mix. This receipt is employed by an eminent wholesale house that does very

largely in curry powder.

3. (See page 524.)

Used as a condiment and flavouring ingredient. The addition of a few heads of garlic gives it an increased zest for Indian veterans.

=Powder, Cust′ard.= _Prep._ From sago meal, 2 lbs.; powdered turmeric, 1/2 oz.; bitter-almond powder, cassia, and mace, of each 1/2 dr.

=Powder, Cyprus.= From _Cladonia rangiferina_, or reindeer moss. It has a very agreeable smell, and, being extremely retentive of odours, is much used as a basis for scent-powders, sachets, &c. The lichen known as the ragged hoary evernia also possesses nearly similar properties, and is often substituted for it. See POWDERS (Scented).

=Powder, Diapente.= (Ed. Ph. 1744.) _Syn._ PULVIS DIAPENTE. _Prep._ Aristolochia root, gentian, bay berries, myrrh, ivory dust, of each 2 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Disinfect′ing.= _Syn._ PULVIS DISINFECTANS, L. _Prep._ (Keist.) Bisulphate of potassa, 41 parts; sugar of lead, 7 parts; binoxide of manganese, 3 parts, reduce them separately to a fine powder, and, when wanted for use, mix a proper quantity in any suitable vessel. For other formulæ, see DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS. The name is generally applied to hypochlorite of lime.

=Powder, Diuretic.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PULVIS DIURETICUS. _Prep._ Gum Arabic, 6 oz.; sugar of milk, 6 oz.; nitrate of potash, 1 oz.; marshmallow root, 1 oz.; liquorice root, 2 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Dover’s.= _Syn._ PULVIS DOVERI, L. _Prep._ (Original formula.) Nitre and sulphate of potassa, of each 4 oz.; melt them together in a red-hot crucible, reduce the cold fused matter to powder, and add powdered ipecacuanha, liquorice, and opium, of each 1 oz. This is the formula adopted in the Paris Codex. COMPOUND IPECACUANHA POWDER is now sold under this name. (See _below_.)

=Powder, Duke of Portland’s.= _Syn._ PULVIS ANTIARTHRITICUS. _Prep._ Round birthwort, gentian, tops of lesser centaury, tops of ground pine, and germander, of each equal parts.——_Dose_, 1 dr.

=Powder, Egg.= See POWDER, BAKING.

=Powder of Elaterium, Compound.= (B. Ph.) PULVIS ELATERII COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Elaterium, 10 gr.; sugar of milk, 90 gr. Rub them together to fine powder.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr. to 5 gr.

=Powder, Emmen′agogue.= _Syn._ PULVIS EMMENAGOGUS, P. HÆMATINUS, P. CONTRA AMENORRHŒAM, L. _Prep._ 1. Saccharine carbonate of iron, 3 parts; powdered myrrh, ginger, and nutmeg, of each 1 part; divide into 1/2-dr. papers. One for a dose, twice or thrice daily.

2. (Augustin.) Myrrh, 12 gr.; saffron, 3 gr.; oil of cloves, 1 drop. For a dose, as the last.

3. (Klein.) Calomel, 4 gr.; extract of yew, 10 gr.; powdered savine, 1 dr.; Quevenne’s iron, 1/2 dr.; loaf sugar, 2 dr. For 6 powders; as before.

=Powder, Emulsive, of Gluten.= (Taddei.) _Syn._ PULVIS GLUTENIS EMULSIVUS. _Prep._ Fresh vegetable gluten, 10 oz.; soap, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint. Dissolve, evaporate the solution, dry it on plates, and reduce to powder. As an antidote to corrosive sublimate.

=Powder, Escharot′ic (Arsenical).= _Syn._ PULVIS ESCHAROTICUS ARSENICALIS, L.; POUDRE DU FRÈRES COSME, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Original formula.) From white arsenic, 12 gr.; burnt hartshorn, 1/2 dr.; cinnabar, 1 dr.

2. (P. Cod.) Red sulphuret of mercury and powdered dragon’s blood, of each 2 parts; levigated arsenious acid, 1 part; carefully mixed together. See CAUSTIC, ARSENICAL.

=Powder of Extract of Col′ocynth (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS EXTRACTI COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITI, L. _Prep._ From compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), dried by a gentle heat, and powdered.

_Obs._ This, like many other articles employed by lazy dispensers, does not represent the preparation for which it is used as a substitute; whilst, from its peculiar character, it is very open to sophistication——a practice, we regret to say, very general with certain druggists. Indeed, some of these parties make this article by simply throwing the ingredients of the extract into a pan along with a little water, and, when they have become soft, stirring them together with a spatula, after which they are desiccated and powdered. This is then labelled by certain houses, “Pulv. Ext. Coloc. co.——P. L.,” and sold to their unfortunate customers as such, although no such an extract has been in the Ph. L. since that of 1836.

=Powder, Faynard’s.= The charcoal of beechwood, finely powdered. (Paris.) Used in piles, and as a styptic.

=Powder, Fe′ver.= See POWDER, ANTIMONIAL (_above_).

=Powder of Flint.= _Syn._ SILEX CONTRITUS (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ As powdered glass. (See page 805.) It is ordered in the Ph. L. to be employed, instead of magnesia, for the purpose of mechanically dividing the essential oils used in the preparation of distilled water. It is also used as an escharotic.

=Powder, Fly.= _Prep._ From white arsenic, 5 oz.; white sugar, 6 lbs.; rose pink, 2 oz.; mix, and put 6 dr. in each paper. Used to kill flies. It is poisonous, and should be employed with great caution, particularly where there are children.

=Powder, Fu′′migating.= _Syn._ PULVIS FUMALIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Russ.) Amber, mastic, and olibanum, of each 3 parts; storax, 2 parts; benzoin and labdanum, of each 1 part; reduce them to coarse powder, and mix them well. See FUMIGATION.

=Powder, Galls of (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS GALLÆ COMPOSITUS, L. See POWDER, ASTRINGENT.

=Powder, Gascoign’s.= _Syn._ PULVIS ECHELIS COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Prepared crab shells, 1 lb.; prepared chalk, 3 oz.; prepared coral, 3 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Goelis’s Antihec′tic.= _Prep._ From burnt hartshorn, powdered nutmeg, black pepper, and roasted laurel berries, of each 1 part; liquorice powder, 3 parts.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr; in the hectic fever of scrofulous subjects.

=Powder, Gold.= _Syn._ PULVIS AURI. Triturate gold leaf with 10 or 12 times its weight of sulphate of potash till bright particles are no longer visible; pass it through a sieve, mix with boiling water, wash what remains on the filter, and dry in a stove.

=Powder, Gold Compound.= _Syn._ PULVIS AURI COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Auro-chloride of sodium, 1 gr.; lycopodium, starch, or washed orris powder, 1 scruple; mix. A 1/15th part, gradually increased to 1/8th part, of this powder to be rubbed on the gums.

=Powder of Gold and Iron.= (Buckler.) _Syn._ PULVIS AURI ET FERRI. _Prep._ Pulverised gold, 2 scruples; clean levigated iron filings, 2 scruples; gum Arabic in powder, 30 gr.; mix. For one dose, to be given in water acidulated with a few drops of sulphuric acid, as an antidote for corrosive sublimate.

=Powder, Goulard.= Effloresced sugar of lead. Poisonous.

=Powder, Grey.= Mercurial powder.

=Powder, Gregory’s.= See POWDER OF RHUBARB (Compound).

=Powder of Guarana, Compound.= (Dr Gavrelle). _Syn._ PULVIS PAULLINIÆ COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Guarana, 1 dr.; compound cinnamon powder, 4 dr. Mix.

=Powder, Gum.= (G. Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS GUMMOSUS. _Prep._ Gum Arabic, 3 oz.; liquorice, 2 oz.; refined sugar, 1 oz. Mix.

=Powder, Hæmostat′ic.= _Syn._ PULVIS HÆMOSTATICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Guibourt.) Charcoal and gum Arabic, of each, in powder, 1 part; powdered resin, 4 parts.

2. (Mialhe.) From powdered alum, gum tragacanth, and tannin, equal parts. Used to check local bleeding.

3. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Resin, 4 dr.; gum Arabic, 1 dr.; powdered catechu, 1 dr. Mix.

=Powder, Hair.= _Syn._ PULVIS PRO CRINE, L. Starch reduced to a very fine powder, and then scented according to the fancy of the artist; it is, lastly, passed through a gauze sieve. In its simple form, without any addition, it constitutes ‘plain hair powder.’ In other cases it is distinguished by the name of the substance added to perfume it. Thus, we have ‘rose hair powder,’ ‘violet h. p.,’ &c. Potato farina, well triturated, is now commonly used for hair powder. Amongst the lower classes, the contents of the ‘flour dredger’ of the kitchen are frequently misappropriated to this purpose. See POWDERS, SCENTED (_below_).

=Powder, Hand.= _Prep._ From almond powder, 1 lb.; powdered cuttle-fish bone and white soap, of each 4 oz.; orris powder, 1 oz.; mix. Used to clean the hands, and to render them soft and white. See POWDER, COSMETIC.

=Powder, Helvetius’s.= _Syn._ PULVIS HELVETII, L. A mixture of powdered alum and dragon’s blood. (Dr Paris.)

=Powder, Herrenschwand’s Specific.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Powder, Hiera Picra.= Powder of aloes with canella (see _above_).

=Powder, Hufeland’s.= _Syn._ HUFELAND’S QUINQUINA FACTICE, PULVIS CINCHONÆ FACTITIUS, P. SALICIS COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ From bennet (the herb), calamus aromaticus, chestnut bark, gentian root, and willow bark, equal parts; reduced to powder.

=Powder, Hunter’s.= See POWDER, WART (_below_).

=Powder, Hunt’s.= See POWDER, BREAKFAST.

=Powder of Ipecacuan′ha (Compound).= _Syn._ DOVER’S POWDER, COMPOUND POWDER OF IPECACUANHA WITH OPIUM; PULVIS DOVERI, PULVIS IPECACUANHÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L.; POUDRE D’IPECACUANHA ET D’OPIUM, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (B. P., Ph. L.) Ipecacuanha and opium, of each, in fine powder, 1 dr.; sulphate of potassa, in fine powder, 1 oz.; mix them (thoroughly). The Edin. and Dublin Formulæ are similar.

2. (P. Cod.) Nitre and sulphate of potassa, of each 4 oz.; ipecacuanha, liquorice root, and hard extract of opium, of each 1 oz. This closely resembles the original formula.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered ipecacuanha and opium, of each 1 lb.; powdered sulphate of potassa, 8 lbs. _Uses, &c._ ‘Dover’s powder’ is a powerful and valuable sudorific.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 or 20 gr., followed by warm diluents; in inflammatory affections, rheumatisms, colds, &c.

=Powder, Itch.= _Syn._ PULVIS ANTIPSORICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphur and potato farina, of each 1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1/4 oz.; mix.

2. (Poudre de Pihorel.) A mixture of finely pulverised sulphuret of calcium and farina, in nearly equal quantities. Used either as a dusting powder or mixed with a little oil or fat, and rubbed into the affected part.

3. (Fr. Hosp.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 oz.; acetate of lead, 1 oz. Mix.

4. Equal parts of sulphur and charcoal.

=Powder of Jal′ap (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS JÂLAPÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Jalap, 3 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 6 oz.; ginger, 2 dr.; rub them separately into fine powder, then mix them.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last, omitting the ginger.

3. (Ph. D.) Jalap, 2 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 3-1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz. (all in fine powder); mix by careful trituration.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr.; as a purgative in habitual costiveness, dropsies, &c.; also in worms, the tumid bellies of children, &c.

4. (B. P.) Jalap, in powder, 5; acid tartrate of potash, 9; ginger, in powder, 1; mix.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr.

5. (PULVIS LENITIVUS; SUCRE ORANGE PURGATIV.) From refined sugar, 3/4 lb.; jalap and cream of tartar, of each 2 oz.; oil of orange peel, 1/4 oz. A popular purgative on the Continent.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr.

=Powder, James’s.= _Syn._ PULVIS JACOBI, P. FEBRIFUGUS JACOBI, L. The antimonial powder, or compound powder of antimony, of the Pharmacopœias (see _above_) is the preparation which usually passes under this name; but the true James’s powder is a nostrum the pretended secret of the preparation of which is claimed to be possessed by only two parties in the kingdom. The patent specification of the once celebrated Dr James runs as follows:——

“Take of antimony, calcine it with a continued protracted heat, in a flat, unglazed earthen vessel, adding to it, from time to time, a sufficient quantity of any animal oil and salt, well dephlegmated; then boil it in melted nitre for a considerable time, and separate the powder from the nitre by dissolving it in water.” On this it has been remarked that it yields a product totally different from that which Dr James and his successors have sold under the name, and he has hence been charged with concealing the real formula for his powder, and publishing a false one in its stead.

According to Dr Robinson, the original formula for this nostrum, and that still adopted by the vendors of the proprietary article at the present day, is——Tartarised antimony, 1 part; prepared burnt hartshorn and calx of antimony, of each 5 parts; carefully mixed together, and divided into 21-gr. powders. (‘Phil. Journ. Pharm.,’ vi, 282.)

From analyses recently made of three specimens of James’s powder (‘Newberry’s,’ ‘Butler’s,’ and a sample of 60 years old obtained by Mr Squire), it appears that antimonious acid was present in different proportions, from about 45% to 33%, the amount being greatest in the old specimen; teroxide of antimony was also present to the extent of from 9% to less than 1%, the greatest quantity being again in the old preparation; the remainder in each specimen consisted chiefly of phosphate of lime; no trace of tartaric acid was discoverable in any of the samples.

Perhaps no nostrum ever received such extensive patronage from the faculty as James’s powder. Dr James himself was remarkably successful in its use; but whether his success depended upon his powder or the mercurials and bark which he commonly employed at the same time is still undetermined.

=Powder of Kermes with Camphor.= (Germ. Hosp.) _Syn._ PULVIS KERMETIS CUM CAMPHORA. _Prep._ Kermes mineral, 3 gr.; camphor, 6 gr.; white sugar, 2 dr.; mix. For 12 doses.

=Powder of Kermes with Ipecacuanha.= (Fr. Hosp.) _Syn._ PULVIS KERMETIS CUM IPECACUANHA. _Prep._ Kermes, 2 gr.; ipecacuanha, 2 gr.; crabs’ eyes, 2 scruples; gum Arabic, 2 scruples; mix. For 12 doses. In hooping-cough.

=Powder of Ki′no (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS KINO COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Kino, 15 dr.; cinnamon, 4 dr.; dried opium, 1 dr.; reduce them separately to fine powder, and then mix them.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.; in diarrhœa, pyrosis, &c.

(B. P.) _Prep._ Kino, 3-3/4 oz.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; opium, 1/4 oz.; mix.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.

=Powder, Lausanne.= _Prep._ From nitre, 1-1/2 dr.; carbonate of magnesia, bitartrate of potassa, precipitated sulphur, and oleo-saccharum of peppermint, of each 4 dr.; sugar of milk, 1 oz. Lenitive and antidysenteric.

=Powder, Lax′ative.= See SPECIES, LAXATIVE.

=Powder of Liquorice (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS GLYCYRRHIZÆ COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Bor.) Liquorice root and senna leaves, of each 6 oz.; fennel seed and milk of sulphur (pure), of each 3 oz.; white sugar, 18 oz. (all in fine powder); mix. Pectoral and laxative.

2. (B. Ph.) _Prep._ Senna and liquorice root, both in fine powder, of each 2 oz.; sugar, in fine powder, 6 oz. Mix thoroughly and pass through a fine sieve.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Powder of Magne′sia and Rhu′barb.= See POWDER OF COMPOUND RHUBARB (_below_).

=Powder, Martin’s Cancer.= An American nostrum, composed of the powdered stems of the _Orobanche Virginiana_ (Linn.), combined with a very small quantity of arsenious acid. It is used as a sprinkle for open cancers and cancerous sores.

=Powder, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ GREY POWDER (HYDRARGYRUM CUM CRETÂ, B. P.), MERCURY WITH CHALK. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 1; prepared chalk, 2; triturate till the globules disappear.——_Dose_, 3 to 8 gr.

2. Mercury, 3 oz.; powdered resin, 3/4 oz.; prepared chalk, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, q. s.; make a paste with the resin and a small quantity of the spirit; add the mercury, which may be extinguished in a short time; then the chalk and alcohol, gradually, so as to keep up the pasty consistence; lastly, add sufficient spirit to dissolve out the resin, wash the powder on a filter, and dry it. Rectified oil of turpentine may be substituted for the spirit.

=Powder, Morison’s Ape′′rient.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Powder of Mugwort, Saccharated.= (Bresler.) Powdered mugwort root, 3 oz.; sugar, 6 oz.; a teaspoonful four times a day in chorea and epilepsy.

=Powder of Mush′room.= _Syn._ PULVIS AGARICI, P. A. ESCULENTI, L. From edible mushrooms, dried by a gentle heat, and then powdered along with a little white pepper, cloves, and mace. Some cayenne is frequently added.

=Powder of Mus′sel.= From the _Mytilus edulis_ (Linn.), or common mussel, in the same way as POWDER OF OYSTER.

=Powder of Myrrh (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS È MYRRHÂ COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.) Myrrh, dried savine, dried rue, and Russian castor, equal parts, rubbed to powder, and then well mixed. Emmenagogue and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 12 to 30 gr.

=Powder, Nephritic.= (Fuller.) _Syn._ PULVIS NEPHRITICUS. _Prep._ Powdered roots of smallage and saxifrage, of each 2 dr.; crabs’ eyes, 1 dr.; sulphate of potash, 1 dr.; sal prunella, 2 scruples; oil of juniper, 4 drops. Mix.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr.

=Powder, Nur′sery.= See POWDER, VIOLET (_below_).

=Powder of Nux Vomica, Compound.= _Syn._ PULVIS NUCIS VOMICÆ COMPOSITUS; VOGT’S STOMACHIC POWDER. _Prep._ Nux vomica, 18 gr.; ipecacuanha, 24 gr.; rhubarb, 1 dr.; prepared oyster shell, 48 gr.; oleo-saccharum of mint, 1 dr. Mix, and divide into 12 powders.

=Powder, O′′piated.= Powder of chalk with opium.

=Powder, Opiated Guaiacum.= (Pareira.) _Syn._ PULVIS GUAIACI OPIATUS. _Prep._ Guaiacum, 1 dr.; orange leaves, 1/2 dr.; acetate of morphia, 3/4 gr. Mix, and divide into 6 powders. One every two hours in articular rheumatism.

=Powder of Oys′ter.= _Syn._ PULVIS OSTRÆ, L. _Prep._ From the common oyster (_Ostrea edulis_——Linn.), pulped through a sieve, made into a paste with wheaten flour and a little salt, and then rolled out into thin pieces, and dried; these are reduced to powder, sifted, and packed in well-corked bottles. Used to make sauce; about 1 oz., to water, 1 pint. Other shell-fish are treated in the same way.

=Powder of Oxide of Zinc with Starch.= (Cazenave.) _Syn._ PULVIS ZINCI OXYDI CUM AMYLO. _Prep._ Starch, 1 oz.; oxide of zinc, 1 dr.; camphor, in powder, 1 dr. For excoriations and bed-sores.

=Powder, Parturifacient.= (E. Ph. 1744). _Syn._ PULVIS AD PARTUM. _Prep._ Borax, 4 dr.; castor, 1-1/2 dr.; saffron, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of cinnamon, 8 drops; oil of amber, 6 drops. Mix.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 gr. (This name, and also that of PULVIS PARTURIFACIENS, has been given to powdered ergot.)

=Powder, Pea.= _Syn._ PEA FLOUR; FARINA PISORUM, L. _Prep._ From peas, in the usual manner. Used to make extemporaneous pea-soup.

=Powder, Pearl.= _Prep._ From pure pearl white and French chalk (scraped fine by Dutch rushes), equal parts; triturated together, Some makers add more French chalk. Used as a skin cosmetic. This mixture is preferable to pearl white alone, from being more adhesive.

=Powder, Pease.= _Prep._ From dried mint and sage, of each 4 oz,; celery seed and white pepper, of each 1/2 oz.; turmeric powder, 1/4 oz.; reduced to fine powder. Used as a condiment and kitchen-spice.

=Powder, Pec′toral.= See POWDER OF LIQUORICE, &c.

=Powder of Phosphate of Lime, Saccharated.= _Syn._ PULVIS CALCIS PHOSPHATIS, SACCHARATUS. _Prep._ Precipitated phosphate of lime, 15 gr., white sugar, 85 gr.; triturate and divide into 20 packets. Two or more powders daily, according to age of child. In rickets.

=Powder, Piles.= _Syn._ PULVIS ANTIHÆMORRHOIDALIS, P. HÆMORRHOIDALIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Fr. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 3 oz.; cream of tartar and black pepper, of each 1 oz.; oil of cubebs, 1/2 dr.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, in milk or honey, thrice a day.

2. (External.)——_a._ From Aleppo galls, in very fine powder, 2 oz.; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr. A pinch to be applied occasionally.

_b._ From sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz.; powdered acetate of lead, 1/2 dr. As the last.

=Powder of Pitch, Compound.= _Syn._ PULVIS PICIS COMPOSITUS; DISINFECTING POWDER OF CORNE AND DEMAUX. 100 parts of plaster of Paris are triturated thoroughly with 1 to 5 parts of coal tar. Used as an absorbent and disinfectant to fetid ulcers and wounds.

=Powder, Plate.= _Syn._ PULVIS PRO ARGENTO, L. _Prep._ 1. Jeweller’s rouge, 1/4 lb.; prepared chalk or levigated burnt hartshorn, 3/4 lb.; mix.

2. Levigated putty powder, 1/4 lb.; burnt hartshorn, 1/2 lb.; prepared chalk, 1 lb.; rose pink, 1 oz.

3. (MERCURIAL.) From quicksilver with chalk, 1 oz.; prepared chalk, 11 oz.; mix. Used to clean and polish plate. See PLATE.

=Powder, Plate Boiling.= _Prep._ From cream of tartar, common salt, and alum, equal parts. A little of this powder, added to the water in which plate is boiled, gives to it a silvery whiteness.

=Powder, Plummer’s Al′terative.= See ANTIMONY, ETHIOPS OF.

=Powder, Poul′tice.= _Syn._ PULVIS PRO CATAPLASMATE (Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ From linseed meal, 1 part; oatmeal, 2 parts; mixed together.

=Powder, Purgative and Anthelmintic.= (Boerhaave). _Syn._ PULVIS PURGANS ANTHELMINTICUS. _Prep._ Jalap, 12 gr. (or agaric, 8 gr.), Ethiops mineral, 12 gr.; for one dose.

=Powder of Quinine, Aerated.= (Dr Meireu). _Syn._ PULVIS QUINIÆ AERATUS. _Prep._ Tartaric acid, 15 gr.; disulphate of quinia, 1-1/2 gr. Mix, and add bicarbonate of soda, 18 gr.; refined sugar, 30 gr. Mix for one dose, between the fits of intermittent fever.

=Powder of Quinine and Tobacco.= (Hug.) _Syn._ PULVIS QUINIÆ SULPHATIS ET TABACI. _Prep._ Disulphate of quinine, 12 gr.; snuff, 1 oz. To be used as a snuff for nervous headaches.

=Powder, Rat.= See RATS.

=Powder of Rhu′barb (Compound).= _Syn._ GREGORY’S MIXTURE, GREGORY’S POWDER; PULVIS RHEI COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. E. and D.) L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Calcined magnesia, 1 lb.; rhubarb, 4 oz.; ginger, 2 oz. (all in fine powder); mix, and preserve it from the air.

2. (B. P., Ph. D.) Calcined magnesia, 6 oz.; rhubarb, 2 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.

3. Calcined magnesia, 8 oz.; rhubarb, 3 oz.; chamomile, 2 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.

_Obs._ An excellent stomachic, antacid, and laxative.——_Dose_, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr. Some druggists substitute the heavy carbonate for the calcined magnesia ordered above, but this alters the nature of the preparation, and requires the dose to be increased. Heavy calcined magnesia may, however, be employed with advantage.

=Powder, Sach′et.= See SCENTED POWDERS.

=Powder, Saline′ (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS SALINUS COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Pure chloride of sodium and sulphate of magnesia, of each 4 oz.; sulphate of potash, 3 oz.; each separately dried by a gentle heat, and pulverised, then triturated together, and preserved in well-closed vessels. An excellent saline purgative.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 dr., in 1/2 pint of water or table-beer, in the morning, fasting.

=Powder of Scammony (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS SCAMMONII COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Scammony and hard extract of jalap, of each 2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; rub them separately to a very fine powder, and then mix them.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Scammony and bitartrate of potassa, of each, in very fine powder, equal parts.——_Dose_, 7 to 20 gr.

3. (Ph. D.) Scammony, in fine powder, 1 oz.; compound powder of jalap, 3 oz.; mix,——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.

4. (B. P.) Scammony, 4; jalap, 3; ginger, 1; mix, and reduce to fine powder.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

_Obs._ The above are favourite cathartics in worms, especially for children. They are commonly sold for basilic powder. (See _above_.)

=Powder of Scammony with Cal′omel.= _Syn._ PULVIS SCAMMONII CUM CALOMELANE, L. _Prep._ From scammony, 1/2 oz.; calomel and white sugar, of each 2 dr. An excellent vermifuge for children.——_Dose._ For an adult, 5 to 20 gr.; for a child, 2 to 8 gr. Sold for basilic powder, to which it approaches nearer in composition than the preceding.

=Powder of Scammony with Soot.= _Syn._ PULVIS SCAMMONII CUM FULIGINE; POUDRE D’AILHAUT. _Prep._ Scammony, 1 dr.; wood soot, 1-1/2 dr.; resin, 2 dr.; mix. _Dose_, 1/2 dr. A once fashionable purgative.

=Powder, Schmidt’s Parturifa′′cient.= _Syn._ SCHMIDT’S POUDRE OCYTIQUE, Fr. _Prep._ From powdered ergot of rye, borax, and oleo-saccharum of camomile, of each 8 gr.; powdered sugar, q. s. For a dose; to be repeated every quarter of an hour until some effect is produced.

=Powder of Scordium (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS E SCORDIO COMPOSITUS. (L. Ph. 1746.) _Prep._ Bole, 4 oz.; scordium, 2 oz.; cinnamon, 1-1/2 oz.; styrax tormentil, bistort, gentian, dittany, galbanum, gum acacia, red rose petals, of each 1 oz.; long pepper, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz. Make a powder.

=Powder of Scordium with Opium.= _Syn._ PULVIS E SCORDIO CUM OPIO. _Prep._ Add to the preceding, 3 dr. of dry strained opium, and powder it with the other ingredients.

=Powder of Senna (Battley’s Green).= _Syn._ PULVIS SENNÆ VIRIDIS, L. _Prep._ From senna leaves, dried and heated until they turn yellow, then powdered along with a little (blue) charcoal, to give a green colour.

=Powder of Sen′na (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS SENNÆ COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1824.) Senna and bitartrate of potassa, of each 2 oz.; scammony, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 2 dr.; all in fine powder; mix.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 gr., or more; as a purgative or anthelmintic.

=Powder, Sil′vering.= _Prep._ 1. Silver dust (fine), 20 gr.; alum, 30 gr.; common salt, 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 3 dr.; rub them together to a fine powder.

2. As the last, but substituting 35 gr. of nitrate of silver for the silver dust.

3. Chloride of silver is dissolved in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, and the solution made into a paste with levigated burnt hartshorn or bone dust; this is next dried, and powdered.

4. Silver dust, 1 oz.; common salt and sal ammoniac, of each 4 oz.; corrosive sublimate, 1/4 oz.

_Obs._ The above powders, made into a paste with a little water, are used to silver dial-plates, statuettes, and other articles in copper, previously well cleaned, by friction. The best silver powder for the purpose is that precipitated from its nitric solution by means of a copper plate. When the product of the last formula is used, the articles should be afterwards made red hot, and polished.

=Powder of Soap.= _Syn._ SAPO CONTRITUS, PULVIS SAPONIS, L. Castile soap, sliced or cut small, dried by exposure to a warm atmosphere, or by a very gentle heat, and then powdered. Used in dispensing; also as a hand, shaving, and tooth powder. As a cosmetic it may be scented at will.

=Powder, Spermaceti.= _Syn._ PULVIS CETACEI. Spermaceti is pulverised as camphor, by the aid of a few drops of spirit.

=Powder of Spermaceti, with Sugar.= _Syn._ PULVIS CETACEI CUM SACCHARO. One part of powdered spermaceti with two of sugar. Pectoral.

=Powder of Sponge.= _Syn._ PULVIS SPONGIÆ, P. SPONGIÆ USTÆ, L. _Prep._ Let sponge, cut into small pieces, be beaten so as to free it from sand or stones; then burn it in a covered iron vessel, until it becomes black and friable; finally, reduce it to powder. Deobstruent.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3 dr.; in glandular indurations and enlargements, &c. It should be of a brownish-black colour; if over burnt its efficacy is destroyed.

