape juice after it has passed through the stage of fermentation, or, in reality, become wine.

_Officinal Wine._ The only wine ordered by the British Colleges is sherry (WHITE WINE; VINUM XERICUM——B. P., Ph. L.; VINUM ALBUM——Ph. E.; VINUM HISPANICUM——Ph. D.); but several other wines are employed in medicine, as tonics, stimulants, antispasmodics, and restoratives, according to the circumstances of the case or the taste of the patient. In pharmacy, the less expensive Cape or marsala, or even raisin wine, is usually substituted for sherry in the preparation of the medicated wines of the Pharmacopœias.

_Varieties, characteristics, &c._ The following Tables will convey much useful information on this subject in a condensed form.

I. TABLE _of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine_. By DR. CHRISTISON

------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- | Alcohol | Proof Name, &c. | of ·7937 | spirit | per cent. | per cent. | by weight | by volume ------------------------------------------+-----------+---------- { Weakest | 14·97 | 31·31 { Mean of 7 samples | 16·20 | 34·91 Port { Strongest | 17·10 | 37·27 { White | 14·97 | 31·31 | | { Weakest | 13·98 | 30·84 { Mean of 13 wines, excluding } | 15·37 | 33·59 { those very long kept in cask } | | Sherry { Strongest | 16·17 | 35·12 { Mean of 9 wines long kept in } | 14·72 | 31·30 { cask in the East Indies } | | { Madre da Xeres | 16·90 | 37·06 | | { Long kept in cask in } Strongest | 16·90 | 37·06 Madeira{ the East Indies } Weakest | 14·09 | 30·86 | | Teneriffe (long in cask at Calcutta) | 13·84 | 30·21 Cercial | 15·45 | 33·65 Lisbon (dry) | 16·14 | 34·71 Shiraz | 12·95 | 28·30 Amontillado | 12·63 | 27·60 Claret (a first growth of 1811) | 7·72 | 16·95 Chateau-Latour (ditto 1825) | 7·78 | 17·06 Rosan (second growth of 1825) | 7·61 | 16·74 Ordinary Claret (Vin Ordinaire) | 8·99 | 18·96 Rivesaltes | 9·31 | 22·35 Malmsey | 12·86 | 28·17 Rüdesheimer. 1st quality | 8·40 | 18·44 Rüdesheimer. Inferior | 6·90 | 15·19 Hambacher. Superior quality | 7·35 | 16·15 ------------------------------------------+-----------+----------

II. _Quantity of Alcohol_ (sp. gr. ·825[270] at 60° Fahr.) _in 100 parts of Wine by volume_.

[Footnote 270: Alcohol of ·825 contains 92·6% of real or anhydrous alcohol; or, in the language of the Excise, is about 62-1/2% o.p., and in round numbers may be said to be of about twice the strength of brandy or rum, as usually sold.]

+-----------------------+----------------------+------------------+ | Names of Wines. | Alcoholic content. | Authority. | +-----------------------+----------------------+------------------+ | Alba Flora | 17·26 | Brande. | | Barsac | 13·86 | do. | | Bucellas | 18·49 | do. | | Burgundy (average) | 14·57 | do. | | Ditto | 12·16 | Prout. | | Calcavella (average) | 18·69 | Brande. | | Cape Madeira (do.) | 20·51 | do. | | Cape Muschat | 18·25 | do. | | Champagne (average) | 12·61 | do. | | Ditto | 12·20 | Fontenelle. | | Claret (average) | 15·10 | Brande. | | Colares | 19·75 | do. | | Constantia (White) | 19·75 | do. | | Ditto (Red) | 18·92 | do. | | Ditto (average) | 14·50 | Prout. | | Côte Rôtie | 12·32 | Brande. | | Currant | 20·55 | do. | | Elder | 8·79 | do. | | Frontignac (Rivesalte)| 12·79 | do. | | Gooseberry | 11·84 | do. | | Grape (English) | 18·11 | do. | | Hermitage (Red) | 12·32 | do. | | Ditto (White) | 17·43 | do. | | Hock (average) | 12·08 | do. | | Lachryma Christi | 19·70 | do. | | Lisbon | 18·94 | do. | | Lissa (average) | 25·41 | do. | | Ditto (do.) | 15·90 | Prout. | | Lunel | 15·52 | Brande. | | Madeira (average) | 22·27 | do. | | Ditto (do.) | 21·20 | Prout. | | Malaga | 17·26 | Brande. | | Ditto | 18·94 | do. | | Malmsey Madeira | 16·40 | do. | | Marsala (average) | 25·09 | do. | | Ditto (do.) | 18·40 | Prout. | | Nice | 14·63 | Brande. | | Orange (average) | 11·26 | do. | | Port (do.) | 20·64 | Prout. | | Ditto (do.) | 22·96 | Brande. | | Raisin (do.) | 25·41 | do. | | Ditto (do.) | 15·90 | Prout. | | Red Madeira (do.) | 20·35 | Brande. | | Roussillon (do.) | 18·13 | do. | | Sauterne | 14·22 | do. | | Shiraz | 15·52 | do. | | Sherry (average) | 19·17 | do. | | Ditto (do.) | 23·80 | Prout. | | Syracuse | 20·00 | do. | | Ditto | 15·28 | Brande. | | Teneriffe | 19·79 | do. | | Tent | 13·30 | do. | | Tokay | 9·88 | do. | | Vidonia | 19·25 | do. | | Vin de Grave | 13·94 | do. | | Zante | 17·05 | do. | +-----------------------+----------------------+------------------+

_Composition._ The constituents of wine are——alcohol, which is one of its principal ingredients, and on which its power of producing intoxication depends; sugar, which has escaped the process of fermentation, and which is most abundant in the sweet wines, as tokay, tent, frontignac, &c.; extractive, derived chiefly from the husk of the grape, and is extracted from it by the newly formed alcohol; tartar, or bitartrate of potassa, which constitutes the most important portion of the saline matter of wine; odoriferous matter, imparting the characteristic vinous odour, depending chiefly upon the presence of œnanthic acid and ether; bouquet, arising from essential oil or amyl-compounds, probably existing under the form of ethers. Besides these, small quantities of tannin, gum, acetic and malic acid, acetic ether, lime, &c., are found in wine. The specific gravity of wine depends on the richness and ripeness of the grapes used in its manufacture, the nature of the fermentation and its age. It varies from about ·970 to 1·041.

_Purity._ The most frequent species of fraud in the wine trade is the mixing of wines of inferior quality with those of a superior grade. In many cases the inferior kinds of foreign wines are flavoured and substituted for the more expensive ones. This is commonly practised with Cape wines, which, after having a slight ‘nuttiness’ communicated to it by bitter almonds or peach kernels, a lusciousness or fulness by honey, and additional strength by a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made to undergo the operation of ‘fretting in,’ and is then sold for ‘sherry.’ Formerly, it was a common practice of ignorant wine-dealers to add a little litharge or acetate of lead to their inferior wines to correct their acidity, but it is believed that this highly poisonous substance is now never employed in this country, ‘salt of tartar’ being made to perform the same duty. The lead which is frequently detected in bottled wine, and which often causes serious indisposition, may be generally traced to shot being carelessly left in the bottles, and not to wilful fraud. Sherry is commonly coloured in Spain by the addition of must boiled down to 1/5 of its original volume; and in England, by burnt brown sugar, or spirit colouring. Amontillado (a very nutty wine) is frequently added to sherries deficient in flavour. Various other ingredients, as the essential oil of almonds, bitter almonds in substance, cherry-laurel leaves, cherry-laurel water, &c., are also employed for a like purpose. In Portugal the juice of elderberries is very commonly added to port wine to increase its colour, and extract of rhatany for the double purpose of improving its colour and imparting an astringent taste. In England beet-root, Brazil wood, the juices of elderberries and bilberries, the pressed cake of elder wine, extract of logwood, &c., are frequently added to port to deepen its colour; and oak sawdust, kino, alum, and extract of rhatany, to increase its astringency. But the most common adulterant of port wine, both in Portugal and this country, is ‘jerupiga,’ or ‘geropiga,’ a compound of elder juice, brown sugar, grape juice, and crude Portuguese brandy. That imported here contains about 45% of proof spirit, and is allowed by the Custom-house authorities to be mixed with port wine in bond. A factitious bouquet is also commonly given to wine by the addition of sweetbriar, orris root, clary, orange flowers, elder flowers, esprit de petit grain, &c.

_Tests._ These, for the most part, are applicable to all fermented liquors:

1. Richness in alcohol. This may be found by any of the methods noticed under ALCOHOLMETEY, PORTER, and TINCTURE.

2. SACCHARINE and EXTRACTIVE MATTER. The sp. gr. corresponding to the alcoholic strength, last found, is deducted from the real sp. gr. of the sample, the difference divided by ·0025, or multiplied by 400, gives the weight of solid matter (chiefly sugar) in oz. per gallon (nearly).

3. NARCOTICS. These may be detected in the manner noticed at page 1630.

4. LEAD. The presence of lead or litharge in wine may be readily detected by sulphuretted hydrogen, or a solution of any alkaline sulphydrate, which will, in that case, produce a black precipitate. See WINE-TESTS.

5. POTASSA or SODA improperly present. A portion of the wine is evaporated nearly to dryness, and then agitated with rectified spirit; the filtered tincture, holding in solution acetate of potassa, is then divided into two portions, one of which is tested for acetic acid, and the other for the alkali.

6. ALUM. A portion of the wine is evaporated to dryness, and ignited; the residuum is then treated with a small quantity of hydrochloric acid, the mixture evaporated to dryness, again treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and tested with liquor of potassa. If a white bulky precipitate forms, which is soluble in an excess of caustic potassa, and which is reprecipitated by a solution of sal ammoniac, the sample examined contained alum.

7. OIL OF VITRIOL.——_a._ A drop or two of the suspected wine may be poured upon a piece of paper, which must then be dried before the fire. Pure wine at most only stains the paper, but one containing sulphuric acid causes it to become charred and rotten. The effect is more marked on paper which has been previously smeared with starch paste.

_b._ According to M. Lassaigne, pure red wine leaves, by spontaneous evaporation, a violet or purple stain on paper; whilst that to which sulphuric acid has been added, even in quantity, only equal to 1/2000 to 1/3000th part, leaves a pink stain in drying.

8. SPURIOUS COLOURING-MATTER.——_a._ Genuine red wine yields greenish-grey precipitates with sugar of lead, and greenish ones with potassa; but those coloured with elderberries, bilberries, litmus, logwood, and mulberries, give deep blue or violet precipitates, and those coloured with Brazil wood, red sanders wood, or red beet, give red ones.

_b._ Pure red wine is perfectly decoloured by agitation with recent hydrate of lime.

_c._ Dissolve a piece of caustic potash in a small quantity of the liquid to be experimented upon. If no deposit is formed, and the wine assumes a greenish shade, there is no artificial coloration. A violet-coloured deposit indicates the presence of elderberries or mulberries, a red one indicates the presence of beetroot for Brazil wood, red violet that of logwood. If the deposit is blue violet, privet berries have been employed; and if of a pale violet the coloration is due to litmus.

_d._ For the detection of the principal colouring matters employed in the sophistication of wines, M. Chancel proceeds as follows:——He takes 10 c. c. of wine, and adds 3 c.c. of a dilute solution of subacetate of lead, allowing the mixture to subside for a few minutes to make sure that the precipitation is complete. If this is not the case a slight excess of the reagent is added.

After stirring and heating for a few moments it is thrown on a very small filter, the filtrate collected in a test-tube, and the precipitate washed three or four times in hot water. If the filtrate is coloured magenta is present, and may be sought for by the aid of the spectroscope. But if the wine contains a mere trace of this colour, it is retained in the precipitate, and is sought for in the manner directed below. To discover the colouring matter which may be contained in the plumbic precipitate, it is treated upon the filter with a few c.c. of a solution of carbonate of potassa (2 parts of the dry salt to 100 of water), taking care to repass _the same solution_ several times through the precipitate. Any magenta present is thus extracted, along with carminamic (ammoniacal cochineal) and sulphindigotic acid. The colouring matters of logwood and of alkanet remain undissolved.

With a genuine wine the alkaline liquid takes a very faint yellow, or greenish-yellow tint. For the detection of magenta the filtrate is mixed with a few drops of acetic acid, and it is then shaken up with amylic alcohol. The magenta dissolves in this alcohol with a fine rose tint, and its presence is proved by spectroscopic examination. Carminamic and sulphindigotic acids remain in the aqueous solution, and are decanted off. A couple of drops of sulphuric acid are added, and the mixture is again shaken up with amylic alcohol, which now dissolves the ammoniacal cochineal. It may be detected by the spectroscope. The sulphindigotic acid remains undissolved in the amylic alcohol, and may be found in the blue aqueous residual liquor by means of the spectroscope. Logwood is most conveniently sought for in a fresh portion of the wine by digestion with a little precipitated carbonate of lime, adding a few drops of lime-water, and filtering. In a natural wine the filtrate has a faint greenish-yellow colour, but if logwood is present it takes a fine red shade, and the absorption bands of logwood may be detected with the spectroscope. On treating the lead precipitate above mentioned with an alkaline sulphide, washing with boiling water, and then treating with alcohol, the colouring matter of alkanet, if present, is dissolved, and may be detected by spectroscopic examination.[271]

[Footnote 271: ‘Comptes Rendus’, February 19th, 1877 (‘Chem. News’, xxxv, 106).]

_e._ (Dr Dupré.) The colouring matter of pure red wine does not pass through the dialyser. The dialysate from pure wine is therefore colourless, or shows but a slight purplish coloration, such as water would assume on the addition of a small quantity of the wine. A yellow or brownish-yellow dialysate indicates an adulteration with logwood, Brazil wood, or cochineal, the colouring matters of which may be identified by the chemical and optical tests employed for this purpose. The ammoniacal solution of the colouring matter of cochineal yields three well-marked absorption bands.

_f._ For the detection in wine of fuchsine only, the following methods are given by M. E. Jacquemin: 1. A small quantity of gun cotton is heated for a few minutes in 10-20 c.c. of the wine, and then washed with the water. The nature of the coloration (if any) imparted to the cotton is now identified by means of solution of ammonia, which decolorises rosaniline, but turns archil violet.

2. 100 c.c. of the wine are boiled to expel the alcohol, and then boiled for some time with white Berlin wool, previously moistened with water. The colour imparted to the wool by fuchsine is retained after washing, and may be distinguished from archil by ammonia.

3. 100-200 c.c. of the wine are boiled to expel the alcohol, then allowed to cool, mixed with ammonia in excess, and shaken with ether. By immersing white wool in the ethereal solution, and evaporating the latter, the wool acquires the characteristic colour of fuchsine.

9. ARTIFICIAL FLAVOURING. This can only be detected by a discriminating and sensitive palate,

10. ARTIFICIAL BOUQUET. The substances added for this purpose may often be readily detected by a comparison of the sample with another of known purity.

_Uses._ The uses of wine as a beverage are too well known to require description. As a medicine, port wine is most esteemed as an astringent and tonic; and sherry and Madeira as stimulants and restoratives, in diseases where the acidity of the former would be objectionable; champagne is reputed diuretic and excitant, but its effects are not of long duration; and the Rhenish wines are regarded as refrigerant, diuretic, and slightly aperient. Claret, Rhenish, and Moselle wines are said to be the most wholesome. In _pharmacy_, wine is used as a menstruum.

MANAGEMENT OF WINE.

_Age._ The sparkling wines are in their prime in from 18 to 30 months after the vintage, depending on the cellaring and climate. Weak wines, of inferior growths, should be drunk within 12 or 15 months, and be preserved in a very cool cellar. Sound, well-fermented, full-bodied still wines are improved by age, within reasonable limits, provided they be well preserved from the air, and stored in a cool place, having a pretty uniform temperature. See _Maturation_ (_below_).

_Bottling._ The secret of bottling wine with success consists in the simple exercise of care and cleanliness. The bottles should be all sound, clean, and dry, and perfectly free from the least mustiness or other odour. The corks should be of the best quality, and immediately before being placed in the bottles should be compressed by means of a ‘cork-squeezer.’ For superior or very delicate wines, the corks are usually prepared by placing them in a copper or tub, covering them with weights to keep them down, and then pouring over them boiling water holding a little pearlash in solution. In this state they are allowed to remain for 24 hours, when they are well stirred about in the liquor, drained, and re-immersed for a second 24 hours in hot water, after which they are well washed and soaked in several successive portions of clean and warm rainwater, drained, dried out of contact with dust, put into paper bags, and hung up in a dry place for use. The wine should be clear and brilliant, and if it be not so, it must undergo the process of ‘fining’ before being bottled. In fact, it is a common practice with some persons to perform this operation whether the wine require it or not; as, if it had been mixed and doctored, it “amalgamates and ameliorates the various flavours.” The bottles, corks, and wine, being ready, a fine clear day should be preferably chosen for the bottling, and the utmost cleanliness and care should be exercised during the process. Great caution should also be observed to avoid shaking the cask so as to disturb the ‘bottoms.’ The remaining portion that cannot be drawn off clear should be passed through the ‘wine-bag,’ and, when bottled, should be set apart as inferior to the rest. The coopers, to prevent breakage and loss, place each bottle, before corking it, in a small bucket, having a bottom made of soft cork, and which is strapped on the knee of the bottler. They thus seldom break a bottle, though they ‘flog in’ the corks very hard. When the process is complete the bottles of wine are stored in a cool cellar, and on no account upright, or in damp straw, but on their sides, in sweet, dry sawdust, or sand.

_Bouquet._ See _Flavouring_ and _Perfuming_.

_Brandying._ Brandy is frequently added to weak or vapid wines, to increase their strength or to promote their preservation. In Portugal, one third of brandy is commonly added to port before shipping it for England, as without this addition it generally passes into the acetous fermentation during the voyage. A little good brandy is also usually added to sherry before it leaves Spain. By the regulation of the Customs of England, 10% of brandy may be added to wines in bond, and the increased quantity is only charged the usual duty on wine. The addition of brandy to wine injures its proper flavour, and hence it is chiefly made to port, sherry, and other wines, whose flavour is so strong as not to be easily injured. Even when brandy is added to wines of the latter description, they require to be kept for some time to recover their natural flavour. To promote this object, the wine-doctors employ the process called ‘fretting in,’ by which they effect the same change in 3 or 4 weeks, as would otherwise require some months, at the very least.