=Powder of Squills.= _Syn._ PULVIS SCILLÆ, L. _Prep._ Remove the membranous integuments from the bulb of the squill, cut it into thin slices, and dry it at a heat between 90° and 100° Fahr.; next reduce it to powder, and keep it in well-stoppered bottles.

=Powder, Sternuta′tory.= See SNUFFS (Medicated).

=Powder, Stahl’s Resolvent.= _Syn._ PULVIS RESOLVENS STAHLII. _Prep._ Antimonial powder, nitre, prepared crabs’ eyes, in equal parts.

=Powder of Starch with Soda.= _Syn._ PULVIS AMYLI ET SODÆ; DEVERGIE’S ALKALINE POWDER. _Prep._ Mix 1 part of carbonate of soda in fine powder with 10 of white starch. For external use in some skin diseases.

=Powder, Styp′tic.= See POWDER, ASTRINGENT, FAYNARD’S P., &c.

=Powder, Tonquin.= _Syn._ PULVIS ANTITYSSUS TUNQUINENSIS; Sir G. COBB’S TONQUIN POWDER. _Prep._ Musk, 16 gr.; cinnabar, 48 gr.; to be mixed or washed down with arrack or other spirit. Three doses to be given on three alternate days, and three more on the three next changes of the moon.

=Powder of Trag′acanth (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS TRAGACANTHÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Gum tragacanth, gum acacia, and starch, of each, in fine powder, 1-1/2 oz.; powdered white sugar, 3 oz. The Edinburgh formula is similar. Demulcent.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., in water or any simple liquid; in hoarseness and catarrhs, combined with squills and henbane, to allay irritation; in dysentery, combined with ipecacuahna; in gonorrhœa, strangury, &c., combined with acetate of potassa or nitre.

2. (B. P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 1; gum Arabic, in powder, 1; starch, in powder, 1; refined sugar, in powder, 3; rub well together.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 gr.

=Powder of Vanilla, with Sugar.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PULVIS VANILLÆ CUM SACCHARO; POUDRE DE VANILLE SUCRÉE. Vanilla is reduced to powder by cutting it in pieces, and triturating it with 9 times its weight of refined sugar.

=Powder of Verdigris with Calomel.= _Syn._ PULVIS ÆRUGINIS CUM CALOMELANE. _Prep._ Prepared verdigris, 1 dr.; calomel, 1 dr.; mix. For external use.

=Powder, Violet.= _Syn._ NURSERY POWDER, SKIN P. This is simply starch, reduced to a very fine powder, and scented with orris powder or essence of violets. The best kinds are also perfumed with a little musk or ambergris, and are now generally made with potato farina. The commoner sort is only scented with a little essence of bergamot or essence of lemon. ‘Plain violet powder’ is, of course, unscented.

_Prep._ 1. Powdered starch, 28 lbs.; powdered orris root, 1 lb.; essence of ambergris and essence of bergamot, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of rhodium, 1/2 dr.; mix, and pass the powder through a sieve.

2. Powdered starch, 14 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/2 oz.; as last. Used as a dusting powder in excoriations, &c. See POWDERS, COSMETIC (_below_).

=Powder, Ward’s Sweating.= Resembles DOVER’S POWDER.

=Powder, Wart.= _Syn._ CORN POWDER, COSMETIC CAUSTIC, &c. _Prep._ 1. Ivy leaves ground to powder. A pinch is applied with a rag, the part being first moistened with strong vinegar. Useful for soft corns and warts.

2. (Hunter’s.) From savine and verdigris, equal parts. See CORN SOLVENT.

=Powder, Warwick’s (Earl of).= _Syn._ PULVIS COMITIS WARWICENCIS, L. _Prep._ From scammony, prepared with the fumes of sulphur, 2 oz.; diaphoretic antimony, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1/2 oz.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 gr.

_Obs._ This is a modification of CORNACHINI’S POWDER. It is represented in the present Pharmacopœias by COMPOUND SCAMMONY POWDER. “Cornachini wrote a whole book about his powder, the proportions of the ingredients of which he varied according to circumstances.” (‘Med. Lex.’)

=Powder, Wash′ing.= The numerous compounds vended under this name have for their basis the soda-ash of commerce, blended with common Scotch soda in variable proportions. The best of them consist either wholly or chiefly of the first of these substances. The alkaline matter is reduced to coarse powder, and stirred up with liquid size, or with a decoction of linseed, Irish moss, or British gum, and is then dried, and again crushed or powdered, and at once put into the packages, in which it is rammed tight, and covered up immediately. The object aimed at by the manufacturer is to keep his commodity from the air as much as possible, because exposure renders it less caustic, and consequently less detergent.

=Powder of Yellow Bladder-wrack.= (Ph. D.) _Syn._ PULVIS QUERCUS MARINÆ. _Prep._ Yellow bladder-wrack, in flower, is dried, cleansed, and heated in a crucible with a perforated lid till vapours cease to be given off, and the carbonaceous residue reduced to powder.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 2 dr.

=POWDERS.= The following preparations have been placed under this head instead of under ‘POWDER,’ because some are invariably spoken of in the plural number, and the others may be conveniently noticed in classes or groups.

=Powders, Aerated Sherbet (IN ONE BOTTLE).= Double refined sugar, 14-1/2 oz.; powdered orange peel, 12 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 3-1/2 oz.; essence of cedrat, 12 drops; oil of orange peel, 60 drops; tartaric acid, 4 oz. The powders must be carefully dried, mixed quickly, and afterwards kept dry, in a bottle securely corked. A measure holding nearly 3 dr. of the powder should accompany each bottle.

=Powders, Efferves′cing.= _Prep._ 1. (PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES——Ph. E.) Take of tartaric acid, 1 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. 54 gr. (534 gr.), or bicarbonate of potassa, 1 oz. 2 dr. 40 gr. (640 gr.); reduce the acid and either bicarbonate separately to fine powder, divide each of these into 16 powders, and preserve the acid and alkaline powders in separate papers of different colours.

2. (PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CITRATI——Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (crystallised), 9 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicarbonate of potassa, 13 dr., proceed as last, dividing each into 18 parts.

3. (PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES TARTARIZATI——Ph. D.) Take of tartaric acid (in crystals), 10 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicarbonate of potassa, 13 dr.; reduce them to powder, and divide them into 18 parts, as before. (See _below_.)

=Powders, Effervescing, with Iron.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CUM FERRO. _Prep._ Tartaric acid, 2-3/4 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 oz.; powdered sugar, 9 oz.; dried sulphate of iron, 46 gr. Mix the acid and the sulphate of iron (previously reduced to coarse powder), add the sugar, and lastly the soda, not in very fine powder. All the ingredients must be very dry. Half an ounce of this powder is to be quickly added to 2 pints of pure water (without air) contained in a bottle, which is to be immediately corked.

=Powders for Gazogene.= For 2 pints:——Powdered tartaric acid, 14 scruples; bicarbonate of soda, 17 scruples.

For 3 pints:——Powdered tartaric acid, 17 scruples; bicarbonate of soda, 21 scruples.

For 5 pints:——One each charge of 2 and 3 pints.

=Powders, Gin′ger Beer.= _Syn._ PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CUM ZINGIBERE, L. _Prep._ 1. Powdered white sugar, 1 to 2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 26 gr.; finest powdered Jamaica ginger, 6 gr.; essence of lemon, 1 drop; mix, and wrap it in blue paper. In the white paper put of powdered tartaric acid, 35 gr., or of powdered citric acid, 30 gr.

2. Finest Jamaica ginger, 1 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 5 dr.; white sugar, 16 dr.; essence of lemon, 6 or 8 drops; mix, and divide it between 12 papers (blue). For the white papers, divide tartaric acid, 6 dr., in the same way. By taking the drachms as ounces, the quantity will be sufficient for 8 dozen. For use dissolve one of each colour separately in somewhat less than half a glass of water, mix the two, and drink the mixture whilst effervescing.

3. (In one bottle.)——_a._ The sugar and the saline ingredients are separately dried by a very gentle heat, then mixed in a dry room with the ginger and essence of lemon, and at once put into bottles.

_b._ By adding to the ‘acidulated kali,’ noticed at page 929, about 1-16th of its weight of the finest powdered Jamaica ginger (_i. e._ 1/2 dr. to each oz.; 1 oz. to each lb.) at the time of mixing the ingredients together. A dessert-spoonful, thrown into a tumbler two thirds filled with cold water, produces an excellent glass of ginger beer.

=Powders, Ink.= The article usually sold under this name is noticed under INK. Another formula, which we have adopted with considerable success, is as follows:——Good black ink, 3 pints, lump sugar, 1-1/2 oz., and gum Arabic, 1/2 oz., are put into a clean iron pan, and evaporated by the heat of boiling water, with occasional stirring, to dryness; the dried mass is reduced to powder, and divided into 12 parts, which are enveloped in either tin-foil or glazed paper, and kept dry. One of these papers dissolved in 1/4 pint of hot water forms that quantity of excellent black ink, without sediment, and which answers well with the copying press.

=Powders, Lem′onade.= _Syn._ LEMON SHERBET; LIMONADUM SICCUM, PULVIS PRO LIMINADO, L. _Prep._ 1. Powdered citric or tartaric acid, 12 gr.; powdered white sugar, 1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 1 drop (or a little of the yellow peel of a lemon rubbed off on a piece of sugar); mix. For one glass.

2. White sugar, 4 lbs.; citric or tartaric acid, 1-1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 1/4 oz.; mix well, and preserve it in a bottle for use. 1 to 2 dessert-spoonfuls make a glass of lemonade. It is also put up in papers containing about 2-1/2 dr. each.

3. (EFFERVESCING.)——_a._ For the blue papers, take of powdered white sugar, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 1/4 lb.; essence of lemon, 1-1/2 dr.; mix, and divide it between 6 dozen papers. Next divide tartaric or citric acid, 5 oz., between 6 dozen white papers. Or the two may be kept in bulk, in separate bottles.

_b._ (In one bottle.) As ‘ACIDULATED KALI,’ Some makers slightly increase the quantities of acid and essence of lemon there ordered.

=Powders, Orangeade.= _Syn._ AERATED SHERBET. _Prep._ Powdered sugar, 14-1/2 oz.; powdered orange peel, 12 gr.; oil of orange peel, 60 drops; essence of cedrat, 12 drops; bicarbonate of soda, 3-1/2 oz.; mix, and put 145 gr. in each blue paper. In the white paper put 32 gr. of tartaric acid (or 30 gr. of citric acid). Or the alkaline and acid powders may be put into separate bottles, with a measure holding the proper proportions of each. The orange peel may be omitted, if necessary.

=Powders, Pol′ishing.= _Prep._ 1. (For brass and copper.)——_a._ From rotten stone, 3 oz.; powdered soap, 1 oz.

_b._ From rotten stone, 7 oz.; powdered oxalic acid, 1 oz. Both are used with a little water. See BRASS PASTE.

2. (For gold.) Jeweller’s rouge. See SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON.

3. (For ivory.) Pumice stone and putty powder.

4. (For plate.) See PLATE and POWDER, PLATE.

5. (For silver.) As the last.

=Powders, Scented.= _Prep._ 1. COSMETIC POWDERS.——_a._ (POUDRE DE CHIPRE.) Macerate oak moss in running water for 2 or 3 days, then dry and powder it. Used as a basis for other powders, on account of its being highly retentive of odours. Reindeer moss and ragged hoary evernia are also used for the same purpose. See CYPRUS POWDER (_above_).

_b._ (POUDRE DE CHIPRE DE MONTPELIER.) From poudre de chipre, 2 lbs.; musk, 30 gr.; civet, 20 gr. (the last two powdered by means of a little sugar); cloves, 1/4 oz.

_c._ (POUDRE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES.) From starch or cyprus powder, 25 lbs.; orange flowers, 1 lb.; mixed in a covered chest, and stirred twice or thrice daily; the process being repeated, with fresh flowers, a second and a third time. Or, the plain powder is scented by the addition of a little neroli or essence of petit grain.

_d._ (POUDRE DE FRANGIPANNI.) From poudre de fleurs d’oranges and poudre de chipre, of each 6 lbs.; essence of ambergris, 1 oz.; civet (powdered with sugar), 1/2 dr. Ash-grey colour.

_e._ (POUDRE DE JASMINE.) As POUDRE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES, but using jasmin flowers.

_f._ (POUDRE À LA MARÉCHALE.) From poudre de chipre, 2 lbs.; starch powder, 1 lb.; calamus aromaticus, cloves, and cyperus perennis or rotundis, of each 2 oz. Or, starch powder, 28 lbs.; powdered cloves, 3/4 lb.; powdered orris root, 1/2 lb.; essence of ambergris, 2 dr.

_g._ (POUDRE À LA MOUSSELINE.) From orris root, 1 lb.; coriander seed, 6 oz.; mace and violet ebony, of each 2 oz.; musk seed, cassia, cloves, and sandal wood, of each 1 oz.

_h._ (POUDRE DE JONQUILLE.) From jonquils, as POUDRE DE JASMINE.

_i._ (POUDRE À L’ŒILLET.) From plain powder, 2 lbs.; orris root and dried red rose leaves, of each 1 lb.; cloves and musk seed, of each 4 oz.; essence of bergamot and essence de petit grain, of each 1/2 dr.

_k._ (POUDRE DE ROSES COMMUNES.) From pale roses, as POUDRE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES.

_l._ (POUDRE DE ROSES MUSQUÉES.) From musk roses, as the last.

_m._ (POUDRE À LA VANILLA.) From poudre de chipre or cyprus, 3 lbs.; vanilla, powdered by means of sugar, 2 dr.; oil of cloves and essence of ambergris, of each 20 drops.

_n._ (POUDRE À LA VIOLETTE.) See POWDER, VIOLET (as _above_).

The above are used as cosmetic powders for the skin and hair; also, but less frequently, for sachets, drawers, &c.

2. SACHET POWDER.——_a._ From orris root, 2 oz.; cassia, 1-1/2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; yellow sandal wood, 1/4 oz.; oils of lavender and bergamot, of each 1 dr.; otto of roses, 20 drops; musk and ambergris, of each, rubbed with a little sugar, 6 gr.; reduce the dry ingredients to coarse powder, mix them, and add the oils.

_b._ From corianders, orris root, rose leaves, and calamus aromaticus, of each 4 oz.; lavender flowers, 8 oz.; rhodium wood, 1 dr.; musk, 20 gr.

_c._ From corianders, orris, calamus aromaticus, and red roses (dried), of each 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 2 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1 dr.; essential oil of almonds, 10 drops.

_d._ As last, but substituting musk, 5 gr., for the oil of almonds.

_e._ From patchouli, 8 oz.; lavender flowers, (lightly dried), 3 oz.; orris root, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 dr.; essences of ambergris and musk, of each 1/2 dr.

These are used, along with cotton wool, to fill scent bags, cassolettes, &c.; and as scent powder for boxes, drawers, and the like. The scent is added to the dry ingredients, separately reduced to powder, and the whole is then passed through a fine sieve, to ensure perfect admixture.

3. PARFUM POUR LES AUTRES POUDRES. From poudre d’ambrette, 12 lbs.; civette, 1-1/2 oz.; musk, 1 dr.; reduce the last two to powder by grinding them with some dry lump sugar, then mix the whole together, and pass it through a sieve. Used to perfume hair powder, sachets, &c.

=Powders, Seidlitz.= _Syn._ PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES APERIENTES, L. _Prep._ 1. Potassio-tartrate of soda (Rochelle salt), 2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 40 gr.; mix, and put it in a blue paper; tartaric acid, 35 gr.; to be put in a white paper. For about 1/2 pint of water. Laxative.

2. (In one bottle.) From potassio-tartrate of soda, 12 oz.; bicarbonate of do., 4 oz.; tartaric acid, 3-1/2 oz.; white sugar, 1 lb. (all in fine powder); dry each separately by a gentle heat, add of essence of lemon, 1/2 dr.; mix well, pass the mixture through a sieve, and put it at once into clean dry bottles.——_Dose._ A dessert-spoonful, or more, to a tumblerful of water.

_Obs._ The above mixtures, though now universally sold as Seidlitz powder, do not, when dissolved, exactly resemble the natural water, which contains carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. However, the factitious article is equally effective, and much more agreeable.

=Powders, Sher′bet.= These are made of the same materials as lemonade powders, the flavouring ingredient being varied to suit the particular case.

=Powders, So′da-water.= _Syn._ EFFERVESCING POWDERS, E. SALINE P., SODAIC P., AERATED SODA P.; PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES, L. _Prep._ 1. From bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr. in each blue paper; tartaric acid, 25 gr. (or citric acid, 24 gr.), in each white paper. One of each is dissolved separately in about half a glassful of water, and the two solutions mixed, and drank immediately. A cooling, wholesome summer beverage, but it should not be indulged in to excess.

2. (Chalybeated.) By adding 1 gr. of dried protosulphate of iron to each paper of acid. Tonic.

3. (Midgeley’s.) Made by adding 1/8 gr. of tartarised antimony to each paper of acid. Refrigerant and diaphoretic. For the Ph. formulæ see POWDERS, EFFERVESCING (_above_).

=Powders, Soup.= See POWDER, CURRY, POWDER, PEA, SPICE, &c.

=Powders, Spruce Beer.= _Syn._ PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CUM ABIETE, L. _Prep._ As ginger-beer powders, but substituting essence of spruce, 3 to 6 drops, for the powdered ginger.

=Powders, Tooth.= _Syn._ PULVIS DENTIFRICII, L. The general principles which should be kept in view in the selection of the materials, and in the preparation of dentifrices, have been already fully noticed under DENTIFRICES, and need not, therefore, be repeated here. Care must be taken that all the dry ingredients be finely pulverised, and that the harder and gritty ones be reduced to the state of an impalpable powder, either by levigation or elutriation. The mixture of the ingredients must also be complete. This is the most readily effected by stirring them well together until they form an apparently homogeneous powder, and then passing this powder through a very fine sieve. Those which contain volatile substances should be preserved in closely corked wide-mouth bottles, and those which contain acidulous or gritty matter should not be frequently employed. The selection of the tooth brush likewise deserves attention. It should be sufficiently stiff to effect its purpose completely; but, at the same time, it should be so formed as not to cause irritation or injury to the gums during its use.

_Prep._ 1. Cuttle-fish bone and prepared chalk, of each 2 oz.; oil of cloves, 20 drops. This may be perfumed at will, and medicated by any of the substances referred to under DENTIFRICES.

2. To the last add of powdered Castile soap, 2 oz.

3. Prepared chalk, 12 oz.; cuttle-fish bone, 8 oz.; orris root, 4 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1-1/2 oz.; oils of cloves and cassia, of each 1/2 dr.

4. Prepared chalk, 1 lb.; pumice-stone, in impalpable powder, 1/4 lb.; orris root, 2 oz.; pure rouge, 1/4 oz.; neroli, 1/2 dr.

5. Yellow cinchona bark and myrrh, of each 1/2 oz.; recently burnt charcoal, 3 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.

6. Pumice-stone, red coral, and powdered rhatany root, of each, 2 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz.; essence of vanilla, 1/2 dr.

7. (AROMATIC TOOTH POWDER.) From cuttle-fish bone, 4 oz.; calamus aromaticus, 2 oz.; powdered Castile soap, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/2 dr.

8. (ASIATIC DENTIFRICE.) From prepared red coral, 8-1/4 lbs.; Venetian red, 3/4 lb.; prepared chalk and pumice-stone, of each 1-1/4 lb.; China musk, 30 gr.

9. (Cadet’s.) From lump sugar and charcoal, of each 1 oz.; Peruvian bark, 1/2 oz.; cream of tartar, 1/4 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 dr.

10. (Camphorated.) See CAMPHORATED CHALK.

11. (CHARCOAL DENTIFRICE.) From charcoal, preferably that from the willow or the areka nut, either alone or combined with twice its weight of prepared chalk. Scent or medicinals injure it. (See 9, 19, and 26.)

12. (CORAL DENTIFRICE.) See 16, 23, and 25 (_below_).

13. (Deschamp’s ALKALINE DENTIFRICE.) From powdered talc, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; carmine, 6 gr.; oil of mint, 12 or 15 drops.

14. (FLORENTINE DENTIFRICE.) From prepared shells, 4 oz.; orris root, 1-1/2 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 3/4 oz.; Florentine lake, q. s. to colour.

15. (GALVANIC DENTIFRICE.) From gold, 3 leaves; silver, 4 leaves; triturate them with alum and sulphate of potassa, of each 1-1/2 dr.; then add, of dry common salt, pellitory of Spain, and Peruvian bark, of each 1 dr.; prepared hartshorn, 1 oz.; mix, and either colour it blue with smalts or red with lake. A useless compound.

16. (Grosvenor’s.) From red coral, 3 lbs.; prepared oyster-shells, 2-1/2 lbs.; orris powder, 1/2 lb.; oil of rhodium, 25 drops. Rose-pink is now commonly substituted for the coral.

17. (Hemet’s.) From cuttle-fish bone, 6 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz.

18. (‘Lancet.’) Red bark and Armenian hole, of each 1 oz.; powdered cinnamon and bicarbonate of soda, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 2 or 3 drops.

19. (Lardner’s.) From charcoal, in very fine powder, 1 oz.; prepared chalk, 3 oz.; mix.

20. (Mialhe’s RATIONAL DENTIFRICE.) From sugar of milk, 3 oz.; pure tannin, 3 dr.; red lake, 1 dr.; oils of mint and aniseed, of each 7 or 8 drops; neroli, 4 or 5 drops.

21. (MYRRH DENTIFRICE.) From cuttle-fish bone, 6 oz.; myrrh and orris root, of each 2 oz.

22. (PEARL DENTIFRICE.) From heavy carbonate of magnesia or precipitated chalk, 1 lb.; finest smalts, 3 dr.; essence de petit grain, 1/2 dr.

23. (Pelletier’s QUININE DENTIFRICE.) From prepared red coral, 3 oz.; myrrh, 1 dr.; disulphate of quinine, 12 to 15 gr.

24. (Ph. Russ.) Cinchona bark, 4 oz.; orris root, 2 oz.; catechu and myrrh, of each 1-1/2 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 20 drops.

25. (POUDRE DENTIFRICE——P. Cod.) Red coral, red bole, and cuttle-fish bone, of each 3 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1-1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 3/4 oz.; cochineal, 3 dr.; cloves, 1 dr.; bitartrate of potassa, 4-1/2 oz.; reduce them separately to very fine powder before mixing them. This is the ‘coral dentifrice’ of the French.

26. (Rignini’s.) From charcoal, 1 oz.; yellow bark, 1/4 oz.

27. (ROSE DENTIFRICE.) From precipitated chalk, 6 oz.; cuttle-fish bone, 3 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 oz.; red lake, 1/4 oz.; otto of roses, 20 drops.

28. (Ruspini’s.) From cuttle-fish bone, 8 oz.; Roman alum and orris root, of each 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 2 oz.; oil of rhodium, 6 or 8 drops.

29. (VIOLET TOOTH POWDER.) From orris root, 3 oz.; cuttle-fish bone and rose pink, of each 5 oz.; precipitated chalk, 12 oz.; pure indigo, q. s. to give it a pale violet tinge.

30. (Zieter’s.) From finely powdered calcined hartshorn and cuttle-fish bone, of each 6 oz.; calamus aromaticus, cassia, and pellitory of Spain, of each 1 oz.; essence of vanilla, 1 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 or 12 drops.

31. Chalk, carbonate of magnesia, and pale bark, of each 1 oz.; oil of peppermint, 5 drops.

32. Cream of tartar, sugar of milk, of each 2 oz.; carmine, 88 gr. (all in very subtle powder); oil of peppermint, 4 drops.

=Powders, Worm.= _Syn._ PULVERES ANTHELMINTICI, P. VERMIFUGI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Bouchardat.) Powdered Corsican moss and worm-seed, of each 5 dr.; calomel, 40 gr.; rub them together.

2. (Collier.) From powdered jalap and scammony, of each 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; Ethiops mineral, 3 dr.

3. (Guibourt.) Sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; tansy, 2 dr.; worm-seed, 3 dr.

4. (P. Cod.) Corsican moss and worm-seed, of each 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; rubbed to a fine powder, and carefully mixed.

=POX.= A corruption of a Saxon word, originally applied to pustules or eruptions of any kind, but now restricted to varicella, variola, vaccinia, and, in its unqualified form, to syphilis. (See _below_.)

=Pox, Chick′en.= _Syn._ WATER-POX; VARICELLA, L. An eruptive disease, consisting of smooth, semi-transparent vesicles, of various sizes, which afterwards become white and straw-coloured, and about the fourth day break and scale off, without leaving any permanent mark behind them. In hot weather the discharge sometimes becomes purulent, and at others the eruption is attended with considerable fever. Sometimes the vesicles assume a pointed form, and the fluid remains clear throughout the disease; it is then frequently called the “swine-pox.” When the vesicles are large and globular, and their contents, at first whey-coloured, afterwards turn yellow, it is popularly known as ‘hives.’

The treatment of chicken-pox consists in the adoption of a light, vegetable diet, and in the administration of mild saline aperients and cooling drinks.

The chicken-pox, except in children of a very bad habit of body, is an extremely mild disease. Like the smallpox, it rarely attacks the same person more than once during life.

=Pox, Cow.= _Syn._ VACCINIA, VARIOLA VACCINA, L. This disease was proposed as a substitute and a preventive of smallpox by Dr Jenner in 1798, and its artificial production (vaccination) has rendered smallpox a comparatively rare disease in Britain. There appears no reason to doubt that the pretensions of the advocates of vaccination have been fully justified by the experience of more than half a century; or that this disease, when actively developed, evinced by the completeness and maturation of the pustules, acts as a prophylactic of smallpox.

The process of vaccination is similar to that of inoculation for smallpox. The point of a lance is wetted with the matter taken from one of the pustules, and is then gently inserted under the cuticle, and the scratch afterwards rubbed over with the same. Hæmorrhage should be avoided, as the blood is apt to wash away the virus, or to form a cake which shields the living tissue from its action.

=Pox, Small.= _Syn._ VARIOLA, L. This disease comes on with the usual symptoms of inflammatory fever. About the third day red spots, resembling flea-bites, make their appearance on the face and head, and gradually extend over the whole body. About the fifth day small circular vesicles, depressed in the centre, surrounded by an areola, and containing a colourless fluid, begin to form, when the feverish symptoms abate; about the sixth day the throat becomes sore; about the eighth day the face is swollen; and about the eleventh day the pustules acquire the size of a pea, and cease to enlarge, the matter which they contain becomes opaque and yellow, a dark central spot forms on each, the swelling of the face subsides, and secondary symptoms of fever come on; the pustules become rough, break, and scab over, and a dark spot remains for some days, often followed by permanent indentations, popularly known as ‘pock-marks.’ At the end of the sixteenth or eighteenth day the symptoms usually disappear. In the confluent smallpox, a severer form of the disease, the pustules coalesce, the eruption is irregular in its progress, and the inflammatory symptoms are more severe.

The treatment of ordinary cases of smallpox resembles, for the most part, that mentioned above for chicken-pox. As soon as the febrile symptoms become marked the patient should not be suffered to lie in a hot bed, but on a mattress, in a cool and well-ventilated apartment, and antiseptic cooling drinks should be freely administered. When convulsions occur, or great irritability exists, small doses of morphine, opium, or camphor may be administered, and obstinate vomiting arrested by effervescing saline draughts. When the skin is pale and cold, the pulse weak, and the eruption languidly developed, the warm or tepid bath is often serviceable. An infusion of the root of _Sarracenia pupurea_, an American plant, has been strongly recommended as a preventive and cure of smallpox, but many of our most eminent physicians regard it as valueless. The application on the third day of a mask formed of thin muslin, covered with mercurial ointment, and having holes cut in it for the nostrils, eyes, and mouth, will effectually prevent ‘pitting.’ (Dr. Stewardson.) With the same intention some persons recommend the puncture of the pustules as soon as they are mature. A solution of india rubber in chloroform is now often painted over the face when the eruption has become fully developed. The chloroform quickly evaporates, leaving an elastic film of india rubber, which almost entirely removes the itchiness of the pustules and prevents ‘pitting.’ To remove the pock-marks, whether recent or old, nothing appears to be better than warm sea-bathing, or the use of tepid ioduretted lotions.

The smallpox is eminently contagious, but only attacks the same person once during life. Formerly, a milder form of the disease was propagated by inoculation, a practice introduced into England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montague, about the year 1721. At the present day, in England, inoculation, as well as the exposure of a patient labouring under smallpox, is penal, the punishment being either by fine or imprisonment. See POX, COW (_above_).