_Cellaring._ A wine-cellar should be dry at bottom, and either covered with good hard gravel or be paved with flags. Its gratings or windows should open towards the north, and it should be sunk sufficiently below the surface to ensure an equable temperature. It should also be sufficiently removed from any public thoroughfare, so as not to suffer vibration from the passing of carriages. Should it not be in a position to maintain a regular temperature, arrangements should be made to apply artificial heat in winter, and proper ventilation in summer.

_Colouring._ Wines are as commonly doctored in their colour as their flavour. A fawn-yellow and golden-sherry yellow are given by means of tincture or infusion of saffron, turmeric, or safflower, followed by a little spirit colouring, to prevent the colour being too lively. All shades of amber and fawn, to deep brown and brandy colour, are given by burnt sugar. Cochineal (either alone or with a little alum) gives a pink colour; beet-root and red sanders give a red colour; the extracts of rhatany and logwood, and the juice of elderberries, bilberries, &c., give a port-wine colour.

_Crusting._ To make port wine form a crust on the inside of the bottles, a spoonful of powdered catechu, or 1/2 a spoonful of finely powdered cream of tartar, is added to each bottle before corking it, after which the whole is well agitated. It is also a common practice to put the crust on the bottle before putting the wine into it, by employing a hot saturated solution of red tartar, thickened with gum and some powdered tartar.

_Deacetification._ This is effected by the cautious addition of either salt of tartar or carbonate of soda. Wine so treated soon gets insipid by exposure and age; and, without care, the colour of red wines is thus frequently spoiled.

_Deacidification._ See _Detartarization_ (_below_).

_Decanting._ This only refers to small quantities of wine, ready for consumption. In decanting wine, care must be taken not to shake or disturb the crust when moving it about or drawing the cork, particularly of port wine. Never decant wine without a wine-strainer, with some clean fine cambric in it, to prevent the crust and bits of cork going into the decanter. In decanting port wine, do not drain it too close; as there are generally two thirds of a wine-glassful of thick dregs in each bottle, which ought to be rejected. In white wine there is not much settling; but it should nevertheless be poured off very slowly, the bottle being raised gradually.

_Decolouring._ The colour of wine is precipitated by age and by exposure to the light. It is also artificially removed by the action of skimmed milk, lime water, milk of lime, and fresh burnt charcoal. Wine merchants avail themselves of this property for the purpose of whitening wines that have acquired a brown colour from the cask, or which are esteemed pale; and also for turning ‘pricked’ red or dark-coloured wines into white wines, in which a small degree of acidity is not so much perceived. In this way brown sherry is commonly converted into pale or gold-coloured sherry. For the latter purpose, 2 to 3 pints of skimmed milk are usually sufficient; but to decolour red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will be required, according to the nature and intensity of the colour, or the shades of paleness desired. Charcoal is seldom used, as it removes the flavour as well as colour, but a little milk of lime may sometimes be advantageously substituted for milk, when the wine has much acidity, more particularly for red wines, which may even be rendered quite colourless by it.

_Detartarization._ Rhenish wines, even of the most propitious growths, and in the best condition, besides their tartar, contain a certain quantity of free tartaric acid, on the presence of which many of their leading properties depend. The excess of tartar is gradually deposited during the first years of the vatting, the sides of the vessels becoming more and more encrusted with it; but, owing to the continual addition of new wine and other causes, the liquid often gains such an excess of free tartaric acid as to acquire the faculty of redissolving the deposited tartar, which thus again disappears after a certain period. The taste and flavour of the wine are thus exalted, but the excess of acid makes the wine less agreeable in use, and probably less wholesome. Amateurs and manufacturers should therefore welcome a means of taking away the free tartaric acid without altering, in any respect, the quality of the wine. This is pure neutral tartrate of potash. When this salt, in concentrated solution, is added to such a fluid as the above, the free acid combines with the neutral salt, and separates from the liquid under the form of the sparingly soluble bitartrate of potash. “If to 100 parts of a wine which contains one part of free tartaric acid we add 1-1/2 part of neutral tartrate of potash, there will separate on repose at 70° to 75° Fahr., 2 parts of crystallised tartar; and the wine will then contain only 1/2 part of tartar dissolved, in which there are only ·2 part of the original free acid; ·8 part of the original free acid having been withdrawn from the wine.” (Liebig’s ‘Annalen.’) This method is particularly applicable to recent must and to wines which do not contain much free acetic acid; but when this last is the case, so much acetate of potash is formed as occasionally to vitiate the taste of the liquor.

_Fining._ Wine is clarified in a similar manner to beer. White wines are usually fined by isinglass, in the proportion of about 1-1/2 oz. (dissolved in 1-1/2 pint of water, and thinned with some of the wine) to the hogshead. Red wines are generally fined with the whites of eggs, in the proportion of 15 to 20 to the pipe. Sometimes hartshorn shavings, or pale sweet glue, is substituted for isinglass.

_Flatness._ This is removed by the addition of a little new brisk wine of the same kind; or by rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey; or by adding 5 or 6 lbs. of bruised sultana raisins, and 3 or 4 quarts of good brandy, per hogshead. By this treatment the wine will usually be recovered in about a fortnight, except in very cold weather. Should it be wanted sooner, a table-spoonful or two of yeast may be added, and the cask removed to a warmer situation.

_Flavouring._ Various ingredients are added to inferior wines, to give them the flavour of others more expensive, and to British wines, to make them resemble those imported. Substances are also added in a similar manner to communicate the aroma of the high-flavoured grape wines. Among the first are bitter almonds, almond cake, or the essential oil of almonds, or, preferably, its alcoholic solution, which are used to impart a ‘sherry’ or ‘nutty’ taste to weak-flavoured wines, as poor sherry, white cape, and malt, raisin, parsnip, and other similar British wines; rhatany, kino, oak sawdust and bark, alum, &c., to convey astringency, and——tincture of the seeds of raisins, to impart a ‘port wine’ flavour. Among the substances employed to communicate the bouquet of the finer wines, may be mentioned——orris root, eau de fleurs d’oranges, neroli, essence de petit grain, ambergris, vanilla, violet petals, essence of cedrat, sweet briar, clary, and elder flowers, quinces, cherry-laurel water, &c. By the skilful, though fraudulent use of the above flavouring substances and perfumes, the experienced wine-brewer manages to produce, in the dark cellars of London, from white cape, currant, gooseberry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip, and malt wine, very excellent imitations of foreign wine, and which pass current among the majority of English wine-drinkers as the choicest productions of the grape, “genuine as imported.”——A grain or two of ambergris, well rubbed down with sugar and added to a hogshead of claret, gives it a flavour and bouquet much esteemed by some connoisseurs.

_Fretting-in._ See _Sweating-in_ (_below_).

_Improving._ This is the cant term of the wine trade, under which all the adulteration and ‘doctoring’ of wine is carried on. A poor sherry is improved by the addition of a little almond flavour, honey, and spirit; a port deficient in body and astringency, by the addition of some red tartar (dissolved in boiling water), some rhatany, kino, or catechu, and a little honey or foots, and brandy. See _Mixing_ (_below_).

_Insensible Fermentation._ See _Maturation_ (_below_).

_Insipidity._ See _Flatness_ (_above_).

_Maturation._ The natural maturation or ‘ripening’ of wine and beer by age depends upon the slow conversion of the sugar which escaped decomposition in the ‘gyle tun,’ or fermenting vessel, into alcohol. This conversion proceeds most perfectly in vessels which entirely exclude the air, as in the case of wine in bottles; as when air is present, and the temperature sufficiently high, it is accompanied by slow acetification. This is the case of wine in casks, the porosity of the wood allowing the very gradual permeation of the air. Hence the superiority of bottled wine over draught wine, or that which has matured in wood. Good wine, or well-fermented beer, is vastly improved by age when properly preserved; but inferior liquor, or even superior liquor, when preserved in improper vessels or situations, becomes acidulous, from the conversion of its alcohol into vinegar. Tartness or acidity is consequently very generally, though wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a sign of age in liquor. The peculiar change by which fermented liquors become mature or ripe by age is termed the ‘insensible fermentation.’ It is the alcoholic fermentation impeded by the presence of the already formed spirit in the liquor, and by the lowness of the temperature. See _Ripening_ (_below_).

_Mixing._ Few wines are sold without admixture. It is found that the intoxicating properties of wine are increased by mixing them with other wines of a different age and growth. In many cases the flavour is at the same time improved. Thus, a thin port is improved by the addition of a similar wine having a full body, or by a little Malaga, Teneriffe, or rich sherry; and an inferior old sherry may be improved by admixture with a little full-bodied wine of the last vintage. In this consists the great art of ‘cellar management,’ and to such an extent is this carried, both abroad and in England, that it may be confidently asserted that few wines ever reach the consumer in an unmixed or natural state.

_Mustiness._ This may generally be removed by violently agitating the wine for some time with a little of the sweetest olive oil or almond oil. The cause of the bad taste is the presence of an essential oil, which the fixed oil seizes on, and rises with to the surface, when it may be skimmed off; or the liquor under it may be drawn off. A little coarsely powdered fresh-burnt charcoal, or even some slices of bread toasted black, will frequently have a like effect. A little bruised mustard seed is also occasionally used for the same purpose.

_Perfuming._ This is chiefly performed on British wines for family use. For its application to foreign wine, see Flavouring (_above_). Wines may be perfumed by the simple addition of any odorous substances previously well mixed with a little of the wine, or dissolved in a few fluid ounces of rectified spirit.

_Racking._ This should be performed in cool weather, and preferably early in the spring. A clean syphon, well managed, answers better for this purpose than a cock or faucet. The bottoms, or foul portion, may be strained through a wine-bag, and added to some other inferior wine.

_Ripening._ To promote the maturation or ripening of wine, various plans are adopted by the growers and dealers. One of the safest ways of hastening this, especially for strong wines, is not to rack them until they have stood 15 or 18 months upon the lees; or, whether ‘crude’ or ‘racked,’ keeping them at a temperature ranging between 50° and 60° Fahr., in a cellar free from draughts and not too dry. Another method is to remove the corks or bungs, and to substitute bladder tied or fastened air-tight over the openings. Bottled wine, treated in this way, ripens very quickly in a temperate situation. Some dealers add a little dilute sulphuric acid to the coarser wines for the same purpose; but a small quantity of concentrated acetic acid or tartaric acid would be preferable, since these acids are found in all wines. 4 or 5 drops of the former, added to a bottle of some kinds of new wine, immediately give it the appearance of being 2 or 3 years old.

_Ropiness, viscidity; Graisse._ This arises from the wine containing too little tannin or astringent matter to precipitate the gluten, albumen, or other azotised substance, occasioning the malady. Such wine cannot be clarified in the ordinary way, because it is incapable of causing the coagulation or precipitation of the finings. The remedy is to supply the principle in which it is deficient. M. François, of Nantes, prescribes the bruised berries of the mountain ash (1 lb. to the barrel)__ for this purpose. A little catechu, kino, or, better still, rhatany, or the bruised footstalks of the grape, may also be conveniently and advantageously used in the same way. For pale white wines, which are the ones chiefly attacked by the malady, nothing equals a little pure tannin or tannic acid dissolved in proof spirit. See VISCOUS FERMENTATION, MALT LIQUORS, &c.

_Roughening._ See Flavouring (_above_).

_Second fermentation; La-pousse._ Inordinate fermentation, either primary or secondary, in wine or any other fermented liquor, may be readily checked by sulphuration, or by the addition of mustard seed or sulphite of lime. 1 oz. of brimstone, 3/4 to 1 lb. of bruised mustard seed, and about 4 to 8 oz. of sulphite of lime, are fully sufficient for a hogshead. This substance seldom fails of arresting the fermentation.——In addition to the above remedies, a little sulphuric acid is sometimes employed, and the use of black oxide of manganese, or chlorate of potash, has been proposed on theoretical grounds.

_Souring._ This is either occasioned by the wine having been imperfectly fermented, or from its having been kept in too warm a cellar, where it has been exposed to draughts of air or to continual vibrations, occasioned by the passage of loaded vehicles through the adjoining thoroughfare. The remedy commonly recommended in books for this purpose is to saturate the acid with chalk, milk of lime, or calcined oyster shells; but such additions, made in sufficient quantity to effect this object, destroy the character of the wine, and render it sickly and vapid. The best and only safe remedy is a little neutral tartrate of potash, cautiously added; or it may be mixed with a considerable portion of full-bodied new wine of its class, adding at the same time a little brandy, and in two or three weeks fining it down, when it should be either at once put into bottles, or consumed as soon as possible. See Deacetification and Detartarisation. (_above_).

_Sparkling, creaming, and briskness._ These properties are conveyed to wine by racking it into closed vessels before the fermentation is complete, and while there still remains a considerable portion of undecomposed sugar. Wine of this description, which has lost its briskness, may be restored by adding to each bottle a few grains of white lump sugar or sugar candy. This is the way in which champagne is treated in France. The bottles are afterwards inverted, by which means any sediment that forms falls into the necks, when the corks are partially withdrawn, and the sediment is immediately expelled by the elastic force of the compressed carbonic acid. If the wine remains muddy, a little solution of sugar and finings are added, and the bottles are again placed in a vertical position, and, after two or three months, the sediment is discharged, as before.

_Sweating-in._ The technical terms ‘sweating-in’ and ‘fretting in’ are applied to the partial production of a second fermentation, for the purpose of mellowing down the flavour of foreign ingredients (chiefly brandy), added to wine. For this purpose 4 or 5 lbs. of sugar or honey, with a little crude tartar (dissolved), are commonly added per hogshead; and when the wine is wanted in haste, a spoonful or two of yeast, or a few bruised vine leaves, are also mixed in, the cask being placed in a moderately warm situation until the new fermentation is established, when it is removed to the wine cellar, and, after a few days, ‘fined down.’

_Taste of Cask._ The remedies for this malady are the same as those for mustiness.

⁂ For further information connected with the nature and management of wines, and other fermented liquors, see BREWING, FERMENTATION, MALT LIQUORS, PORTER, SUGAR, SYRUP, VINOUS FERMENTATION, VISCOUS F., WORT, YEAST, &c., and _below_.

=Wine, British.= The various processes in British wine-making depend upon the same principles, and resemble those employed for foreign wine.

The FRUIT should be preferably gathered in fine weather, and not until mature, as evinced by its flavour; for if it be employed whilst unripe, the resulting wine will be harsh, disagreeable, and unwholesome, and a larger quantity of sugar and spirit will be required to render it palatable. The common practice of employing unripe gooseberries for the manufacture of British champagne arises from a total ignorance of the scientific principles of wine-making. On the other hand, if ordinary British fruit be employed in too ripe a state, the wine is apt to be inferior, and deficient in the flavour of the fruit.

The FRUIT, being gathered, at once undergoes the operation of picking or garbling, for the purpose of removing the stalks and unripe or damaged portions. It is next placed in a tub, and is well bruised, to facilitate the solvent action of the water. Raisins are commonly permitted to soak about 24 hours previously to bruising them, but they may be advantageously bruised or minced in the dry state. The bruised fruit is then put into a vat or vessel with a guard placed over the tap-hole, to keep back the husks and seeds of the fruit when the must, juice, or extract is drawn off. The water is now added, and the whole is allowed to macerate for 30 to 40 hours, more or less, during which time the magma is frequently roused up with a suitable wooden stirrer. The liquid portion is next drawn off, and the residuary pulp is placed in hair bags, and undergoes the operation of pressing, to expel the fluid which it contains. The sugar, tartar (in very fine powder or in solution), &c., are now added to the mixed liquors, and the whole is well stirred or ‘rummaged’ up for some time. The temperature being suitable, the vinous fermentation soon commences, when the liquor is frequently skimmed (if necessary), and well ‘roused’ up, and, after 3 or 4 days of this treatment, it is run into casks, which should be quite filled, and left purging at the bung-hole. In about a week the flavouring ingredients, in the state of coarse powder, are commonly added, and well stirred in; and in about another week, depending upon the state of the fermentation, and the attenuation of the must, the brandy or spirit is added, and the cask is filled up, and bunged down close. In four or five weeks more the cask is again filled up, and, after some weeks, (the longer the better), it is ‘pegged’ or ‘spiled,’ to ascertain if it be fine or transparent; if so, it undergoes the operation of racking; but if, on the contrary, it still continues muddy, it must be either again bunged up, and allowed to repose for a few weeks longer, or it must pass through the process of fining. Its future treatment is similar to that already noticed under FOREIGN WINE. (See _above_.)

The must of many of the strong-flavoured fruits, as black currants, mulberries, &c., is improved by being boiled before being made into wine. The flavour and bouquet of the more delicate fruits are either greatly diminished or utterly dissipated by boiling.

_General Formulæ_ for the _Preparation_ of BRITISH WINES:

1. From ripe saccharine fruits. Take of the ripe fruit, 4 to 6 lbs.; clear soft water, 1 gall.; sugar, 3 to 5 lbs.; cream of tartar (dissolved in boiling water), 1-1/4 oz.; brandy, 2 to 3% flavouring, as required. If the full proportions of fruit and sugar are used, the product will be good without the brandy, but better with it. 1-1/2 lb. of raisins may be substituted for each pound of sugar.

In the above way are made the following wines:——Gooseberry wine (‘British champagne’);——currant wine (red, white, or black);——mixed fruit wine (currants and gooseberries, or black, red, and white currants, ripe black-heart cherries, and raspberries, equal part), a good family wine;——cherry wine;——colepress’s wine (from apples and mulberries, equal part); elder wine;——strawberry wine;——raspberry wine;——mulberry wine (when flavoured, makes ‘British port’);——whortleberry wine (bilberry wine), makes a good factitious ‘port’;——blackberry wine;——damson wine (makes good factitious ‘port’);——morella wine;——apricot wine;——apple wine;——grape wine, &c.

2. From dry saccharine fruit (as raisins). Take of the dried fruit, 4-1/2 to 7-1/2 lbs.; clear soft water, 1 gall.; cream of tartar (dissolved), 1 oz.; brandy, 1-1/2 to 4%. Should the dried fruit employed be at all deficient in saccharine matter, 2 to 3 lbs. of it may be omitted, and half that quantity of sugar, or two thirds of raisins added. In the above way are made——date wine,——fig wine,——raisin wine, &c.

3. From ACIDULOUS, ASTRINGENT, or SCARCELY RIPE FRUITS, or those which are deficient in saccharine matter. Take of the picked fruit, 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 lbs.; sugar, 3-1/2 to 5-1/2 lbs.; cream of tartar (dissolved), 1/2 oz.; water, 1 gall.; brandy, 2 to 6%.

In the above way are made——gooseberry wine (‘British champagne’);——bullace wine (which makes an excellent ‘factitious port’);——damson wine, &c.

4. From FOOTSTALKS, LEAVES, CUTTINGS, &c. By infusing them in water, in the proportion of 3 to 6 lbs. to the gall., or q. s. to give a proper flavour, or to form a good saccharine liquor; and adding 2-1/2 to 4 lbs. of sugar to each gall. of the strained liquor, 1-1/2 lb. of raisins may be substituted for each lb. of sugar.

In the above way are made——grape wine (from the pressed cake of grapes);——English grape wine;——rhubarb wine (‘Bath champagne,’ ‘patent c,’), from garden rhubarb;——celery wine, &c.

5. From SACCHARINE ROOTS and STEMS OF PLANTS. Take of the bruised, rasped, or sliced vegetable, 4 to 6 lbs.; boiling water, 1 gall.; infuse until cold, press out the liquor, and to each gall. add of sugar 3 to 4 lbs.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; brandy, 2 to 5%. For some roots and stems the water must not be very hot, as they are thus rendered troublesome to press.

In the above way are made——beet-root wine (‘British Roussillon’);——parsnip wine (‘British malmsey’);——turnip w., &c.

6. From FLOWERS, SPICES, AROMATICS, &c. These are prepared by simply infusing a sufficient quantity of the bruised ingredient for a few days in any simple wine (as that from sugar, honey, raisins, &c.) after the active fermentation is complete, or, at all events, a few weeks before racking them.

In the above way are made——clary wine (‘muscadel’), from flowers, 1 quart to the gall.;——cowslip wine (flowers, 2 quarts to the gall.);——elder-flower wine (‘Frontignac’), flowers of white-berried elder, 3/4 pint, and lemon juice, 3 fl. oz., to the gall.;——ginger wine (1-1/4 oz. of ginger to the gall.);——orange wine (1 dozen sliced oranges per gall.);——lemon wine (juice of 12 and rinds of 6 lemons to the gall.);——spruce wine (1/4 oz. of essence of spruce per gall.);——juniper wine (berries, 3/4 pint per gall.);——peach wine (4 or 5 sliced, and the stones broken, to the gall.);——apricot wine (as peach wine, or with more fruit);——quince wine (12 to the gall.); rose clove gillyflower, carnation, lavender, violet, primrose, and other flower wines (distilled water, 1-1/2 pint, or flowers, 1 pint to the gall.);——balm wine (balm tops, 4 oz. per gall.) &c.

7. From SACCHARINE JUICES, or INFUSIONS, or from fermented liquors. Take of the juice or liquor, 1 gall.; honey or sugar, 2 to 3 lbs. (or raisins, 3 to 5 lbs.); cream of tartar, 1-1/4 oz.; brandy, 2 to 4%.

In this way are made——English grape wine;——mixed fruit wine——pine-apple wine;——cider wine;——elder wine;——birch wine (from the sap, at the end of February or beginning of March); sycamore wine (from the sap);——malt wine (‘English Madeira’), from strong wort;——and the wines of any of the saccharine juices of ripe fruit.

8. From SIMPLE SACCHARINE MATTER. Take of sugar, 3 to 4, lbs.; cream of tartar, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 gall.; honey, 1 lb.; brandy, 2 to 4%. A handful of grape leaves or cuttings, bruised, or a pint of good malt wort, or mild ale, may be substituted for the honey. Chiefly used as the basis for other wines, as it has little flavour of its own; but makes a good ‘British champagne.’

_Obs._ In all the preceding formulæ lump sugar is intended when the wines are required very pale, and good Muscovado sugar when this is not the case. Some of the preceding wines are vastly improved by substituting good cider, perry, or pale ale or malt wort, for the whole or a portion of the water. Good porter may also be advantageously used in this way for some of the deep-coloured red wines. When expense is no object, and very strong wines are wanted, the expressed juices of the ripe fruits, with the addition of 3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gall., may be substituted for the fruit in substance, and the water.

Examples of BRITISH IMITATIONS OF FOREIGN WINES:

AMERICAN HONEY WINE. From good honey, 21 lbs.; cider, 12 galls.; ferment, then add, of rum, 5 pints; brandy, 2 quarts; red or white tartar (dissolved), 6 oz.; bitter almonds and cloves, of each, bruised, 1/4 oz.; powdered capsicum, 3 dr. This is also called ‘mead wine.’ With the addition of 3 oz. of unbleached Jamaica ginger (finely grated), it forms the best American ginger wine.

BRITISH BURGUNDY. By adding a little lemon juice, and a ‘streak’ of orris or orange-flower water, to ‘British port,’ the ingenious wine-brewer converts it into ‘British Burgundy.’ It is also made by mixing together equal parts of ‘British port’ and claret.

BRITISH CAPE. 1. (White.) Raisin wine, well attenuated by fermentation, either alone or worked up with a little cider and pale malt wort.

2. (Red.) British white cape, sound rough cider and mulberry wine, equal parts; well mixed and fined down.

BRITISH CHAMPAGNE. 1. From stoned raisins, 7 lbs.; loaf sugar, 21 lbs.; water, 9 galls.;. crystallised tartaric acid, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1/2 oz.; Narbonne honey, 1 lb.; sweet yeast, 1/4 pint; ferment, skimming frequently, and, when the fermentation is nearly over, add, of coarsely powdered orris root, 1 dr.; eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1/4 pint; and lemon juice, 1 pint; in 3 months fine it down with isinglass, 1/4 oz.; in 1 month more, if not sparkling, again fine it down, and in another fortnight bottle it, observing to put a piece of double-refined white sugar, the size of a pea, into each bottle; lastly, wire down the corks, and cover them with tin-foil, after the manner of champagne.

2. As the preceding, but substituting 32 lbs. of double-refined sugar for the sugar and raisins therein ordered, with the addition of 3 galls. of rich pale-coloured brandy.

3. From amber hairy champagne gooseberries, English grape juice, or the stalks of garden rhubarb, and lump sugar; with a little sweetbriar, orris, or orange-flower water, to impart a slight bouquet. The last forms what is known as ‘patent’ or ‘Bath champagne.’

4. (Pink.) To either of the preceding add red currant juice, q. s. to colour; or 1 oz. of coarsely powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12 galls. at the time of racking.

_Obs._ It is notorious that two bottles of wine out of every three sold for ‘genuine champagne’ in England is of British manufacture. “We have ourselves seen sparkling gooseberry, rhubarb, and white sugar wines, sold for imported champagne, at 7s. 6d. per bottle, and the fraud has passed undetected, even by habitual wine drinkers. (Cooley.)

BRITISH CLARET. 1. Rich old cider or perry and port wine, equal parts.

2. To each gall. of the last add of cream of tartar (genuine), 3 dr., with the juice of 1 lemon. Sometimes 1/4 pint of French brandy is also added.

_Obs._ If these mixtures are well fined down, and not bottled for at least a month or 5 weeks, they closely resemble good ‘Bordeaux.’ A mixture of 4 parts of raisin wine, with 1 part each of raspberry and barberry or damson wine, also forms, when so treated, an excellent factitious ‘claret.’

BRITISH CYPRUS. From the juice of white elderberries, 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar, 4 lbs., to water, 1 gall.; together with 1/2 dr. each of bruised ginger and cloves. When racked, add minced raisins and brandy, of each 2 oz.

BRITISH HOCK, BRITISH RED HOCK. From cream of tartar, 1-1/4 oz.; tartaric acid, 1/2 oz. (both in extremely fine powder); juices of the purple plum, ripe apples, and red beet, of each (warmed), 5 pints; lemon juice, 1 pint; with white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs. per gall.

BRITISH MADEIRA. From very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls., sugar candy, 28 lbs., and cream of tartar, 3 oz.; fermented with yeast, 2 lb., adding, when the fermentation is nearly finished, raisin wine, 2-1/2 galls.; brandy and sherry wine, of each 2 galls.; rum and brandy, of each 3 pints; after 6 or 9 months, fine it down, and in another month bottle it. See BRITISH SHERRY (_below_).

BRITISH MALMSEY. From sliced or grated parsnips, 4 lbs.; boiling water, 1 gall.; when cold, press out the liquor, and to each gallon add of cream of tartar, 1/2 oz., and good Muscovado sugar, 3 lbs.; ferment, rack, and add of brandy, 3 to 5%. Good Malaga raisins may be substituted for the sugar.

BRITISH RED MOSELLE. The last, coloured with clarified elderberry juice.

BRITISH SPARKLING MOSELLE. From rich cider apples (carefully peeled and garbled), pressed with 1-4th of their weight of white magnum-bonum plums (previously stoned), and the juice fermented with 2-1/2 lbs. of double-refined sugar per gall., as champagne.

BRITISH MUSCADEL. As ‘British sparkling Moselle,’ with some infusion of clary, or of the musk plant, to flavour it.

BRITISH PORT, LONDON P., SOUTHAMPTON P. 1. From red cape, 2 galls.; damson or elder wine, 1 gall.; brandy, 1/2 pint; powdered kino, 1/2 oz.

2. Strong old cider, 6 galls.; elderberry juice, 4 galls.; sloe juice, 3 galls.; sugar, 28 lbs.; powdered extract of rhatany, 1 lb.; at the time of racking add, brandy, 1/2 gall.; good port wine, 2 galls.

3. Good port, 12 galls.; rectified spirit, 6 galls.; French brandy, 3 galls.; strong rough cider, 42 galls.; mix in a well-sulphured cask. (‘Publican’s Guide.’)

4. Port wine, 8 galls.; brandy, 6 galls.; sloe juice, 4 galls.; strong rough cider, 45 galls.; as the last. (‘Licensed Victuallers’ Companion.’)

5. Cider, 24 galls.; juice of elderberries, 6 galls.; sloe juice, 4 galls.; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; brandy, 1-1/2 gall.; powdered rhatany. 7 lbs.; isinglass, 4 oz., dissolved in a gall. of the cider; bung it down; in 3 months it will be fit to bottle, but should not be drunk until the next year; if a rougher flavour is required, the quantity of rhatany may be increased, or alum, 5 or 6 oz. (dissolved), may be added.

BRITISH SHERRY. 1. From cape or raisin wine, slightly flavoured with a very little bitter-almond cake, or, what is more convenient, a little of the essential oil dissolved in alcohol (essence of bitter almonds). A mere ‘streak’ or ‘thread’ of sweet-briar, eau de fleurs d’oranges, or orris, is occasionally added by way of bouquet; but care must be taken not to overdo it.

2. To each gallon of strong raisin must, add, when racking, 1 Seville orange, and 3 or 4 bitter almonds, both sliced. By omitting the almonds, and adding 1 green citron to each 2 or 3 gallons, this forms ‘British madeira.’

3. Very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls.; finest Muscovado sugar, 1 cwt.; yeast, 1 pint; ferment; on the third day add of raisins, stoned, 14 lbs., and in another week add, of rectified spirit, 1 gall., rum, 1/2 gall., and bitter almonds, grated, 1-1/4 oz.; bung down for 4 months, then draw it off into another cask, add of brandy, 1 gall., and in 3 months bottle it.

4. Teneriffe, slightly flavoured with cherry-laurel or bitter almonds, forms an excellent ‘British sherry,’ either alone or diluted with an equal quantity of cape or raisin wine, or good perry.

BRITISH TOKAY. To good cider, 18 galls.; add, of elderberry juice, 1/2 gall.; honey, 28 lbs.; sugar, 14 lbs.; red argol (powdered), 3/4 lb.; crystallised tartaric acid, 3 oz.; mix, boil, ferment, and, when the active fermentation is complete, add of brandy, 1 gall., and suspend in the liquor, from the bung-hole, a mixture of cassia and ginger, of each 1/2 oz.; cloves and capsicum, of each 1/4 oz.; the whole bruised, and loosely enclosed in a coarse muslin bag. It will be ripe in 12 months.

_Obs._ Some of the preceding formulæ, by skilful management, produce very good imitations of some of the imported wines; but (prejudice aside) many of the British fruit wines possess an equally agreeable flavour, and are frequently more wholesome. All British wines require to be kept at least a year, to ‘mellow.’ Much of the superiority of foreign wines arises from its age.

=WINES (Culinary).= _Syn._ WINES FOR KITCHEN USE. These are prepared in a similar manner to the MEDICATED WINES noticed below.

=Wine, Basil.= _Prep._ From green basil leaves, 4 or 5 oz.; sherry, cape, or raisin wine, 1 pint; digest for 10 days, press, and strain. Used to give a turtle flavour to soups and gravies. In a similar way may be made the wines of celery leaves, celery seed, sage, shallots, and the various green and dried herbs used in cookery.

=Wine, Cayenne.= _Prep._ From capsicum or cayenne, 1 oz.; cape, 1 pint; steep for a fortnight, and strain.

_Obs._ In a similar way may be made currie (powder), ragout (spice), and several other similar wines used in the kitchen.

=WINES (Medicated).= _Syn._ IMPREGNATED WINES; VINA MEDICATA, L. The medicated wines of pharmacy are prepared by cold maceration, in well-closed vessels, in precisely the same way as the tinctures. In the Ph. L. of 1824, a diluted spirit was substituted for wine, without altering the name of the preparation; but the use of wine (sherry) was restored in that of 1836. The druggists commonly use cape or raisin wine as a menstruum, from its being cheaper than sherry, and, perhaps, scarcely less power as a solvent. The ‘vinum’ of the Ph. U. S. was formerly Teneriffe. Dr B. Lane’s process for preparing medicated wines by fermentation is noticed at the end of the alphabetical list given below.

“Medicated wines should be kept in stoppered glass vessels, and be frequently shaken during maceration.” (Ph. L.)

The following are the principal medicated wines at present in use:

=Wine of Acetate of Iron.= _Syn._ VINUM FERRI ACETATIS. (Soubeiran.) _Prep._ Acetate of iron, 32 gr. white wine, 16 oz.

=Wine, Alkaline Diuretic.= _Syn._ VINUM ALKALINUM DIURETICUM; (Sydenham). _Prep._ Ashes of broom, 12 oz.; Rhenish wine, 4 pints.——_Dose_, 3 oz. twice a day.

=Wine of Al′oes.= _Syn._ VINUM ALOËS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCTURA SACRA†, TINCT. HIERÆ PICRƆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1-1/2 oz.; ginger, in coarse powder, 80 gr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 80 gr.; sherry, 40 oz.; digest seven days, strain, and make it up to 40.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 2 oz.; powdered canella, 1/2 oz.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and filter. In the Ph. E. cardamoms and ginger, of each 1-1/2 dr., are substituted for canella.——_Dose._ As a purgative, 1/2 to 2 fl. oz.; as a stomachic, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Wine of Aloes (Al′kaline).= _Syn._ VINUM ALOËS ALKALINUM, L. _Prep._ (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Carbonate of soda, 3 oz.; myrrh and extract of aloes, of each 6 dr.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4-1/2 dr.; sherry, 24 fl. oz. (say 1-1/4 pint); macerate, as before. In dyspepsia, chlorosis, &c.——_Dose._ As the last.

=Wine, Antimo′′nial.= _Syn._ TARTAR EMETIC WINE; WINE OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY; VINUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS (Ph. L.), V. ANTIMONIALE (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Tartarated antimony, 2 gr.; sherry, 1 oz.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 minims. (In consequence of the insolubility of the tartarated antimony in the sherry, Squire recommends it to be dissolved in about ten times its weight of hot water, and that the wine be added to the solution.)

2. (Ph. L. & E.) Potassio-tartrate of antimony, 40 gr.; sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Each fluid oz. contains 2 gr. of emetic tartar.——_Dose._ As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 30 drops, frequently; as a nauseant, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as an emetic, 2 to 4 fl. dr. The corresponding compound of the Ph. D. is ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI LIQUOR. See SOLUTION OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY.

=Wine, Antiscorbutic.= _Syn._ VINUM ANTISCORBUTICUM (P. Cod.). _Prep._ Fresh horseradish root, 3 oz.; scurvy-grass, 1-1/2 oz.; watercress leaves, 1-1/2 oz.; buckbean, 1-1/2 oz.; mustard seed, 1-1/2 oz.; chloride of ammonium, 5-1/2 dr.; wine, 5 pints; compound spirit of scurvy-grass, 1-3/4 oz.

=Wine, Aromatic.= _Syn._ VINUM AROMATICUM. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Aromatic species, 1 oz.; vulnerary tincture, 1 oz.; red wine, 10 oz. For outward use. M. Ricord sometimes adds from 1 to 6 per cent. of tannin.

=Wine of Bark.= _Syn._ VINUM CINCHONÆ (P. Cod.) Yellow bark, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz. (by weight). Macerate 24 hours and add, red wine, 5 pints. Macerate for 10 days, shaking it occasionally; strain with expression, and filter.

=Wine of Bark (Compound).= _Syn._ VINUM CINCHONÆ COMPOSITUM. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Yellow bark, 1 oz.; bitter orange peel, 44 gr.; chamomiles, 44 gr.; alcohol, (·864) 1 oz. (by weight); white wine, 9 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 10 days.

=Wine of Bark, Muriated.= _Syn._ VINUM CINCHONÆ MURIATUM. _Prep._ Ammonio-citrate of iron, 1/2 oz.; wine of pale Peruvian bark, 5 pints (made with double the quantity of bark contained in the yellow); dissolve the ammonio-citrate in twice its weight of distilled water, and add to the wine.

=Wine of Bitter Sweet.= _Syn._ VINUM DULCAMARÆ (Dr Currie). _Prep._ Dulcamara stalks and leaves, 1 lb.; sherry, 2 pints. Macerate for 14 days, and strain.

=Wine of Buchu.= _Syn._ VINUM BUCHU (Brandes). _Prep._ Buchu leaves, 2-1/2 oz.; white wine, 1 pint.

=Wine of Cachina.= _Syn._ VINUM CACINÆ. _Prep._ Cachina, bruised, 1 oz.; Malaga wine, 16 oz. Macerate for 6 days, and strain.

=Wine, Camphorated.= _Syn._ VINUM CAMPHORATUM. (Ph. G.) Camphor and gum acacia in powder, of each 1/2 oz. Mix accurately and gradually. Add 24 oz. (by weight) of white wine.