“The absolute necessity for enforcing this measure after smallpox is conclusively shown by the following cases which occurred during the late severe outbreak of the disease at Ipswich. In the first instance a young man brought a bundle of infected linen with him from London and had it washed at Ipswich. Twelve days after, the servant who washed it showed symptoms of smallpox. In another case, a woman who had been at Highgate Hospital brought with her a shawl which she had worn during convalescence, but had not been disinfected; and in fourteen days her sister, who washed the shawl, was attacked with smallpox.”——_Sanitary Record._

=PRECIP′ITATE.= Any substance which has separated from its solution in a solid and, usually, a pulverulent or flocculent form. The substance by which such a change is produced is called the ‘precipitant,’ and the act or operation by which it is effected is called ‘precipitation.’ The old chemists gave this name to several compounds. Red precipitate, or precipitate _per se_, is the red oxide of mercury prepared by heat. White precipitate is the AMMONIATED MERCURY of the B. P.

=PRECIPITA′TION.= The formation or subsidence of a precipitate. (See _above_.) When the precipitate is the chief object of the process, it is necessary to wash it, after it is separated, by filtration. This operation requires little attention when the substance thrown down is insoluble in water; but when it is in some degree soluble in that liquid, great attention is required to prevent the loss which might result from the use of too much water. Precipitates soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, are frequently, on the small scale, washed with spirit more or less concentrated.

The best precipitating vessel is a very tall glass jar, furnished with a lip and spout, and narrower at the bottom than at the mouth, so that the precipitate may readily collect by subsidence, and the supernatant liquor be decanted off with more ease.

=PREG′NANCY.= For the preservation of the health, and the prevention of the numerous discomforts and dangers which so frequently attend this condition, nothing is so effective as exercise. It is this that is so favorable to the humble peasant, and it is its absence that inflicts such calamities on the wealthier classes. Exercise, moderate and unfatiguing, when assisted by regular habits, and a diet nutritious, but not too liberal, is, indeed, capable of not only affording pleasure and increasing the comforts of existence, but is also generally sufficient to greatly lessen the severity of the sufferings, and to ward off the not unfrequently fatal results which terminate this interesting condition.

The sickness of pregnancy may be greatly ameliorated, if not removed, by the occasional use of a saline aperient, and by effervescing draughts formed with the bicarbonate of potassa and citric acid. The oxalate of cerium is strongly recommended by Professor Simpson, of Edinburgh, as a remedy for obstinate vomiting in pregnancy.——_Dose_, 1 gr. to 2 gr. three times a day in pills.

=PRESCRI′′BING (Art of).= Besides a knowledge of diseases and their treatment, much of the success of the physician depends on circumstances connected with the form in which the remedies are exhibited. In writing a prescription it is necessary to consider the age, sex, temperament, habits and idiosyncracy of the patient, as well as the conditions of climate and season, before the selection of the leading medicament and the apportioning of the dose. The most convenient form of exhibiting it, whether it should be given alone or in some simple form, or combined with other ingredients, the compatibility of the latter, and how far these are likely to assist, impede, or modify its operation, must also receive the consideration of the practitioner. Without a careful attention to all these circumstances the most valuable remedies may be rendered worthless, and the highest medical skill and the best intentions frustrated.

A prescription generally contains several medicinal substances, which are distinguished by medical writers by names indicative of the office which each of them performs. These are——1. The BASIS, which is the principal or most active ingredient;——2. The ADJUVANT, or that which is intended to promote the action of the base;——3. The CORRECTIVE, intended to correct, modify, or control its action, or to cover its odour or taste, as when we add carminatives or diaphoretics to cathartics, or aromatics or liquorice to nauseous substances;——4. The EXCIPIENT, or that which gives the whole a commodious or agreeable form, and which, consequently, gives the prescription its peculiar character, as that of draught, mixture, pills, &c. To these, certain Continental writers add a 5th, the INTERMEDIUM, which is the substance employed to unite remedies which are not, by themselves, miscible with each other, or with the excipient. Of this character are the yolk of egg and mucilage, employed in the preparation of emulsions.

The medicinal substances, with the quantities to be taken, generally arranged as above, are said to form the ‘inscription,’——the directions as to their combination or dispensing, which usually comes next, the ‘subscription,’ and——the orders for the exhibition of the compound medicine, which follow these, the ‘instructions.’ These distinctions are, however, in many cases more technical than useful.

In choosing the form of a prescription it should be recollected that solutions and emulsions generally act with more certainty and rapidity than powders diffused through water; and these, again, than the semi-solid and solid forms of medicine, represented by electuaries, boluses, and pills. On these matters, however, the taste and wishes of the patient should not be disregarded. For this purpose the taste of nauseous medicines should be disguised as much as possible by the judicious selection of an appropriate corrective or excipient. Thus, the disagreeable flavour of Epsom salt may be in a great measure covered by dissolving it in peppermint water; that of aloes by liquorice; that of castor oil and copaiba by orange peel; and that of powdered bark by mixing it with milk immediately before taking it; whilst the bitterness of all bitter substances is concealed by strong coffee.

In order that a prescription may be well made it is not necessary to unite all the elements above referred to. The basis and the excipient are the only two which are absolutely necessary, since there are many medicines which have no need of an adjuvant. The agreeable flavour and odour of some, and the mild and harmless nature of others, often render the intervention of a corrigent unnecessary when they are employed. A single substance may also “be capable of answering two or more purposes. Thus, the adjuvant may also act as a corrigent, as when the addition of soap to aloes, or to extract of jalap, lessens their griping properties, and at the same time promotes their action. In the same way neutral salts correct the colic which follows the use of resinous purgatives, and accelerate their action.” According to Gaubius, the number of ingredients in a prescription should scarcely ever exceed three or four. See DOSE, MEDICINES, INCOMPATIBLES, PILLS, &c.

=PRESCRIP′TIONS.= Recipes or formulæ for the preparation and exhibition of medicines intended, generally, for immediate use. See PRESCRIBING (_above_).

=PRESERVES′.= A general term, under which are included the various fruits and vegetables which are seasoned and kept in sugar or syrup, more especially those which are so preserved whole or in slices. See CANDYING, JAM, MARMALADE, &c.

=PRESS (Correcting for the).= See PROOFS.

=PRESSURE, BAROMETRIC, on the Phenomena of Life.= M. Bert has contributed to the ‘Comptes Rendus’[122] (lxxiii, 213, 503; lxxiv, 617; lxxv, 29, 88) an account of the following experimental researches on the influence of changes in the Barometric Pressure on the Phenomena of Life:——

[Footnote 122: ‘Journal Chemical Society,’ vol. xxv.]

He finds that at pressures under 18 centimètres of mercury animals die from want of oxygen; at a pressure of one to two atmospheres, from want of oxygen and presence of carbonic acid; at 2-6 atmospheres, from the presence of carbonic acid alone; at 6-15 atmospheres, from the presence of carbonic acid and of excess of oxygen; and at 15-25 atmospheres, from the poisonous action of oxygen alone.

Animals die from want of oxygen when the amount contained in their arterial blood is not sufficient to balance a pressure of 3·5 per cent. of oxygen in the atmosphere. They die from poisoning by carbonic anhydride when the amount contained in their venous blood is sufficient to balance a pressure of 26 to 28 per cent. of carbonic anhydride in the atmosphere in the case of sparrows, of 28 to 30 for mammals, and of 15 or 16 for reptiles.

As the pressure of oxygen in the surrounding air depends on two factors, the percentage proportion and the barometric pressure, the barometric pressure may be reduced to 6 centimètres for sparrows, if the proportion of oxygen in the air is increased; and it may be raised to 23 atmospheres without causing death, if the proportion of oxygen is reduced by mixing the air with nitrogen. Aeronauts might, therefore, ascend higher than it has hitherto been possible to do by taking with them a bag of oxygen to inhale; and the danger that threatens divers of being poisoned by the oxygen in the compressed air might be averted by using a mixture of air and nitrogen.

From an examination of the gases in the blood of animals confined in rarefied air the author finds that both the oxygen and the carbonic anhydride in the blood diminish. The dyspnœa which is felt in ascending mountains is therefore due to want of oxygen in the blood. The diminution in oxygen becomes diminished at 20 centimètres pressure, yet this is the pressure under which the inhabitants of the elevated Mexican plateau of Anahuac live. The oxygen diminishes more quickly and more regularly than the carbonic anhydride. Although there are but very small quantities of gases simply dissolved in the blood, the chemical combinations in which they take part are dissociated very easily and in a progressive manner under the influence of diminished pressure, and this dissociation takes place more easily in the organisms than in experiments in vacuo.

=PRINCE’S METAL.= One of the names for Dutch gold. (See GOLD, DUTCH.)

=PRINT′ING (Anastatic).= A method of zincography, patented in 1845, having for its object the reproduction of drawings, engravings, and letter-press, from copies however old. To describe briefly the preparation of a plate or cylinder, let us suppose a newspaper about to be reprinted by this means. The sheet is first moistened with dilute acid and placed between sheets of blotting paper, in order that the superfluous moisture may be absorbed. The ink resists the acid, which attacks the blanks only. In all cases where the letter-press is of recent date, or not perhaps older than half a year, a few minutes suffice for this purpose. The paper is then carefully placed upon the plate with which the letter-press to be transferred is in immediate contact, and the whole passed under a press, on removal from which, and on carefully disengaging the paper, the letters are found in reverse on the plate. A preparation of gum is then applied to the plate by means of a roller, after which the letters receive an addition of ink, which is immediately incorporated with that by which they are already formed. These operations are effected in a few minutes. The surface of the plate round the letters is next bitten in a very slight degree by dilute acid, and on the fresh application of the ink it is rejected by the zinc, and received only by the letters, which are charged with the ink by the common roller used in hand-printing. Each letter comes from the press as clear as if it had been imprinted by type metal; and the copies are fac-similes, which cannot easily be distinguished from the original sheet.

When pen-and-ink drawings are to be reproduced, they are made on any paper free from hairs or filaments, and well-sized. The ink used is a preparation made for the purpose, closely resembling lithographic ink, and may be mixed to any degree of thickness in pure distilled water. It should be used fresh, and slightly warm when a fine effect is to be given. In making or copying a design a pencil may be used; but the marks must be left on the paper, and by no means rubbed with india rubber or bread. It is necessary to add that the paper should be kept quite clean and free from friction, and should not be touched by the fingers, inasmuch as it will retain marks of very slight touches.

Before closing this notice of anastatic printing it may be proper to remark, that the great pretensions originally set up by the patentees have not been fulfilled by its extensive adoption in trade.

=PRINTING (Letterpress).=[123] _Syn._ TYPOGRAPHY. The art of collecting together and arranging movable types for the purpose of printing, in one or more colours, by pressure applied from a flat surface or by means of a cylinder biting the paper to be printed, and which is inserted between itself and the type.

[Footnote 123: The Editor is much indebted to Mr J. E. Adlard for this interesting article.]

In illustration of this section, some specimen types are appended, the greater portion being from the well-known foundry of Messrs V. & J. Figgins, and should now be carefully read down to render the further remarks intelligible. The key is contained in itself by reading the column as one continuous paragraph with the help of the foot-notes. Some idea may thus be formed of the vast number of distinct kinds of type necessary to carry out the requirements of the present system of printing.

Mention there has been made that the name of the body is determined by its number of lines to a foot; but this must be qualified. The Imperial foot, or inch, or yard, is an arbitrary measure of length in reality as well as in name. When one foundry was sufficient to supply all the types that were required for use in the early ages of printing, then a name and its dimensions could be taken as absolute. But with the increase of printing, type-founders also increased; and this has produced the variations of bodies which are so annoying to the typographer, for one single letter or space taken from a body larger than its own, yet of the same name, will be enough to throw the column of type out of a straight line all the way through. Still, when we look to the fact that, according to the ancient masters, the large-sized type called _Pica_ (No. 3 and Nos. 18, 19,20 & 21) requires 72-1/2 lines to the foot, and that _Nonpareil_, half its size (No. 9, and Nos. 26, 27, 28 & 29), requires 145 lines to the foot, and recollecting that the slightest variation multiplied 145 times must produce a very sensible deviation, the wonder is that each of the founders should approach each other so closely as they do. An attempt was made some years ago to introduce a certain fixity of standard for each body throughout the trade, based on the French system; the difficulties of altering the standards and matrices of each foundry were seen to be so great that the effort was unavailing.

These old-faced types cut by the celebrated William Caslon, in or about the years 1716-30, are even now viewed with great satisfaction, and held in high esteem, by judges of the typographic art as master-pieces of shape and finish.

To the list of types presented, and which give a sufficient general view, may be added _Emerald_——between _Minion_ and _Nonpareil_——for book-work, and also for borders and flowers to be used in neat and artistic work; Gem and _Semi-Nonpareil_ for music; and _Minikin_, for music and Oriental work.

The larger sizes of type are, with very few exceptions, simple multiples of the Pica; for instance, 6-_line Roman_ means a roman letter of the depth of six lines of Pica; 20-_line Antique_, an antique of the depth of twenty lines; and so on.

Very little more need be said on the names applied to the different faces. Letters used in Title-pages are especially cut for and styled _Titling——Square, Condensed_, and if very much condensed in width, _Compressed_ or _Narrow-Gauge_. On the other hand, when the letters seem pulled out right and left, they are styled _Extended_.

If the reader will notice the type in which this volume is composed, he will observe that the bottoms of the _tail letters_ are very close down upon the tops of the tall letters, and all but touch: this is termed _solid_. When a page or book is required to look light and less wearisome to the vision, the lines of type are removed from each other, and a space-line inserted between them——the page is now termed _leaded_. These space-lines used to be cut, by the compositor, from milled lead, first in strips of the necessary width, then of the required length; hence the term _leads_, by which name they are commonly known. However, they were but poor appliances at the best. Moulds are now used for casting the metal to the specified thickness in strips of about 9 inches long, then cut by a machine to a set gauge; by these means the thickness of the space-lines, or leads is not only more uniformly secured, but far greater regularity obtained in the lengths cut. Here, as in the large type, as above mentioned, Pica is the standard which regulates the lead; in other words, leads are cast as 3 to a pica, that is, 3 leads form the solid measurement of the Pica body; 4-to-pica requires 4 leads, and the body of the lead continues to decrease according to the prefixed figure, which simply denotes into how many parts the pica is to be divided. Leads are cast so delicately fine that 16 form the pica, but they are seldom used. In many of the News offices brass space-lines have superseded those cast from type-metal.

The method of manufacturing type is——

The face having been determined upon——light or heavy, round or narrow, as well as the thickness of the downstroke——a piece of prepared soft iron is taken, and upon the tip-end thereof the proposed letter is cut in relief; when this cutting is finished it is case-hardened, and afterwards styled the punch. The strike is the next operation. The punch (the letter cut upon which, by-the-bye, is backward) is now punched, or struck, into an oblong piece of copper, about 3 inches long and 1/3rd of an inch thick, the breadth such as the size of the letter may require: this is the matrix. A most particular part has now to be performed, called justifying; which means that the matrices shall, when placed in the mould, deliver the letters perfectly upright, and all to be true on a line as fine as a razor’s edge. When the process of justifying is accomplished, the matrix is fixed at the bottom of a mould, of the shape of a parallelogram, of the size of the body one way, of the width of the letter the other, and the depth the standard height of the type; the molten metal is forced down this tube, either by hand or by a pump worked by hand or steam, the metal filling the matrix (the sunk letter upon which is now forward) receives the shape of the letter, which is once more reversed, or in a backward position, like as the original punch was cut. The castings are released from the mould by a very ingenious method of opening from the two diagonal corners. The types as cast are forwarded on to the dressers to remove burrs and other superfluities; then are placed in long lines in a frame for finishing; next turned face downwards, and a grooving plane driven across the feet to insure correctness in height; finally looked over for blemishes, when all faulty letters are thrown out; the process is completed by ranging into lines of handy length, and tied up——ready for delivery to the typographer.

=PRINT′ING INK.= _Prep._——_a._ The VARNISH. Linseed or nut oil, 10 or 20 galls., is set over the fire in an iron pot capable of containing fully as much more; when it boils, it is kept stirred with an iron ladle, and, if it does not take fire of itself soon after the smoke begins to rise, it is kindled by means of a piece of burning paper, stuck in the cleft end of a long stick; the pot is shortly afterwards removed from the fire, and the oil is suffered to burn for about half an hour, or until a sample of the varnish cooled upon a palette knife may be drawn into strings of about 1/2 inch long, between the fingers; the flame is now extinguished by the application of a closely fitting tin cover, and, as soon as the froth of the ebullition has subsided, black resin is added, in the proportion of 3/4 lb. to 1 lb. for every quart of oil thus treated; the mixture is next stirred until the resin is dissolved, when dry brown soap, cut into slices, 1-3/4 lbs., is further added (cautiously), and the ingredients are again stirred with the spatula until the whole is united, the pot being once more placed over the fire to promote the combination; when this is effected, the varnish is removed from the heat, and, after a good stirring, is covered over and set aside.

_b._ The INK. Indigo and Prussian blue, of each, in fine powder, 2-1/2 oz.; mineral lampblack (finest), 4 lbs.; vegetable lampblack, 3-1/2 lbs.; stir them gradually into the warm varnish (_a_), and submit the mixture to careful grinding, either in a mill or by means of a slab and muller. On the large scale, steam power is now generally employed for this purpose.

An extemporaneous superfine black ink may be made by the following formula:——Take of balsam of copaiba (pure), 9 oz.; lampblack, 3 oz.; indigo and Prussian blue, of each 1/2 oz.; Indian red, 3/4 oz.; yellow soap (dry), 3 oz.; grind the mixture to an impalpable smoothness by means of a stone and muller. Canada balsam may be substituted for balsam of copaiba where the smell of the latter is objectionable, but the ink then dries very quickly.

COLOURED PRINTING INKS are made in a similar way from the following pigments:——Carmine, lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red lead, orange red, Indian red, Venetian red, for red; orange chrome, chrome yellow, burnt terra di sienna, gall-stone, Roman ochre, yellow ochre, for orange and yellow; verdigris, Scheele’s green, Schweinfurt green, blues, and yellows mixed, for greens; indigo, Prussian blue, Antwerp b., cobalt b., charcoal b., for blue; lustre, bronze powders, &c., for metallic colours; and umbia, sepia, &c., for brown.

_Obs._ It is necessary to prepare two kinds of varnish, varying in consistence, from more or less boiling, to be occasionally mixed together as circumstances may require; that which answers well in hot weather being too thick in cold, and _vice versâ_. Large characters also require a thinner ink than small ones. Old linseed oil is preferable to new. Yellow resin soap is preferred for black and dark-coloured inks, and white curd soap for light ones.

A good varnish may be drawn into threads like glue, and is very thick and tenacious. The oil loses from 10% to 14% by the boiling. Mr Savage obtained the large medal of the Society of Arts for his black ink made as above.

A PRINTER’S INK EASILY REMOVED FROM WASTE PAPER. The following process for the preparation of a printer’s ink that can be far more readily removed from waste paper than ordinary printer’s ink has been patented by Kirscher and Ebner. Iron is dissolved in some acid——sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic, &c., will answer, and half of the solution is oxidised with nitric acid and added to the other half and the oxide precipitated from the mixture by means of soda or potash. The precipitate is thoroughly washed, and treated with equal parts of solutions of tannic and gallic acids, and the bluish black, or pure black pigment formed, is thoroughly washed and dried, and mixed with linseed-oil varnish, and can then be immediately used for printing from type, copper, wood, steel, or stone. Waste paper printed with it can be bleached by digesting it for 24 hours in a lukewarm bath of pure water, and 10 per cent. of caustic potash or soda, and then grinding it well in the rag engine, and throwing the pulp upon cloth and allowing it to drain. It is then to be washed with pure water, containing 10 per cent. of hydrochloric, acetic, or oxalic acids, or of binoxalate of potassa, and allowed to digest for 24 hours, and may then be worked up into paper, or it can be dried and used as a substitute in the manufacture of finer paper.

=PRINTS (Ackerman’s Liquor for).= _Prep._ Take of the finest pale glue and white curd soap, of each 4 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; dissolve, then add of powdered alum, 2 oz. Used to size prints and pictures before colouring them.

=PRINTS, To Bleach.= Simple immersion of the prints in a solution of hypochlorous acid (the article remaining in the solution for a longer or shorter space, according to the strength of the solution) is generally all that is required to whiten it.

=PRIVIES.= See WATER-CLOSETS.

=PROOF.= See ACETIMETRY, ALCOHOLOMETRY, &c.

=PROOFS (Correcting).= The specimen below, with the notes, will, if carefully perused, put the reader into possession of all the secrets of this useful art.

[_The same corrected._]

As the _vine_, which has long twined its graceful foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it into sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is rifted by the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caressing tendrils, and bind up its shattered boughs so is it beautifully ordered by Providence, that WOMAN, who is the mere dependant and ornament of man in his happier hours, should be his stay and solace when smitten by sudden calamity; winding herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, tenderly supporting the drooping head, and binding up the broken heart.

It also is interesting to notice how _some_ minds seem almost to create THEMSELVES, springing up under every disadvantage, and working their “solitary, but irresistible way,” through a thousand obstacles. Nature seems, &c.

IRVING.

_Explanation of the marks_:

1. When a letter or word is to be in _italics_.

2. When a letter is turned upside down.

3. The substitution of a comma for another point or letter.

4. The insertion of a hyphen; also marked (-).

5. When letters should be close together.

6. When a letter or word is to be omitted.

7. When a word is to be changed to roman.

8, 9. Two methods of marking a transposition: when there are _several_ words to be transposed, and they are much intermixed, it is a common plan to number them, and to put the usual mark in the margin.

10. Substitution of a capital for a small letter.

11. When a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals.

12. The transposition of letters in a word.

13. The substitution of one word for another.

14. When a word or letter is to be inserted.

15. When a paragraph occurs improperly.

16. The insertion of a semicolon.

17. When a space or quadrat stands up, and is seen along with the type.

18. When letters of a wrong fount are used.

19. When words crossed off are to remain.

20. The mark for a paragraph, when its commencement has been neglected. Sometimes the sign [, or ¶, or the word ‘_break_,’ is used instead of the syllables ‘_New Par_,’

21. For the insertion of a space when omitted or insufficient.

22. To change capitals to small letters.

23. To change small letters to small capitals.

24. When lines or words are not straight.

25, 26. The insertion of inverted commas. The apostrophe is similarly marked.

27. The insertion of a period when omitted, or in place of another point or letter.

28. Substitution of one letter for another.

29. The method of marking an omission or insertion when too long for the side margin.

=PROPYLA′MINE.= _Syn._ TRITYLAMINE.

C_{3}H_{9}N, or C_{3}H_{7} } H } N. H }

This compound or substituted ammonia, in which one of the three atoms of hydrogen is displaced by the radicle propyl or trityl (C_{3}H_{7}), is isomorphous with trimethylamine, which has been often mistaken for it.

Proposed as a remedy for acute and chronic rheumatism.

Hence it is that the commercial substance known under the name of ‘propylamine,’ which has been proposed and employed as a remedy for rheumatism, has been shown to be not propylamine, but its isomer, trimethylamine, or a mixture of this latter, in varying proportions, with ammonia.

Mendius gives the following process for the preparation of propylamine:——36 grams of cyanide of ethyl, 500 grams of common alcohol, 200 grams of water, and 50 grams of 20 per cent. hydrochloric acid, are allowed to act on excess of granulated zinc, and then distilled.

The distillate is put back once, and 400 grams of hydrochloric acid are added.

The product is distilled to get rid of the alcohol, then excess of alkali added to the residue, and the distillation continued, whereupon propylamine and water come over. Mendius says 36 grams of the cyanide of ethyl yield 9 grams of pure propylamine. The propylamine is dried by distillation from solid potash.

Propylamine is a bright, colourless, highly refracting, very mobile liquid, possessing a peculiar, strongly ammoniacal odour. It mixes with water, heat being generated by the mixture. It boils at 50° C., and has a sp. gr. of ·7134 at 21° C.

Propylamine combines with acids, and forms crystallised salts. The chloride is a very deliquescent salt. The sulphate occurs in crystals, and is also deliquescent. See TRIMETHYLAMINE.

=PROPYL′IC ALCOHOL.= C_{3}H_{7}O. _Syn._ HYDRATED OXIDE OF PROPYL, TRITYL ALCOHOL. A liquid boiling at 204·8° Fahr., obtained by repeatedly rectifying the first products of the distillation of the fusel oil of marc brandy. It stands to ethylic alcohol (ordinary alcohol) in the same relation in which the latter stands to methylic alcohol (pyroxylic spirit).

=PRO′TEIN.= The name given by Mülder to a substance which he regarded as the original matter from which animal albumen, casein, and fibrin, were derived; but which is now considered as a product of the decomposition of those important principles by moderately strong caustic alkali.

_Prep._ (Liebig.) Albumen, casein, or fibrin is dissolved in moderately strong potassa, the solution heated for some time to 120° Fahr., and acetic acid added; a gelatinous precipitate subsides, which, after being washed and dried, is protein.

_Obs._ The names binoxide and teroxide of protein have been given by Mülder to products of the long-continued action of boiling water upon fibrin in contact with the air.

=PRO′TIDE.= A soluble, straw-yellow substance, formed, along with other products, by the action of strong solution of potassa on albumen, fibrin, or casein. See ERYTHROPROTIDE.

=PROTO-.= See NOMENCLATURE.

=PROVI′′SIONS (Preservation of).= See PUTREFACTION.

=PRUNES.= [Fr.] The fruit of cultivated varieties of _Prunus domestica_ (Linn.). The dried fruit (FRENCH PRUNES or PLUMS; PRUNUM——B. P., Ph. L., PRUNA——Ph. E. & D.) is cooling and gently laxative, and, as such, is useful in habitual costiveness and fevers.

=Prunes, Pulp of.= _Syn._ PREPARED PRUNES; PULPA PRUNORUM, PRUNUM PRÆPARATUM (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ The imported dried fruit is boiled gently for four hours with water, q. s. to cover them, and then pressed, first through a fine cane sieve, and afterwards through a fine hair sieve; the pulp is, lastly, evaporated by the heat of a water bath to the consistence of a confection. A better plan is to use as little water as possible, by which the necessity of subsequent evaporation is avoided. Used in the preparation of confection of senna.

=PRU′NING= varies according to the kind of plant or tree operated on and the particular object in view, and its skilful performance must, therefore, greatly depend on the experience and knowledge of the gardener. “In the operation of pruning, the shoots are cut off close to the buds, or at a distance not greater than the diameter of the branch to be cut off; because without the near proximity of a bud the wounds will not heal over. In shoots which produce their buds alternately the cut is made at the back of the bud sloping from it, so that it may be readily covered by the bark in the same or in the following year; but in the case of branches where the buds are produced opposite each other, either one bud must be sacrificed or the branch must be cut off at right angles to its line of direction, which is most conveniently done with the pruning shears.” (Loudon.)

=PRUS′SIAN AL′KALI.= Ferrocyanide of potassium.

=PRUS′SIAN BLUE.= _Syn._ BERLIN BLUE, PARIS B., FERROCYANIDE OF IRON, PRUSSIATE OF I., CYANURET OF I. This is the well-known blue pigment of the shops.

_Prep._ 1. The crude but clear solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) is precipitated by a mixed solution of alum, 2 parts, and green sulphate of iron, 1 part; the dingy greenish precipitate that falls gradually becomes blue by absorption of atmospheric oxygen, which is promoted by exposure and agitation of the liquor; as soon as it has acquired its full colour, the sediment is repeatedly washed with water, and is then drained, and dried, at first in a stove, but afterwards on chalk stones. Product large, but inferior in quality.

2. Repeatedly digest and wash the precipitate obtained by the above process in very dilute hydrochloric acid, and then in pure water; drain and dry it, as before. Superior.

3. (Paris blue.)——_a._ Neutralise the solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) with dilute sulphuric acid, precipitate the liquid with a solution of any persalt or sesquisalt of iron (as the persulphate, nitrate, sesquichloride, or peracetate); well wash the precipitate with water, and dry it, as before. A very rich and intense colour.

_b._ (Hochstätter.) Crystallised ferrocyanide of potassium and green sulphate of iron, of each 6 parts, are each separately dissolved in water, 15 parts; after the admixture of the solutions, and frequent agitation, oil of vitriol, 1 part, and fuming hydrochloric acid, 24 parts, are stirred in; after some hours have elapsed a strained solution of chloride of lime, 1 part, dissolved in water, 80 parts, is gradually added, the addition being stopped as soon as an effervescence from the escape of chlorine is perceived; the whole is now left for 5 or 6 hours, when the precipitate is thoroughly washed in pure soft water, drained, and dried. Or, instead of the above, the precipitate is at once washed in dilute nitric acid until its colour ceases to be improved by the process. The product is of the finest quality.

_Prop._ Insoluble in water and in dilute acids, except the oxalic, in solutions of which it dissolves freely when pure; oil of vitriol dissolves it to a white pasty mass, which is again precipitated of the usual blue colour by water; alkalies instantly decompose it, and so do red oxide of mercury and some other oxides when boiled with it; it burns in the air like tinder, leaving an ash of oxide of iron. It is not poisonous.