=Wine of Cascarilla.= _Syn._ VINUM CASCARILLÆ (Bernardeau). _Prep._ Cascarilla, 1 oz.; Malaga wine, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1 oz., twice a day in consumption.

=Wine of Catechu.= _Syn._ VINUM CATECHU (Soubeiran). _Prep._ Tincture of catechu, 1 part; red wine, 12-1/2 parts. Mix, and after a few days, filter.

=Wine of Centaury (Compound).= _Syn._ VINUM CENTAURII COMPOSITUM. HOFFMAN’S ELIXIR VISCERALE. _Prep._ Centaury, orange peel, extract of blessed thistle, gentian, myrrh, cascarilla, each 1 dr.; sherry, 2 pints.

=Wine, Chalyb′eate.= See WINE OF IRON.

=Wine of Cinnamon.= _Syn._ VINUM CINNAMOMI (Beral). _Prep._ Cinnamon, 1 oz.; alicant wine, 16 oz.; macerate and filter. Sugar is sometimes added.

=Wine of Citrate of Iron.= _Syn._ VINUM FERRI CITRATIS. (B. P.) Dissolve 140 grains of citrate of iron and ammonia in 1 pint of orange wine; let the solution remain for 3 days in a closed vessel, shaking occasionally; then filter.

=Wine of Col′chicum.= _Syn._ WINE OF COLCHICUM ROOT; VINUM COLCHICI (B. P.); VINUM RADICIS COLCHICI (Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Colchicum corms, dried and sliced, 4; sherry, 20; macerate seven days and strain.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of meadow saffron (sliced), 8 oz.; sherry wine, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, and strain (press strongly the residuum and filter the mixed liquor——Ph. E.). A powerful sedative and purgative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, acute rheumatism, and other painful and inflammatory and nervous affections.

_Obs._ The celebrated EAU MÉDICINALE of M. Husson (AQUA MEDICINALES HUSSONII) resembles, in composition and action, the above preparation in every point except its strength, which, we believe, is much above that of the wine of the British Colleges.

=Wine of Colchicum Seed.= _Syn._ VINUM SEMINIS COLCHICI, V. SEMINUM C., L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S. & Dr Williams.) Seeds of meadow saffron (preferably ground in a coffee-mill), 2 oz.; sherry, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days.——_Dose_, 1 to 1-1/2 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

=Wine, Emet′ic.= See ANTIMONIAL WINE, WINE OF IPECACUANHA, &c.

=Wine of Colocynth.= _Syn._ VINUM COLOCYNTHIDIS (Van Mons). _Prep._ Colocynth, 2 oz.; white wine, 24 oz. Macerate for 8 days, and filter.

=Wine of Elecampane.= _Syn._ VINUM INULÆ. As wine of wormwood.

=Wine of Ergot.= _Syn._ VINUM ERGOTÆ (Ph. U. S.) _Prep._ Fluid extract of ergot (Ph. U. S.), 2 oz. (o. m.); white wine, 14 oz. (o. m.). Mix and filter.

=Wine of Foxglove.= _Syn._ VINUM DIGITALIS. (Ph. Port.) _Prep._ Dried foxglove, 1 oz.; good white wine, 32 oz. Macerate for 4 days, and strain.

=Wine of Gen′tian.= _Syn._ BITTER WINE, TONIC W.; VINUM AMARA, V. GENTIANÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Gentian, in coarse powder, 1/2 oz.; yellow bark (do.), 1 oz.; dried orange peel, 2 dr.; canella, in coarse powder, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 4-1/2 fl. oz.; digest for 24 hours, then add of sherry 1 pint and 16 fl. oz., and further digest for 7 days. Tonic and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3/4 fl. oz.

=Wine of Hedge Hyssop.= _Syn._ VINUM GRATIOLÆ (Niemann). _Syn._ Hedge hyssop, 2 dr.; white wine, 16 dr. Digest at a gentle heat for 4 hours, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 oz.; frequently in hypochondriasis.

=Wine of Hel′lebore.= See WINE OF WHITE HELLEBORE.

=Wine of Holly.= _Syn._ VINUM ILICIS (Rousseau). Powdered holly leaves, 2 dr.; white wine, 6 oz. Infuse for 12 hours.

=Wine of Iodide of Iron.= _Syn._ VINUM FERRI IODIDI (Pierquin). _Prep._ Iodide of iron, 4 dr.; Bordeaux wine, 1 pint.

=Wine of Ipecacuan′ha.= _Syn._ EMETIC WINE; VINUM IPECACUANHÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Ipecacuanha, bruised, 1; sherry, 20; macerate seven days, shaking occasionally, strain, and make up to 20.——_Dose._ As an expectorant, 5 to 40 minims; as an emetic, 3 to 6 dr.

2. Ipecacuanha root, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days, and strain, with, expression——Ph. D.). This is a mild and excellent preparation.——_Dose._ As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 40 drops, in coughs, diarrhœa, dysentery, dyspepsia, &c.; as an emetic, 2 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz., in divided doses; as an emetic for infants and young children, 1/2 teaspoonful every 10 or 15 minutes until it operates.

=Wine of I′ron.= _Syn._ CHALYBEATE WINE, STEEL W.; VINUM FERRI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Fine iron wire (No. 35), 1 oz.; sherry, 20 oz.; digest thirty days with frequent agitation. The bottle to be corked, but the wire not wholly immersed.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Iron wire, 1 oz.; sherry, 1 quart; digest, with frequent agitation, for 30 days, and strain. Each fl. oz. contains less than 1-1/2 gr. of metallic iron.

3. Ammonio-tartrate of iron (Aikin’s), 1-1/2 dr.; sherry, 1 pint; dissolve. Frequently substituted for the last, especially when the preparation is required in a hurry.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 fl. dr.; as a mild chalybeate.

_Obs._ The formula for WINE OF IRON was modified in the Ph. L. 1824, omitted in that of 1836, and restored, in its original character, in that of 1851.

=Wine of Liquorice.= _Syn._ VINUM GLYCYRRHIZÆ, FULLER’S SWEET TINCTURE. _Prep._ Liquorice (Italian juice), 1 oz.; cochineal, 2 scruples; canary wine, 2 pints. Sometimes 1 drachm of saffron is added.

=Wine of Malate of Iron.= Iron wire steeped in cider.

=Wine of Mea′dow Saf′fron.= WINE OF COLCHICUM.

=Wine of Olive.= _Syn._ VINUM OLIVÆ (Louis). _Prep._ Fresh olive leaves, 2 oz.; white wine 32 oz. Half a glass twice a day.

=Wine of Onion.= _Syn._ VINUM CEPÆ. _Prep._ Two onions, sliced; white wine, 1-1/2 pint. Digest and strain. For gravel.

=Wine of O′′pium.= _Syn._ SYDENHAM’S LIQUID LAUDANUM†; VINUM OPII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCTURA, THEBAICA†, LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM SYDENHAM†, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Extract of opium, 1 oz.; cinnamon bark, 75 gr.; cloves, 75 gr.; sherry wine, 20 oz.; macerate for seven days and filter.——_Dose_, 10 to 40 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Extract of opium (Ph. L.), 2-1/2 oz.; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.), and filter. In the Ph. E., opium, 3 oz., and in the Ph. D., opium, in coarse powder, 3 oz., are ordered, instead of extract of opium. The Dublin College also omits the aromatics.

3. (Wholesale.) From extract of opium, 11 oz.; oil of cassia, 25 drops; oil of cloves, 20 drops; wine, 1 gall. (or rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; water, 6-1/2 pints; colouring, q. s.); digest, with agitation, until dissolved. Milder than the tincture.——_Dose_, 10 to 40 drops; as an anodyne and hypnotic.

=Wine of Opium (Fermented).= _Syn._ ROUSSEAU’S LAUDANUM, BLACK-DROP; VINUM OPII FERMENTATIONE PARATUM, GUTTA NIGRA, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Opium, 4 oz.; boiling water, 5 lbs.; dissolve, add of honey, 1 lb.; yeast, 2 dr.; keep it at 86° Fahr. for a month, or until the fermentation is complete; then press, filter, distil off 16 oz., and evaporate the residuum to 10 oz.; distil the 16 oz. of spirit obtained above until 12 oz. have passed over, and from this, by a third distillation, obtain 4-1/2 oz., which add to the evaporated solution (10 oz.), and filter. About four times as strong as tincture of opium. See DROP, BLACK.

=Wine of Orange.= _Syn._ VINUM AURANTII (B. P.) _Prep._ Made in Britain by the fermentation of a saccharine solution, to which the fresh peel of the bitter orange has been added, contains 12 per cent. of alcohol, and is but slightly acid to test-paper.

=Wine of Pepsin.= _Syn._ VINUM PEPSINI (Ph. G.). _Prep._ Remove by hard scraping, by means of a bone knife, the pepsin from the mucous membrane of a previously washed, freshly killed, pig’s or ox’s fourth stomach, and mix 10 drams of it with 5 drams (by weight) of glycerin diluted with 5 drams of water; put into a large flask and shake up vigorously with 13-1/2 oz. (by weight) of white wine, and 1/2 dr. (by weight) of hydrochloric acid. Macerate for 3 days at 68° Fahr., frequently shaking, and filter.

=Wine of Potas′sio-tartrate of Antimony.= See WINE, ANTIMONIAL (_above_).

=Wine of Quinine.= _Syn._ VINUM QUINLÆ (B. P.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinina, 20 gr.; citric acid, 30 gr.; orange wine, 20 oz.; dissolve the citric acid and then the sulphate of quinia in the wine; digest three days and filter.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 oz.

2. (Magendie.) Sulphate of quinine, 14 gr.; sherry, 1 quart; agitate frequently for some time. “The sulphate of quinine requires to be dissolved in a little dilute sulphuric acid before it is added to the wine.” (Dr Hayes.)——_Dose_, 1 wine-glassful, as a tonic and stomachic.

=Wine of Quinine, Aromatic.= _Syn._ VINUM QUINIÆ AROMATICUM. DR COLLIER’S AROMATIC QUININE WINE. _Prep._ Disulphate of quinine, 18 gr.; citric acid, 15 gr.; sound orange wine, 1 bottle (24 fl. oz.).

=Wine of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ VINUM RHEI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. TINCTURA RHÆI VINOSA. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 1-1/2; canella bark, 1/8; sherry, 20; macerate seven days, filter, and make up to 20.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. B.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 5 oz.; canella, in coarse powder, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 5 fl. oz.; sherry, 1-3/4 pint; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 3 oz.; canella, 2 dr.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate 14 days. Weaker than the last.——_Dose._ As a stomachic, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a purgative, 1/2 to 1 fl. oz., or more. It does not keep well.

=Wine of Sarsaparilla.= _Syn._ VINUM SARSAPARILLÆ (Beral). _Prep._ Alcoholic extract of sarsaparilla, 1 oz.; white wine, 16 oz.

=Wine of Senna.= _Syn._ VINUM SENNÆ (Ph. Swed.). _Prep._ Senna, 4 oz.; coriander seed, 2 dr.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; sherry, 2-1/2 lbs. Digest for 3 days, add stoned raisins, 3-1/2 oz. Macerate for 24 hours, and strain with expression.

=Wine of Squills.= _Syn._ VINUM SCILLÆ (P. Cod.). _Prep._ Dried squills, 3 oz.; Malaga wine, 2-1/2 pints. Macerate for 10 days.

=Wine of Squills, Bitter.= _Syn._ VINUM SCILLITICUM AMARUM (P. Cod.). Pale Peruvian bark, 6 oz.; winter’s bark, 6 oz.; lemon peel, 6 oz.; swallow-wort, 1-1/2 oz.; angelica root, 1-1/2 oz.; squill, 1-1/2 oz.; wormwood, 3 oz.; balm, 3 oz.; jumper berries, 1-1/2 oz.; mace, 1-1/2 oz.; white wine, 2-1/2 galls.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Macerate for 10 days.

=Wine of Squills, Compound.= _Syn._ VINUM SCILLÆ COMPOSITUM (Richter). _Prep._ Dried squill, 1 oz.; orange peel, 3 dr.; juniper berries, 2 dr.; white wine, 2-1/2 pints. Digest for 3 days, filter, and add 2 oz. of oxymel of squills.

=Wine of Stramonium.= _Syn._ VINUM STRAMONII (Ph. Bat.). _Prep._ Stramonium seeds, 2 oz.; Malaga wine, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz. Digest and filter.

=Wine of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ VINUM TABACI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Tobacco, 3-1/2 oz.; sherry, 1 quart; digest 7 days, strain, with strong pressure, and filter. A powerful sedative and diuretic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops; in dropsy, lead colic, ileus, &c.

=Wine of Vipers.= _Syn._ VINUM VIPERINUM (Ph. L., 1746). _Prep._ Dried vipers, 2 oz.; white wine, 3 lbs. Macerate for 7 days.

=Wine of White Hel′lebore.= _Syn._ VINUM VERATRI (Ph. L.), TINCTURA VERATRI ALBI†, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) White hellebore, sliced, 8 oz.; sherry wine, 1 quart; digest for 7 days, press, and filter.——_Dose_, 10 drops, gradually increased to 25 or 30; as a substitute for colchicum, in gout and rheumatism, &c. It is less manageable than wine of colchicum, and is now seldom employed.

=Wine of White Hellebore (Opiated).= _Syn._ MOORE’S EAU MÉDICINALE; VINUM VERATRI OPIATUM, L. _Prep._ From wine of white hellebore, 3 fl. dr.; tincture of opium, I fl. dr.——_Dose._ As the last.

=Wine of Wormwood.= _Syn._ VINUM ABSINTHII (P. Cod.). _Prep._ Dried wormwood leaves, 3 oz.; white wine, 5 pints; proof spirit, 6 oz. Macerate the leaves in the spirit, in 24 hours add the wine, macerate for 10 days, and strain.

=Wines, Medicated (Dr B. Lane’s).= _Syn._ VINOUS ESSENCES; ESSENTIÆ VINOSÆ, LIQUORES VINOSI, L. _Prep._ From an infusion or solution of the drug, of about 3 or 4 times the usual strength, fermented with a little yeast, and about 3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gallon; the fermented liquor being afterwards set in a cool cellar until fit for bottling. Compounds of CALUMBA, CASCARILLA, GENTIAN, OPIUM, RHUBARB, SENNA, and VALERIAN, have been thus prepared. That of OPIUM is made of only twice the strength of the common tincture.

=WINE-STONE.= CRUDE TARTAR or ARGOL.

=WINE TESTS.= _Prep._ 1. (Hahnemann’s.) From quicklime, 1 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible for 5 or 6 minutes; put 2 dr. of the product and an equal weight of tartaric acid (separately powdered), into a stoppered bottle, with a pint of water, and shake them well; let the liquid settle, pour off the clear portion, and add of tartaric acid, 1-1/2 dr.

2. (Dr Paris’s.) From sulphide of calcium and cream of tartar, of each (in powder), 1/2 oz.; hot water, 1 pint; agitate, &c., as before; decant the cold clear liquid into 1-oz. phials, and add 20 drops of hydrochloric acid to each of them.

_Obs._ The above tests will throw down the least quantity of lead from wines, as a very sensible black precipitate. As iron might be accidentally contained in the wine, the hydrochloric acid is added to the last test, to prevent the precipitation of that metal.

=WIN′TER-GREEN (American).= _Syn._ PIPSISSEWA; CHIMAPHILA (Ph. L. & E.). PYROLA (Ph. D.), L. The herb of _Chimaphila umbellata_. It is astringent, diuretic, tonic, and stomachic; and has been successfully administered in loss of appetite, dyspepsia, dropsy, chronic affections of the urinary organs, scrofula, &c. It must not be confounded with ordinary winter-green (box berry, chequer b., partridge b., mountain tea), which is the _Gaultheria procumbens_, a plant belonging to the _Ericaceæ_, whilst the former plant belongs to a genus of the _Pyrolaceæ_. See DECOCTION, EXTRACT, and OILS (Essential).

=WIREWORM.= The Editor is indebted to Dr Spencer Cobbold, F.R.S., for the following communication on this subject:——“Dear Prof. Tuson,——You asked me about the remedies for wireworm. Although a great deal has been said on the subject, yet it is not easy to advise. I believe the _best plan_ is to ‘catch-’em-alive’ by means of sliced potatoes, turnips, or carrots laid in rows, women and children being employed every morning to pick up the slices, and brush off the larvæ into a jar (the slices being replaced). Mr Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd) found lettuce leaves very serviceable when laid as a bait in a similar way. Pheasants are very destructive to them. As agriculturists do not like the trouble and expense of this baiting method (by far the best if persevered in) some have recommended deep ploughing, &c. The following extract taken from the ‘Journal of the Agricultural Society, of Victoria,’ bears on the question at issue. Trusting it may be found useful, believe me, yours faithfully, T. SPENCER COBBOLD.”

“_Remedy for Wireworm._——Having seen in your issue of the 24th ult. that ‘B,’ would be glad if any one could give any information as to a remedy for the ravages of the wireworm, which plays such havoc in our corn fields during the early part of the growth of our cereal crops, I beg to offer a few observations on the subject. I have for years paid particular notice as to any remedy or preventive, and it is with regard to the latter that I shall chiefly confine my remarks, as there is positively no known remedy when once the insects have attacked the crop. Some persons recommend the application of lime or salt, but it is a well-known fact that if either of these is applied in such quantity as to destroy the worm, it will likewise destroy vegetation, and consequently the crop will be entirely lost; and not alone this crop, but the soil will be poisoned to such an extent as to injure succeeding crops. What I have found most successful is deep ploughing, not what is ordinary called deep ploughing, 7 or 8 inches, but to the depth of at least 10 or 12, where the soil will admit of it. The wireworm lives not more than 4 inches below the surface, and by burying it 10 or 12 inches it is found that it cannot again make its way to the surface, and consequently can do no injury to surface-rooted plants, such as the grain crops. The operation of ploughing should be performed as follows: a strong skim coulter is attached to the beam of an ordinary strong plough, which is drawn by three horses. The skim coulter pares off the surface, which is buried underneath the sod turned over by the mould-board. Or it is sometimes performed in a different way. A small plough, drawn by one horse, precedes the ordinary plough, skimming off the surface exactly the same as the skim coulter. So much for a preventive. As to remedy, what I have found most effectual is heavy rolling, using, if possible, such a roller as that called the Crosskill, which crushes the insects, killing some, and preventing others doing much damage until the crop is sufficiently far advanced as not to be affected by the insect.——JOHN THOMAS, 32, Capel Street, Dublin.”

=WITCH MEAL.= _Syn._ VEGETABLE SULPHUR, LYCOPODIUM. The spores of _Lycopodium clavatum_, or club moss.

=WOAD.= _Syn._ DYER’S WOAD; PASTEL, Fr. The _Isatis tinctoria_. To prepare them for the dyer, the leaves are partially dried and ground to a paste, which is made into balls; these are placed in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water, to promote the fermentation; when this is finished, the woad is allowed to fall down into lumps, which are afterwards reground and made into cakes for sale. On mixing the prepared woad with boiling water, and, after standing for some hours in a closed vessel, adding about 1-20th its weight of newly slaked lime, digesting in a gentle warmth, and stirring the whole together every 3 or 4 hours, a new fermentation begins; a blue froth rises to the surface, and the liquor, though it appears itself of a reddish colour, dyes woollens of a green, which, like the green from indigo, changes in the air to a blue. This is said to be one of the nicest processes in the art of dyeing, and does not well succeed on the small scale. Woad is now mostly used in combination with indigo. 50 lbs. of woad are reckoned equal to 1 lb. of indigo.

=WOL′FRAM.= See TUNGSTEN.

=WOLFS′BANE.= See ACONITE.

=WOOD= is polished by carefully rubbing down the grain with fine glass paper, or pumice-stone, and then rubbing it, first with finely-powdered pumice-stone and water, and afterwards with tripoli and linseed oil, until a proper surface is obtained. For common purposes, glass paper, followed by a metal burnisher, is employed.

Wood is stained by the application of any of the ordinary liquid dyes employed for wool or cotton. They sink deeper into the wood when they are applied hot. When the surface is properly strained and dried, it is commonly cleaned with a rag dipped in oil of turpentine or boiled oil, after which it is either varnished or polished with beeswax. Musical instruments, articles of the toilette, &c., are usually treated in this way.

Wood is preserved by any agents which destroy the tendency to putrefaction of the matter within its pores, or which enables it to resist the attacks of insects, or renders it unsuited to the growth of minute fungi. See DRY-ROT.

=WOOD NAPH′THA.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxylic).

=WOOD OIL.= See BALSAM, GURGUN.

=WOODY FIBRE.= See LIGNIN.

=WOODY NIGHT′SHADE= BITTER-SWEET, _Solanum dulcamara_.

=WOOL.= _Syn._ LANA, L. Wool is a fine, soft, elastic variety of hair, cellulated in its structure. Its filaments are cylindrical, like those of silk; but the surface is covered with thin scales or epidermic cells. In the finer qualities, these filaments vary in thickness from 1/1100 to 1/1500 of an inch; and under a good microscope distinctly exhibit, at intervals of about 1/300 of an inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each other, “like the joints of equisetum, or, rather, like the scaly zones of a serpent’s skin.” These appearances render it almost impossible to mistake wool for silk, linen, or cotton. From experiments made by different competent authorities, it is found that wool is one of the worst conductors of heat known. This property renders woollen fabrics particularly adapted for clothing in cold, damp, and changeable climates, since it enables them to maintain the surface of the body at a proper and equable temperature. Wool, sometimes, however, proves too irritative for highly sensitive skins, and, moreover, disturbs the electricity of the cutaneous surface, on friction, even more than silk. On these accounts there are persons who find it unpleasant to wear woollen garments, of any description, next the skin; in which cases all the advantages that can be derived from their use may be obtained by wearing them outside one of linen or cotton. According to Erasmus Wilson, this method “is preferable in warm weather, since the linen absorbs the perspiration, while the woollen garment preserves the warmth of the body, and prevents the inconvenience resulting from its evaporation.” See FLANNEL.

_Identif._ 1. By the microscope. (See _above_.)

2. Its fibres, when inflamed, shrivel up, and burn with difficulty, and evolve the peculiar and characteristic odour of hair when similarly treated, leaving a bulky charcoal; whereas cotton and linen burn rapidly, leave no charcoal, and evolve little or no odour. Silk acts in nearly the same manner as wool.

3. Nitric acid, picric acid, and gaseous chlorine, stain the fibres of wool and silk yellow. Dr J. J. Pohl recommends an aqueous or alcoholic solution of picric acid as well adapted for a test——After immersion of a small portion of the fabric or yarn for from 5 to 10 minutes in the solution, it is to be taken out, and washed in warm water. The linen and cotton in it will then appear white, but the wool, silk, or other animal fibre, will retain its yellow colour. In stuffs, cloths, flannel, &c., the mixed threads may be readily observed by means of a pocket lens, and their relative numbers may be ascertained by means of a ‘thread counter.’ This test acts best with white, but is also applicable to many other colours. For dark colours nitric acid is preferable.

4. A square inch of the fabric or a small portion of the yarn, is boiled for a short time in a solution of caustic soda or potassa, and then withdrawn and washed. If it be of pure wool, it will be dissolved, and wholly disappear; if any threads or fibres are left undissolved, they consist of either cotton or linen; of these, such as have acquired a dark yellow tinge, are linen, whilst those which have retained their whiteness, or which are only slightly discoloured, are cotton. The relative proportion of the adulteration may be ascertained as before. See COTTON, LINEN, and SILK.

Wool and woollen goods exhibit a greater affinity for colouring matter than either cotton or linen, and in many cases this exceeds even that of silk. The most difficult dye to impart to wool is a rich, deep, and permanent black. See DYEING, MORDANTS, &c.

Woollen goods are cleaned and scoured in the manner noticed under BLEACHING and SCOURING.

=Wool, Spanish.= Rouge-crepons.

=Wool, Styptic.= Dr. Erie, of Isny, prepares this by boiling the finest carded wool for half an hour or an hour in a solution containing 4 per cent. of soda, then thoroughly washes it out in cold spring water, wrings it; and dries it. The wool is thus effectually purified, and is now capable of imbibing fluids uniformly. It is then to be dipped two or three times in fluid chloride of iron diluted with one-third of water, expressed and dried in a draught of air, but not in the sun or by the aid of high heat; finally, it is carded out. Thus prepared, it is of a beautiful yellowish-brown colour, and feels like ordinary dry cotton wool.

As it is highly hygroscopic, it must be kept dry, and when required to be transported, must be packed in caoutchouc or bladder. Charpie may be prepared in a similar manner, but on account of its coarser texture, is not so effective as cotton wool, presenting a less surface for producing coagulation. When the wool is placed on a bleeding wound, it induces moderate contraction of the tissue, coagulation of the blood that has escaped, and subsequently coagulation of the blood that is contained within the injured vessels, and thus arrests the hæmorrhage. The coagulating power of the chloride of iron is clearly exalted by the extension of its surface that is in this way affected. The application of the prepared wool is not particularly painful, whilst by sucking up the superfluous discharge, and preventing its decomposition, it seems to operate favorably on the _process of the wound_.[272]

[Footnote 272: ‘Lancet.’]

=Wool Work, Woollen Shawls, &c., to clean.=——Boil a large piece of soap in rain-water. Put it into an earthenware pan and add a teacupful of ox-gall, which any butcher will supply. Put in the work to be cleaned, and rub it briskly, as you would a pocket handkerchief, lifting it up and down. Wash in two waters, if very dirty; then rinse quickly in cold water, lay a cloth over it, and fold it tightly. Iron it immediately on the wrong side with hot, heavy irons.

=WOORA′RA.= _Syn._ OURARI, WOURALI. A deadly poison employed in Guiana, obtained from the _Strychnos toxifera_. See UPAS.

=WOOTZ.= The Indian name of steel; applied in this country to the steel imported from Bengal.

=WORM BARK.= _Syn._ CABBAGE-TREE BARK, or GEOFFRÆYA INERMIS, L. The bark of _Andira inermis_ (_Geoffræya i._ of some botanists). A powerful astringent, purgative, anthelmintic, and narcotic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. In larger doses, or if cold water be drunk during its action, it is apt to occasion sickness, vomiting, and delirium. The remedy for this is copious draughts of warm water.

=WORM SEED.= _Syn._ SEMEN CONTRA, SEMEN CINÆ, L. The broken peduncles, mixed with the calyces and flower-buds, of several species of _Artemisia_ imported from the Levant.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in powder; as a vermifuge. See SANTONIN.

=WORMS (Intes′tinal).= _Syn._ VERMES, INTESTINALIA (Cuvier), ENTOZOA (Rudolphi), L. The principal parasites which are generated and nourished in the human intestinal canal are the——_Ascaris lumbricoides_ (Gmelin), or long round-worm, found in the small intestines, and which is generally of the thickness of a goose-quill, and varies in length from 10 to 15 inches;——_Ascaris vermicularis_ (Gmelin), maw, or thread-worm, which is thread-like in appearance, varies from 1-1/2 to 5 lines in length, and confines itself chiefly to the rectum;——_Tricocephalus hominis_ (Gmelin), or long thread-worm, varying from 1-1/4 to 2 inches in length, and found chiefly in the cæcum;——_Tænia solium_ (Gmelin), or common tapeworm, having a flattened riband-like appearance, varying in length from 3 or 4 to 15 or 20 feet, and occupying the small intestines;——_Bothriocephalus latus_, or broad tapeworm, a variety seldom found in this country, but common in Switzerland and the north of Europe; and, _Tænia mediocanellata_, another large species, described by Küchenmeister.

_Causes._ A debilitated state of the digestive organs, improper food, sedentary, habits, impure air, bad water, and, apparently, an occasional hereditary tendency to worms.

_Symp._ Griping pains, especially about the navel; acid eructations; slimy stools; occasional nausea and vomiting, without any manifest cause; heat and itching about the anus; tenesmus;, emaciation; disturbed dreams; grinding of the teeth during sleep; pallor of countenance; discoloration round the eyes; feverishness; headache; vertigo, &c. In many cases these symptoms are often highly aggravated, and mistaken for primary diseases. The only absolutely positive evidence of the existence of worms is, however, their being seen in the fæces.

_Treat._ In common cases, an occasional moderately strong dose of calomel overnight, followed by a smart purgative the next morning, is an excellent remedy, where the use of mercurials is not contra-indicated. Cowhage, made into an electuary with honey or treacle, is also an excellent vermifuge. Oil of turpentine is useful against nearly every variety of worms, and, when taken in sufficient doses to reach the rectum, is almost specific in ascarides (thread-worms). When this is inconvenient, an occasional enema of oil of turpentine is even more effective. Enemas of aloes are also very useful in such cases. Scammony, under the form of basilic powder, has long been employed to expel worms in children. Aloes, castor-oil, worm-seed, tin-filings, and sulphur, are likewise popular remedies. Cabbage-tree bark is a powerful anthelmintic; but its use requires caution. Most of the quack vermifuges contain either aloes or gamboge, or calomel and jalap. The substances which have been most highly extolled for the destruction or expulsion of tapeworm (tænia) are kousso, oil of turpentine, male fern, pomegranate, and tin-filings. The first two are those on which the most dependence may be placed. Madame Nouffer’s celebrated ‘Swiss remedy’ for tapeworm, for which Louis XVI gave 18,000 francs, consisted of 2 or 3 dr. of powdered male fern, taken in 1/4 pint of water, in the morning, fasting, followed in 2 hours by a bolus made of calomel and scammony, of each 10 gr.; gamboge, 6 or 7 gr. ‘Swain’s vermifuge’ is prepared from worm-seed, 2 oz.; valerian, rhubarb, pink-root, and white agaric, of each 1-1/2 oz.; boiled in water, q. s. to yield 3 quarts of decoction, to which 30 drops of oil of tansy, and 45 drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a quart of rectified spirit, are added. All purgatives may be regarded as vermifuges. Besides our efforts to destroy and expel the worms, the tone of the primæ vitæ should be raised by the use of stomachics and tonics, by which the tendency to their equivocal generation will be either removed or lessened. See ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES, DECOCTION, ENEMA, PILLS, PATENT MEDICINES, VERMIFUGES, &c.; and also the several vermifuges under their respective names.

_Obs._ Parasitic worms as existing in animals are so remarkably prevalent and so widely diffused that probably no creature can be said to be secure against their attack. Among domestic animals, sheep often suffer to a most serious extent from these parasites, and more especially from the nematoid, known as _Strongylus bronchialis_. In some years lambs are lost by hundreds from the complications of disease which attend upon the presence of these worms within the windpipe and the bronchial tubes. Their existence is marked by great wasting of the body, hurried breathing, and distressing cough. After a time diarrhœa sets in, which quickly carries off the animal. It has been found that lambs fed on clover, and other allied plants, which had been pastured the year previously with sheep, suffer the most, and are far more likely to be affected than those which are differently managed. Remedial measures too often prove ineffectual, especially when structural disease of the lungs has followed as a consequence. The exhibition of oil of turpentine in doses of about half an ounce, mixed with an equal quantity of linseed oil, is sometimes found to be beneficial; but it must be conjoined with a corn diet, the free use of salt, and also sulphate of iron mixed with the manger food, tincture of assafœtida, and the essential oil of savin, in small doses, are remedies greatly extolled by some persons. The inhalation of diluted chlorine gas or of sulphurous acid gas is often exceedingly beneficial; but remedies of this kind ought always to be confided to the superintending care of the veterinary surgeon.

=WORM TEA.= A preparation sold in the shops of the United States, and much used, consisting, according to Brande, of spigelia or pink-root, savin, senna, and manna.

=WORM′WOOD.= _Syn._ ABSINTHIUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. The flowering herb of _Artemisia Absinthium_, a well-known plant, indigenous to this country, and largely cultivated for medicinal purposes. It is a bitter tonic and stomachic, and also anthelmintic.——_Dose_, 20 to 40 gr. of the dried herb, either in powder or made into a tea or infusion; in dyspepsia, dropsy, scurvy, sympathetic epilepsy, &c. See ABSINTHINE and ABSINTHIC ACID.

=WORT.= The technical name for the fermentable infusion of malted grain.

The strength of worts is ascertained by means of an instrument termed a saccharometer. “Brewers, distillers, and the excise, sometimes denote by the term ‘gravity’ the excess of weight of 1000 parts of a liquid by volume above the weight of a like volume of distilled water, so that if the specific gravity be 1045, 1070, 1090, &c., the gravity is said to be 45, 70, or 90; at others, they thereby denote the weight of saccharine matter in a barrel (36 galls.) of wort; and again, they denote the excess in weight of a barrel of wort over a barrel of water equal to 36 gallons, or 360 lbs. This and the first statement are identical, only 1000 is the standard in the first case, and 360 in the second.” (Ure.) The last is that commonly adopted by the brewers.

According to Dr Ure, the solid dry extract of malt, or ‘saccharine,’ has the specific gravity 1·264, and the specific volume ·7911; “that is, 10 lbs. of it will occupy the volume of 7·911 lbs. of water. The mean sp. gr., by computation of a solution of that extract in its own weight of water, is 1·116; but by experiment, the sp. gr. of that solution is 1·216, showing considerable condensation of volume in the act of combination with water.” The quantity of solid saccharine or sugar in a wort may be determined in the manner mentioned under SYRUP.

“According to the compilers of the tables accompanying Field’s alcoholometer, 1·8 lb. of saccharine is decomposed for the production of 1% of proof spirit; but according to our experiments, the proportion of saccharine named is rather below the true equivalent.” (Cooley.)

The rapid cooling of worts is an important object with the brewer and distiller. On the large scale, the old system in which shallow coolers are employed, with all its numerous inconveniences and accidents, is now for the most part abandoned, being supplanted by the method introduced by Mr Yandall, nearly 40 years ago. This consists in the use of a ‘refrigerator,’ which is an apparatus so constructed that any hot liquid may be cooled by about its own volume of cold water, in a very short space of time. The principle is that of passing the two fluids through very shallow and very long passages, in opposite directions, being essentially that of a ‘Liebig’s condenser’ on a gigantic scale. The apparatus may consist of zigzag passages, flattened tubes or convoluted curves, of any convenient shape, so that they possess little capacity in one direction, but great breadth and length. A refrigerator, having the passages for the fluids 1/8 of an inch thick, is said to require a run of about 80 feet. The success of this method is such as to leave nothing more to desire. See BREWING, FERMENTATION, MALT, &c.

=WOUND.= _Syn._ VULNUS, L. A solution of continuity in any of the soft parts of the body, arising from external violence.

Wounds are distinguished by surgeons into CONTUSED WOUNDS, INCISED W., LACERATED W., POISONED W., PUNCTURED W., &c.; terms which explain themselves. Sword-cuts are incised wounds; gun-shot wounds, lacerated and contused ones. Slight wounds, and, indeed, all those not demanding material surgical assistance, after dirt and foreign substances have been removed, may be treated in the manner noticed under CUTS and ABRASIONS.

=WOUND BAL′SAM.= See TINCTURE OF BENZOIN.

=WRIT′′ING=, executed in the ordinary tanno-gallic ink, and which has been rendered illegible by age, may be restored by carefully moistening it, by means of a feather, with an infusion of galls, or a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, observing to apply the liquid so as to prevent the ink spreading.

=WRITING FLU′IDS.= A term commonly applied, of late years, to easy flowing inks, adapted for metallic pens; in contradistinction to the old tanno-gallic compounds at one time exclusively employed for writing.

_Prep._ 1. Dissolve pure basic or soluble Prussian blue in pure distilled water, and dilute the resulting solution with pure water until the desired shade of colour is obtained. Very permanent and beautiful. It is not affected by the addition of alcohol, but is immediately precipitated by saline matter. The precipitate, however, still possesses the property of dissolving in pure water.

2. From the soluble ferrocyanide of potassium and iron, dissolved in pure water. Resembles the last, but it is precipitated from its solution by alcohol.

3. Powdered Prussian blue, 1 oz.; concentrated hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; mix in a matrass or glass bottle, and, after 22 or 30 hours, dilute the mass with a sufficient quantity of water.

4. Dissolve sulphindylate of potassa or ammonia in hot water, and, when cold, decant the clear portion. It is an intense blue, and dries nearly black; is perfectly incorrosive, and very permanent and easy flowing.

5. (Horning.) Perchloride of iron, 4 parts; water, 750 parts; dissolve, add of cyanide of potassium, 4 parts, dissolved in a little water; collect the precipitate, wash it with several effusions of pure water, allow it to drain until it weighs about 200 parts, then add of oxalic acid, 1 part; and promote solution by agitating the bottle or vessel containing it.