_Pur., &c._ The quality of Prussian blue may be estimated by the richness of its colour, and by the quantity of potassa or soda required to destroy this. If it effervesces with acids, it contains chalk; and if it forms a paste with boiling water, it is adulterated with starch. It is pure if, “after being boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, ammonia throws down nothing from the filtered liquid.” (Ph. L. 1836.) It is distinguished from indigo by exhibiting a coppery tint when broken, but which is removed by rubbing with the nail.

_Concluding Remarks._ The commercial Prussian blue is not pure ferrocyanide of iron, but a mixture of this salt with varying proportions of the ferricyanide of iron and potassium, which also has a fine deep blue colour. The object in employing alum is to prevent or lessen the precipitation of oxide of iron by the free alkali in the blood lye, but a portion of alumina is in consequence thrown down with the blue, and tends to render it paler and increase the product. The quantity of alum employed may be varied according to the shades of the intended blue. Samples containing this contamination must not be employed medicinally. (See page 324.)

=Prussian Blue, Sol′uble.= _Prep._ 1. (BASIC PRUSSIAN BLUE.) By adding a solution of protosulphate of iron to a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium; a bluish-white precipitate, turning dark blue by free exposure, is formed, which, after it has acquired this colour, is washed until it begins to dissolve in the water, and colour it blue; it is then either collected and dried, or is at once dissolved in pure water. This variety is not precipitated from its solution by alcohol.

2. (FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM AND IRON.) By precipitating a solution of a sesquisalt or persalt of iron (as the persulphate, pernitrate, peracetate, or sesquichloride) with a stronger solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, so that the latter may be in considerable excess. A blue precipitate is formed, which is treated as before. This variety is precipitated by alcohol. Both are freely soluble in pure water, but not in water which has the slightest saline contamination. Hence it is that lengthened exposure to the atmosphere and the use of the common steel pen causes the gradual precipitation of this substance from its solution when used as ink. See WRITING FLUIDS.

=PRU′′SSIC ACID.= See HYDROCYANIC ACID.

=PSEU′DO-MOR′PHIA.= A substance of little importance, occasionally found in opium. It differs from morphine chiefly in not decomposing iodic acid. It is said to contain nitrogen.

=PTIS′AN.= _Syn._ PTISANA, L. A decoction made of pearl barley, liquorice, raisins, and other like vegetable matters, either alone or so slightly medicated as to be taken as a common drink in fevers, catarrhs, &c. Those retained in English pharmacy have been already noticed. The French physicians often employ this form of medicine. The ’tisanes’ of the P. Cod. are numerous. See DECOCTION, INFUSION, JULEP, TISANE, &c.

=PTY′ALIN.= A peculiar animal matter, analogous to diastase, obtained from the saliva. It is soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol.

Mialhe named ptyalin “animal diastase,” and regarded it as the principal agent in effecting the digestion of starchy foods, by converting them into soluble glucose. One part of ptyalin, according to Mialhe, was capable of transforming 800 parts of insoluble starch into sugar. It has been computed that the average daily secretion of ptyalin by an adult amounts to 116 grains. It very quickly decomposes, and in properties somewhat resembles sodic albuminate.

=PUCHA PAT.= _Syn._ PATCHOULI. Puchá pât is the dried foliaceous tops of _Pogostemon Patchouli_, an Indian species of _Labiatæ_. It is much used in perfumery, particularly for making sachets; but its odour, although very durable, is not so agreeable as that of many other substances, unless it is combined with lavender, bergamot, ambergris, musk, or some other like perfume.

=PUD′DINGS.= The instructions given under CAKES, PIES, &c., will be found, with some slight modifications, also to apply to puddings, and, therefore, need not be repeated here. Soyer tells us that every sort of pudding, if sweet or savory, is preferably dressed in a basin instead of in a cloth. If boiled in a basin the paste receives all the nutriment of the materials, which, if boiled in a cloth, are dissolved out by the water, when by neglect it ceases boiling. To cause them to turn well out, the inside of the basin should be thoroughly ‘larded’ or rubbed with butter.

In the preparation of meat puddings the first and most important point is never to use any meat that is tainted; for in pudding, above all other dishes, it is least possible to disguise it by the confined progress which the ingredients undergo. The gradual heating of the meat, which alone would accelerate decomposition, will cause the smallest piece of tainted meat to contaminate all the rest. Be particular, also, that the suet and fat are not rancid, ever remembering the grand principle that everything which gratifies the palate nourishes.”

“A pudding cloth, however coarse, ought never to be washed with soap; it should be simply dried as quickly as possible, and kept dry and free from dust, and in a drawer or cupboard free from smell.” (Soyer.)

=PUD′DLING.= See IRON.

=PULMONI′TIS.= Inflammation of the lungs.

=PULP.= _Syn._ PULPA, L. The softer parts of plants, more particularly of fruits, separated from the fibrous and harder portions.

“Pulpy fruits, if they be unripe, or ripe and dried, are to be placed in a damp situation until they become soft; then the pulp is to be pressed out through a hair sieve; afterwards it is to be boiled with a gentle heat, frequently stirring; and finally, the (excess of) water is to be evaporated in a water bath, until the pulp acquire proper consistence.

“Press the pulpy fruits which are ripe and fresh through a hair sieve, without boiling them.” (Ph. L. 1836.)

=PULVERISA′TION.= The reduction of any substance to dust or powder.

On the small scale, pulverisation is usually performed by means of a pestle and mortar; on the large scale, by stamping, grinding or cutting the substance in a mill. A few soft substances, as carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of lead, &c., may be pulverised by simply rubbing them through a fine sieve, placed over a sheet of paper; whilst many hard, gritty substances can only be reduced to fine powder by porphyrisation or levigation. Elutriation, or ‘washing over,’ is adopted for several substances, as chalk, antimony, &c., which are required to be reduced to fine powder on the large scale. For some articles which are very tough, fibrous, or resisting, a rasp or file is employed. Whichever of these methods is adopted, the body to be powdered must be very dry, and where spontaneous drying is insufficient, artificial desiccation in a stove or oven, gently heated, is employed. To facilitate this, the substance should be first cut into pieces or crushed small. On the other hand, a few substances, as rice, sago, nux vomica, and St Ignatius’s bean, are often soaked in water, or steamed, before being further operated on. Whenever a substance cannot be dried completely, without an alteration of its properties, an intermedium is had recourse to, by which the moisture may be absorbed, or its state of aggregation modified. Thus, sugar is employed in pulverising civet, musk, nutmeg, and vanilla. When camphor is to be pulverised, the addition of a very small quantity of alcohol renders the operation easy. In other cases the intermedium is of so hard a nature as to assist in breaking down the substance to be powdered; thus, gold leaf is reduced to powder by rubbing it with sulphate of potassa, and afterwards removing this last by means of water. Fusible metals, as zinc and tin, are powdered by pouring them into a mortar, and stirring them rapidly whilst cooling; or, by briskly agitating them, in the melted state, in a wooden box covered with chalk or whiting. Phosphorus is powdered by melting it in urine or lime water, and then shaking the bottle until its contents have become quite cold. Glass, quartz, and silicated stones, require to be heated red hot, and in this state to be thrown into cold water, by which they become sufficiently friable to admit of pulverisation. Many salts which are reduced to fine powder with very great difficulty, and do not dissolve in spirit of wine, are easily obtained in a pulverulent form, by agitating their concentrated aqueous solution with a considerable quantity of rectified spirit; the disengaged fine crystallised powder may then be dried, and further divided by trituration. Potassio tartrate of antimony may be advantageously thus treated. A large number of salts, including nitre, sal ammoniac, and carbonate of potash, may also be reduced to powder by keeping their solutions in a state of constant and violent agitation during their rapid evaporation.

The following rules should be observed in the preparation of powders:——

1. If possible, perfectly dry articles should alone be operated on, and only in dry weather.

2. The nature of the mortar, and the mode of operating, should be adapted to the nature of the substance. Thus, woods and barks should be pulverised in an iron mortar; sugar, alum, and nitre, in one of marble or wedgwood-ware; and corrosive sublimate, only in one of glass.

3. The mortar should be provided with a cover, to prevent loss and annoyance to the operator. If much powder escapes, or if it is dangerous or disagreeable when breathed, or if the substance is rare or costly, the mortar should be covered with a skin of leather, to which the pestle is attached, so that the latter may be freely moved without causing the slightest opening for the escape of the dust occasioned by the process. When aloes or gamboge is powdered, a few drops of olive oil are commonly added with the same intention.

4. The pulverised portions should be separated from time to time by aid of a sieve, the coarser particles being returned to the mortar to be again beaten and triturated; and this alternate pulverisation and sifting is to be repeated until the process is complete.

=PUM′ICE STONE.= _Syn._ PUMEX, LAPIS PUMICEUS, L. PUMICIS, L. Found in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Used, in the solid form, to polish wood, paint, &c.; also, when pulverised, as a polishing powder for glass, bone, ivory, marble, metals, &c.

=PUMP FOR USE IN CHEMICAL, PAPER, and other Works.= The Perreaux Pump Valve is made of vulcanised india rubber, and is of the form of the valves in the human body. It is of the greatest, and perhaps the really only valuable improvement in valves applicable, equally, to the common hand or jack pump, and the most elaborate mechanical combinations for raising water.

The valve may be taken as the key of the pump; a perfect valve renders an indifferent pump a valuable and effective machine, whereas an imperfect valve, in an otherwise excellently constructed pump, renders it practically useless.

The pump which Simon the tanner, of Joppa, used for pumping his pits, nearly two thousand years ago, may be taken as the type of the common hand pump in use to this day. Various mechanical improvements have been made in its form and construction, but, practically, and effectively, the only real and valuable improvement is the Perreaux valve, now under consideration.

Constructed of a flexible material, and made in form, as nearly as may be, to the valves of the human body, they may be said to be automatic in their action, or self acting; upon the pump being actuated, the least motion of the pump ensuring a corresponding action of the valve, and the most rapid action of the pump, being equally responded to by the pulsation of the valves.

Although the most perfect valves for pumping clear water, because, what is mechanically termed the duty of the pump is complete, in other words, the quantity displaced is discharged, absolutely without loss, yet their most valuable feature is that they pump semi-fluids equally well as clear water.

For the pulps and stuffs in paper mills, for bleaches, dyes, and corrosive liquors, for liquid manures and other such semi-fluids, they stand alone, they are absolutely unchokable.

Used in conjunction with cylinders or barrels made of toughened glass, they form the most perfect pump where the fluid to be raised is of a caustic or corrosive nature, and where the fluid would be destructive to or destroyed by its action upon metals, such for example as the caustic bleach used in the manufacture of paper, &c. See VALVES.

=PUNCH.= An acidulous, intoxicating beverage, composed of water sweetened with sugar, with a mixture of lemon juice and spirit, to which some aromatic, as nutmeg, mace, or cinnamon, is occasionally added. Wine is sometimes substituted for spirit. It is much less drunk than formerly. Rum punch is the most popular amongst sailors, who are now the principal consumers of this beverage.

_Prep._ 1. Juice of 3 or 4 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon; lump sugar, 3/4 lb.; boiling water, 3-1/2 pints; infuse 1/2 an hour, strain, and add, of bitter ale, 1/2 pint; rum and brandy, of each 3/4 to 1 pint (or rum alone, 1-1/2 to 2 pints). More hot water and sugar may be added if the punch is desired either weaker or sweeter.

2. (COLD PUNCH.) From arrack, port wine, and water, of each 1 pint; juice of 4 lemons; white sugar, 1 lb.

3. (GIN PUNCH.) From the yellow peel of 1/2 a lemon; juice of 1 lemon; strongest gin, 3/4 pint; water, 1-3/4 pint; sherry, 1 glassful.

4. (ICED PUNCH.) From champagne or Rhenish wine, 1 quart; arrack, 1 pint; juice of 6 lemons; yellow peel of 3 lemons; white sugar, 1 lb.; soda water, 1 or 2 bottles; to be iced as cream.

5. (MILK PUNCH; VERDER.) Steep the yellow rinds of 18 lemons and 6 oranges, for 2 days, in rum or brandy, 2 quarts; then add 3 quarts more of either spirit; hot water, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 quart; loaf sugar, 4 lbs.; 2 nutmegs, grated; and boiling milk, 2 quarts; mix well, and in 2 hours strain the liquor through a jelly-bag.

6. (NORFOLK PUNCH.) Take of French brandy, 20 quarts; yellow peels of 18 oranges and 30 lemons; infuse for 12 hours; add, of cold water, 30 quarts; lump sugar, 20 lbs.; and the juice of the oranges and lemons; mix well, strain through a hair sieve, add of new milk 2 quarts, and in 6 weeks bottle in. Keeps well.

7. (ORANGE PUNCH.) As No. 1, using oranges, and adding some orange wine, if at hand. A little curacoa, noyau, or mareschino improves it.

8. (RASPBERRY PUNCH.) As the last, but using raspberry juice, or raspberry vinegar, for the oranges or lemons.

9. (REGENT’S PUNCH.) From strong hot green tea, lemon juice, and capillaire, of each 1-1/2 pint; rum, brandy, arrack, and curacoa, of each 1 pint; champagne, 1 bottle; mix and slice a pineapple into it.

10. (TEA PUNCH.) From strong hot tea, 1 quart; arrack, 1/2 bottle; white sugar, 6 oz.; juice of 8 lemons; and the yellow rinds of 4 lemons; mixed together.

11. (WINE PUNCH.) From white sugar, 1 lb.; yellow peel of 3 lemons; juice of 9 lemons; arrack, 1 pint; port or sherry (hot), 1 gall.; cinnamon, 1/4 oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr.; mix.

12. (YANKEE PUNCH.) Macerate sliced pineapple, 3 oz.; vanilla, 6 gr.; and ambergris (rubbed with a little sugar), 1 gr., in the strongest pale brandy, 1 pint, for a few hours, with frequent agitation; then strain with expression; add, of lemon juice, 1 pint; lemon syrup, and either claret or port wine, of each 1 bottle; with sugar, 1/2 lb., dissolved in boiling water, 1-1/2 pint. See SHRUB.

=PURG′ATIVES.= _Syn._ DEJECTORIA, PURGANTIA, PURGATIVA, L. These have been divided into five orders or classes, according to their particular actions. The following are the principal of each class:——

1. (LAXATIVES, LENITIVES, or MILD CATHARTICS.) Manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes, honey, phosphate of soda; castor, almond, and olive oils; ripe fruit.

2. (SALINE or COOLING LAXATIVES.) Epsom salt, Glauber’s salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless salt), seidlitz powders, &c.

3. (ACTIVE CATHARTICS, occasionally acrid, frequently tonic and stomachic.) Rhubarb, senna, aloes, &c.

4. (DRASTIC or VIOLENT CATHARTICS.) Jalap, scammony, gamboge, croton oil, colocynth, elaterium, &c.

5. (MERCURIAL PURGATIVES.) Calomel, blue-pill, quicksilver with chalk, &c.

In prescribing purgatives regard should be had to the particular portion of the alimentary canal on which we desire more immediately to act, as well as to the manner in which the medicine effects its purpose. Thus, Epsom salt, sulphate of potassa, and rhubarb, act chiefly on the duodenum; aloes on the rectum; blue-pill, calomel, and jalap on the larger intestines generally; and tartrate and bitartrate of potassa, and sulphur on the whole length of the intestinal canal. Again, others are stimulant, as aloes, croton oil, jalap, scammony, &c.; others are refrigerant, as most of the saline aperients; magnesia and its carbonate are both aperient and antacid; whilst another class, including rhubarb, damask roses, &c., are astringent. Further, some produce only serous or watery dejections, without greatly increasing the peristaltic action of the bowels; whilst a few occasion a copious discharge of the fæces in an apparently natural form. See DRAUGHT, MIXTURE, PILLS, PRESCRIBING, &c.

=PURL.= _Prep._ To ale or beer, 1/2 pint, gently warmed, add of bitters, 1 wine-glassful, or q. s. Some add a little spirit. A favourite beverage with hard drinkers early in the morning.

=PUR′PLE.= A rich compound colour, produced by the admixture of pure blue and pure red. This colour has always been the distinguishing badge of royalty and distinction. The celebrated Tyrian purple was produced from a shell-fish called murex.

=Purple An′iline.= _Syn._ PERKIN’S PURPLE, MAUVE. This valuable dye-stuff is prepared under W. H. Perkin’s patent, by mixing solutions of sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potassa in equivalent proportions, and, after some hours, washing the black precipitate with water, drying it, digesting it repeatedly in coal-tar naphtha, and, finally, dissolving it in boiling alcohol. It may be further purified by evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, dissolving the residue in a large quantity of boiling water, reprecipitating by caustic soda, washing with water, dissolving in alcohol, filtering, and evaporating to dryness. Thus purified, mauve forms a brittle substance, having a bronze-coloured surface. It imparts a deep purple colour to cold water, though dissolving sparingly in that liquid; it is more soluble in hot water, and very soluble in alcohol. See PURPLE DYE (_below_), and TAR COLOURS.

=Purple of Cassius.= _Syn._ PURPLE PRECIPITATE OF CASSIUS, GOLD PURPLE, GOLD PREPARED WITH TIN; AURUM STANNO PARATUM, PURPURA MINERALIS CASII, L. _Prep._ 1. Crystallised protochloride of tin, 1 part; crystallised perchloride of tin, 2 parts; dissolve each separately, mix the solutions, and add of crystallised terchloride of gold (in solution), 1 part; carefully wash, and dry the precipitate. Very fine.

2. (Frick.) Dissolve pure grain tin in cold dilute aqua regia until the fluid becomes faintly opalescent, then take the metal out and weigh it; next, dilute the solution largely with water, and add, simultaneously, a dilute solution of gold and dilute sulphuric acid in such proportion that the tin in the one shall be to the gold in the other in the ratio of 10 to 36.

3. (P. Cod.) Terchloride of gold, 1 part, is dissolved in distilled water, 200 parts; another solution is made by dissolving in the cold, pure tin, 1 part, in a mixture of nitric acid, 1 part, and hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; this last solution is diluted with distilled water, 100 parts, and is then added to the solution of terchloride of gold until precipitation ceases to take place; the powder is, lastly, washed by decantation, and dried by a very gentle heat.

4. Silver, 150 parts; gold, 20 parts; pure grain tin, 35 parts; fuse them together under charcoal and borax, cool, laminate, and dissolve out the silver with nitric acid.

_Obs._ Purple of Cassius is generally supposed to be a combination of oxide of gold and sesquioxide of tin, in which the latter acts as an acid. Heat resolves it into a mixture of metallic gold and binoxide of tin. It is used as a purple in porcelain painting, and to communicate a ruby-red colour to glass, when melted in open vessels.

=PURPLE DYE.= The purples now in vogue are the numerous shades of ‘mauve’ and ‘magenta’ obtained by the ‘aniline colours.’ (See _above_, also RED.) For silk and woollen goods no mordant is required. The proper proportion of the clear alcoholic solution is mixed with water slightly warm, any scum that may form is cleared off, and the goods are entered and worked until the required shade is obtained; a small quantity of acetic or tartaric acid is recommended to be added in some cases. For dyeing on cotton with the aniline colours, the cloth or yarn is steeped in sumac or tannic acid, dyed in the colour, and then fixed by tin; or it may be steeped in sumac and mordanted with tin, and then dyed. Purples were formerly, and are still occasionally, produced by first dyeing a blue in the ‘indigo vat,’ and then dyeing a cochineal or lac scarlet upon the top. See VIOLET DYE.

=PUR′PURATE OF AMMO′′NIA.= See MUREXIDE.

=PURPU′RIC ACID.= See MUREXAN.

=PURPURIN.= C_{9}H_{6}O_{3}. _Syn._ MADDER PURPLE. The name given by Robiquet and Colin to a beautiful colouring principle obtained from madder.

_Prep._ Coarsely powdered madder is allowed to ferment with water, after which it is boiled in a strong solution of alum; the decoction is next mixed with sulphuric acid, and the resulting red precipitate is purified by one or more crystallisations from alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Crystalline red needles, insoluble in cold water, but soluble in hot water, and in alcohol, ether, and solutions of alum and the alkalies. It differs from alizarin or madder red in containing 2 atoms less of carbon.

=PUR′REE.= _Syn._ INDIAN YELLOW. A yellow substance, of doubtful origin, imported from China and India, and now extensively used in both oil and water-colour painting. According to the researches of Stenhouse and Erdmann it consists of purreic acid, a strongly tinctorial vegetable substance, united to magnesia.

=PURRE′IC ACID.= _Syn._ EUXANTHIC ACID. This substance is obtained from purree. It crystallises in nearly colourless needles, which are only sparingly soluble in cold water, and forms rich yellow-coloured compounds with the alkalies and earths. Heat converts it into a neutral, crystallisable substance, called purrenone.

=PUS.= The cream-like, white or yellowish liquid secreted by wounded surfaces, abscesses, sores, &c.

=PUTREFAC′TION.= _Syn._ PUTREFACTIO, L. The spontaneous decomposition of animal and nitrogenised vegetable substances, under the joint influence of warmth, air, and moisture. The solid and fluid matters are resolved into gaseous compounds and vapours, which escape, and into earthy matters, which remain. The most striking characteristic of this species of decomposition is the ammoniacal or fetid exhalations that constantly accompany it.

The nature of putrefaction, and the conditions essential to its occurrence, have been briefly alluded to under fermentation, to which we must refer the reader. It may here, however, be useful to reiterate that this change can only be prevented by the abstraction or exclusion of the conditions essential to its occurrence. This may be affected by——reduction of temperature,——exclusion of atmospheric air, or——the abstraction of moisture. The antiseptic processes in common use are effective in precisely the same degree as these preventive means are carried out. Frozen meat may be preserved for an unlimited period, while the same substance will scarcely keep for more than a few days at the ordinary heat of summer. Animal substances will also remain uninjured for a long period if kept in vessels from which the air is entirely excluded, as in the process now so extensively adopted for the preservation of fresh meat for the use of our army and marine. The third condition is fulfilled when nitrogenised matter is preserved in alcohol, brine, or any similar fluid, and when it is dried. In either case water is abstracted from the surface, which then loses its propensity to putrefy, and forms an impervious layer, which excludes atmospheric oxygen from the interior and softer portion of the substance. Creasote, and most of the antiseptic salts, also act in this way.

Among special antiseptic processes are the following:

APPLICATION OF COLD. The accession of putrefaction is prevented, and its progress arrested, by a temperature below that at which water freezes. In the colder climates of the world, butchers’ meat, poultry, and even vegetables, are preserved from one season to the other in the frozen state. In North America millions are thus supplied with animal food, which, we can state, from personal experience, is often superior in flavour, tenderness, and apparent freshness, to that from the recently killed animal. In temperate climates, and in cold ones during their short summer, ice-houses and ice-safes afford a temperature sufficiently low for keeping meat fresh and sweet for an indefinite period. Substances preserved in this manner should be allowed to gradually assume their natural condition before cooking them; and on no account should they be plunged into hot water, or put before the fire, whilst in the frozen state.

BUCANING. A rude kind of drying and smoking meat, cut into thin slices, practised by hunters in the prairies and forests.

DESICCATION or DRYING. In this way every article of food, both animal and vegetable, may be preserved without the application of salt or other foreign matter. The proper method is to expose the substances, cut into slices or small fragments, in the sun, or in a current of warm dry air, the temperature of which should be under 140° Fahr. Articles so treated, when immersed for a short time in cold water, to allow the albumen and organic fibres to swell, and then boiled in the same water, are nearly as nutritious as fresh meat cooked in the same manner. If a higher degree of heat than 140° be employed for animal substances, they become hard and insipid. Owing to the practical difficulties in the way of applying the above process to fresh meats, it is usually employed in conjunction with either salting or smoking, and, frequently, with both of them.

EXCLUSION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. This is effected by the method of preserving in sugar, potting in oil, and, more particularly, by some of the patented methods noticed below. Fresh meat may be preserved for some months in that state, by keeping it in water perfectly deprived of air. In practice some iron filings and sulphur may be placed at the bottom of the vessel, over which must be set the meat; over the whole is gently poured recently boiled water, and the vessel is at once closed, so as to exclude the external air.

IMMERSION IN ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS. One of the commonest and most effective liquids employed for this purpose is alcohol of 60 to 70%, to which a little camphor, ammonia, sal ammoniac, or common salt, is occasionally added. A cheaper and equally efficient plan is to employ a weak spirit holding a little creasote in solution. A weak solution of sulphurous acid may be substituted for alcohol. Weak solutions of alum, or carbolic acid, with or without the addition of a few grains of corrosive sublimate, or of arsenious acid, are also highly antiseptic. These are chiefly employed for anatomical specimens, &c. A solution containing only 1/600th part of nitrate of silver is likewise very effective; but, from this salt being poisonous, it cannot be employed for preserving articles of food. Butchers’ meat is occasionally pickled in vinegar. By immersing it for 1 hour in water holding 1/400th part of creasote in solution, it may be preserved unchanged for some time even during summer.

INJECTION OF ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS into the veins or arteries of the recently killed animal. It is found that the sooner this is done after the slaughter of the animal the more effective it becomes, as the absorbent power of the vessels rapidly decrease by age. See GANNAL’S PROCESS (_below_).

JERKING is a method of preserving flesh sometimes adopted in hot climates. It consists in cutting the lean parts of the meat into thin slices, and exposing these to the sunshine until quite dry and brittle, when they are bruised in a mortar, and pressed into pots.

PICKLING IN VINEGAR. In this method the substances, rendered as dry as possible by exposure to the air, are placed in glass or stoneware jars (not salt-glazed), or wooden vessels, when strong vinegar, either cold or boiling hot, is poured over them, and the vessel at once closely corked or otherwise covered up, and preserved in a cool situation. Meat is occasionally thus treated; vegetables frequently so. See PICKLE.

POTTING IN OIL. In this case salad or olive oil is substituted for vinegar (see _above_), and is always used cold.

SALTING acts chiefly by abstracting water from the albuminous portions of the meat, by which its disposition to change is lessened.

SMOKING. This process, which, as well as the last, is referred to further on, acts both by the abstraction of moisture and the antiseptic properties of certain substances (creasote, &c.) contained in wood smoke. Fresh meat and fish are occasionally smoked; but, in general, substances intended to be thus treated are first salted.

In Donkin and Gamble’s patent process the substances, previously parboiled, are placed in small tin cylinders, which are then filled up with rich soup; the lids are next soldered on quite air-tight, and a small hole is afterwards made in the centre; the cylinders are then placed in a bath of strong brine, or a strong solution of chloride of calcium, which is at once heated to the boiling point, to nearly complete the cooking process; after which the small hole in the lid is hermetically sealed by covering it with solder while the vessel still remains boiling hot; the tins are, lastly, again submitted to heat in the heated bath, the duration of which is proportioned to the quantity and character of their contents, the ‘dressing’ of which is to be perfected by this operation. The ends of the tins, on cooling, assume a concave form, from the pressure of the atmosphere, without which they cannot be air-tight, and the process has been unsuccessful. To determine this, the patentees expose the canisters, prepared as before, for at least a month in an apartment heated to about 100° Fahr.; when, if the process has failed, putrefaction commences, and the ends of the cases, instead of remaining concave, bulge or become convex. This is called the ‘test.’ By this process, which was invented by M. Appert in France about the year 1808, fish, flesh, poultry, and vegetables may be preserved for years in any climate.

Goldner’s process differs somewhat from the preceding, in the employment of a higher degree of heat, more hastily applied, and not prolonged or repeated after the tins are soldered up.

Gannal’s process, having for its object the preservation of butchers’ meat in the fresh state, depends on the peculiarly absorbent property of the flesh of recently killed animals, above referred to. This process consists in injecting a solution of sulphate of alumina, or, better, of chloride of aluminium, of the sp. gr. 1·070 to 1·085 (10° to 12° Baumé), into the carotid artery, by means of a syphon, as soon as the blood ceases to flow from the slaughtered animal; both extremities of the jugular vein being previously tied. 9 to 12 quarts of the solution are sufficient for an ox, and a proportionate quantity for smaller animals. A less quantity is also required in winter than summer. When the animal has been well bled, and the injection skilfully performed, it is scarcely perceptible that the animal has undergone any preparation. The injected animal is cut up in the usual way; and when intended to be eaten within 2 or 3 weeks merely requires to be hung up in a dry, airy situation free from flies; but if it is to be kept for a longer period, it is directed to be washed with a mixed solution of common salt and chloride of aluminium at 10° Baumé, and then simply dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels, and kept in a cool, dry place. If the air cannot be perfectly excluded, it should be packed in dry salt, not for the purpose of preserving it, but to prevent the vegetation of bissus, as, without this precaution, the meat becomes musty from exposure and the action of moisture. Meat preserved by this process may be kept for several years, and merely requires soaking for 24 hours in water, for the purpose of swelling its pores, to give it the appearance and taste of fresh meat, fit for either roasting or boiling. For hot climates a somewhat stronger solution, or a larger quantity of the usual one, may be injected. The use of the strong solutions ordered in some recent works, however, deprives the flesh of a portion of its apparent freshness, and makes it more nearly approach in flavour to that which has been slightly salted in the ordinary manner.