6. (Mohr.) Pure Prussian blue, 6 parts; oxalic acid, 1 part; triturate with a little water to a perfectly smooth paste, then dilute the mass with a proper quantity of soft water. The product resembles Stephen’s ‘patent blue ink.’

7. (Rev. J. B. Reade——patented.)——_a._ A solution of his patent soluble Prussian blue in distilled water. Blue.

_b._ Prepared by adding to good gall ink a strong solution of his soluble Prussian blue. This addition “makes the ink, which was previously proof against alkalies, equally proof against acids, and forms a writing fluid which cannot be erased from paper by any common method of fraudulent obliteration without the destruction of the paper.” This ink writes greenish blue, but afterwards turns intensely black. Stephen’s ‘patent ink,’ which does the same, is a similar compound.

8. (Prof. Runge——CHROMIC INK.) Logwood, in fine chips, 1/4 lb.; boiling water, 3 pints; digest for 12 hours, then simmer the liquid down gently to 1 quart, carefully observing to avoid dust, grease, and smoke; when cold, decant the decoction, and add to it of yellow chromate of potash, 20 gr.; dissolve by agitation, after which it will be fit for use. Cheap and good. It resists the action of all ordinary destructive agents better than the tanno-gallic inks; it may be washed after use with a wet sponge, or steeped for twenty-four hours in water, or even tested with dilute acids, and yet preserve its original blackness. It is perfectly liquid, it scarcely thickens by age, and neither deposits a sediment nor corrodes steel pens.

9. (Ure.) From vanadate of ammonia decomposed with infusion of galls. It is of a perfectly black hue, flows freely from the pen, is rendered blue by acids, is unaffected by dilute alkaline solutions, and resists the action of chlorine.

_Obs._ The preceding formulæ, under proper management, produce excellent products, all of which are extremely mobile, and most of them of a more or less beautiful colour. The blue ones, when concentrated, dry of a blue black, whilst two or three of the others, though at first pale, rapidly pass into a deep black, when exposed to the air. Care must be taken in all cases that the ingredients be pure. The Prussian blue, except when directly prepared for the purpose, should be washed in dilute hydrochloric acid before attempting its solution by means of oxalic acid. Unless these precautions are attended to, success is unlikely. A little gum may be added, if required, to prevent the fluid spreading on the paper; but in most cases the addition is no improvement. Most of the blue fluids may be used as ‘indelible ink’ to mark linen, and will be found very permanent, provided the part be first moistened with alum water, and dried.

=XYLOID′IN.= When starch is immersed in concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·45 to 1·50), it is converted, without disengagement of gas, into a colourless, tremulous jelly, which, when treated with an excess of water, yields a white, curdy, insoluble substance, which after being edulcorated with pure water, until every trace of acid is removed, is xyloidin. Paper, sugar, gum, mannite, and several other substances, treated in the same manner, become in great part changed to xyloidin or analogous compounds.

_Obs._ Pure xyloidin differs but slightly from pyroxylin, or pure gun-cotton.

=XYL′OL.= A hydrocarbon, homologous to benzol, found in wood-tar and coal-gas naphtha.

=YAWS.= _Syn._ FRAMBŒSIA, L. A peculiar disease of the skin, common in the Antilles and some parts of Africa. It is characterised by mulberry-like excrescences, which discharge a watery humour. The treatment chiefly consists in alleviating urgent symptoms (if any), and the adoption of a temperate diet and regimen, until the eruptions, having run their course, begin to dry, when tonics and alteratives, as cinchona bark, quinine, and sarsaparilla, with occasional small doses of mercurials, generally prove advantageous. The master (or principal) yaw, which frequently remains troublesome after the others have disappeared, may be dressed with the ointment of red oxide of mercury, or of nitrate of mercury, diluted with an equal weight of lard.

The yaws is not a dangerous, although a very disgusting, disease. It is contagious by contact, and, like the smallpox, only occurs once during life.

=YEAST.= _Syn._ BARM, FERMENT, ZUMINE; FERMENTUM, L. Yeast, which consists almost entirely of minute vegetable cells, termed _Torula cerevisiæ_, is either the froth or the deposit of fermenting worts, according to the character of the fermentation.

The top yeast, or superficial ferment, which covers the surface of fermenting worts, is called ‘_oberhefe_’ by the Germans; and the bottom yeast, or the ferment of deposit, is termed ‘_unterhefe_,’ The first is the common yeast of the English brewer; the other, that used in Bavaria for the fermentation of worts from below (untergärung). Both varieties yield their own kind under proper conditions. Wort fermented with top yeast, at from 46° to 50° Fahr., yield both varieties, and each of these furnishes its own kind, nearly pure, by a second fermentation. See BREWING, FERMENTATION, &c.

_Pres._ 1. Ordinary beer yeast may be kept fresh and fit for use for several months, by placing it in a close canvas bag, and gently and gradually squeezing out the moisture in a screw press until the remaining matter acquires the consistence of clay or soft cheese, in which state it must be preserved in close vessels, or wrapped in waxed cloth. This is the method generally adopted for the best Flanders and German yeast.

2. Whisk the yeast until it forms a uniform liquid mass, and then lay it with a clean and soft painter’s brush evenly and thinly on flat dishes, or any convenient surface, on which it can be exposed to the sun or air; this operation must be repeated as soon as the first coat is sufficiently solid, and so on, until the layers acquire a proper thickness, when it must be detached and preserved as before. If rendered quite dry, its power of exciting fermentation will be destroyed.

3. By employing strips of clean new flannel (well washed), as above, and, when sufficiently dry, rolling these up, and covering them with waxed cloth or paper, or placing them in tin canisters or boxes. For use, a few inches of one of the strips is cut off, and soaked in lukewarm water, when the barm leaves the flannel, and mixes with the water, which may then be stirred up with the flour.

=Yeast, Artifi′′cial.= “Although the conversion of a small into a large quantity of yeast is a very easy thing, yet to produce that substance from the beginning is very difficult.” (Berzelius.) Both cases are met in the formulæ below.

_Prep._ 1. (_Without a ferment._)——_a._ (Fownes.) Wheat flour is to be mixed with water into a thick paste, which is to be slightly covered, in a moderately warm place; about the third day it begins to emit a little gas, and to exhale a disagreeable sour odour; about the sixth or seventh day the smell changes, much gas is evolved, accompanied by a distinct and agreeable vinous odour, and it is then in a state to excite either to vinous or panary fermentation, and may be either at once employed for that purpose or formed into small and very thin cakes, dried in the air and preserved for future use. Wort fermented with it in the ordinary way yields a large quantity of yeast, of excellent quality, which is found at the bottom of the vessel. “This is a revival of a method which, although Mr Fownes seems to regard it as new, is to be found in the ‘Chemistry’ of Boerhaave” (‘Lancet.’) It is, indeed, a mere modification of the mode of preparing leaven, as practised from the most remote ages of antiquity; but is not the less valuable on that account.

2. (_With a ferment._)——_a._ Take of bean flour, 1/4 lb.; water, 6 quarts; boil for 1/2 an hour, pour the decoction into any suitable vessel, add of wheat flour, 3-1/2 lbs.; stir the whole well together, and, when the temperature reaches 55° Fahr., add of beer yeast, 2 quarts; mix well, and in 24 hours after the commencement of the fermentation add of barley or bean flour, 7 lbs.; make a uniform dough by thorough kneading, form it into small cakes, as above, and then preserve these in a dry situation. For use, one of these discs is to be broken into pieces, laid in tepid water, and set in a warm place during 12 hours, when the soft mass will serve the purpose of beer yeast.

_b._ (PATENT YEAST.) Take of hops, 6 oz.; water, 3 galls.; simmer for 3 hours, strain, and in 10 minutes stir in of ground malt, 1/2 peck; next reboil the hops in water, as before, and let the strained liquor run into the first mash, which must then be well stirred up, covered over, and left for 4 hours; after that time drain off the wort, and, when the temperature has fallen to 90° Fahr., set it to work with yeast (preferably patent), 1 pint; after standing for 20 to 24 hours in a warm place, take off the scum, strain it through a coarse hair sieve, and it will be fit for use. 1 pint is said to be enough for 1 bushel of bread.

_Obs._ The preparation of artificial yeast, and substitutes for yeast, has long engaged the attention of both the scientific chemist and the practical tradesman. The subject is, undoubtedly, of great importance to emigrants and voyagers. The above processes, by good management, yield products which are all that can be desired.

=YEL′LOW DYES.= The following substances impart a yellow to goods, either at once or after they have been mordanted with alumina or tin:——annotta, barberry root, dyer’s broom, French berries, fustic, fustet, quercitron bark, and turmeric. Goods mordanted with acetate of lead, and afterwards passed through a bath of chromate of potash, acquire a brilliant chrome-yellow colour;——solution of sulphate or acetate of iron, followed by immersion in potash or lime water, gives a buff or orange;——orpiment, dissolved in ammonia water, imparts a golden yellow. (See the above-named substances, in their alphabetical places.) An aniline yellow (chrysaniline) has recently been obtained by Mr Nicholson, which is said to be a most valuable dye-stuff, comparable, indeed, with the aniline reds and purples.

=YELLOW FE′′VER.= The bilious remittent fever of hot climates. It is very common in the West Indies and the Southern States of America. New Orleans has been several times nearly depopulated by it.

=YELLOW PIG′MENTS.= Of these the principal are——

=Brown Pink.= _Prep._ Take of French berries and pearlash, of each 1 lb.; fustic chips, 1/2 lb.; water, 2 galls.; boil in a tin or pewter vessel, and strain the decoction through flannel whilst hot; then dissolve alum, 1-1/2 lb. in hot water, 2-1/2 galls.; add the solution to the strained decoction as long as a precipitate falls, which must afterwards be washed, drained, and dried. Some manufacturers omit the fustic. A good glazing colour, when ground in linseed, and used with drying oil.

=Yellow, Chrome.= _Syn._ CHROMATE OF LEAD, YELLOW C. OF L.; PLUMBI CHROMAS, PLUMBI CHROMAS FLAVUM, L. The preparation of the pure salt is noticed under CHROMIUM and LEAD; that of the commercial pigment is as follows:

1. Add a filtered solution of nitrate or acetate of lead to a like solution of neutral chromate of potash as long as a precipitate falls; then collect this, wash it well with clean soft water, and dry it out of the reach of sulphuretted vapours.

2. To the lye of chromate of potash, prepared by roasting the chrome ore with nitre, and lixiviation with water, add a solution of acetate of lead, and otherwise proceed as before.

3. Dissolve acetate of lead in warm water, and add of sulphuric acid, q. s. to convert it into sulphate of lead; decant the clear liquid (vinegar), wash the residuum with soft water, and digest it, with agitation, in a hot solution of neutral (yellow) chromate of potash, containing 1 part of that salt to every three parts of sulphate of lead operated on; afterwards decant the liquid, which is a solution of sulphate of potash, and carefully drain, wash, and dry the newly formed pigment. The product contains much sulphate of lead, but covers as well, and has as good a colour, as pure chromate of lead, whilst it is much cheaper. The shade may be varied by increasing or lessening the quantity of the chromate.[273]

[Footnote 273: Armengaud’s ‘Génie Industriel,’ April, 1853.]

_Obs._ Four shades of this beautiful pigment are met with in the shops, viz. pale yellow or straw colour, yellow, deep yellow, and orange. The former are made by adding a little alum or sulphuric acid to the solution of the chromate before mixing it with the solution of lead; the last, by the addition of a little subacetate of lead (tribasic acetate), or by washing the precipitate with a weak alkaline lye. The darker colour appears to arise from a little ‘dichromate’ being thrown down intimately mixed with the neutral chromate, and the paler shades from a slight excess of acid, or from the presence of water-sulphate of lead, and, occasionally, alumina. The colour is also influenced by the temperature of the solutions at the time of admixture. Anthon has found that, when hot solutions of equal equivalents of acetate of lead (190 parts) and chromate of potash (100 parts, both neutral and in crystals) are mixed, the yellow precipitate, when dried, is anhydrous; but when the mixture is made at ordinary temperatures, the precipitate has a paler yellow, and when dried contains 1 eq., or nearly 5-1/4% of water. (‘Buch. Rept.’) It thus appears that the shades of colour of chrome yellow may be varied, without any foreign addition. In practice, the third formula will be found very satisfactory. See ORANGE CHROME and CHROME RED.

=Dutch Pink.= _Prep._ Take of French berries, 1 lb.; turmeric, 1/2 lb.; alum, 1/2 lb.; water, 1-1/2 gall.; boil 1/2 an hour, strain, evaporate to 2 quarts, adding of whiting, 3 lbs., and dry by a gentle heat. Starch, or white lead, is sometimes employed instead of whiting, to give it a body. Golden yellow. Used as a pigment; but will not glaze like brown pink.

=English Pink.= _Syn._ LIGHT PINK. As the last, but using 5 lbs. of whiting.

=Indian Yellow.= See PURREE.

=King’s Yellow.= Factitious tersulphuret of arsenic.

=Naples Yellow.= _Syn._ MINERAL YELLOW. _Prep._ 1. Take of metallic antimony, in powder, 3 lbs.; red lead, 2 lbs.; oxide of zinc, 1 lb.; mix, calcine, well triturate the calx, and fuse it in a covered crucible; the fused mass must be reduced to an impalpable powder by grinding and elutriation.

2. Flake white, 1-1/2 lb.; diaphoretic antimony, 1/4 lb.; calcined alum, 1 oz.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; calcine in a covered crucible with a moderate heat for 3 hours, so that at the end it may be barely red hot. More antimony and sal ammoniac turn it on the gold colour.

3. (Guimel.) Washed diaphoretic antimony, 1 part; pure red lead, 2 parts; grind them to a paste with water, and expose this mixture to a moderate red heat for 4 or 5 hours, as before. Used in oil, porcelain, and enamel painting. Chrome has now nearly superseded it for ordinary purposes.

=Patent Yellow.= _Syn._ CASSEL YELLOW, MONTPELLIER Y., TURNER’S Y. _Prep._ Take of dry chloride of lead, 28 parts; pure carbonate of lead, 27 parts; grind them together, fuse, and powder.

2. Common salt, 1 part, and litharge, 4 parts, are ground together with water, and digested at a gentle heat for some time, water being added to supply the loss by evaporation; the carbonate of soda formed is then washed out with more water, and the white residuum heated until it acquires a fine yellow colour. Works well in oil. Chiefly used in coach-painting. See OXYCHLORIDE OF LEAD.

=Weld Yellow.= Prepared from a decoction of weld brightened with a little alum, in the same manner as Dutch pink. Used chiefly for paper hangings.

=YTTRIUM. Y.= The oxide of this metal (yttria), a rare, white earth, was discovered by Gadolin, in 1794, in a mineral from Ytterby, in Sweden, since called gadolinite. Yttrium was obtained by Wöhler in 1828, as a brittle, dark-grey metal, made from the chloride by the action of sodium. Its salts have in general a sweetish taste, and the sulphate and several others an amethystine colour. Its solutions are precipitated by pure alkalies, but alkaline carbonates, especially carbonate of ammonium, dissolve it in the cold. They are distinguished from glucinium salts by the colour of the sulphate by being insoluble in pure alkalies, and by yielding a white precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium. Yttria may be obtained from gadolinite by a similar process to that by which glucina is extracted from the beryl.

According to Professor Mosander, ordinary yttria is a mixture of the oxides of not less than three metals——yttrium, erbium, and terbium. These metals differ from each other in many important particulars. The first is a powerful base, and the others are said to be weak ones. They are separated with extreme difficulty, and are only interesting in a scientific point of view.

=ZAF′FRE.= _Syn._ SAFFRA, SAFFLOR, ZAFFER. Crude oxide of cobalt, obtained by roasting cobalt ore, reduced to an impalpable powder, and then ground with 2 or 3 parts of very pure quartzose or siliceous sand. Used as a blue colour by enamellers and painters on porcelain and glass. Chiefly imported from Saxony. See SMALTS.

=ZE′′RO.= See THERMOMETER.

=ZESTS.= See POWDERS, SAUCE, SPICE, &c.

=ZINC.= Zn. _Syn._ ZINK, SPELTER; ZINCUM. (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. This metal was first noticed by Paracelsus, in the 16th century, who called it ‘zinetum,’ but its ores must have been known at a much earlier period, as the ancients were acquainted with the manufacture of brass.

_Prep._ The zinc of commerce is obtained from the native sulphide (zinc blende), or carbonate (calamine), by roasting those ores, and distilling the calx with carbonaceous matter in a covered earthen crucible, having its bottom connected with an iron tube, which terminates over a vessel of water situated beneath the furnace. The first portion that passes over contains cadmium and arsenic, and is indicated by what is technically called ‘brown blaze,’ but when the metallic vapour begins to burn with a bluish-white flame, or the ‘blue blaze’ commences, the volatilised metal is collected.

The following method, by which several pounds of chemically pure zinc may be obtained in about 1/4 of an hour, will be found very useful:——Melt the zinc of commerce in a common crucible, and granulate it by throwing it into a tolerably deep vessel of water, taking care that the metal be very hot at the time; dry the metallic grains, and dispose them by layers in a Hessian crucible with 1/4 of their weight of nitrate of potassium, using the precaution to place a slight excess at the top and at the bottom; cover the crucible, and secure the lid, then apply heat; after the vivid deflagration which occurs is over, remove the crucible from the fire, separate the dross with a tube, and, lastly, run the zinc into an ingot mould. This zinc, tested in Marsh’s apparatus during entire days, has never given any stain, and in solution the most sensitive reagents, such as hydro-sulphocyanic acid, have never indicated the least atom of iron. (‘Journ. de Pharm.’)

_Prop._ Zinc is a bluish-white metal, having the sp. gr. 6·8 to 7·2; tough (under some circumstances, brittle) when cold, ductile and malleable at from 250° to 300° Fahr.; brittle and easily pulverised at 400°; fuses at 773° (Daniell); at a white heat it boils, and sublimes unchanged in close vessels; heated to whiteness (941° Daniell) in contact with the air, it burns with a brilliant green light, and is converted into oxide. It is very soluble in dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, with the evolution of hydrogen gas. It is little acted on by the air, even when moist. The salts of zinc are colourless.

_Pur._ Commercial zinc is never pure. Its specific gravity is 6·86. It is soluble in nitric, hydrochloric, and dilute sulphuric acids.