In addition to the above it may be added that both flesh and fish may be preserved by dipping them into, or brushing them over with, pyroligneous acid, and then drying them. This gives them a smoky flavour; but if pure acetic acid (Ph. L.) be used, no taste will be imparted. These fluids may be applied by means of a clean painter’s brush, or even a stiff feather. A table-spoonful is sufficient to brush over a large surface. Fish and flesh so prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies and back, uninjured.

Fish may also be preserved in a dry state, and perfectly fresh, by means of sugar alone. Fresh fish may be thus kept for some days, so as to be as good when boiled as if just caught. If dried and kept free from mouldiness, there seems no limit to their preservation; and they are much more nutritious in this way than when salted. This process is particularly valuable in making what is called ‘kippered salmon,’ and the fish preserved in this manner are far superior in quality and flavour to those which are salted or smoked. A few tablespoonfuls of brown sugar are sufficient for a salmon of five or six pounds’ weight; and if salt be desired, a teaspoonful or two may be added. Saltpetre may be used instead of salt, if it be wished to make the kipper hard.

The well-known property possessed by ether, alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, chloroform, and certain other hydrocarbons, of averting putrefaction, has been thus applied by M. Robin:——He encloses the meat or other substances to be preserved in a glass case, along with a sponge or a capsule containing the preservative liquid, which latter is continually evolved in a vaporous condition, and exercises the preservative agency. In this way the vapours of hydrocyanic acid are found to be very efficacious. Camphor is thus employed in the MUMMY CASES in the British Museum.

It has been asserted by Mr George Hamilton that in an atmosphere of binoxide of nitrogen, in the dark, flesh preserves its natural colour and freshness for about five months; and eats well provided it be boiled in open vessels, to expel nitrous fumes. See CANDYING, EGG, FISH, FRUIT, MILK, PICKLES, POTTING, PRESERVES, SALTING, SMOKING, STUFFING, VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES, &c.

=PUT′TY.= This name is given to the following preparations (when used alone. ‘Glazier’s putty’ is generally indicated):——

=Putty, Glazier’s.= From whiting made into a stiff paste with drying oil. It is used to fix panes of glass in sashes, to fill holes and cracks in wood before painting it, &c.

=Putty, Plasterer’s.= A fine cement used by plasterers, made of lime only. It differs from ‘FINE STUFF’ in the absence of hair.

=Putty, Polisher’s.= _Syn._ PUTTY POWDER, CALCINE; CINERES STANNI, STANNI OXYDUM CRUDUM, L. A crude peroxide of tin, obtained by exposing metallic tin in a reverberatory furnace, and raking off the dross as it forms; this is afterwards calcined until it becomes whitish, and is then reduced to powder. Another method is to melt tin with rather more than an equal weight of lead, and then to rapidly raise the heat so as to render the mixed metal red hot, when the tin will be immediately flung out in the state of ‘putty’ or ‘peroxide.’ The products of both these processes are very hard, and are used for polishing glass and japan work, and to colour opaque white enamel. See TIN.

=Putty, To Soften.= Take 1 lb. of American pearlash and 3 lbs. of quick-lime. After slaking the lime in water add the pearlash, and let the mixture be made of a consistence about the same as that of paint. When required for use apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it remain in contact with the putty for twelve hours; after which the putty will have become so softened that the glass may be removed from the frame without any difficulty.

=PUZZOLA′NA.= PUOZZOLANA, or, more correctly, PUZZUOLANA, is a volcanic ash found at Puzzuoli, near Naples. When mixed with lime it forms an excellent hydraulic cement. A good FACTITIOUS PUZZOLANA may be made by heating a mixture of 3 bushels of clay and 1 bushel of fresh-slaked lime for some hours to redness. (M. Bruyere.) See CEMENT and MORTAR.

=PYRI′TES.= A term applied to several native metallic sulphides. IRON PYRITES is the best known of these.

=PY′RO-.= The term is applied to several acids that are obtained by the action of heat on other substances; as, PYROGALLIC ACID, PYROLIGNEOUS A., &c.

=PYROACE′TIC SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroacetic).

=PYROGAL′LIC ACID.= HC_{6}H_{5}O_{3}. _Syn._ ACIDUM PYROGALLICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. From either gallic or tannic acid, heated in a retort by means of an oil bath, and steadily maintained at a temperature of about 420° Fahr. as long as crystals are formed in the neck of the retort, or in the receiver, both of which should be kept well cooled. Pure. If a much higher heat is employed, the product consists chiefly of metagallic acid.

2. From Aleppo galls, in very coarse powder, heated in a dish covered with thin filtering paper pasted to its edge, and connected with a well-cooled receiver. Dr Ure says that the so-called Chinese galls furnish, by dry distillation, a “very concentrated solution of pyrogallic acid, which, evaporated on the water bath, yields of brown crystalline pyrogallic acid nearly 15% of the weight of the galls.”

3. (Dr Stenhouse.) By sublimation from the dry aqueous extract of nut-galls, in a Mohr’s apparatus, in the same way that benzoic acid is obtained from benzoin resin, observing the precautions referred to in No. 1 (_above_). Nearly pure. The product is fully 10% of the weight of extract operated on.

_Prop._ Light crystals, which, when perfectly pure, are quite white; freely soluble in water, but the solution cannot be evaporated without turning black and suffering decomposition; it strikes a rich blackish-blue colour with the protosalts of iron, and reduces those of the sesquioxide to the state of protoxide; when heated to 480° Fahr., it is converted into METAGALLIC ACID and water.

_Uses, &c._ Pure pyrogallic acid is now very extensively employed in photography. A solution of the crude acid mixed with a little spirit is used to dye the hair, to which it imparts a fine brown colour, but has the disadvantage of also staining the skin when applied to it.

=PY′ROGEN ACIDS.= Those generated by heat.

=PYRO′LA.= See WINTER GREEN.

=PYROLIG′NEOUS ACID.= _Syn._ VINEGAR OF WOOD†, SPIRIT OF W.†, SMOKING LIQUOR†, ESSENCE OF SMOKE†; ACIDUM PYROLIGNOSUM, L. Impure acetic acid, obtained by the destructive distillation of wood in close vessels. It comes over along with tar creasote, and other liquid and gaseous matters. In this state it contains much empyreumatic matter in solution; but by separation from the tar, saturation with slaked lime or chalk, defecation, and evaporation, an impure acetate of pyrolignate of lime is obtained, which, after being gently heated, to destroy part of its empyreumatic matter, without injuring its acetic acid, is again dissolved and defecated, and then precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda, when a solution of acetate of soda and a precipitate of sulphate of lime are formed by double decomposition. The solution is next evaporated to dryness, the dry mass (pyrolignite of soda) dissolved in water, and the new solution filtered and recrystallised. The crystals of acetate of soda, obtained by the last process, yield nearly pure acetic acid by distillation along with sulphuric acid. See ACETIC ACID and VINEGAR.

=PYROLIG′NEOUS SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxilic).

=PYROM′ETER.= An instrument to measure high degrees of heat. WEDGWOOD’S PYROMETER, the one best known, depends on the property which clay possesses of contracting when strongly heated. PROF DANIEL’S PYROMETER consists, essentially, of a small rod or bar of platinum, which acts in a precisely opposite manner to the preceding, viz., by its expansion.

=PYROPH′ORUS.= _Syn._ LUFT-ZUNDER, Ger. Any substance that inflames spontaneously when exposed to the air.

_Prep._ 1. Neutral chromate of lead, 6 parts; sulphur, 1 part; triturate them with water, q. s. to form a paste, and make this into pellets; dry these perfectly by a gentle heat, then heat them in a closed tube until the sulphur is all driven off; lastly, transfer them to a stoppered phial.

2. (HOMBERG’S PYROPHORUS.) From alum and brown sugar, equal parts; stir the mixture in an iron ladle over the fire until dry, then put it into an earthen or coated glass phial, and keep it at a red heat so long as the flame is emitted; it must then be carefully stopped up and cooled.

3. (Dr Hare.) Lampblack, 3 parts; burnt alum, 4 parts; carbonate of potassa, 8 parts; as the last.

4. (Gay Lussac.) From sulphate of potassa, 9 parts; calcined lampblack, 5 parts; as No. 2.

5. Alum, 3 parts; wheat flour, 1 part; as No. 2.

6. (LEAD PYROPHORUS——Göbel.) Heat tartrate of lead to redness in a glass tube, and then hermetically seal it. See TARTRATE OF LEAD.

_Obs._ When the above are properly prepared, a little of the powder rapidly becomes very hot, and inflames on exposure to the air. The accession of the combustion is promoted by moisture, as a damp atmosphere or the breath. With the exception of the first and sixth, “they owe their combustibility to the presence of sulphide of potassium.” (Gay Lussac.)

=PYROPHOSPHOR′IC ACID.= See DIBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID (Phosphorus).

=PYRO′SIS.= _Syn._ BLACK WATER, WATER BRASH, WATER QUALM. An affection of the stomach, attended by a sensation of heat and the eructation of a thin, sour liquid, often in considerable quantity, especially in the morning.

The following pill will be found of service in this affection:——Powdered opium, 1/8th gr.; subnitrate of bismuth, 5 gr.; extract of gentian, sufficient to make into 2 pills. To be taken two or three times a day, before meals.

The solution of bismuth and citrate of ammonia (Liquor Bismuthi et Ammoniæ Citratis, B. P.), in doses of 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., taken as above, is another medicine which may be had recourse to, should the above fail to give relief.

=PYBOTARTAR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{5}H_{6}O_{4}. Obtained by the destructive distillation of tartaric acid. See TARTARIC ACID.

=PYROTECH′NY.= The art of making fireworks. The three principal materials employed in this art are charcoal, nitre, and sulphur, along with filings of iron, steel, copper, or zinc, or with resin, camphor, lycopodium, or other substances, to impart colour, or to modify the effect or the duration of the combustion. Gunpowder is used “either in grain, half crushed, or finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the iron filings are, the brighter red and white spots they give; those being preferred which are made with a coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel filings and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour; the sulphide of antimony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke; amber affords a yellow fire, as well as colophony (resin) and common salt; but the last must be very dry. Lampblack produces a very red colour with gunpowder, and a pink one with nitre in excess; it serves for making golden showers.” When this substance is lightly mixed with gunpowder and put into cases, it throws out small stars resembling the rowel of a spur; this composition has hence been called ‘spur fire.’ “The yellow sand, or glistening mica, communicates to fire-works golden radiations. Verdigris imparts a pale green; sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac gives a palm-tree green. Camphor yields a very white flame and aromatic fumes, which masks the bad smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax are also used, on account of their agreeable odour. Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a magnificent flame; but it is principally employed in theatres to represent lightning, or to charge the torch of a Fury.” (Ure.) See FIRES (Coloured), FLAME COLOURS, GUNPOWDER, STARS, ROCKETS, &c.

The following substances are in requisition by the Pyrotechnist:——

ZINC. This metal is employed in the form of fine powder, which is obtained as follows:——The metal, scarcely melted, is poured into a hot mortar, where it is reduced to powder, being kept during the operation at a temperature of 401° F. It is then sifted to remove any particles which may have escaped contact with the pestle.

COPPER. This metal may be obtained in a state of minute division by precipitating it from a solution of sulphate of copper by means of iron, the precaution being taken of using a large quantity of iron. The precipitate, after being well washed, is dried between folds of blotting paper, and kept in well stoppered bottles.

IRON-SAND. A quantity of sulphur is melted in a crucible over a slow fire, and when it is quite fluid, iron filings are thrown in while the whole is being stirred. The crucible is removed from the fire, and the contents are rapidly stirred until cold. The material is then rolled on a board till it is broken up as fine as corned powder, after which the sulphur is sifted out.

SODA POWDER. This powder is prepared with the same precaution as ordinary gunpowder, the proportions which answer best being:

Nitrate of soda 630 parts. Sulphur 125 ” Charcoal 125 ” ———— 880 parts.

As the nitrate of soda is hygrometric, this powder must be preserved in closed vessels from the moisture of the air.

LEAD POWDER. This mixture is also prepared like gunpowder, and the constituents are used in the following proportions:

Nitrate of lead 12 parts. Nitrate of potash 2 ” Charcoal 3 ” —— 17 parts.

In the manufacture of this mixture on a large scale considerable care is necessary, since the mixture of nitrate of lead and charcoal is very liable to ignite by friction.

PREPARED BLOOD. 450 to 500 grammes of zinc is dissolved in 1340 grammes of hydrochloric acid 22° B., largely diluted with water, and filtered. This solution is again diluted with its own volume of water, and mixed with fresh blood. The whole is well stirred from time to time for 48 hours, and the clear liquor is siphoned off from the precipitate. The precipitate is well washed with water, dried, and reduced to powder, in which state it may be kept for any length of time.

TOUCH PAPER. This paper is prepared by immersing purple or blue paper in a solution of nitrate of potash in spirits of wine or vinegar, and carefully drying it.

When the touch paper is used with small articles, a piece is tied round the orifice with thread, leaving sufficient paper to form a small tube at the end. This tube is filled with gunpowder, and the paper twisted over it, when all is ready for firing.

Touch paper for capping every description of fireworks, such as squibs, crackers, Roman candles, &c., is prepared in the following manner:——Dissolve 2 oz. of the best saltpetre in 1 quart of warm water, and take care that the water is very clean.

After the mixture has stood for half an hour, pour off 1-1/2 pint into a white basin, then cut your sheets of dark blue double-crown paper in half. The weight of the paper should be 12 or 14 lbs. per ream.

Place the paper on a slab sufficiently large to give you room to use a small piece of sponge, with which you use the liquor to wet your paper. Cover each half sheet with the liquor as quickly as possible, on one side only, and immediately this is done place it on a line, the wet side on outwards, and when nearly dry, if you have a great number of sheets, place them together as evenly as possible under a press for one hour, then lay them out to dry, after which they will be quite smooth and ready for use.

In pasting this paper on the work, take care that the paste does not touch that part which is to burn. To use this paper correctly, cut it in strips sufficiently long to go twice round the mouth of the case, or even more if requisite. When you paste on the strips, leave a little above the mouth of the case not pasted; in small cases a little meal powder is put into the mouth, and then the paper is twisted to a point. In larger cases damp priming is used, and when dry, the capping process is proceeded with.

CRACKERS. The following mixtures are used for ordinary crackers:——

Meal powder parts 5 15 6 8 16 Fine charcoal ” 1 4 —— 2 17 Coarse charcoal ” —— —— 6 —— —— Sulphur ” —— —— 2 —— 1 Saltpetre ” —— —— 16 1 7

Composition for crackers with Chinese fire——

Meal powder parts 9 6 16 Saltpetre ” 6 8 —— Sulphur ” 1 2 3 Charcoal ” 1-1/2 1-1/2 2 Fine iron ” 5 —— 7 Sand ” —— 5 ——

Composition for crackers with brilliant fire——

Meal powder parts 8 8 36 18 32 Sulphur ” 1 1-1/2 1 1 3 Iron filings ” 2 2-1/2 —— —— —— Litharge ” —— —— —— 2 —— Steel filings ” —— —— 8 3 12

The paper generally used for cartridge is that known as ‘elephant’ or cartridge, the latter being the more frequently employed.

Cartridge paper is employed in the preparation of crackers, which vary from 12 to 15 inches, and 3-1/2 inches diameter. One edge of the paper is folded down about 3/4-inch in breadth, then the double edge is turned down about 1/4-inch, and the single edge is bent back over the double fold so as to form a channel 1/4-inch wide. This is filled with meal powder, which is then to be covered by the folds on each side, when the whole is to be pressed very smooth and close, by passing it over the edge of a flat ruler. The part containing the powder is to be gradually folded into the remainder of the paper, each fold being carefully pressed down. The cracker is then doubled backwards and forwards into as many folds of about 2-1/4 inches as the paper will allow.

The whole is pressed together by means of a wooden vice, a piece of twine is passed twice round the middle across the folds, and the joinings are secured by causing the twine to take a turn round the middle at every turn. One of the ends of the folds may be doubled short under, which will produce an extra report, but the other must project a little beyond the rest, for the priming and capping with the touch paper. When these crackers are fired they give a report at every turn of the paper.

The crackers may also be made of two single cards, rolled over each other and covered with paper coated with paste. The crackers are partially filled with the composition by means of a tin funnel. Ordinary powder is then introduced, and the remaining space is filled with a little sawdust.

REVOLVING CRACKERS. These crackers are charged at each end with clay to a depth of two lines, and filled with a composition without gunpowder. The clay prevents the fire streaming out at the ends, and it escapes through two holes placed opposite each other. The two holes are united at the same time by connecting them by means of a quick-match, and a rotatory motion is thus communicated to the cylinder.

ENGLISH PIN WHEELS. Pin, or Catherine wheels are of very simple construction. A long wire about 3/16th of an inch in diameter is the former; on this wire are formed the pipes, which being filled with composition, are afterwards wound round a small circle of wood so as to form a helix or spiral line. The cases are generally made of double-crown paper (yellow wove), and cut into strips to give the greatest length, and of width sufficient to roll about four times round the wire, and pasted at the edge so as to bite firmly at the end of the last turn. When a number of pipes are made and perfectly dry, they are filled with composition. These cases are not driven for filling, but are filled by means of a tin funnel with a tube 3/4 of an inch long, made to pass easily into the mouth of the case, which is gradually filled by lifting a wire up and down in this tube, the diameter of the charging wire being half that of the tube. The dry composition being placed in the funnel, the moment an action of the wire takes place the composition begins to fall into the case, which the charging wire compresses by continuous motion until you have filled the pipe to within 3/4 of an inch of the top. The pipe is then removed, and the mouth neatly twisted, which will be the point for lighting.

When a number of pipes are ready, place them on a damp floor, or in any damp situation, until they become very pliant, but by no means wet; then commence winding them round a circle of wood whose substance must be equal to the thickness of the diameter of the pipe; and when wound, secure the end with sealing-wax, to prevent its springing open; after winding the required quantity let them dry. Now cut some strips of crimson or purple paper 3/16th of an inch wide, and in length twice the diameter of the wheel; then paste all over thoroughly. Take a strip and paste it across the wheel diametrically, rub it down, then turn the wheel over, and place the ends down to correspond with the opposite side; when dry, the wheel will be ready for firing.

They may be fired on a large pin or held in the hand, but it is preferable to drive the pin into the end of a stick, which will prevent any accident, should a section of the wheel burst.

SQUIBS. These are either filled with grained powder, or with a mixture consisting of:——Gunpowder, 8 parts; charcoal, 1 part; sulphur, 1 part. The cases, which are about 6 inches long, are made by rolling strips of stout cartridge paper three times round a roller, and pasting the last fold. They are then firmly tied down near the bottom, and the end is either dipped into hot pitch or covered with sealing-wax. The cases are filled by putting a thimble full of the powder in, and ramming it tightly down with a roller, this operation being continued until the case is filled. It is then capped with touch paper.

SERPENTS (MARROON SQUIBS). A suitable case being ready, it is filled two thirds up with a powder consisting of:——Saltpetre, 16 parts; sulphur, 8 parts; fine gunpowder, 4 parts; antimony, 1 part. This, after being rammed down into the case tolerably tightly, the remainder of the space is filled with grained or corned powder.

SPARKS. These fireworks differs from stars in size, being very small and made without cases. The English method of preparing them is as follows:——A mixture of

Fine gunpowder 1 part Powdered saltpetre 3 parts Powdered camphor 4 ”

is placed in a mortar, and some weak gum-water in which a little gum tragacanth has been dissolved, is poured over it, and the whole worked up into a thin paste. Some lint, prepared by boiling it in vinegar or saltpetre, and afterwards dried and unravelled, is placed in the composition so as to absorb the whole. This is then poured into balls about the size of a pea, dried and sprinkled with fine gunpowder.

In Germany the following compositions are used:

---------------+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+ | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9|10|11|12|13|14| +——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+ Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | potash parts |24|40|12|20|——|——|——|40|21|21|14|20|96|40| Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | potash and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | copper ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|23|23|——|——|——|——| Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | baryta ” |——|——|——|——|18|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | potash ” |——|——|——|——|——|12|26|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | lead ” |24|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | baryta ” |——|——|——|40|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Calomel ” |——|——|——|13| 7|——|——|28|12|12| 4| 8|18|——| Sulphide of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | copper ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|28|——|12|6 | 4|——|——| Sulphate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | strontia ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|20|72|37| Oxalate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | soda ” |——|16|10|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Chalk ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 5|——|——|——| Powdered | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | zinc ” |——|——|——|——|——|14|28|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Powdered | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | charcoal ” |——|——|——|——|——| 5|11|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Sulphur ” |12|——| 1|13|——|——|——|——|——|——| 6| 3|——|——| Gum lac ” |1 | 8|——| 1| 3|——|——|——|——|——|——| 2|18| 8| Soap ” |——| 3| 1|——|——|——|——| 3| 3| 3|——|——|——|——| Starch ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|10|——|——|——|——|——|——| Sugar ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 4| 4|——|——|——|——| Pine soot ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 1|——| ---------------+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+

The above mixtures are intended to give coloured sparks, according to the numbers.

No. 1 gives a bluish-white colour. ” 2 and 3 give yellow. ” 4 gives green. ” 5 gives green. ” 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 give blue. ” 11 and 12 give violet. ” 13 gives red. ” 14 gives purple.

The materials are mixed with a small quantity of a solution of starch, so as to form a thick paste, which is forced through a perforated plate, the holes in which are twice as large as it is intended the sparks should be on drying. The small pieces fall on a pasteboard, to which the workman gives a rapid horizontal motion to round the grains. They are then dried, and those which are perfectly round are selected and separated by sieves of different meshes to collect those of the same size together.

CHINESE FIRE.

_Red Chinese or Gerbe Fire._

Calibre of the case. Saltpetre. Sulphur. Charcoal. Iron Sand. 1st order.

12 to 16 lbs. 1 lb. 3 oz. 4 oz. 7 oz. 16 to 22 ” 1 ” 3 ” 5 ” 7 ” 8 drms. 22 to 36 ” 1 ” 4 ” 6 ” 8 ”

_White Chinese Fire._

Calibre. Saltpetre. Bruised Powder. Charcoal. Iron Sand. 3rd order.

12 to 16 lbs. 1 lb. 12 oz. 7 oz. 8 drms. 11 oz. 16 to 22 ” 1 ” 11 ” 8 ” 11 ” 8 drms. 22 to 36 ” 1 ” 11 ” 8 ” 8 ” 12 ”

The iron sand is moistened with a little spirits of wine, and then mixed with the charcoal and saltpetre, which have been previously incorporated in another mortar.

SIMPLE STARS OR FIREBALLS. These are generally used in combination with other arrangements, &c., and the composition of which they are made, consists of——saltpetre, 16 parts; sulphur, 8 parts; fine gunpowder, 3 parts.

These materials are mixed with gum and as little spirits of wine as will suffice to make a very stiff paste. This paste is cut up into small squares, which are rolled up into balls on a board covered with gunpowder.

The gunpowder, which adheres, serves for the purpose of firing them. When perfectly dry, they are ready for use.

GERBES. These fireworks display themselves as luminous jets of fire somewhat resembling a water spout. Previously to putting in the brilliant composition, put two scoops of first firing or preparatory fire, for which the following will suit, in cases not larger than 1/4 lb. size:——16 oz. meal powder, 6 oz. saltpetre, 3 oz. sulphur, 3 oz. fine coal. It is important to see that the interior of the cases are quite smooth and free from wrinkles.

GOLD RAIN. The larger rockets are filled with this material, which consists of small squares made in the same way as the simple stars. It is composed as follows:——

Ordinary. Chinese. Composition for immediate use.

Saltpetre parts 16 4 Saltpetre parts 4 Sulphur ” 8 2 Sulphur ” 2 Fine charcoal ” 2 4 Fine small coals ” 1 Pine soot ” 2 —— Fine gunpowder ” 8 Meal powder ” 4 16 Coarse cast iron ” 4

A portion of the cotton is softened in linseed oil and the materials prepared in a mortar with water.

ROMAN CANDLES. These are made somewhat like gerbes and filled with the same materials, the only difference being that _stars_ are placed between the different layers of substances. The materials must not be too tightly rammed down or the stars will be destroyed.

SIMPLE STARS OR FIREBALLS. Take of saltpetre 16 parts, sulphur 8 parts, fine gunpowder 3 parts; mix them with gum and only just enough spirits of wine to make a very stiff paste. Cut this up into small squares, and roll into balls covered with gunpowder. When properly dry they are ready for use.

MARROONS. These are small cubical boxes filled with an explosive composition which explodes suddenly, making a loud report. They are generally used in combination with other fireworks. The boxes are made of pasteboard, the corners being made tight by pasting paper over them, but leaving the top open until they are filled. They are filled with coarse gunpowder, when the top is closed with strong paper well cemented, and the whole box is wrapped round two or three times with lind cord dipped in strong glue. A hole is made in one of the corners, into which a quick-match is introduced, and the marroon is ready for action.

The reader who may be desirous of further information on the subject of Pyrotechny, cannot do better than consult the article on the subject in ‘Knapp’s Chemical Technology,’ edited by Messrs. Richardson and Watts.[124]

[Footnote 124: Vol. 1, part 4, No. 1. Ballière & Co.]

To this work we are indebted for much of the material contained in the present papers. See COLOURED FIRES.

=PYROXYL′IC SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxylic).

=PYROX′YLIN.= _Syn._ FULMINATING COTTON, GUN-COTTON. A highly inflammable and explosive compound, discovered by Schönbein. It is obtained by the action of nitric acid on cotton (cellulin, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}), in the presence of sulphuric acid.

By varying the strength of the nitric acid three kinds of gun-cotton may be obtained, called respectively mononitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{9}(NO_{2})O_{5}], dinitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{8}(NO_{2})_{2}O_{5}], and trinitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{7}(NO_{2})_{3}O_{5}]. The first is but slightly explosive; the second is not sufficiently explosive to be used as a substitute for gunpowder, but is best adapted for the preparation of collodion; the third is highly explosive, and is the variety employed in mining and military operations, &c.

_Prep._ 1. (B. P., DINITRO-CELLULIN.) Cotton-wool, 1; sulphuric acid, 5; nitric acid, 5; mix the acids, immerse the cotton, and stir with a glass rod for three minutes, or until it is thoroughly wetted, then remove it, and thoroughly wash out the acid, so that the washings cease to produce a precipitate with chloride of barium. Drain on filtering paper, and dry in a water bath. Used in the preparation of COLLODION.

2. Concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500) and concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·845) are mixed together in about equal measures; when the mixture has become cold it is poured into a glass or wedgwood-ware mortar or basin, and clean, dry carded cotton, in as loose a state as practicable, is immersed in it for 4 or 5 minutes, the action of the liquid being promoted by incessant stirring with a glass rod; the acid is next poured off, and the cotton, after being squeezed as dry as possible, by means of the glass stirrer, or between two plates of glass, is thrown into a large quantity of clean soft water, and again squeezed to free it from superfluous moisture; it is then washed in a stream of pure water until it becomes perfectly free from acid, and is, lastly, carefully dried by the heat of hot water or steam, at a temperature not higher than about 180° Fahr. 3. (Schönbein.) Nitric acid (1·45 to 1·50), 1 part; sulphuric acid (1·85), 3 parts (both by volume); proceed as above, but, after the cotton has been squeezed from the acid, allow it to remain in a covered vessel for an hour before washing it, and after washing it, dip it into a solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 oz., in pure water, 1 gall., then squeeze, and partially dry it; next dip it into a weak solution of nitre, and dry it in a room heated by hot air or steam to about 150° Fahr. (See Patent Specif.)

4. (Von Lenk.) The cotton, having been thoroughly cleansed and dried, is steeped, as above, in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids (the strongest obtainable in commerce), squeezed as dry as possible, and immersed in a fresh mixture of strong acids, being allowed to remain in this second mixture 48 hours. It is then washed in a stream of water for several weeks, and finally treated with a solution of silicate of potassa (soluble glass). This is the celebrated Austrian gun-cotton which was reported on so favorably by a committee of the British Association in 1863. The treatment with silicate of potassa is adopted merely for the purpose of retarding the combustion.

5. (‘Bulletin de St Pétersbourg,’)——_a._ Take of powdered nitre, 20 parts; sulphuric acid (1·830 to 1·835), 31 parts; dissolve in a glass vessel, and, whilst the solution is still warm (122° Fahr.), add of dry carded cotton 1 part, and employ agitation until this last is well saturated; then cover over the vessel with a plate of glass, and let it stand, for 24 hours, at a temperature of about 86° Fahr.; next well wash the cotton, as above, first with cold and afterwards with boiling water, and dry it carefully at a very low temperature.

_b._ From sulphuric acid (containing 3 equiv. of water), 13 parts; nitric acid (monohydrated), 12 parts; carded cotton, 1 part; the immersion being limited to one hour at a temperature of from 104° to 122° Fahr. (See ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ vol. xiii, No. 2.)

_Prop., &c._ Pyroxylin explodes, with a very sudden flash, and the development of very little heat, without either smoke or residue, at a temperature of about 300° Fahr. (No. 3 at 277° Fahr.). Several modifications of pyroxylin are known, varying considerably in composition, though they all contain the elements of hyponitric acid, and are all explosive. Some are insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, whilst others are readily dissolved, forming the glutinous solution which is used in surgery under the name of ‘collodion,’ and which is also extensively used in photography. The best gun-cotton (Von Lenk’s) is of no use whatever for making collodion. The pyroxylin prepared by the formula 5, _a_ (_above_), is soluble in a mixture of 7 parts of ether and 1 part of alcohol; whilst the product of 5, _b_, if prepared by 2 hours’ digestion instead of 1, is said to be even soluble in absolute alcohol.

_Obs._ General von Lenk has overcome all the difficulties which have hitherto prevented gun-cotton being used in place of gunpowder. By spinning the gun-cotton into thread or yarn, and weaving this into webs, he has succeeded in making cartridges which will produce the exact amount of force required. The time needed for the complete ignition of the cartridge can be diminished or increased at pleasure by varying the mechanical arrangement of the spun threads. Each gun and each kind of projectile requires a certain density of cartridge. In general, it is found that the proportion of 11 lbs. of gun-cotton occupying 1 cubic foot of space produces a greater force than gunpowder of which from 50 to 60 lbs. occupies the same space, and a force of the nature required for ordinary artillery. See COLLODION and XYLOIDIN; consult also Abel’s researches in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society.’

=QUACK MED′ICINES.= See PATENT MEDICINES, OINTMENT, PILLS, &c.

=QUAIL.= The _Coturnix vulgaris_, a gallinaceous bird, allied to the partridge, but of smaller size. Its flesh is highly esteemed by epicures. It is imported from Turkey, preserved in oil; and from Italy, potted with clarified butter.

=QUARANTINE.= The old laws of Quarantine, as the French derivation of the word indicates, compelled a vessel coming from the shores of a country liable to, or ravaged by, an infectious disease, such as plague, to those of a region free from contagion, to undergo forty days’ isolation before it was unladen, or its passengers were allowed to land at the healthy port.

In Europe these ancient enactments against the importation of infection are still more or less vexatiously enforced in Spain, Portugal, Greece and Turkey; and in a modified form at Malta and some of the French and Italian ports. In the Mediterranean ports, ships coming from countries which lie in the southern or eastern shores of that sea are usually subjected to a quarantine of from six to fifteen days, during which period the passengers are confined in a sort of barrack called a ‘lazaretto,’ the merchandise, letters, &c., of the vessel being in the meantime frequently fumigated, or otherwise disinfected.

The inconveniences to commerce and the necessary intercourse between nations attending the too rigorous carrying out of quarantine have, within the last twelve years, led to a series of sanitary international conferences between the European Governments, with the object of divising some methods which, without weakening the safeguards to the public health, should as much as possible reduce the inconveniences attending the enforcement of quarantine to a minimum. At the last of these conferences, which was held at Vienna in 1873, the members were almost unanimous in advising the abolition of quarantine on European rivers.

Until within the last twenty years the old quarantine laws were pretty strictly enforced in this country. Since this time, however, they have been considerably relaxed, or, we should rather say, superseded by the following ordinances, which, upon the authority of an order in council of July 31st, 1871, can be enforced in the case of suspected vessels.

This ordinance declares that it is lawful for a sanitary authority, having reason to believe that any ship arriving in its district comes from a place infected with cholera, to visit and examine the ship before it enters the port.

Art. 3 provides that the master of a cholera-infected ship, or one that has even been exposed to the infection of cholera, is to moor, anchor, or place her in such a position as from time to time the sanitary authority shall direct.

Art. 4 provides that no person shall land from any such ship until after the examination.

Art. 5 provides for the proper examination of all persons on board by a legally-qualified practitioner, and permits those not suffering from cholera to land immediately.

Another order in council, dated August 3rd, 1874, empowers any custom-house officer, or other person having authority from the Commissioners or Board of Customs, at any time before the Nuisance Authority shall visit and examine the ship, to detain the ship.

“No person shall, after such detention, land from the ship, and the officer shall forthwith give notice of the detention, and of the cause thereof, to the proper nuisance (local) authority; and the detention shall cease as soon as the nuisance authority shall visit and examine the ship, or at the expiration of twelve hours after notice shall have been given to such nuisance authority.”

Another order in council, dated August 5th, 1871, directs that the master of a vessel, in which cholera has existed, shall not be allowed to bring his vessel into port until he has destroyed the infected clothes and bedding.

Local Government Boards are also invested with considerable executive powers, by which they are enabled to enforce quarantine during the prevalence of any contagious disease in other countries. The main Act, however, relating to quarantine, is the 6th of Geo. IV., c. 78; and all vessels having on board any person or persons affected with a dangerous or infections disorder, are to be deemed as coming within its provisions (see ‘Public Health Act,’ Schedule v., part 3). There is a land, as well as a sea quarantine. Thus, for instance, in some countries, more particularly those of Eastern Europe, the former is still in force on the frontiers of contiguous States, to the great impediment of commerce and inconvenience of travellers.

The late outbreak of plague in Astrakan has led to its being established and very strictly carried out on the borders of Russia, Austria, Hungary, and Germany.

Hecker, writing on the probable origin of quarantine, remarks:——“The fortieth day, according to the most ancient notions, has always been regarded as the last of ardent diseases, and the limit of separation between these and those which are chronic. It was the custom to subject lying-in women for forty days to a more exact superintendence.

There was a good deal also said in medical works of forty days’ epochs in the formation of the fœtus, not to mention that the alchemists always expected more durable revolutions in forty days, which period they called the philosophical month. This period being generally held to prevail in natural processes, it appeared reasonable to assume and reasonably to establish it; as that required for the development of latent principles of contagion, since public regulations cannot dispense with decisions of this kind, even though they should not be wholly justified by the nature of the case. Great stress has also been laid on theological and legal grounds, which were certainly of greater weight in the fifteenth century than in modern times; such as the forty days’ duration of the flood; the forty days’ sojourn of Moses on Mount Sinai; our Saviour’s fast for the same length of time in the wilderness; lastly, what is called the Saxon term, which lasts for forty days.

=QUAR′TAN.= Occurring every fourth day.

=QUARTA′TION.= The practice, among assayers, of alloying 1 part of gold with 3 parts of silver, before submitting it to the operation of ‘parting,’ in order that its particles may be too far separated to protect the copper, lead, palladium, silver, or other metals, with which it is contaminated, from the solvent action of the nitric or sulphuric acid, as the case may be. See ASSAYING.

=QUARTZ.= Pure native silica. It is an essential constituent of granite and many other rocks. Its crystalline, transparent varieties, are known as rock crystal. See GLASS, POWDER, &c.

=QUASS.= _Syn._ POSCA VENALIS, L. _Prep._ Mix rye-flour and warm water together, and keep the mixture by the fireside until it has turned sour. Used as vinegar in Russia.

=QUAS′SIA.= _Syn._ QUASSIA (Ph. L., E., & D.; QUASSIA LIGNUM, QUASSIA WOOD, B. P.). The “wood of _Picræna_ (_Picrasma_) _excelsa_, Lindl.” (B. P., Ph. L.), or _Jamaica quassia_; and also of the “_Quassia amara_, Linn.” (Ph. E.), or _Surinam quassia_. The latter is the original quassia, but it is no longer imported. Quassia is characterised by its intense bitterness. It is reputed tonic and stomachic, assisting digestion, and giving tone and vigour to the system. Its name was given to it by Linnæus, in honour of a negro slave who had long employed it as a remedy for the malignant endemic fevers of Surinam. When sliced, it forms the ‘quassia chips’ of the shops. It is generally taken in the form of infusion. This last, sweetened with sugar, forms a safe and effective poison for flies.——_Dose_ (in powder), 10 to 20 gr.

ROASTED QUASSIA, reduced to powder, is largely employed, instead of hops, to embitter porter; and the unroasted powder is used for the same purpose in the adulteration of the bitter varieties of ale.

=QUAS′SIN.= _Syn._ QUASSITE, QUASSINA. A peculiar bitter principle, obtained by precipitating decoction of quassia with milk of lime, evaporating the filtrate, dissolving the residue in alcohol, treating with animal charcoal, again evaporating, dissolving in water, and crystallising. 8 lbs. of quassia chips yield 1 drachm.

=QUEEN’S BLUE.= Thumb blue. See BLUE.

=QUEEN’S MET′AL.= A species of pewter used for teapots, &c., made by fusing under charcoal a mixture of tin, 9 parts, and antimony, bismuth, and lead, of each 1 part; or, tin, 100 parts; antimony, 8 parts; copper, 4 parts; bismuth, 1 part. See BRITANNIA METAL and PEWTER.

=QUEEN’S YEL′LOW.= Subsulphate of mercury.

=QUERCITRIN.= The bark of the _Quercus tinctoria_ yields a neutral substance, to which the above name has been given. Quercitrin may be prepared as follows by the process of Rochleder:——The bark is boiled with water, the decoction is left to cool, and the impure quercitrin which separates is collected, then rubbed to a pulp with alcohol of 35° B., heated over the water bath, collected on linen, and pressed, whereby the principal impurities are removed. The residue is dissolved in a larger quantity of boiling alcohol, the solution is filtered hot, and water is added to it until it becomes turbid, so that the greater part of the quercitrin separates before the liquid is cold. It is then collected, pressed, and purified by a repetition of the same treatment.

Another process, by Zwenger and Dronke, is this:——The bark, in small pieces, is exhausted with boiling alcohol, the alcohol is distilled off, and the residue, while still warm, is mixed with a little acetic acid, and then with neutral acetate of lead; the filtrate, freed from lead by sulphuric acid, is evaporated, and the quercitrin which crystallises is purified by repeated crystallisation from alcohol.

“Hydrated quercitrin forms microscopic, rectangular, partly rhombic tablets, having their obtuse lateral edges truncated; pale yellow when pulverised. It is neutral, inodorous, tasteless in the solid state, bitter in solution, permanent in the air.”[125]

[Footnote 125: Watts.]

=QUER′CITRON.= The bark of _Quercus nigra_ or _tinctoria_, a species of oak indigenous in North America. With alum mordants it yields a very permanent yellow dye.

=QUER′CITRON.= A yellow dye stuff, composed of the shavings and powder of the bark of _Quercus tinctoria_, or _Q. nigra_, or _Q. citrina_, a kind of oak, a native of North America. It abounds more particularly in Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Georgia.

In America quercitron is used for tanning, and in Europe for dyeing only. When employed for the latter purpose it is used in the form of an aqueous decoction, mordanted with alum or chloride of tin. Leesching states that a dye possessing greater colorific powder may be procured by boiling the bark with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.

=QUICK′SILVER.= See MERCURY.

=QUILLAI BARK.= _Syn._ QUILLAY BARK, SOAP BARK. The _Quillaya saponaria_, from which yields this bark, is an evergreen tree, growing in the mountainous parts of Chili, in South America.

It is believed to take its name from the native word _quillay_, which signifies to wash. The inner bark only is employed. When bruised and agitated in water it imparts a lather to the water, in the same way that soap does. This quality has been found to be due to the existence in the bark of _saponin_——the same principle which confers a similar property on _Saponaria officinalis_. The bark is free from any bitter principle, as well as from tannic acid. It is very generally used amongst the inhabitants residing on the western side of South America, where it is employed for removing grease from silk, and also in the form of a wash for cleansing and preserving the hair.

When had recourse to for cleansing silks, quillai bark is said not to change the colour of the fabric. It is sometimes given as a febrifuge, and as a remedy for cold in the head. For this latter purpose the powder is snuffed up the nostrils, when it occasions sneezing and profuse discharge from the nose.

=QUILLS.= _Prep._ 1. The quills or wing-feathers of the goose (goose quills) are separately plunged, for a few seconds, into hot ashes, cinders, or sand, of a temperature about equal to that of boiling water, after which they are scraped with a blunt knife, strongly rubbed with a piece of flannel or woollen cloth, and gently ‘stoved,’ they are, lastly, tied up in bundles by women or children. A yellow tinge is often given to them by dipping them for a short time into dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid, or into an infusion of turmeric.

2. Suspend the quills in a copper over water sufficiently high to nearly touch the nibs; then close it steam tight, and apply three or four hours’ hard boiling; next, withdraw the quills, and dry them, and in 24 hours cut the nibs and draw out the pith; lastly, rub them with a piece of cloth, and expose them to a moderate heat in an oven or stove. Quills prepared in this way are as hard as bone, without being brittle, and nearly as transparent as glass. Crow quills and swan quills may be cured in the same manner.

=QUI′NA.= See QUININE.

=QUINAMINE.= _Syn._ QUINAMINA. C_{20}H_{26}N_{2}O_{2}. This alkaloid was discovered by Hesse, in 1872, in the bark of _Cinchona succirubra_, cultivated at Darjeeling, in British Sikhim.

Dr de Vrij gives the following process for the preparation of quinamine:——The mixed alkaloids obtained from the red bark are converted into neutral sulphates, and the solution treated with Rochelle salt, whereby the tartrates of quinine and of cinchonidine are separated. After collecting these upon a filter the filtered liquid is shaken with caustic soda and ether. By this process the amorphous alkaloid and the quinamine are dissolved by the ether, with slight traces of cinchonine, whilst the bulk of this last alkaloid remains undissolved. After distilling the ethereal solution the residue is transformed into neutral acetate, and the solution of this mixed with a solution of sulphocyanate of potassium.

By this reaction the sulphocyanate of the amorphous alkaloid is precipitated in the shape of a yellow, soft, resinous substance, whilst the sulphocyanate of quinamine remains dissolved. After subsiding and filtering, the solution is clear and quite colourless, and by addition of caustic soda the quinamine is precipitated. It is then collected upon a filter, washed, and dried. It can now easily be obtained crystallised by dissolving it in boiling spirit, from which it crystallises in cooling. By this process the author obtained 0·38 per cent. of pure quinamine from samples of red cinchona quill bark, which he had received, through the Secretary of State for India, from the plantations in British Sikhim.

=QUINCE.= _Syn._ CYDONIA, L. The fruit of _Cydonia vulgaris_, or common quince tree. Its flavour in the raw state is austere, but it forms an excellent marmalade (quince marmalade), and its juice yields an agreeable and wholesome wine. The seed or pips (cydoniæ seminæ; cydonium——Ph. L.) abound in gummy matter, which forms a mucilage with water, and possesses the advantage of not being affected by the salts of iron or alcohol. See DECOCTION, FIXATURE, and JELLY.

=QUINETUM.= The alkaloids contained in the East Indian red bark (_Cinchona succirubra_) consist of a large percentage of cinchonidine, cinchonine, quinine, and amorphous alkaloid, besides a trace of quinidine, the preponderating alkaloid being cinchonidine.

Dr de Vrij, of the Hague, has devised a process by which these can be extracted in their entirety, and to the mixed alkaloids so obtained the name ‘quinetum’ has been given.

It is affirmed of quinetum that it possesses a remedial value as a tonic and antiperiodic that renders it, in many cases, superior to quinine, ague being one of these; also that it may be advantageously employed in affections in which quinine would be inadmissible. A medical correspondent informs us that he has used it with signal success in hay asthma. Another advantage it has over quinine is, it is much lower in price. Quinetum, according to Dr de Vrij’s process, as well as a sulphate and hydrochlorate, are prepared by Mr Whiffen, of Battersea.

=QUINICINE.= An alkaloid obtained in 1853 by Pasteur, by exposing quinine or quinidine, under favorable circumstances, to a temperature varying from 248° to 266° Fahr., for several hours. It is very probable that this alkaloid is either identical, or in very close connection, with the amorphous alkaloid soluble in ether which occurs in all barks, and particularly in the young barks of the plantations in India.

=QUINIDINE.= C_{20}H_{24}O_{2}N_{2}.2Aq. _Syn._ QUINIDIA, CONCHININE, &c. An alkaloid contained in many species of cinchona, together with quinine and cinchonine, and therefore often found in the mother liquors of quinine manufactures. It is identical with the β quinine of Van Heyningen, and was discovered, in 1833, by Henry and Delondre. As the cinchonidine discovered by Winckler, in 1848, has been unhappily denominated quinidine by this chemist, there is still a confusion about these alkaloids, and, therefore, the quinidine of commerce was very often a mixture of both, till Pasteur made, in 1853, a classical investigation of this matter. He maintained the name of quinidine for the alkaloid discovered by Henry and Delondre, because it is isomeric with quinine, and gives the same green colour when treated with chlorine followed by ammonia, and gave the name of cinchonidine to the alkaloid discovered by Winckler, because it is isomeric with cinchonine. He determined also the action of the solutions of these alkaloids on the plane of polarisation, and found that the quinidine turned this plane to the right, its molecular rotation in alcoholic solution being [_a_] = 250·75° →, whilst he found that the cinchonidine turned this plane to the left, its molecular rotation in alcoholic solution being [_a_] = 144·61° ←.

_Prop. &c._ Many of the salts of quinidine are very similar to those of quinine, but the normal salt with hydriodic acid is not only very different from that of quinine, but also from those of all the other cinchona-alkaloids. The normal hydriodate of quinidine is so very sparingly soluble in water that 1 part requires, at 60° Fahr., not less than 1200 parts of water to be dissolved. Therefore the presence of sulphate of quinidine in the sulphate of quinine, which often occurs, either from that article being carelessly made or from wilful adulteration, can be easily detected by adding a few minims of solution of iodide of potassium to the saturated solution of sulphate of quinine in water of 60° Fahr., whereby, if quinidine is present, its hydriodate will be separated either in the shape of a sandy precipitate or, if only traces are present, in the shape of striæ on the sides of the glass where this has been rubbed by a glass rod.

For an account of its medicinal properties, the reader should consult the recent report from India upon the experiments made there by order of Government with all the four cinchona-alkaloids, which experiments are very favorable to the therapeutical action of quinidine compared with that of quinine.

=QUININE.= C_{10}H_{12}ON. _Syn._ QUINA, QUINIA. Till recently it was found in the greatest quantity in good Calisaya bark, particularly in that from Bolivia, but since it has been found in great quantity in some other barks, especially in the bark of _Cinchona officinalis_, for instance, in the bark of that species grown in Ceylon. Red bark contains not only quinine and cinchonine, but also cinchonidine.

_Prep._ 1. By precipitating a solution of sulphate of quinine with a _slight_ excess of ammonia, potassa, or soda, and washing and drying the precipitate. By solution in alcohol, sp. gr. ·815, and spontaneous evaporation, it may be procured in crystals. Crystals may also be obtained from “its solution in hot water with a little ammonia.” (Liebig.)

2. (Direct.) By adding hydrate of lime, in slight excess, to a strong decoction of the ground bark made with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, washing the precipitate which ensues, and boiling it in alcohol; the solution, filtered while hot, deposits the alkaloid on cooling.

_Prop., &c._ Quinine, when prepared by precipitation, is an amorphous white powder, but when this precipitate is left in the liquor it assumes, after some time, the appearance of aggregated crystalline needles; when slowly crystallised from its solution, these needles are remarkably fine, and of a pearly or silky lustre. It is freely soluble in rectified spirit and in ether, and of all the cinchona-alkaloids it is the most soluble in ammonia. It is upon this fact that Kerner’s method for testing the purity of sulphate of quinine is founded. Its normal salts, if dissolved in water, have a slightly alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. It is only sparingly soluble in water, even when boiling; both the fixed and volatile oils dissolve it with the aid of heat, more especially when it has been rendered anhydrous, or is presented to them under the form of an ethereal solution. It fuses by a gentle heat, without decomposition; forms crystallisable salts, which are only slightly soluble in water, unless it be acidulated, and, like the pure alkaloid, are extremely bitter, and possess much of the characteristic flavour of cinchona bark. It is precipitated by the alkalies and their carbonates, by tannic acid, and by most astringent substances.

_Pur._ See QUININE, SULPHATES OF, and QUINOMETRY (_below_).

_Tests._ Quinine is recognised by——1. Its appearance under the microscope.——2. Its solubility in ether, and in pure ammonia water.——3. Its solubility in concentrated nitric acid, forming a colourless liquid, which does not become yellowish until it is heated.——4. The solubility of itself and salts, when pure, in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming colourless fluids, “which do not acquire any coloration upon being heated to the point of incipient evaporation of the sulphuric acid, but which afterwards become yellow, and finally brown.” (Fresenius.)——5. Its solubility in concentrated sulphuric acid to which some nitric acid has been added, forming a colourless, or, at the most, only a faintly yellowish liquid.——6. It is wholly destroyed by heat.

A solution of quinine in acidulated water, and solutions of its salts, exhibit the following reactions:——1. Ammonia, potassa, and the alkaline carbonates, give white, pulverulent precipitates, becoming crystalline after some time (see _above_), and which are soluble in ammonia in excess, and which, when ether is added after the ammonia, and the whole is agitated, redissolve in the ether, whilst the clear liquid, on repose, presents two distinct layers.——2. Bicarbonate of soda (avoiding excess) gives a similar precipitate, both in acid and neutral solutions of quinine, either at once or after a short time. The precipitate is soluble in excess of the precipitant, and is again precipitated from the new solution upon protracted ebullition. “Vigorous stirring of the liquid promotes the separation of this precipitate.” (Fresenius.)——3. If recently prepared chlorine be added to it, and then ammonia, a beautiful emerald-green colour is developed. (Ph. L.)——4. A concentrated solution of ferrocyanide of potassium being added, in excess, after the chlorine, instead of the ammonia, a dark red colour is instantly produced, which after some time passes into green, especially when freely exposed to the light. This reaction is not characteristic of quinine, for with quinidine one gets the same reaction.——5. If caustic potassa be used instead of ammonia (see _above_), the solution acquires a sulphur-yellow colour. “These reactions are restricted to this alkaloid.” (Dr Garrod.)

Flückiger[126] says;——“The most characteristic test for ascertaining the presence of quinine is the formation of the splendid green compound called _thalleiochine_, which is produced if solutions of the alkaloid or its salts are mixed with chlorine water, and then a drop of ammonia added.”

[Footnote 126: In ‘Jahrb. f. Pharm.,’ April, 1872, 136 (‘Ph. Journ,’, 3rd series, ii, 901).]

If one part of quinine is dissolved in 4000 parts of acidulated water, and then about 1/10 of the volume of the liquid, of chlorine water, and a drop of ammonia added, a green zone will be readily formed if the liquids are cautiously placed in a flask without shaking.

If the solution of quinine contain no more than 1/5000, the green of one may still be obtained, but in more diluted solutions the success becomes more and more uncertain.

From a practical point of view we may state that 1/5000 of the alkaloid is the smallest quantity whose presence can thus be discovered with certainty; Kerner (1870) has succeeded with 1/20000 but I was not able to corroborate this statement.

The author was also induced to try the action of bromine in place of chlorine. The _thalleiochine_ is then, indeed, produced in solution which contain only 1/20000 of quinine.

Yet the behaviour of bromine displays some striking differences. Chlorine alone, as already stated, causes no immediate alteration of somewhat diluted solutions of quinine, whereas they became turbid on addition of bromine as long as there is about 1/2500 or more of quinine present. Now, the precipitate which is produced by bromine in solution of quinine does _not_ turn green if a little ammonia is subsequently added, or, at least, the thalleiochine thus obtained is rather greyish. But in more dilute solutions of quinine bromine acts more readily than chlorine. An excess of bromine is to be carefully avoided.

This is easily performed if the vapour of bromine, not the liquid bromine itself, is allowed to fall down on the surface of the solutions of quinine; their superficial layer only must be saturated with bromine by gently moving the liquid. Then a drop of ammonia will produce the green or somewhat bluish zone, which is much more persistent than that due to chlorine.

Consequently, for demonstration of the test under notice, chlorine is to be used in comparatively concentrated solutions. In solutions containing so little quinine (less than 1/2500) that it is no longer precipitated by the vapour of bromine, the thalleiochine test succeeds much better with bromine, and goes much further, as shown above.

The author also shows that morphine gives a dark, dingy brown colour with chlorine and ammonia, which is capable of more or less masking the reaction of quinine.

Another test for quinine is the formation of its iodosulphate, the so-called herapathite. For this purpose the quinine is dissolved in 10 parts of proof spirit, acidulated with 1/20th part of sulphuric acid, and to this solution an alcoholic solution of iodine is carefully added, and the liquid in the meanwhile stirred with a glass rod. There appears either immediately or after some minutes a black precipitate of iodosulphate of quinine, which if redissolved in boiling proof spirit, forms in cooling the beautiful crystals of herapathite. 100 parts of this herapathite, if dried on a water bath, represent 56·5 parts of pure quinine.

Dr de Vrij prefers the employment of the iodosulphate of chiniodine as a reagent for the detection and estimation of quinine. In a communication to the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ he writes:——“In estimating quinine in a mixture of cinchona-alkaloids by means of an alcoholic solution of iodine the reagent requires to be added in slight excess, in order to ensure complete precipitation. An undue excess of the reagent, however, causes the formation of a compound richer in iodine and much more soluble in alcohol than herapathite, and thus renders the determination inaccurate.”[127] For this reason the author suggests the application of an alcoholic solution of iodosulphate of chiniodine (so-called sulphate of amorphous quinine) in place of free iodine. The reagent is made as following:——

[Footnote 127: 3rd series, vi, 461.]

Two parts of sulphate of chiniodine are dissolved in eight parts of water containing 5 per cent. of sulphuric acid. To this _clear_ solution, contained in a large capsule, a solution of one part of iodine and two parts of iodide of potassium, in 100 parts of water, is _slowly_ added with continuous stirring, so that no part of the solution of chiniodine comes into contact with excess of iodine. By this addition an orange-coloured flocculent precipitate is formed of iodosulphate of chiniodine, which either spontaneously, or by a slight elevation of temperature, collapses into a dark brown, red-coloured, resinous substance, whilst the supernatant liquor becomes clear and slightly yellow coloured. This liquor is poured off, and the resinous substance is washed by heating it on a water bath with distilled water. After washing, the resinous substance is heated on the water bath till all the water has been evaporated. It is then soft and tenacious at the temperature of boiling water, but becomes hard and brittle after cooling. One part of this substance is now treated with 6 parts of alcohol of 92 or 94 per cent. until it is completely dissolved, and the solution allowed to cool. In cooling a part of the dissolved substance is separated. The clear dark-coloured solution is evaporated on a water bath, and the residue dissolved in 5 parts of cold alcohol. This second solution leaves a small part of insoluble substance. The clear dark-coloured solution obtained by the separation of this insoluble matter, either by decantation or filtration, constitutes the reagent which the author has used for some time under the name of iodosulphate of chiniodine, both for the qualitative and quantitative determination of _crystallisable_ quinine.

To determine a quantity of quinine contained in the mixed alkaloids obtained from a sample of cinchona bark, 1 part of the alkaloid is dissolved in 20 parts of alcohol, of 90 or 92 per cent., containing 1·6 per cent. of sulphuric acid, to obtain an alcoholic solution of the acid sulphates of the alkaloids.

From this solution the quinine is separated by adding carefully, by means of a pipette, the above-mentioned solution of the iodosulphate of chiniodine, as long as a dark brown-red precipitate of iodosulphate of quinine-herapathite is formed. As soon as all the quinine has been precipitated, and a slight excess of the reagent has been added, the liquor acquires an intense yellow colour. The beaker containing the liquor with the precipitate is now covered by a watch-glass, and heated on a water bath till the liquid _begins_ to boil.

After cooling, the beaker is weighed, to ascertain the amount of liquid which is necessary in order to be able to apply later the above-mentioned correction. For although quinine-herapathite is very little soluble in alcohol, it is not insoluble, and therefore a correction must be applied for the quantity which has been dissolved both by the alcohol used for the solution of the alkaloids and the alcohol contained in the reagents.

The liquor is now filtered to collect the iodosulphate of quinine on a small filter, where it is washed with a saturated solution of herapathite in alcohol. After the washing has been completed, the weight of the funnel with the moist filter is taken, and the filter allowed to dry in the funnel. As soon as it is dry the weight is taken again, to ascertain the amount of solution of herapathite which remained in the filter, and which left the dissolved herapathite on the filter after the evaporation of the alcohol.

This amount is subtracted from the total amount of liquid, and for the remaining the correction is calculated with reference to the temperature of the laboratory during the time of the analysis. The dry iodosulphate of quinine is taken from the filter and dried on a water bath, in one of a couple of large watch-glasses closing tightly upon each other, so that the weight of the substance contained in the glass may be taken without the access of air.

When, after repeatedly ascertaining the weight, it remains constant, this weight is noted down, and to it is added the product of the calculated correction. The sum of this addition is the total amount of iodosulphate of quinine obtained from the mixed alkaloids subjected to the operation, and from this weight the amount of _crystallisable_ quinine can be calculated by the use of Hauer’s formula, 2C_{40}H_{24}N_{2}O_{4}3(HO_{1}SO_{3}), 31 (old notation), which the author has found to be correct. According to this formula, 1 part of iodosulphate of quinine, dried at 100° C., represents 0·5509 per cent. of anhydrous quinine, or 0·7345 per cent. of disulphate of quinine.