_Tests._ 1. The solutions of zinc give a gelatinous white precipitate with the alkalies and carbonate of ammonium, which is completely redissolved by an excess of the precipitant.——2. The carbonates of potassium and sodium give a white precipitate of carbonate of zinc. All the above precipitates acquire a lemon-yellow colour when dried and heated, but again become white on cooling.——3. Sulphide of ammonium gives, in neutral solutions, a white precipitate, insoluble in excess of the precipitant, or in solutions of hydrate of potassium or ammonium, but freely soluble in the dilute mineral acids.——4. Sulphuretted hydrogen, in neutral and alkaline solutions, also gives a like white precipitate.——5. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a gelatinous white precipitate.

_Estim., &c._——_a._ 100 gr. are digested in dilute hydrochloric acid in excess, and the insoluble portion, which is chiefly carbon, dried and weighed.

_b._ The acidulous solution (see _a_) is next treated with a current of sulphuretted hydrogen until it smells very strongly of that gas; the whole is then left for some time in a warm situation. The precipitate which subsides consists of the sulphides of arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, &c., if any of these metals were present in the sample.

_c._ The filtrate from _b_, after being boiled, is treated with a little nitric acid, after which it is again boiled, and, when cold, is precipitated with carbonate of barium added in excess; the precipitate (ferric hydrate) is then collected, dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·7, gives the percentage of iron in the sample examined.

_d_. The filtrate from _c_ is next precipitated with dilute sulphuric acid, and solution of carbonate of sodium is added in excess to the filtered liquid; the whole is then boiled, after which the new precipitate is washed, dried, gently ignited for some time, and then cooled and weighed. The weight, in grains, multiplied by ·80247, gives the percentage of pure zinc in the sample.

_Uses, &c._——Zinc is used to form galvanic plates; in fireworks, and in medicine. Of late years it has also been extensively used in the manufacture of vessels of capacity, tubing, sheets for roofing, and other things that require lightness and durability.

=Zinc, Amalgamated=, which is employed for voltaic batteries, is prepared as follows:——The plates, having been scoured with emery, are immersed for a few seconds in dilute sulphuric acid, then rinsed in clean soft water, and, after the loose water has drained from their surface, dipped into a strong solution of either mercuric nitrate or chloride, or into equal parts of a mixture of saturated solutions of mercuric chloride and acetate of lead; the plates are, lastly, dipped into water, and then rubbed with a soft cloth. Another and simpler method is to rub mercury over the plates while wet with dilute sulphuric acid.

=Zinc, Granulated.= _Syn._ ZINCUM GRANULATUM (B. P.). Fuse commercial zinc in a crucible, pour it in a very thin stream into a bucket of cold water, and afterwards dry the zinc.

=Zinc, Ac′etate of.= Zn(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ ZINCI ACETAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Acetate of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved in distilled water, 2-1/2 pints, and the solution being placed in a cylindrical jar, sheet zinc, 4 oz., rolled into a coil, is immersed therein; after 24 hours the liquid is decanted, evaporated to 15 oz., and solution of hypochlorite of calcium added drop by drop, until a reddish precipitate ceases to form; the liquid is then filtered, acidulated by the addition of a few drops of acetic acid, reduced by evaporation to 10 fl. oz., and set aside to crystallise; the crystals are dried on bibulous paper set on a porous brick, and then preserved in a well-stopped bottle. More crystals may be obtained from the mother-liquor.

2. (B. P.) Add 2 oz. of carbonate of zinc in successive portions to 3 fl. oz. of acetic acid, previously mixed with 6 fl. oz. of distilled water, in a flask; heat gently, add by degrees 2 fl. oz. of acid, or q. s., till the carbonate is dissolved; boil for a few minutes, filter while hot, and set it aside for two days to crystallise. Decant the mother liquor, evaporate to one half, and again set it aside for two days to crystallise. Place the crystals in a funnel to drain, then spread them on filtering paper on a porous tile; and dry them by exposure to the air at ordinary temperatures.

_Prop., &c._ Efflorescent, white, hexagonal plates, having a powerful styptic taste; very soluble in water; less soluble in alcohol; decomposed by heat. It is tonic, antispasmodic, and emetic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 gr.; as an emetic, 10 to 20 gr.; externally, 2 or 3 gr. to water, 1 fl. oz., as an astringent lotion or injection.

=Zinc, Bro′mide of.= ZnBr_{2}. _Syn._ ZINCI BROMIDUM, L. Prepared like the corresponding salt of iron.

=Zinc, Car′bonate of.= ZnCO_{3}. _Syn._ ZINCI CARBONAS PURUM, ZINCI CARBONAS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Solution of chloride of zinc (Ph. D.), 1 pint is added, in successive portions, to a solution of crystallised carbonate of sodium of commerce, 2 lbs., dissolved in boiling distilled water, 6 pints, and the whole is boiled until gas ceases to be evolved; the precipitate is then washed, and dried, at first on blotting-paper, and, finally, by a steam or water heat.

2. (B. P.) Dissolve 10-1/2 oz. carbonate of soda with 1 pint of boiling water in a capacious porcelain vessel, and pour into it 10 oz. of sulphate of zinc, also dissolved in 1 pint of water, stirring diligently. Boil for 15 minutes after effervescence has ceased, and let the precipitate subside. Decant the supernatant liquor, pour on the precipitate 3 pints of boiling distilled water, agitating briskly; let the precipitate again subside, and repeat the process of affusion of hot distilled water and subsidence till the washings are no longer precipitated by chloride of barium. Collect the precipitate on calico, let it drain, and dry it with a gentle heat.

=Zinc, Chlo′′ride of.= ZnCl_{2}. _Syn._ BUTTER OF ZINC, MURIATE OF Z.†; ZINCI CHLORIDUM (B. P., Ph. L.), Z. MURIAS†, L. _Prep._ 1. By heating metallic zinc in chlorine.

2. (Ph. L.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; water, 1 quart; and zinc (in small pieces), 7 oz.; when the effervescence is nearly finished, apply heat until bubbles cease to be evolved; decant the clear, and evaporate to dryness; fuse the resulting mass in a lightly covered crucible, by a red heat, pour it out on a flat smooth stone, and, when cold, break it into small pieces, or cast it into rods in iron moulds, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.

3. (B. P.) Put 16 oz. of granulated zinc into a porcelain basin, add by degrees 44 fl. oz. of hydrochloric acid previously mixed with 1 pint of distilled water, and aid the action by gently warming it on a sand-bath, until gas is no longer evolved. Boil for half an hour, supplying the water lost by evaporation, and allow it to stand on the cool part of the sand-bath for 24 hours, stirring frequently. Filter the product into a gallon bottle, and pour in solution of chlorine q. s. by degrees, with frequent agitation, until the fluid acquires a permanent odour of chlorine. Add 1/2 oz. or a sufficient quantity of carbonate of zinc, in small quantities at a time, and with renewed agitation, until a brown sediment appears. Filter through paper into a porcelain basin, and evaporate until a portion of the liquid, withdrawn on the end of a glass rod and cooled, forms an opaque white solid. Pour it out now into proper moulds, and when the salt has solidified, but before it has cooled, place it in closely-stoppered bottles.

4. (In SOLUTION).——_a._ (LIQUOR ZINCI CHLORIDI——Ph. D.) Hydrochloric acid and water, of each 2-1/2 pints; sheet zinc, 1 lb.; dissolve, filter through calico, add of hypochlorite of calcium, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate, by boiling, to a pint; when cold, pour it into a bottle, add of prepared chalk, 1 oz., and water, q. s. to make the whole measure 1 quart; agitate occasionally for 24 hours, decant or filter, and preserve the liquid in a stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. 1·593. See SOLUTIONS.

_b._ (E. Parrish.) Granulated zinc, 4 lbs.; hydrochloric acid, 4 lbs., or q. s.; water, 9 quarts; dissolve, avoiding excess of acid. The solution contains 1 in 12 of chloride of zinc. Recommended as of the proper strength for a disinfectant.

_Prop., &c._ When pure, a colourless, amorphous mass or crystals; generally a whitish-gray, semi-transparent mass, having the consistence of wax; fusible; volatile at strong heat, condensing in acicular crystals; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; highly deliquescent; coagulates albumen and gelatin, and corrodes animal substances. The solution possesses the same properties in a minor degree.

_Pur._ From the aqueous solution, hydrosulphuric acid or ferrocyanide of potassium being dropped in, a precipitate is thrown down. What is thrown down by ammonia or hydrate of potassium from the same solution is white, and is redissolved by either precipitant in excess. The precipitate thrown down by the carbonate of either ammonium or potassium is (also) white, but is not redissolved when these are added in excess.

_Uses, &c._ Dry chloride of zinc is chiefly used as a caustic, for which it is highly recommended by Voght, Canquoin, and others. It is more powerful than chloride of antimony, and its action extends deeper than does nitrate of silver, whilst it exercises an influence over the vital actions of neighbouring parts. The sore is generally healthy after the separation of the eschar, and no constitutional disorder ensues. It has been given in scrofula, epilepsy, chorea, &c.; and, combined with hydrocyanic acid, in facial neuralgia.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 2 gr.; externally, as a lotion, 2 to 3 gr. to water, 1 oz. In large doses it is poisonous.

The solution is also used as a caustic, but chiefly as a disinfectant and deodorizer, _e.g._ as Sir Wm. Burnett’s Fluid and Professor Tuson’s ‘Sporokton,’ of which it is one of the very best, possessing, as it does, the power of rapidly decomposing sulphide of ammonium and of rendering inert the virus of infectious diseases.

=Zinc, Cy′anide of.= ZnCy_{2}. _Syn._ CYANURET OF ZINC; ZINCI CYANIDUM, ZINCI CYANURETUM, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Add a solution of cyanide of potassium to another of pure sulphate of zinc; wash, and dry the precipitate.——_Dose_, 1/8 to 1 gr., twice a day; in epilepsy, hysteria, and other nervous affections, heartburn, worms, &c.; and as a substitute for hydro-cyanic acid.

=Zinc, Ferrocy′anide of.= Zn_{2}FeCy_{6}. _Syn._ ZINCI FERROCYANIDUM, L. _Prep._ By adding a hot solution of ferrocyanide of potassium to a hot and strong solution of pure sulphate of zinc, and washing, and drying the precipitate. White.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 gr.; in the same cases as the last.

=Zinc, I′odide of.= ZnI_{2}. _Syn._ HYDRIODATE OF ZINC†; ZINCI IODIDUM, ZINCI HYDRIODAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Duflos.) Iodine, 2 parts; granulated zinc, 1 part; water, 4 parts; proceed as for ferrous iodide, only employing a glass or porcelain vessel.

2. (Magendie.) Iodine, 17 parts; zinc (in powder), 20 parts; mix, and sublime in a matrass.

_Prop., &c._ Deliquescent. Chiefly used externally; 15 gr. to water, 6 fl. oz., as a collyrium in scrofulous inflammation of the eye (Poulet); 1 dr. to lard, 1 oz., as a powerful resolvent in scrofulous and other glandular swellings, rubbed on the part twice a day. (Ure.)

=Zinc, Lac′tate of.= Zn(C_{3}H_{5}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ ZINCI LACTAS, L. Prepared from zinc in the same way as ferrous lactate is from iron.

=Zinc, Ox′ide of.= _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF ZINC; ZINCI OXYDUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of zinc (pure), 1 lb.; carbonate of ammonium, 6-1/2 oz.; dissolve each separately in 6 quarts of water, filter, mix the solutions, well wash the precipitate with water, and calcine it for 2 hours in a strong fire. The Ph. E. is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. D., B. P.) Place carbonate of zinc in a covered clay crucible, and expose it to a very low red heat, until a portion taken from the centre of the mass ceases to effervesce on being dropped into dilute sulphuric acid.

_Prop., &c._ A white, tasteless powder; insoluble in water; freely soluble in acids, the solution yielding colourless and easily crystallisable salts; strongly basic.

_Uses, &c._ It is tonic and antispasmodic, and has been advantageously used in chorea, epilepsy, and other nervous and spasmodic affections.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr., twice a day. It is also used as a dusting powder, and to make an ointment. It has been proposed as a substitute for white lead in painting, than which it covers better, but dries slower, and hence requires the addition of dried white vitriol. This oxide is the only compound which zinc forms with oxygen.

=Zinc, Phosphide.= Fragments of pure distilled zinc are introduced into a tubulated stoneware retort, so as to occupy about one fourth of its capacity; the retort is placed in an ordinary furnace, and a current of dry carbonic acid is passed into it through the neck. Over the tubulure is placed a crucible cover, so as to close the orifice incompletely, and allow the carbonic acid, after traversing the retort, to escape. When the zinc enters into ebullition, small fragments of previously-dried phosphorus are successively thrown in through the tubulure. The cover is removed and returned after each addition to prevent loss of phosphorus. From time to time it is necessary to break the crust of phosphorus formed, in order to expose a new layer of metal to the action of the phosphorus. The operation is terminated by increasing the heat strongly——a precaution that is indispensable, in order to separate as completely as possible the zinc phosphide from the metallic button of nearly pure zinc, which collects at the bottom of the retort. Further, the zinc phosphide should be reduced to very fine powder, and the fragments which resist the action of the metal, however slightly, should be reserved for another operation. The product pulverises the more readily in proportion as it approaches more closely the formula P_{2}Zn_{3}. In this state it resembles iron reduced by hydrogen, and only thus should it be used by pharmaceutists. It is completely soluble in hydrochloric acid.[274]

[Footnote 274: From ‘Formulæ for New Medicaments,’ adopted by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society.]

=Zinc, Sulphate of.= ZnSO_{4}. _Syn._ WHITE COPPERAS*; WHITE VITRIOL*; ZINCI SULPHUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Granulated zinc, 5 oz.; diluted sulphuric acid, 1 quart; dissolve, filter. Evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside to crystallise.

2. (Ph. D.) Zinc (laminated or granulated), 4 oz.; sulphuric acid, 3 fl. oz.; water, 1 pint; mix in a porcelain capsule, and, when gas ceases to be evolved, boil for 10 minutes, filter through calico, and evaporate the filtrate to dryness; dissolve the dry salt in water, 1 pint; frequently agitate the solution, when cold, during 6 hours, with prepared chalk, 1/4 oz.; next filter, acidulate the filtrate with nitric acid and dilute sulphuric acid, of each 1 fl. dr.; evaporate until a pellicle forms on the surface, and set it aside to crystallise; dry the crystals on bibulous paper, without heat, and preserve them in a bottle. More crystals may be obtained from the mother-liquor.

3. (B. P.) Pour 12 fl. oz. of sulphuric acid, previously mixed with 4 pints of distilled water, on 16 oz. of granulated zinc contained in a porcelain basin, and when effervescence has nearly ceased, aid the action by a gentle heat. Filter the fluid into a gallon bottle, and add, gradually, with constant agitation, solution of chlorine until the fluid acquires a permanent odour of chlorine. Add now, with continued agitation, 1/2 oz. or q. s. of carbonate of zinc, until a brown precipitate appears; let it settle, filter the solution, evaporate till a pellicle forms on the surface, and set aside to crystallise. Dry the crystals by exposure to air on filtering paper placed on porous tiles. More crystals may be obtained by again evaporating the mother-liquor.

4. The common sulphate of zinc of commerce frequently contains copper, cadmium, lead, iron, and manganese, and nearly always one or more of them. By digesting its concentrated solution for some time with metallic zinc, it may be freed from copper, lead, and cadmium, for these metals are all reduced and precipitated in a metallic state; or, the acidulated solution may be treated with sulphuretted hydrogen as long as any precipitate forms. In order to separate the iron, chlorine gas may be passed into the solution, by which the iron is converted into the ferrous chloride; if this solution be exposed to the air for a length of time, it absorbs oxygen, and oxide of iron is deposited as a yellow powder, from which the solution must be filtered. When the sulphate contains manganese, which is not very often the case, the solution must be boiled up a few times with purified charcoal, filtered, and evaporated. (‘Jour. für prakt. Chem.’) The product of each of the above formulæ is nearly chemically pure.

5. (_Commercial._) The crude sulphate of zinc (white copperas, or white vitriol, of the shops) is prepared by roasting native sulphide of zinc (zinc blende) in a reverberatory furnace, exposing the calcined mass to the air and humidity for some time, then lixiviating it, and evaporating the resulting solution until it forms a white semi-crystalline mass on cooling.

_Prop._ Pure sulphate of zinc forms inodorous, colourless, transparent, quadrangular prisms, closely resembling in appearance those of Epsom salt, which effloresce slightly in the air, and contains 7 equiv. of water; it has a slightly acidulous and very styptic metallic taste; the crystals dissolve in 2-1/2 parts of cold and in less than their own weight of boiling water; they are insoluble in alcohol. The crude sulphate of zinc of commerce (white vitriol) occurs in irregular granular masses, which somewhat resemble loaf sugar.

When a solution of this salt, in 6 of water, is boiled with a little nitric acid, and a solution of ammonia is then added until the oxide of zinc at first precipitated is all redissolved, no yellow precipitate remains, or a trace only, and the solution is colourless.

_Uses._ In medicine, as a tonic, antispasmodic, &c.; in doses of 1 to 2 gr., twice daily; as an emetic, 10 to 30 gr. In large doses it is poisonous. It has been employed with benefit in dyspepsia, fluor albus, chorea, epilepsy, hooping-cough, and other convulsive and nervous affections, generally combined with bitters, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, or opium. As an emetic, it acts almost immediately, and is therefore well suited to empty the stomach at the commencement of a fit of ague, and in cases of poisoning, &c. It is also extensively used externally, to form astringent and repellant collyria, injections and lotions.

=Zinc, Sulpho-carbolate.= The acid prepared as in sulpho-carbolate of soda (which _see_) is saturated by aid of a gentle heat with oxide of zinc, filtered, and crystals allowed to form. The crystals should be dried by exposure to the air.

=Zinc, Vale′′rianate of.= Zn(C_{5}H_{9}O_{2})_{2}. _Syn._ ZINCI VALERIANAS (B. P., Ph. D.) _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Valerianate of sodium, 2-1/2 oz., and sulphate of zinc, 2 oz. 7 dr., are each separately dissolved in distilled water, 1 pint; the solutions are then heated to 200° Fahr., mixed, and the resulting crystals skimmed off; the liquid is next evaporated at a temperature not higher than 200°, until it measures 4 fl. oz., the crystals, as they form, being removed from the surface; the salt thus obtained is steeped, for an hour, in distilled water, just sufficient to cover it, after which the whole is transferred to a paper filter, on which it is at first drained, and then dried at a heat not exceeding 100°.