The accuracy of this determination may be seen from the following examples:

0·24 gram of anhydrous crystallised quinine gave 0·541 gram of herapathite dried at 100° C. = 0·298 gram of quinine.

According to Hauer’s formula, 0·5336 gram of herapathite = 0·294 gram of quinine, which ought to have been obtained.

1·048 gram of bitartrate of quinine gave 1·224 gram of herapathite = 0·674 gram of quinine.

According to the formula of the bitartrate, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{21}C_{4}H_{6}O_{6} + Aq. = 442; 1·048 of bitartrate represents 0·69 of quinine, so that 1·255 gram of herapathite should have been obtained.

Notwithstanding the different circumstances in which the reagent was applied, the results are satisfactory.

The two following experiments were made with pure quinine, dried at 100° C., at which temperature it still retains water, under identical circumstances:——

1·0664 gram of hydrated quinine gave 1·7266 gram of herapathite = 164·5 per cent.

1·055 grams of the same hydrated quinine gave 1·7343 gram of herapathite = 164·3 per cent.

The author further states that the iodosulphate of quinine and of quinidine prepared by means of his new reagent have an analogous composition, and are identical with the compound described by Herapath, whilst the iodosulphates of cinchonine and cinchonidine have a different composition from the former, and both require more iodine to be converted into the optical iodosulphates described by Herapath. Of all these iodosulphates that of quinine is by far the most insoluble in alcohol, and is precipitated first and free from the others by a judicious application of the iodosulphate of chinioidine.

Quinine is distinguished from both cinchonine and quinidine by its comparatively free solubility in ether; the last of these being very sparingly soluble, and the other wholly insoluble, in that menstruum. The presence of cinchonine may also be positively determined by reference to the behaviour of that alkaloid. Quinidine is also distinguished from quinine by the different crystallisation, greater specific gravity, and freer solubility of its salts in cold water.[128]

[Footnote 128: An extremely elegant and highly sensitive method of testing for quinine and quinidine by means of the microscope, &c., is described at considerable length, by Dr Herapath, in the ‘Pharm. Journ.’ for November, 1853.]

_Estim._ See QUINOMETRY.

_Uses, &c._ Pure quinine is but rarely used in medicine, but several of its salts are employed as remedies, on account of their great stimulant, tonic, and febrifuge powers. As a tonic in dyspeptic affections, and for restoring strength and vigour to morbidly weakened habits, and as an antiperiodic or agent to counteract febrile action, it appears to be superior to all other remedies, provided no abnormal irritability of the mucous membranes, or of the circulatory organs, exists. The dose of the salts of quinine, as a tonic, is 1/2 to 1 gr., twice or thrice daily; as an antiperiodic, 2 to 5 gr., or even more, every second or third hour, during the intervals of the paroxysms of ague, and of other intermittent or periodic affections; also in acute rheumatism. The sulphate (disulphate) is the salt generally used; this and other salts are most effective when taken in solution.

The nature of the influence exerted upon blood by quinine was, in 1872, made the subject of a fresh investigation by Schulte.[129] Its extraordinary power of stopping fermentation and putrefaction, by destroying low organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, has been before pointed out. It is supposed to diminish the formation of pus in inflammation by arresting the motions and preventing the exit from the blood-vessels of the white blood-corpuscles, the accumulation of which, according to Cohnheim, constitutes pus.

[Footnote 129: ‘N. Rep. Pharm.,’ xx, 539 (‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, ii, 629).]

By depriving the red blood-corpuscles of the power to produce ozone, it diminishes the change of tissue in the body, and thereby lessens the production of heat. Ranke and Kerner have shown the waste of tissue is reduced when large doses of quinine are administered, as indicated in the small proportion of uric acid and urea excreted.

With the object of ascertaining whether this effect is referable to the direct influence of quinine on oxidation in the blood, or to its indirect influence through the nervous system, Schulte employed a method, based upon the changes occurring in the alkalinity of the blood, observed by Zuntz, who had noticed that a considerable formation of acid takes place in freshly-drawn blood, and continues in a less degree till putrefaction commences.

The amount of acid formed was estimated from the diminished alkalinity of the blood, as comparatively shown by the quantity of dilute phosphoric acid required for exact saturation.

A sufficient quantity of chloride of sodium was added to the phosphoric acid to prevent the blood-corpuscles from being dissolved, and interfering with the reaction by their colouring matter. The point of saturation was fixed at the point of transient reddening of carefully prepared test paper by the carbonic acid. Schulte has thus been enabled to confirm the experiments of Zuntz and Scharrenbroich, showing that quinine and berberine lessen the production of acid, and that quinine can stop it both before and after coagulation; that sodium nitropicrate has an action similar to, and nearly as powerful as, quinine; while the action of cinchonine is much less energetic. Harley has shown that whilst quinine lessens oxidation in blood, some substances, such as snake poisons, increase it. Binz found that when putrid fluids were injected into the circulation of an animal, the temperature rose; but that this increase of temperature could be more or less prevented by the addition of quinine to the putrid liquid, or the simultaneous injection of the quinine.

With respect to the influences of quinine on the change of tissue, Schulte gives the result of some careful experiments made by Zuntz, who found that after taking three 0·6 gram doses of hydrochlorate of quinine for two days, the amount of urine he excreted was increased by one third, and then decreased as much, the specific gravity falling from 1018 to 1012; the urea also showed a marked decrease.

The salts of quinine may be made by simply saturating the dilute acids with the base, so that part of the latter remains undissolved, and gently evaporating the solutions for crystals, or to dryness. Prince Lucien Bonaparte recommends all these salts to be prepared by the addition of a strong alcoholic solution of quinine to a cold solution of the acid. We have tried this method with success.

=Quinine, Ac′etate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ACETAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Mix quinine, 2 parts, with water, 3 parts; heat the mixture, and add of acetic acid, q. s. to dissolve the alkaloid, and to render the solution slightly acid; lastly, decant or filter the solution whilst boiling hot, and set it aside to crystallise. The mother water, on evaporation, will yield a second crop of the acetate.

2. Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 17 parts, is dissolved in boiling water, and mixed with crystallised acetate of soda, 6 parts. The acetate of quinine crystallises.

_Prop., &c._ Satiny, acicular crystals, which are rather more soluble in water than those of the sulphate.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 5 grains.

=Quinine, Arse′′niate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ARSENIAS, L. _Prep._ (Bourières.) Arsenic acid, 1-1/2 dr.; quinine, 5 dr.; distilled water, 6 fl. oz.; boil them together in a covered glass vessel until the alkaloid is dissolved, then set the solution aside to crystallise.

_Uses, &c._ Recommended by Dr Neligan, and others, as being more powerfully antiperiodic than the other preparations of quinine.——_Dose_, 1/12 to 1/4 gr., made into pills; in agues, neuralgia, &c.; also in cancer.

=Quinine, Ar′senite of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ARSENIS, L. _Prep._ Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts, is dissolved in alcohol, 600 parts, and boiled with arsenious acid, 14 parts. The liquid is then filtered. The poisonous salt is deposited in the crystalline form as the liquid cools.

_Uses, &c._ As the last.

=Quinine, Chlo′′ride of.= Hydrochlorate of quinine (see _below_).

=Quinine, Ci′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ CITRAS, L. _Prep._ 1. By mixing a hot solution of sulphate of quinine with a like solution of citrate of soda.

2. From quinine and citric acid, as the acetate. Needle-shaped prisms.——_Dose, &c._ As the sulphate or disulphate.

=Quinine, Disulphate of.= Sulphate of quinine (see _below_).

=Quinine, Ferrocy′anide of.= _Syn._ CYANIDE OF IRON AND QUININE; QUINÆ HYDROFERROCYANAS, QUINÆ FERRO-PRUSSIAS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts; ferrocyanide of potassium, 31 parts; distilled water, 2500 parts; boil for a few minutes, and, when cold, separate the impure salt which floats as an oily mass on the surface, wash it with a little cold water, and dissolve it in boiling alcohol; the solution will deposit crystals as it cools.

_Obs._ This compound is by some said to be the most efficacious of all the salts of quinia. Pelouze asserts that it is simply quinine mixed with some Prussian blue.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.

=Quinine, Ferrosul′phate of.= See QUININE AND IRON, SULPHATE OF (_below_).

=Quinine, Hydri′odate of.= _Syn._ IODIDE OF QUININE; QUINÆ HYDRIODAS, Q. IODIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. By adding, drop by drop, a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium to a like solution of acid sulphate of quinine, and drying the precipitate in the shade; or heat the liquid nearly to the boiling point, and allow it to crystallise.

2. (Parrish.) Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 5 parts, dissolved in alcohol, and decomposed by an alcoholic solution of 3 parts of iodide of potassium, precipitates sulphate of potassa, and yields, on cooling and evaporating, hydriodate of quinine in fine crystalline needles.[130]

[Footnote 130: “1 and 2 are not identical; 1 is an acid salt which readily crystallises, but 2 is a normal salt which I never saw crystallise, but always like a fluid resin, quite amorphous.”——De Vrij.]

3. (IODURETTED——Bouchardat.) From an acid solution of quinia and a solution of iodide of iron containing a slight excess of iron, as No. 1.

_Obs._ The above are reputed alterative, tonic, and antiperiodic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 gr.; in obstinate intermittents, and in the scrofulous affections of debilitated subjects.

=Quinine, Hydrochlo′′rate of.= _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF QUININE, MURIATE OF QUININE†; QUINÆ HYDROCHLORAS, QUINÆ MURIAS, L. _Prep._ 1. By neutralising dilute hydrochloric acid with the base, as above.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Chloride of barium, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 lb.; dissolve, add, gradually, of sulphate of quinine, 2 oz.; boil gently for a few minutes, filter the solution whilst hot, and set it aside that crystals may form.

3. (QUINÆ MURIAS——Ph. D.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 123 gr., in distilled water, 2 fl. oz.; add of sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved in boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; mix, evaporate the solution to one half, filter, and again evaporate until spiculæ begin to appear; next allow the liquid to cool, collect the crystals, and dry them on bibulous paper. The mother liquor, by further concentration and cooling, will yield an additional product.

_Obs._ Hydrochlorate of quinine occurs in snow-white groups of feathery crystals, of a mother-of-pearl lustre, which are more freely soluble than those of the disulphate.

=Quinine and Iodide of Iron.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ET FERRI IODIDUM. (Bouchardat.) _Prep._ Pour a strong solution of acid sulphate of quinine into a fresh solution of iodide of iron; collect the precipitate, dry it quickly by pressing it between blotting paper, and keep it from the air.

=Quinine, Ki′nate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ KINAS, L. _Prep._ By saturating a solution of kinic acid with quinine, and purifying by crystallisation out of alcohol. The kinate of quinine is obtained in crystalline warts, soluble in 4 parts of water and 8 parts of alcohol.

=Quinine, Lac′tate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ LACTAS, L. _Prep._ As the ACETATE or CITRATE. By spontaneous evaporation fine crystals may be obtained. Said to agree better with dyspeptic patients than the other salts of quinine.

=Quinine, Mu′′riate of.= Hydrochlorate of quinine (see _above_).

=Quinine, Neutral Hydrobromate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ HYDROBROMAS. (M. Boille.) This salt is prepared by double decomposition of bromide of barium and neutral sulphate of quinia, and is thus easily obtained pure and free from chloride, the great solubility of bromide of barium in alcohol facilitating the removal of any chloride which is insoluble.

The two salts are dissolved separately in alcohol and the solutions filtered. The neutral sulphate of quinia solution is gradually added, in slight excess, to the bromide of barium solution until a precipitate ceases to form.

The solutions, diluted with water, are distilled to recover the alcohol, afterwards filtered to separate the sulphate of quinia which has been precipitated by the water, and then concentrated sufficiently to induce rapid crystallisation. The addition of water is indispensable for the concentration and crystallisation; the hydrobromate, being soluble in alcohol of all proportions, redissolves as the alcoholic liquor is concentrated. M. Boille claims for his neutral hydrobromate of quinine its much readier solubility over the officinal sulphate, as well as its superior richness in quinine.

=Quinine, Ni′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ NITRAS, L. _Prep._ As the HYDROCHLORATE, substituting dilute nitric acid, or nitrate of baryta (P. Cod.), for hydrochloric acid or chloride of barium.

=Quinine, Phos′phate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ PHOSPHAS, L. As the ACETATE. Silky, needle-shaped crystals, with a pearly lustre. It has been highly recommended in intermittents, &c., associated with rickets and stomach affections.

=Quinine, Salicylate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ SALICYLAS. This may be made by mixing an alcoholic solution of quinine with an alcoholic solution of salicylic acid to complete saturation, and afterwards allowing the alcohol slowly to evaporate.

=Quinine, Sul′phates of.= The salt often called ‘disulphate of quinine’ is now generally regarded as the normal sulphate, while the soluble salt, often called the ‘neutral sulphate’ is considered to be an acid salt. This change in nomenclature results from doubling the atomic weight of the alkaloid quinine:——

1. =Quinine Acid, Sulphate of.= (C_{20}P_{24}N_{3}O_{2}.H_{2}SO_{4}.7Aq.) _Syn._ SULPHATE OF QUININE†, NEUTRAL SULPHATE OF QUININE†, SOLUBLE S. OF Q.; QUINÆ SULPHAS SOLUBILIS, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved, by the aid of heat, in water, 1/2 pint, previously acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid, 5 fl. dr.; the solution affords crystals on cooling, and more on evaporation.

_Obs._ This salt possesses the advantage of being soluble in about 10 parts of water at 60° Fahr.; but it is seldom used in the crystalline form; still, as the officinal sulphate (‘disulphate’) is generally prescribed along with a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid to render it soluble, this acid sulphate is, in fact, the compound which is commonly given. It is the ‘bisulphate,’ ‘supersulphate,’ or ‘acid sulphate of quina’ of Soubeiran and other Continental chemists.

2. =Quinine, Sulphate of.= (C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2})_{2}.2H_{2}SO_{4}.7Aq. _Syn._ NORMAL SULPHATE OF QUININE, DISULPHATE OF Q., QUININE; QUINÆ DISULPHAS (Ph. L.), QUINÆ SULPHAS (Ph. E., D., & U. S., & P. Cod.), QUINÆ SULPHAS (B. P.), L.; SULPHATE DE QUININE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 7 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 4-1/4 oz.; (diluted with) water, 6 galls.; boil them for 1 hour, and strain; repeat this a second time for 1 hour, with a like quantity of acid and water, and again strain; next boil the bark for 3 hours, in water, 8 galls., and strain; wash the residue with fresh quantities of boiling distilled water; to the mixed decoctions and washings, add moist hydrated oxide of lead to saturation, decant the supernatant fluid, and wash the sediment with distilled water; boil down the liquor for 15 minutes, and strain, then precipitate the quina with liquor of ammonia and wash the precipitate (with very cold water) until nothing alkaline is perceptible; saturate what remains with sulphuric acid, 1/2 oz., diluted with water, q. s., digest with animal charcoal, 2 oz., and strain; lastly, the charcoal being well washed, evaporate the mixed liquors, that crystals may form.

2. (Ph. E.) This process varies from the last one, in the bark (1 lb.) being first boiled in water (4 pints) along with carbonate of soda (4 oz.); the residuum, being pressed, is moistened with water, and again pressed, and this operation is repeated a second and a third time, the object being to remove, as much as possible, the acids, colouring matter, gum, and extractive, before proceeding to extract the alkaloid. Carbonate of soda is also used as the precipitant, instead of ammonia, and the precipitate is formed into a sulphate (disulphate) by being stirred with boiling water, 1 pint, to which sulphuric acid, 1 fl. scruple, or q. s., is subsequently added. The crystals, after digestion with prepared animal charcoal, 2 dr., are ordered to be dried at a heat not higher than 140° Fahr.

3. (Ph. D.) Yellow bark, 1 lb., is macerated for 24 hours in water, 2 quarts, acidulated with oil of vitriol, 2 fl. dr., and then boiled for half an hour, after which the fluid is decanted; this is repeated a second and a third time with water, 2 quarts, and oil of vitriol, 1 fl. dr.; the decanted (or strained) liquors are evaporated to a quart, and filtered, and slaked lime, 1 oz., or q. s., added to the solution until it exhibits a decidedly alkaline reaction; the precipitate is next collected on a calico filter, and, after having been washed with cold water, partially dried on porous bricks, and subjected to powerful pressure enveloped in blotting paper, is boiled for 20 minutes in rectified spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid, after subsidence, decanted; this is repeated a second and a third time with a fresh pint of spirit, and the residuum being well pressed, the mixed liquors are filtered, and the spirit removed by distillation; the brown viscid residuum is dissolved in boiling water, 16 fl. oz., boiled, and dilute sulphuric acid, 1/2 fl. oz, or q. s., added to render the solution neutral or only slightly acid; animal charcoal, 1/2 oz., is next stirred in, the mixture boiled for about 5 minutes, filtered, and set aside to crystallise; the crystals are dried on blotting paper by mere exposure to a dry atmosphere.

4. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 16; hydrochloric acid, 3; distilled water, a sufficiency; solution of soda, 80; dilute sulphuric acid, a sufficiency. Dilute the hydrochloric acid with 10 pints of the water. Place the bark in a porcelain basin, and add to it as much of the diluted hydrochloric acid as will render it thoroughly moist. After maceration, with occasional stirring, for twenty-four hours, place the bark in a displacement apparatus, and percolate with the diluted hydrochloric acid until the solution which drops through is nearly destitute of bitter taste. Into this liquid (hydrochlorate of quinine) pour the solution of soda, agitate well, let the precipitate (quinine) completely subside, decant the supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with cold distilled water until the washings cease to have colour. Transfer the precipitate to a porcelain dish containing a pint of distilled water, and, applying to this the heat of a water bath, gradually add diluted sulphuric acid until very nearly the whole of the precipitate has been dissolved, and a neutral liquid has been obtained. (Or add about half the precipitated quinine to some water in an evaporating basin, warm the mixture and pour in diluted sulphuric acid until the precipitate has dissolved and the liquid is neutral or only faintly acid, then add the other half, stir well, and again heat liquid.) Filter the solution (sulphate of quinine), while hot, through paper, wash the filter with boiling distilled water, concentrate till a film forms on the surface of the solution, and set it aside to crystallise. The crystals should be dried on filtering paper without the application of heat.

5. “Those who are well acquainted with the chemistry of the cinchona-alkaloids all agree with me in condemning the boiling of bark with dilute acids. I prefer the following method, which can also be used on a small scale for quinometry:——

“Yellow bark, or any other bark in which quinine prevails, like, for instance, that of _Cinchona officinalis_, 1 lb., is mixed with milk of lime, made from 4 oz. of lime and 40 oz. of water. After drying this mixture it is exhausted with strong methylated spirit (the strongest possible) and the slightly coloured solution neutralised with sulphuric acid, so that the liquor has a slight acid reaction upon blue litmus paper. After filtering or subsiding, the clear liquid is distilled and the residue in the still dissolved in water, carefully neutralised, so that the solution has a slight alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper, treated with charcoal and crystallised, &c.”——De Vrij.

6. (‘HOSPITAL SULPHATE’——Mr E. Herring.) The crushed bark is boiled in a solution of caustic soda or potassa, to extract colouring matter and gum; it is then pressed, washed with cold water, a second time boiled with a solution of caustic alkali, and again pressed, washed, and pressed; the decoloured and purified bark is next exhausted by coction with acidulated water, in the usual way, and the filtered mixed decoctions are precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitated quina is then dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric acid, to saturation, when the ‘HOSPITAL SULPHATE’ crystallises out as the solution cools; this is, lastly, washed with a little cold water, drained, and dried.——The advantage of this process is the non-use of animal charcoal as a bleacher, and the consequent less cost of the product. In the preparation of his ‘WHITE SULPHATE,’ Mr Herring uses benzol as a solvent, instead of alcohol. Patent dated July 28th, 1853.

_Prop._ When pure, sulphate of quinine forms very light, delicate, flexible, white needles, which are efflorescent, inodorous, and intensely bitter; it is soluble in 740 parts of water at 60°, and in 30 parts at 212° Fahr.; it takes about 80 parts of cold rectified spirit for its solution, but is freely soluble in boiling alcohol and in acidulated water; it melts at 240° Fahr., and is charred and destroyed at a heat below that of redness. The crystals contain 76·1% of quinine, 8·7% of sulphuric acid, and 15·2% of water; of the last, they lose about 3-4ths by exposure to dry air, and nearly the whole when kept in a state of fusion for some time.

_Pur._ This may not be inferred from the form of its crystallisation, for the sulphates of quinidine and of cinchonidine may be obtained in the same form of crystallisation. As mentioned already, the reaction with chlorine and ammonia does not distinguish quinine from quinidine, as both give the same green colour. “It is entirely soluble in water (hot), and more readily so when an acid is present. Precipitated by ammonia, the residuary liquid, after evaporation, should not taste of sugar. By a gentle heat it loses 8% or 10% of water. It is wholly consumed by heat. If chlorine be first added, and then ammonia, it becomes green.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “On adding chloride of barium to 100 gr. of this salt, dissolved in water mixed with hydrochloric acid, 26·6 gr. of sulphate of baryta, dried at a red heat, are prepared.” (Ph. L. 1851.) “A solution of 10 gr., in 1 fl. oz. of distilled water, and 2 or 3 drops of sulphuric acid, if decomposed by a solution of 1/2 oz. of carbonate of soda, in two waters, and heated until the precipitate shrinks and fuses, yields, on cooling, a solid mass, which, when dry, weighs 7·4 gr. and when reduced to powder, dissolves entirely in a solution of oxalic acid.” (Ph. E.)

_Adult._ Sulphate of quinine is said to be often adulterated with starch, magnesia, gum, sugar, cinchonine, quinidine, &c.; but, according to De Vrij, those with starch, magnesia, gum, and sugar, are very rare if ever they were really observed. Very frequent are those with the sulphates of the other cinchona-alkaloids, and these become even still more frequent, as very different kinds of bark are used for the manufacture of quinine. Salicin is, if ever, but very seldom used for adulteration of quinine. The best practical test for the purity of sulphate of quinine is the following:——A saturated solution of the salt is made at 60° Fahr., and one part of this solution is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium, whilst another part is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated solution of tartrate of potash and soda. If the sulphate of quinine is pure its solution will remain unaltered by both reagents, even after rubbing the sides of the test tube with a glass rod and standing many hours. But if it contains one or more of the other cinchona-alkaloids there will appear either precipitates or striæ on the glass where it has been rubbed by the glass rod. Iodide of potassium indicates particularly the presence of even traces of quinidine, but also of cinchonidine and cinchonine, provided their quantity be not too small. Tartrate of potash and soda indicate, under these circumstances, only the presence of cinchonidine. The first three remain undissolved when the salt is digested in spirit; the fourth is dissolved out by cold water; the fifth may be detected by its total insolubility in ether; or, by precipitating the quinine by solution of potassa, and dissolving the precipitate in boiling alcohol; cinchonine crystallises out as the solution cools, but the quinine remains in the mother liquor; and the last, by the greater solubility and sp. gr. of the salt, &c. If the sample disengages ammoniacal fumes when treated with liquor of potassa, it contains sal ammoniac. The presence of most foreign organic substances is also shown by the sample being turned brown, and being soon charred when treated with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. If it turn red it contains salicin, a substance which is now frequently used to adulterate sulphate of quinine. The pure sulphate is not discoloured by this reagent.

_Uses, &c._ The sulphate is more extensively employed than any of the other salts of quinine, and, indeed, to almost the exclusion of them. It is the article intended to be used whenever ‘sulphate’ or ‘disulphate’ of quinine, or even ‘quinine,’ is ordered for medicinal purposes, unless the name is qualified by some other term. It is a most valuable stomachic, in doses of 1/4 to 1 gr.; as a tonic, 1 to 3 gr.; and as a febrifuge, 2 to 20 gr.

=Quinine, Sulpho-tar′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ SULPHO-TARTRAS, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of quinine, 4 parts; tartaric acid, 5 parts; distilled water, 20 parts; mix, gently evaporate to dryness, and powder the residuum.

=Quinine, Tan′nate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ TANNAS, L. _Prep._ Dissolve sulphate of quinine in slightly acidulated water, and add a solution of tannic acid as long as a precipitate forms; wash this with a little cold water, and dry it. The Ph. Græca orders infusion of galls to be used as the precipitant. In intermittent neuralgia.

=Quinine, Tar′trate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ TARTRAS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From tartaric acid and quinine, as the acetate.

=Quinine, Vale′′rianate of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ VALERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. As the acetate or citrate.

2. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of soda, 124 gr., distilled water, 2 fl. oz.; dissolve; also dissolve hydrochlorate of quinine, 7 dr., in distilled water, 14 fl. oz.; next heat each solution to 120° (not higher), mix them, and set the vessel aside for 24 hours; lastly, press the mass of crystals thus obtained, and dry them, without the application of artificial heat.

_Prop., &c._ Silky needles and prisms; its solution suffers decomposition when heated much above 120° Fahr. It is powerfully antispasmodic, antiperiodic, and nervine.——_Dose_, 1/2 gr., every two hours, or 1 to 3 gr. twice or thrice daily; in epilepsy, hemicrania, hysteria, neuralgia, and other nervous affections.

=QUININE AND COD-LIVER OIL.= _Syn._ COD-LIVER OIL WITH QUININE, QUINIARETTED COD-LIVER OIL; OLEUM MORRHUÆ CUM QUINÂ, OLEUM JECORIS ASELLI CUM QUINÂ, L. This medicine is a solution of pure anhydrous quinine in pure cod-liver oil.

_Prep._ 1. Pure quinine (preferably recently precipitated) is fused in a glass or porcelain capsule by the heat of an oil or sand bath, carefully applied, by which it assumes a brown colour and the appearance of a resin; it is then allowed to cool out of contact with the air, after which it is reduced to powder in a dry mortar, and added to pure pale Newfoundland cod-liver oil, gently heated in a closed glass vessel over a water bath; the solution of the alkaloid is promoted by constant agitation, and, when complete, the vessel, still corked, is set aside in a dark situation to cool; when the ‘quiniaretted oil’ is quite cold it is put into bottles, in the usual manner, and preserved as much as possible from the light and air.

2. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in a little anhydrous ether before adding it to the oil, which in this case need not be heated, as the union is effected by simple agitation; should this not take place, it may be gently warmed for a few minutes.

3. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in anhydrous alcohol, and after being added to the oil, the whole is gently heated, in an open vessel, by the heat of a water bath, until the alcohol is expelled; agitation, &c., being had recourse to as in No. 1.

_Prop., &c._ The above preparation resembles ordinary cod-liver oil, except in having a pale yellowish colour and a slightly bitter taste, similar to that of cinchona bark. It is said to possess all the properties of cod-liver oil combined with those peculiar to quinine, by which the tonic, stomachic, and antiperiodic qualities of the latter are associated, in one remedy, with the genial supporting, and alterative action of the other. The common strength is 2 gr. of quinine per oz.

=QUININE AND I′RON.= These two important medicinal agents are combined together in various ways. The following compound salts are often prescribed.

=Quinine and Iron, Cit′rate of.= _Syn._ CITRATE OF IRON AND QUININE; FERRI ET QUINÆ CITRAS, B. P. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of iron, 4-1/2; sulphate of quinia, 1; dilute sulphuric acid, 1-1/2; citric acid, 3; solution of ammonia and distilled water, of each a sufficiency; mix 8 of the solution of ammonia with 40 of the water, and to this add the solution of persulphate of iron, previously diluted with 40 of the water, stirring them constantly and briskly. Let the mixture stand for 2 hours, stirring it occasionally, then put it on a calico filter, and when the liquid has drained away, wash the precipitate with distilled water until that which passes through the filter ceases to give a precipitate with chloride of barium. Mix the sulphate of quinia with 8 of the water, add the sulphuric acid, and when the salt is dissolved, precipitate the quinia with a slight excess of solution of ammonia. Collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with 30 of the water. Dissolve the citric acid in 5 of the water, and having applied the heat of a water bath, add the oxide of iron, previously well drained; stir them together, and when the oxalic acid has dissolved, add the precipitated quinia, continuing the agitation until this also has dissolved. Let the solution cool, then add, in small quantities at a time, 1-1/2 solution of ammonia, dilute with 2 of the water, stirring the solution briskly, and allowing the quinia which separates with each addition of ammonia to dissolve before the next addition is made. Filter the solution, evaporate it to the consistence of a thin syrup, then dry it in layers on flat porcelain or glass plates, at the temperature of 100° Fahr., remove the dry salt in flakes, and keep it in a stoppered bottle. Solubility, 2 in 1.——_Test._ Taste bitter as well as chalybeate. When burned with exposure to air, it leaves a residue (oxide of iron) which yields nothing to water. 50 gr., dissolved in an ounce of water, and treated with a slight excess of ammonia, gives a white precipitate (quinia) which, when collected on a filter and dried, weighs 8 gr. The precipitate is entirely soluble in pure ether, indicating absence of quinidia and cinchonia. When burned it leaves no residue. When dissolved by the aid of an acid it forms a solution which, after decolorisation by a little purified animal charcoal, turns the plane of polarisation strongly to the left (cinchona turns it to the right).——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr. as a tonic, three times a day, in solution or in pill.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Triturate sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., with distilled water, 6 fl. oz., and having added sufficient diluted sulphuric acid to dissolve it, cautiously pour into the solution water of ammonia with constant stirring, until in slight excess. Wash the precipitated quinine on a filter, and having added solution of citrate of iron, 10 fl. oz., keep the whole at a temperature of 120° by means of a water bath, and stir constantly until the alkaloid is dissolved. Lastly, evaporate the solution to the consistence of a syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, on drying, the salt may be obtained in scales.——_Dose_, 2 gr. to 5 gr.