_Prop., &c._ Brilliant white, pearly scales; very light; astringent; smells strongly of valerianic acid; only slightly soluble in cold water, more so in hot water, and freely soluble in alcohol and ether; exposure to heat rapidly decomposes it; exposure to the air also decomposes it, but more slowly. It is regarded as powerfully antispasmodic and tonic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr., thrice daily, made into pills; in neuralgia, tic douloureux, nervous headaches (more particularly hemicrania), hysteria, palpitation of the heart, vertigo, chorea, epilepsy, &c.

_Obs._ Butyrate of zinc, scented with valerianic acid, which is often sold for the above compound, may be detected by distilling it with sulphuric acid; the distillate, tested with a strong solution of acetate of copper, gives a bluish-white precipitate if it contains butyric acid. The valerianate is distinguished from the other salts of zinc by its extreme lightness.

=ZINC-E′THYL.= Zn(C_{2}H_{5})_{2}. A curious liquid body, discovered by Dr Frankland, and formed, along with iodide of zinc, when iodide of ethyl is heated with pure zinc in a sealed glass tube. The mixed white product, by distillation in a current of hydrogen, yields pure zinc-ethyl. It is a highly volatile liquid, having a rather disagreeable odour, and so rapidly decomposed by contact with the air that it takes fire. Water resolves it into hydride of ethyl, and other products.

=ZINC-ME′THYL.= Zn(CH_{3})_{2}. Obtained by the action of zinc upon iodide of methyl, as zinc-ethyl. It takes fire on coming in contact with the air.

=ZINC′ING.= _Syn._ ZINKING. Vessels of copper and brass may be covered with a firmly adherent layer of pure zinc, by boiling them in a solution of chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at the same time present in considerable excess. The same object may be effected by means of zinc and a solution of chloride of ammonium or hydrate of potassium.

The variety of zinced iron commonly known by the name of ‘galvanised iron’ is prepared by immersing the sheets of metal, previously scoured and cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid, in a bath of melted zinc covered with powdered sal ammoniac, and moving them about until they are sufficiently coated.

=ZINCOG′RAPHY.= An art closely resembling lithography, in which plates of zinc are substituted for slabs of stone.

=ZIR′CON.= See GEMS.

=ZIRCONIUM.= Zr. _Syn._ The oxide of this metal, a white pulverulent earth, discovered in the mineral gargon or zircon of Ceylon, by Klaproth, in 1789. It has since been found in the hyacinth.

_Prep._ The stone is calcined and thrown into cold water, and then powdered in an agate mortar; the powder is mixed with 9 parts of pure hydrate of potassium, and the mixture projected, by spoonfuls, into a red-hot crucible, care being taken that each portion is fused before another is added; after fusion, with an increased heat, for an hour and a half, the whole is allowed to cool; the calcined mass is next powdered, and boiled in water; the insoluble portion is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution heated, that the silicic acid may fall down, after which the zirconia is precipitated with hydrate of potassium; or, the zirconia may be precipitated with carbonate of sodium, and the carbonic acid expelled by heat.

From this, metallic zirconium is obtained by heating in a glass tube, with a spirit lamp, a mixture of potassium and the double fluoride of zirconium and potassium, carefully dried; the product is washed with water, and digested for some time in dilute hydrochloric acid.

_Prop., &c._ A black powder; it acquires a feeble metallic lustre under the burnisher, and takes fire when heated in the air. It has not been thoroughly examined.

Oxide of zirconium, or zirconia, ZrO_{2}, has neither taste nor odour, is insoluble in water, and forms salts with the acids. It is distinguished from all the other earths, except thorina, by being precipitated when any of the neutral salts of zirconium are boiled with a saturated solution of sulphate of potassium. The salts of zirconium are distinguished from those of aluminium and glucinium by being precipitated by all the pure alkalies, and by being insoluble when they are added in excess. The precipitated hydrate and carbonate are readily soluble in acids.

WORKS REFERRED TO IN THIS EDITION.

Acton’s Cookery. Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal. Analyst. Artisan Cookery. Blyth’s Dictionary of Hygiène. British Pharmacopœia. Beasley’s Pocket Formulary and Druggists’ General Receipt Book. British Medical Journal. Beeton’s Cookery. Beale’s (Dr L.) Disease Germs; How to Work with the Microscope; Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, &c. Bloxam’s Chemistry. British Manufactures and Industries (Stamford). Chavasse’s Counsel to a Mother and Aphorisms for Parents. Crooke’s Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing. Calvert’s Dyeing and Calico Printing (edited by Stenhouse and Groves). Chambers’ Cyclopædia. Chemist and Druggist. Chemical News. Chemical Society, Journal of. Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical (Reissue of Muspratt’s Dictionary), MacKenzie. Cassell’s Family Magazine. Carpenter’s Human Physiology. Dun’s (Finlay) Veterinary Medicines. Dental Hospital Pharmacopœia. Dorvault’s L’Officine. Daily Telegraph. Encyclopædia Britannica. Eassie’s Healthy Houses. Fresenius’ Qualitative Analysis; do., Quantitative. Field. Fitzwygram’s Horses and Stables. Gardner’s (Dr) Household Medicine. Garrod’s Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Hanbury and Flückiger’s Pharmacologia. Handbook for Emergencies (Cassell). Hughes’ Principles and Practice of Photography. Hartley’s Water, Air, and Disinfectants. Kingzett’s Alkali Trade. Knap’s Chemical Technology (Richardson and Watts). Letheby’s Lectures on Food. Lancet. Land and Water. Miller’s Chemical Physics; Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. Medical Times and Gazette. Meyer’s Procrustes ante Portas (J. T. Craig). Nature. New Remedies. Pharmaceutical Journal. Parkes’ Practical Hygiène. Payen’s Industrial Chemistry (edited by Dr Paul). Pareira’s Materia Medica. Pepys’ Diary. Roscoe’s Elementary Chemistry. Roberts’ (Dr T. J.) Theory and Practice of Medicine. Royle’s Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Roberts’ (Dr W.) Renal Diseases, &c. Smith’s (Dr Angus) Air and Rain. Spon’s Workshop Receipts. Society of Arts Journal. Sanitary Record. Squire’s Companion to the Pharmacopœia. Tegetmeier’s Household Cookery. Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines (edited by Hunt). Wagner’s Chemical Technology (edited by Crookes). Wood and Bache’s United States Dispensatory. Wanklyn’s Water Analysis and Milk Analysis. Year Book of Pharmacy.

A LIST OF J. & A. CHURCHILL’S WORKS ON CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MEDICA, PHARMACY, BOTANY, THE MICROSCOPE, AND OTHER BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

LONDON, 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET,

OCTOBER, 1889.

INDEX

Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis, vi

Armatage’s Veterinarian’s Remembrancer, xi

Baily’s Physician’s Pharmacopœia, ix

Beasley’s Pocket Formulary, x Do. Druggist’s Receipt Book, x Do. Book of Prescriptions, x

Bentley’s Manual of Botany, xii Do. Structural Botany, xii Do. Systematic Botany, xii

Bentley and Trimen’s Medicinal Plants, xii

Bernay’s Analytical Chemistry, v

Binz’s Elements of Therapeutics, vii

Bloxam’s Chemistry, iii Do. Laboratory Teaching, iii

Bowman’s Practical Chemistry, iv

B. P. C. Unofficial Formulary, ix

Brown’s Practical Chemistry, iv

Cameron’s Oils, Resins, Varnishes, vii ———— Soaps and Candles, vii

Carpenter’s Microscope and its Revelations, xiii

Chauveau’s Comparative Anatomy, xiii

Churchill’s Technological Handbooks, vii

Clowes’ Practical and Analytical Chemistry, iv

Cook’s Organic Analysis, iv

Cooley’s Cyclopædia of Receipts, v

Draper’s Medical Physics, xiv

Dunglison’s Medical Lexicon, xv

Ewart’s Poisonous Snakes of India, xiii

Fayrer’s Poisonous Snakes of India, xiii

Flückiger’s Cinchona Barks, vi

Fownes’ and Watts’ Chemistry, iii

Fox’s Ozone and Antozone, xv

Frankland and Japp’s Inorganic Chemistry, iv

Fresenius’ Chemical Analysis, iv

Gardner’s Brewer, Distiller, &c., vii Do. Bleaching, Dyeing, &c., vii Do. Acetic Acid, Ammonia, &c., vii

Greene’s Tables of Zoology, xiv

Hardwich’s Photography, by Taylor, xv

Hehner’s Alcohol Tables, vii

Hehner and Angell’s Butter Analysis, vii

Hoffmann and Power’s Chemical Analysis, v

Huxley’s Anatomy of Vertebrates, xiv Do. Anatomy of Invertebrates, xiv

James’s Guide to the New B. P., x

Johnson’s Analysts’ Companion, iv

Kay-Shuttleworth’s Modern Chemistry, iv

Kohlrausch’s Physical Measurements, xiv

Lee’s Microtomist’s Vade Mecum, xiii

Lescher’s Recent Materia Medica, viii

Marsh’s Section Cutting, iii

Martin’s Microscopic Mounting, xiii

Mayne’s Medical Vocabulary, xv

Microscopical Journal (Quarterly), xii

Mill’s and Rowan’s Fuel, vi

Morley’s Organic Chemistry, v

Ord’s Comparative Anatomy, xiv

Owen’s Manual of Materia Medica, viii

Pereira’s Selecta è Prescriptis, ix

Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, xi

Phillips’ Materia Medica, viii

Price’s Photographic Manipulation, xv

Proctor’s Practical Pharmacy, ix

Rodwell’s Natural Philosophy, xv

Royle’s Materia Medica, viii

Shea’s Animal Physiology, xiv

Smith’s Pharmaceutical Guide, xi

Southall’s Materia Medica, viii

Squire’s Companion to the Pharmacopœia, ix

Squire’s Hospital Pharmacopœias, ix

Steggall’s First Lines for Chemists, xi

Stillé and Maisch’s National Dispensatory, vii

Stowe’s Toxicological Chart, x

Sutton’s Volumetric Analysis, vi

Taylor on Poisons, x

Thorowgood’s Materia Medica, viii

Tirard’s Prescriber’s Pharmacopœia, x

Tuson’s Veterinary Pharmacopœia, xi

Vacher’s Primer of Chemistry, iii

Valentin’s Qualitative Analysis, v Do. Chemical Tables, v

Wagner’s Chemical Technology, vi

Wahltuch’s Dictionary of Materia Medica, viii

Watts’ Inorganic Chemistry, iii Do. Organic Chemistry, iii

Williams’ Veterinary Medicine, xii Do. Veterinary Surgery, xii

Wilson’s Zoology, xiv

Wittstein’s Pharmaceutical Chemistry, xi

Year Book of Pharmacy, xi

⁂ _The Works advertised in this Catalogue may be obtained through any Bookseller in the United Kingdom, or direct from the Publishers, on Remittance of their cost._

A LIST OF

_J. & A. CHURCHILL’S WORKS_

ON SCIENCE

_C. L. Bloxam_

CHEMISTRY, INORGANIC and ORGANIC. With Experiments. By CHARLES L. BLOXAM, late Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London, and in the Department for Artillery Studies, Woolwich. Sixth Edition. With 288 Illustrations. 8vo, 18s.

_By the same Author_

LABORATORY TEACHING: Or, Progressive Exercises in Practical Chemistry. Fifth Edition. With 89 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d.

_H. Watts and W. A. Tilden_

WATT’S MANUAL OF CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL (based on FOWNES’ MANUAL).

Vol. I.——PHYSICAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Second Edition (Fourteenth of Fownes’). By WILLIAM A. TILDEN, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Mason College, Birmingham. With Coloured Plate of Spectra, and 122 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.

Vol. II.——CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS; or, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By HENRY WATTS, B.A., F.R.S. Second Edition (Fourteenth of Fownes’). By WILLIAM A. TILDEN, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Mason College, Birmingham. With Engravings. Crown 8vo, 10s.

_F. Clowes_

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY AND QUALITATIVE INORGANIC ANALYSIS. By FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. Lond., F.C.S. Lond. and Berlin, Professor of Chemistry at the University College, Nottingham. Fourth Edition, with 55 Engravings and Frontispiece. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.

⁂ Adapted for use in the Laboratories of Schools and Colleges.

_A. Vacher_

A PRIMER OF CHEMISTRY, Including Analysis By ARTHUR VACHER. 18mo, 1s.

_R. Fresenius_

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. Translated by CHARLES E. GROVES, F.R.S. Tenth Edition, with Coloured Plate of Spectra and 46 Engravings. 8vo, 15s.

_By the same Author_

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. Seventh Edition.

Vol. 1. Translated by A. VACHER. With 106 Engravings. 8vo, 15s.

Vol. 2. Parts 1 and 2. Translated by C.E. GROVES, F.R.S. With Engravings. 8vo, 2s. 6d. each.

_J. E. Bowman and C. L. Bloxam_

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY, Including Analysis. By JOHN E. BOWMAN and CHARLES L. BLOXAM. Eighth Edition. With 90 Engravings. Fcap 8vo, 5s. 6d.

⁂ In this edition the portion devoted to Quantitative Analysis has been considerably enlarged, and a separate chapter has been devoted to Volumetric Analysis. The nomenclature has also been brought up to date.

_E. Frankland and F. R. Japp_

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By EDWARD FRANKLAND, Ph.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Normal School of Science, and FRANCIS R. JAPP, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C., Assistant Professor in the School. With numerous Illustrations on Stone and Wood. 8vo, 24s.

_U. J. Kay-Shuttleworth_

FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY. By Sir U. J. KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, Bart. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.

_J. Campbell Brown_

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. PART 1. Qualitative Exercises and Analytical Tables for Students. By J. CAMPBELL BROWN, D.Sc. (Lond.), Professor of Chemistry in Victoria University and University College, Liverpool. Third Edition. 8vo, 2s. 6d.

_A. E. Johnson_

THE ANALYST’S LABORATORY COMPANION. By ALFRED E. JOHNSON, Assoc. R.C.Sc.I., F.I.C., F.C.S., First Prizeman in Chemistry, Physics, and Mathematics, R.C.Sc.I. Crown 8vo, 5s.

_E. H. Cook_

INTRODUCTORY INORGANIC ANALYSIS. A First Course of Chemical Testing. By ERNEST H. COOK, D.Sc.Lond., F.C.S., Assoc. Roy. Coll. Sci.; Physical Science Master, Merchant Venturers School, Bristol. Crown 8vo, 1s. 6d.

_H. Forster Morley_

OUTLINES OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By H. FORSTER MORLEY, M. A., D.Sc., Joint Editor of Watts’ “Dictionary of Chemistry.” Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.

_W. G. Valentin, W. R. Hodgkinson, H. Chapman-Jones, and F. E. Matthews_

VALENTIN’S QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Seventh Edition. By Dr. W. R. HODGKINSON, F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Royal Military Academy, and Artillery College Woolwich; assisted by H. CHAPMAN-JONES, F.C.S., Demonstrator in the Royal School of Mines, &c., and F. E. MATTHEWS, Ph.D., of Cooper’s Hill College. With Engravings and Map of Spectra. 8vo, 8s. 6d.

_By the same Authors_

TABLES FOR THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBSTANCES, both in the Dry and Wet Way. With Map of Spectra. 8vo, 2s. 6d.

_W. G. Valentin_

CHEMICAL TABLES FOR THE LECTURE ROOM AND LABORATORY. By WM. G. VALENTIN, F.C.S., late Principal Demonstrator of Practical Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines and Science Training Schools, South Kensington. In five large sheets ... 5s. 6d.

_A. J. Bernays_

NOTES ON ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR STUDENTS IN MEDICINE. By ALBERT J. BERNAYS, Ph.D., F.C.S., F.I.C., Professor of Chemistry, &c., at St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.

_F. Hoffmann and F. B. Power_

A MANUAL OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, AS APPLIED TO THE EXAMINATION OF MEDICINAL CHEMICALS. For the use of Pharmacists, Physicians, Druggists, Manufacturing Chemists, and Pharmaceutical and Medical Students. By FREDERICK HOFFMANN, A.M., Ph.D., Public Analyst to the State of New York, &c.; and FREDERICK B. POWER, Ph.D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. Third Edition, with 179 Engravings. 8vo, 18s.

_R. V. Tuson_

COOLEY’S CYCLOPÆDIA OF PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, AND COLLATERAL INFORMATION IN THE ARTS, MANUFACTURES, PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES: Including Medicine, Pharmacy, Hygiene and Domestic Economy. Designed as a Comprehensive Supplement to the Pharmacopœias and General Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur, and Heads of Families. Sixth Edition, Revised and Rewritten by Professor RICHARD V. TUSON, F.I.C., F.C.S., assisted by several Scientific Contributors. With many Engravings. 2 Vols., 1,800 pp. 8vo, 42s.

_E. J. Mills and F. J. Rowan_

FUEL AND ITS APPLICATIONS. By E. J. MILLS, D.Sc, F.R.S., and F. J. ROWAN, C.E. Being Vol. I. of Chemical Technology, or Chemistry in its application to Arts and Manufactures. Edited by CHARLES E. GROVES, F.R.S., and WILLIAM THORP, B.Sc, with which is incorporated “RICHARDSON and WATTS’ Chemical Technology.” With 606 Engravings, 802 pp. Roy. 8vo, 30s.

_A. H. Allen_

COMMERCIAL ORGANIC ANALYSIS; A Treatise on the Properties, Modes of Assaying, Proximate Analytical Examination, &c., of the various Organic Chemicals and Products employed in the Arts, Manufactures, Medicine, &c. With Concise Methods for the Detection and Determination of their Impurities, Adulterations, and Products of Decomposition. In 3 Volumes. By ALFRED H. ALLEN, F.I.C., F.C.S., Public Analyst for the West Riding of Yorkshire, the Northern Division of Derbyshire, &c. Second Edition.

Vol. I.——Alcohols, Neutral Alcoholic Derivatives, Sugars, Starch and its Isomers, Vegetable Acids, &c. With Illustrations. 8vo., 14s.

Vol. II.——Fixed Oils and Fats, Hydrocarbons, Phenols, &c. With Illustrations. 8vo, 17s. 6d.

Vol. III.——Part I. Aromatic Acids, Tannins, Dyes, and Colouring Matters. 8vo, 14s.