=Quinine and Iron, I′odide of.= _Syn._ QUINÆ ET FERRI IODIDUM, L. _Prep._ From protiodide of iron, 2 parts; hydriodate of quinine, 1 part; rectified spirit, 12 parts; heat them together, and either evaporate to dryness or crystallise by refrigeration. A powder, or crystalline scales.

=Quinine and Iron, Sul′phate of.= _Syn._ FERROSULPHATE OF QUININE; QUINÆ FERRO-SULPHAS, QUINÆ ET FERRI SULPHAS, L. _Prep._ From solutions of the sulphates of iron and quinine, in atomic proportions, mixed whilst hot, and the crystals which form as the liquid cools carefully dried and preserved from the air.

QUININE AND MERCURY. See MERCURIC AND QUININE CHLORIDE.

=QUINOA.= The seed of this plant (a species of _Chenopodium_) is largely consumed by the people who dwell in the elevated regions of Chili and Peru, in which countries it is found growing at a height of some 13,000 feet above the sea-level. Mr Johnston says there are two varieties of it, a sweet and a bitter one. It is a highly nutritious cereal, resembling ointment in properties.

According to Voelker, quinoa has the following composition:

Quinoa seeds dried Quinoa at 212° F. flour.

Nitrogenous matter 22·86 19 Starch 56·80 60 Fatty matter 5·74 5 Vegetable fibre 9·53 —— Ash 5·05 —— Water —— 16

=QUINOID′INE.= _Syn._ AMORPHOUS QUININE, CHINOIDINE; QUINA AMORPHA, QUINA INFORMIS, QUINOIDIA, QUINOIDINA, QUINOIDINUM, CHINOIDEUM, L. A few years after the discovery of the quinine by Pelletier and Caventou, Sertuerner, a German physician, and known as the discoverer of morphia, obtained, by a peculiar method, from yellow bark, an amorphous alkaloid which was called by him Chinoidin[131] (to which the name amorphous quinine is improperly given), and also fever-killer (Fiebertödter). He found that not only this alkaloid itself, but also all its compounds with acids, were equally amorphous. As recent investigations have proved that this amorphous alkaloid occurs in all cinchona barks, and is found particularly in many young Indian barks in great quantity, it is quite natural that in the manufacture of quinine the uncrystallisable sulphate of this alkaloid should accumulate in the mother liquors of the sulphate of quinine. From such liquors it is precipitated in an impure state by an alkali, and brought into commerce under the name of quinoidine. As this amorphous alkaloid has the property of preventing the crystallisation of the salts of the other alkaloids, particularly those of quinidine, it is clear that the quinoidine of commerce very often contains quinidine and also cinchonidine. Dr de Vrij, for instance, found sometimes more than 20% of quinidine in some samples of quinoidine of commerce. Although commercial quinoidine contains many impurities which may have their origin partly in the adulteration of the cinchona-alkaloids, unadulterated quinoidine, no doubt, chiefly consists of the amorphous alkaloid discovered by Sertuerner.

[Footnote 131: Sertuerner, ‘Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Physik, Heilkunde, und Chemie,’ 3ter Band, 2tes Heft, Suite 269 (1830).]

The quinoidine of commerce ought never to be used in medicine unless purified. For this purification there are two methods: 1. That of Mr Bullock, which gives the purer but the more expensive product. Crude quinoidine is exhausted with ether, which, after defecation, is distilled off, leaving the purified quinoidine behind. This process has been patented in England by Mr Bullock. 2. That of Dr de Vrij, which consists in boiling 9 parts of crude quinoidine with a solution of 2 parts of oxalate of ammonium in water. By this process the alkaloids contained in the quinoidine are dissolved whilst the impurities, and amongst them the lime which is often contained in the crude quinoidine, remain undissolved. The solution is mixed with a large bulk of water, then filtered and the purified quinoidine precipitated by a slight excess of liquor of soda.

_Prop., &c._ In its crude form quinoidine somewhat resembles aloes; in its purest state it is a yellowish-brown, resin-like mass, freely soluble in alcohol and ether, but nearly insoluble in water; with the acids it forms dark-coloured, uncrystallisable salts. It is powerfully febrifuge, but less so than either quinidine or quinine, although it is identical in chemical composition with both of them.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 gr. for adults, 1/4 to 1 gr. for children, given in wine, lemonade, or acidulated honey.

=QUINOM′ETRY.= _Syn._ CINCHONOMETRY. The art of estimating the quantity of quinine in cinchona bark, and in the commercial salts of this alkaloid.

_Proc._ 1. FOR BARK.——_a._ (Ph. E.) A filtered decoction of 100 gr. of bark, in distilled water, 2 fl. oz., is precipitated with 1 fl. dr., or q. s. of a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda; the precipitate, after being heated in the fluid so as to become a fused mass, and having again become cold, is dried and weighed. “It should be 2 gr., or more, and entirely dissolve in a solution of oxalic acid.” To render the result strictly accurate, the product should be dissolved in 10 parts of proof spirit, containing 1/20th of sulphuric acid, and to this solution carefully added an alcoholic solution of iodine as long as there appears a brown precipitate, which immediately turns black by stirring with a glass rod. This precipitate, collected upon a filter, washed with strong alcohol and dried on a water bath, is Herapath’s iodosulphate of quinine, of which 100 parts represent 56·5 parts of pure quinine.

_b._ (Rebourdain.) 100 gr. of the bark (coarsely powdered) are exhausted with acidulated water, and the filtered solution rendered alkaline with solution of potassa; it is next shaken with about 1-3rd of its volume of chloroform, and then allowed to repose for a short time; the chloroform holding the alkaloid in solution sinks to the bottom of the vessel in a distinct stratum, from which the supernatant liquid is separated by decantation; the chloroformic solution, either at once or after being washed with a little cold water, is allowed to evaporate; the residuum, when weighed, gives the per-centage richness of the sample.

_Obs._ A like result may be obtained with ether instead of chloroform; in which case the solution of quinine will form the upper stratum.

_c._ Instead of Rebourdain’s process, Dr de Vrij prefers that of Charles,[132] so far as regards the separation of the total mixed alkaloids from the bark. To this mixture is applied the process mentioned above (_a_), viz. solution in acidulated proof spirit, &c.

[Footnote 132: ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,’ 4e série, t. 12, p. 81 (Août, 1870).]

2. For the SALTS. The above methods, as well as several others which have been devised for the purpose, may also be applied to the salts of quinine; but, unfortunately, they are inapplicable when great accuracy is required, owing to the non-recognition of the presence of quinidine, as such, and which, consequently, goes to swell the apparent richness of the sample in quinine. The following ingenious method, invented by Dr Ure, not merely enables us to detect the presence of cinchonine and quinidine in commercial samples of the salts of quinine, but, with some trifling modifications, it also enables us to determine the quantity of each of these alkaloids present in any sample:——“10 gr. of the salts to be examined” (the sulphate is here more especially referred to) “is put into a strong test-tube, furnished with a tight-fitting cork; to this are to be added 10 drops of dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid and 5 water), with 15 drops of water, and a gentle heat applied to accelerate solution. This having been effected, and the solution entirely cooled, 60 drops of officinal sulphuric ether, with 20 drops of liquor of ammonia, must be added, and the whole well shaken while the top is closed by the thumb. The tube is then to be closely stopped, and shaken gently from time to time, so that the bubbles of air may readily enter the layer of ether. If the salt be free from cinchonine and quinidine, or contain the latter in no greater proportion than 10%, it will be completely dissolved; while on the surface, where contact of the two layers of clear fluid takes place, the mechanical impurities only will be separated. After some time the layer of ether becomes hard and gelatinous, and no further observation is possible.”

“From the above statement respecting the solubility of quinidine in ether, it appears that the 10 gr. of the salt examined may contain 1 gr. of quinidine, and still a complete solution with ether and ammonia may follow; but in this case the quinidine will shortly begin to crystallise in a layer of ether. The least trace of quinidine may be yet more definitely detected by employing, instead of the ordinary ether, some ether previously saturated with quinidine, by which means all of the quinidine contained in the quinine examined must remain undissolved. It is particularly requisite, in performing this last experiment, to observe, (immediately) after the shaking, whether all has dissolved; for, owing to the great tendency of quinidine to crystallisation, it may become again separated in a crystalline form, and be a source of error.”

“If more than 1-10th of quinidine or (any) cinchonine be present, there will be found an insoluble precipitate at the limits of the two layers of fluid. If this be quinidine, it will be dissolved on the addition of proportionately more ether, while cinchonine will remain unaffected.”

_Note._ To Dr Ure’s test Dr de Vrij prefers, for several reasons, Dr Kerner’s test, ‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ von Fresenius, 1st Jahrg, 1862; ‘Ueber Die Prufung des Käuflichen Schwefelsauren Chinins auf fremde Alkaloides,’ von Dr G. Keraer.

=QUINOVIC ACID.= C_{28}H_{33}O_{4}. This is insoluble in water, also in chloroform, and difficultly soluble in alcohol. It can be obtained from the boiling alcoholic solution, by cooling, in small crystals. In the leaves, bark, and wood of the cinchona tree this acid is contained, together with quinovin, and it is this mixture which has been recently applied in therapeutics, as a powerful tonic in cases of dysentery, &c. The mixture can easily be obtained from the leaves, bark, or wood of cinchona, and even from bark which has been exhausted by ebullition with water or diluted acids, by cold maceration with weak milk of lime, by which it is dissolved, as it combines easily with bases. It is only the quinovate of lime which has till now been used in medicine.——_Dose_, 2 to 8 gr. every two hours.

=QUINOVIN.= C_{30}H_{48}O_{8}. _Syn._ CINCHOVIN, QUINOVIA.

=QUINOVIN.= A very bitter amorphous glucoside contained in the genus Cinchona, Nauslea, and probably in many other allied genera. It is insoluble in water, very soluble in rectified spirit and in chloroform, with which last liquid it forms, in concentrated solutions, a jelly. If a current of hydrochloric gas is passed into its alcoholic solution the liquid becomes hot and the quinovin is split up into a peculiar kind of sugar.

=QUIN′QUINA.= Dr de Vrij states that the substance known under this name is a mixture of hydrochlorate of cinchonidine and of cinchonine. See CINCHONA.

=QUIN′SY.= See THROAT AFFECTIONS.

=QUINTES′SENCE.= _Syn._ QUINTA ESSENTIA, L. A term invented by the alchemists to represent a concentrated alcoholic solution of the active principles of organic bodies. It is still occasionally employed in perfumery and the culinary art. See ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.

=QUITTOR.= It generally shows itself at the top or coronet of the hoof of the horse, in the form of a fistulous opening (whence quittor is also called ‘the pipes’), filled with a purulent discharge.

Quittor invariably points to the presence of an internal ulcer, abscess, or some other irritating cause, the discharge from which, accumulating under the hard hoof, slowly works its way to the surface. The origin of quittor is generally some injury to the hoof, such as a corn, a prick, or an inequality of tread.

The first thing to be done is to remove the animal’s shoe, to cut away any dead or discoloured horn, so as to reach the seat of the suppuration, and to allow it to escape by a more direct outlet. Hot-water fomentations and poultices should afterwards be applied for a few days. Should the sores show an indisposition to heal, the parts should be washed with a tolerably strong solution of sulphate of zinc, or of bichloride of mercury——25 grams of the latter to an ounce of water. The application of strong caustics is to be particularly deprecated.

=QUOTID′IAN.= Occurring or returning daily. See AGUE.

=RAB′BIT.= The _Lepus cuniculus_ (Linn.) of the Cuvian order _Rodentia_. The domestic rabbit, when young, is a light and wholesome article of food, approaching in delicacy to the common barn-door fowl; but has less flavour than the wild animal. The fat is among the ‘simples’ of the Ph. L. 1618. Its hair and skin are made into cheap furs, gloves, hats, &c.

_Composition of Rabbit’s Flesh_ (BARTLETT).[133]

[Footnote 133: ‘Lancet,’ March 29th, 1873.]

+---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | | Rabbit | Rabbit | Rabbit | | | | | No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | Average |Percentage.| | | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | +---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ |Water | 5,982 | 6,623 | 7,315 | 6,640 | 73·17 | |Fibrin and Syntonin | 1,143 | 1,247 | 1,393 | 1,261 | 13·90 | |Gelatin | 302 | 335 | 350 | 329 | 3·63 | |Fat | 240 | 272 | 345 | 286 | 3·15 | |Albumen | 276 | 305 | 340 | 307 | 3·38 | |Alcoholic extract, | 106 | 119 | 135 | 120 | 1·32 | | including salts | | | | | | |Watery extract | 102 | 108 | 125 | 112 | 1·23 | |Calcium phosphates | 16 | 19 | 25 | 20 | 0·22 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | Edible portion | 8,167 | 9,028 | 10,029 | 9,075 | 100·00 | | | | | | | | |Additional gelatin | | | | | | | from stewing bones | 215 | 232 | 251 | 233 | 2·06 | |Bones, &c., dissected| | | | | | | out and stewed | 1,501 | 1,674 | 1,854 |} |{ 17·88 | |Shank bones, fur and | | | |} |{ | | eyes, thrown away | 313 | 352 | 382 |} 2,027 |{ waste. | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | | 10,201 | 11,286 | 12,516 | 11,335 | ... | +---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

=Rabbit Pie.= Cut up two young rabbits, season with white pepper, salt, a little mace, and nutmeg, all in fine powder; add also a little cayenne. Pack the rabbit with slices of ham, forcemeat balls, and hard eggs, by turns in layers. If it is to be baked in a dish add a little water, but omit the water if it is to be raised in a crust. By the time it is taken out of the oven have ready a gravy of knuckle of veal, or a bit of the scrag, with some shank bones of mutton, seasoned with herbs, onions, mace, and white pepper. If the pie is to be eaten hot, truffles, morels or mushrooms may be added, but not if intended to be eaten cold. If it be made in a dish put as much gravy as will fill the dish, but in raised crusts the gravy must be carefully strained, and then put in cold as jelly.

=Rabbit Pudding.= Cut a rabbit into sixteen pieces, and slice a quarter of a pound of bacon; season with chopped sage, pepper, and salt; then add potatoes and onions according to the size of the family, and half a pint of water. Boil for two hours. The meat and vegetables must be well mixed. Rice may be substituted for potatoes if preferred.

=Rabbit, Ragout of.= “Wash and clean a good-sized Ostend rabbit; boil the liver and heart, chop them, and mix with veal stuffing; fill the rabbit, sew it up, and tie it into shape. Put a piece of fat beef and 1 lb. of bacon, cut in slices, into a saucepan, with 1 oz. of dripping; put in the rabbit to brown, turning it over to brown both sides; pour off the dripping, and put in 1 quart of water; let it simmer gently an hour and a half. A quarter of an hour before serving skim off all the fat, and thicken the gravy with a little corn flour; season with pepper and salt, and, if liked, stew a bunch of herbs and half an onion with it. Lay the rabbit on a dish with the bacon round it, and pour the gravy over.” (Tegetmeier.)

=RAC′AHOUT.= _Syn._ RACAHOUT DES ARABES. This is said to be farina prepared from the acorns of _Quercus Ballota_, or Barbary oak, disguised with a little flavouring. The following is recommended as an imitation:——Roasted cacao or chocolate nuts, 4 oz.; tapioca, and potato farina, of each 6 oz.; white sugar, slightly flavoured with vanilla, 1/2 lb. Very nutritious. Used as arrow-root.

=RACE′MIC ACID.= _Syn._ PARATARTARIC ACID. This compound was discovered by Kestner in 1820, replacing tartaric acid in grape juice of the Department of the Vosges. Racemic acid and tartaric acid have exactly the same composition, and yield, when exposed to heat, the same products; the racemates also correspond in the closest manner with the tartrates. Racemic acid is rather less soluble than tartaric, and separates first from a solution containing the two acids. A solution of racemic acid precipitates a neutral salt of calcium, which is not the case with tartaric acid. A solution of racemic acid does not affect a ray of polarised light, while a solution of tartaric acid rotates the ray to the right.

“Dessargnes and Jungfleisch found by experiment that under the influence of heat ordinary tartaric acid is readily transformed into inactive tartaric acid and racemic acid, and the latter chemist thought to find in this fact an explanation of the production of racemic acid.

“But observations continued through many years upon mother liquors from various tartaric acid factories showed that although more or less inactive tartaric acid was present in all of them, racemic acid was not, even when they had been subjected to prolonged treatment, and its occurrence in appreciable quantity was confined to a small number of specimens. In fact, some samples of mother liquor from factories where evaporation was carried on in a partial vacuum contained more racemic acid than others from factories where evaporation was carried on over a pure fire. Recently Jungfleisch noticed that the liquors richest in inactive tartaric acid were also rich in alumina, and the suspicion that alumina favoured the conversion was confirmed by direct experiment; also that the neutral aluminum sulphate has but little action. Jungfleisch has come to the conclusion that when there is an accumulation of alumina on the mother liquor, the conditions are favorable for the production of a large proportion of inactive tartaric acid, and a small proportion of racemic acid, although when the latter is present in considerable quantity, it becomes the most manifest through its comparative insolubility. Examination of liquors from which racemic acid has been deposited has always shown them to contain much inactive tartaric acid. This theory does not exclude the probability that certain vines under particular conditions produce racemic acid.”[134]

[Footnote 134: ‘Pharmaceutical Journal.’]

=RACK′ING.= See CIDER and WINES.

=RAD′ICLE.= _Syn._ RADICAL. According to the binary theory of the constitution of saline compounds, every salt is composed, like chloride of sodium (NaCl), of two sides or parts, which are termed its radicals. That part of a salt which consists of a metal, or of a body exercising the chemical functions of one, is called the metallic, basic, or basylous radical; while the other part, which, like chlorine, by combining with hydrogen would produce an acid, is designated the chlorous or acidulous radical. Every salt, therefore, consists of a basic and of an acid radical. Sometimes radicals are elementary in their nature, when they are called _simple_; and sometimes they are made up of a group of elements, when they are termed _compound_. Some radicals, both simple and compound, have been isolated, while many have but a hypothetical existence. In the following formulæ the vertical line separates the basic from the acid radicals, the former being on the left, the latter on the right:——

H | F Hydrofluoric acid (_Fluoride of hydrogen_). Na | Cl Chloride of sodium. K | CN Cyanide of potassium. Ca | CO_{3} Carbonate of calcium. NH_{4} | Cl Chloride of ammonium. C_{2}H_{5} | NO_{2} Nitrite of ethyl.

=RAD′ISH.= The common garden radish (RAPHANUS, L.) is the root of _Raphanus sativus_ (Linn.), one of the _Cruciferæ_. There are several varieties. They are all slightly diuretic and laxative, and possess considerable power in exciting the appetite. The seed is pressed for oil. The horseradish (ARMORACIA, L.) belongs to a distinct genus.

=RAIN-GAUGE.= _Syn._ OMBOMETER, PLUVIAMETER, UDOMETER. An instrument for determining the quantity of water, which falls as rain, at any given place. A simple and convenient rain-gauge for agricultural purposes is formed of a wide mouthed funnel, or open receiver, connected with a glass tube furnished with a stop-cock. The diameter of the tube may be exactly 1-100th that of the receiver, and if the tube be graduated into inches and tenths, the quantity of rain that falls may be easily read off to the 1-1000th of an inch. The instrument should be set in some perfectly open situation; and, for agricultural purposes, with its edge as nearly level with the ground as possible. Another form of gauge is furnished with a float, the height of which marks the amount of liquid. The diameter of the gauge should range between 4 and 8 inches. The quantity of water should be duly measured and registered at 9 a.m. daily.

Mr Symonds, F.R.B.S., has drawn the following code of instructions for the guidance of those registering the amount of rainfall at any locality:——

1. _Site._ A rain-gauge should not be set on a slope or terrace, but on a level piece of ground, at a distance from shrubs, trees, walls, and buildings——at the very least as many feet from their base as they are in height.

Tall growing flowers, vegetables, and bushes must be kept away from the gauges. If a thoroughly clear site cannot be obtained, shelter is most endurable from north-west, north, and east; less so from south, south-east, and west; and not at all from south-west or north-east.

2. _Old Gauges._ Old-established gauges should not be moved, nor their registration discontinued, until at least two years after a new one has been in operation, otherwise the continuity of the register will be irreparably destroyed. Both the old and the new ones must be registered at the same time, and the results recorded for comparison.

3. _Level._ The funnel of a rain-gauge must be set quite level, and so firmly fixed that it will remain so, in spite of any gale of wind or ordinary circumstances. Its correctness in this respect should be tested from time to time.

4. _Height._ The funnel of gauges newly placed should be one foot above grass. Information respecting height above sea level may be obtained from G. J. Symons, Esq., 64, Camden Square, N.W., London.

5. _Rust._ If the funnel of a japanned gauge become so oxidised as to retain the rain in its pores, or threatens to become rusty, it should have a coat of gas tar or japan black, or a fresh funnel of zinc or copper should be provided.

6. _Float Gauges._ If the measuring rod is detached from the float it should never be left in the gauge; if it is attached to the float it should be pegged or tied down, and only allowed to rise to its proper position at the time of reading. To allow for the weight of the float and rod these gauges are generally so constructed as to show 0 only when a small amount of water is left in them. Care must always be taken to set the rod to the zero or 0.

7. _Can and Bottle Gauges._ The measuring glass should always be held upright. The reading is to be taken midway between the two apparent surfaces of the water.

8. _Date of Entry._ The amount measured at 9 a.m. on any day is to be set against the previous one, because the amount measured at 9 a.m. of, say, the 17th, contains the fall during fifteen hours of the 16th, and only nine hours of the 17th. (The rule has been approved by the meteorological societies of England and Scotland, cannot be altered, and is particularly commended to the notice of observers.)

9. _Mode of Entry._ If less than one tenth (·10) has fallen, the cipher must always be prefixed; thus, if the measure is full up to the seventh line, it must be entered as ·07——that is, no inches, no tenths, and seven hundredths. For the sake of clearness it has been found necessary to lay down an invariable rule that there shall always be two figures to the right of the decimal point. If there be only one figure, as in the case of one tenth of an inch (usually written ·1), a cipher must be added, making it ·10. Neglect of this rule causes much inconvenience. All columns should be cast _twice_——once up and once down——so as to avoid the same error being made twice. When there is no rain a line should be drawn rather than a cipher inserted.

10. _Caution._ The amount should always be written down before the water is thrown away.

11. _Small Quantities._ The unit of measurement being ·01, observers whose gauges are sufficiently delicate to show less than that are, if the amount is under ·005, to throw it away; if it is ·005 to ·010 inclusive, they are not to enter it as ·01.

12. _Absence._ Every observer should train some one as an assistant; but where this is not possible, instructions should be given that the gauge should be emptied at 9 a.m. on the 1st of the month, and the water bottled, labelled, and tightly corked, to await the observer’s return.

13. _Heavy Rains._ When very heavy rains occur it is desirable to measure immediately on their termination; and it will be found a safe plan, after measuring, to return the water to the gauge, so that the morning registration will not be interfered with. Of course, if there is the slightest doubt as to the gauge holding all the falls it must be emptied, the amount being previously written down.

14. _Snow._ In snow three methods may be adopted; it is well to try them all:——(1) Melt what is caught in the funnel by adding to the snow a previously ascertained quantity of warm water, and then deducting this quantity from the total measurement, enter the residue as rain. (2) Select a place where the snow has not drifted, invert the funnel, and, turning it round, lift and melt what is enclosed. (3) Measure with a rule the average depth of snow, and take one twelfth as the equivalent of water. Some observers use in snowy weather a cylinder of the same diameter as the rain-gauge, and of considerable depth. If the wind is at all rough all the snow is blown out of a flat-funnelled rain-gauge.

15. _Overflow._ It would seem needless to caution observers on this head, but as a recent foreign table contains _six instances in one day_, in which gauges were allowed to run over, it is evidently necessary that British observers should be on the alert. It is not desirable to purchase any new gauge of which the capacity is less than four inches.

16. _Second Gauges._ It is often desirable that observers should have two gauges, and that one of them should be capable of holding eight inches of rain. One of the gauges should be registered daily, the other weekly or monthly, as preferred, but always on the 1st of each month. By this means a thorough check is kept on accidental errors in the entries, which is not the case if _both_ are read daily.

17. _Dew and Fog._ Small amounts of water are at times deposited in rain-gauges by fog and dew. They should be added to the amount of rainfall, because (1) “they tend to water the earth and nourish the streams,” and not for that reason only, but (2) because in many cases the rain-gauges can only be visited monthly, and it would then obviously be impossible to separate the yield of snow, rain, &c.; therefore, for the sake of uniformity, all must be taken together.

18. _Doubtful Entries._ Whenever there is the least doubt respecting the accuracy of any observation, the entry should be marked with a ?, and the reason stated for its being placed there.

_Obs._ The height at which the rain-gauge is elevated from the ground is a matter of considerable moment. Thus, one observer found the fall of rain at York for twelve months (1833-1834) to be——at a height of 213 feet from the ground, 14·96 inches; at 44 feet, 19·85 inches; and on the ground, 25·71 inches.

Later experimentalists have confirmed this curious fact. Thus, Colonel Warde found the following to be the relative rainfall at different periods for the four years extending from 1864 to 1867:

Inches. On a level with the ground 1·07 At a height of 2 inches 1·05 ” 6 ” 1·01 ” 1 foot 1·00 ” 2 feet 0·99 ” 3 ” 0·98 ” 5 ” 0·96 ” 10 ” 0·95 ” 20 ” 0·94

One of the causes that have been assigned for this singular phenomenon has been——the greater exposure in elevated situations of the rain to dispersive action of the wind, a surmise which derives some support from the circumstance, that when a rain-gauge is placed on a building, the roof of which is flat, of large area, and with few, if any, chimneys to disturb the air currents, an amount of rain is collected equalling that obtained on the surface of the ground.

=RAI′SINS.= _Syn._ DRIED GRAPES; UVÆ (B. P.). UVÆ SICCATÆ, UVA (Ph. L.), UVÆ PASSÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. “The prepared fruit of _Vitis vinifera_” (Linn.)——Ph. L. The grapes are allowed to ripen and dry on the vine. After being plucked and cleaned, they are dipped, for a few seconds, into a boiling lye of wood ashes and quicklime at 12° or 15° Baumé, to every 4 galls. of which a handful of culinary salt and a pint of salad oil has been added; they are then exposed for 12 or 14 days in the sun to dry; they are, lastly, carefully garbled, and packed for exportation. The sweet, fleshy kinds of grapes are those selected for the above treatment; and, in general, their stalks are cut about one half through, or a ring of bark is removed, to hasten their maturation.

Raisins are nutritious, cooling, antiseptic, and, in general, laxative; the latter to a greater extent than the fresh fruit. There are many varieties found in commerce. Their uses as a dessert and culinary fruit, and in the manufacture of wine, &c., are well known, and are referred to elsewhere. See GRAPES, WINES, &c.

=RANCID′ITY.= The strong, sour flavour and odour which oleaginous bodies acquire by age and exposure to the air. For its prevention, see FATS, OILS (Fixed), &c.

=RAPE OIL.= See OILS (Fixed).

=RASH.= Erasmus Wilson notices four different affections, as included under this head:——

1. ST ANTHONY’S FIRE, or ERYSIPELAS, the severest of them all, already referred to.

2. NETTLE-RASH, or URTICARIA, characterised by its tingling and pricking pain, and its little white elevations on a reddish ground, like the wheals caused by the sting of a nettle. This efflorescence seldom stays many hours, and, sometimes, not even many minutes, in the same place, and is multiplied or reproduced whenever any part of the skin is scratched or even touched. No part of the body is exempt from it, and when many of them occur together, and continue for an hour or two, the parts are often considerably swelled, and the features temporarily disfigured. In many cases these eruptions continue to infest the skin, sometimes in one place, and sometimes in another, for one or two hours together, two or three times a day, or perhaps, for the greatest part of the twenty-four hours. In some constitutions this lasts only a few days; in others several months.

There are several varieties of nettle-rash or urticaria noticed by medical writers, among which URTICARIA FEBRILIS, PERSISTANS, and EVANIDA, are the principal.

The common cause of nettle-rash is some derangement of the digestive functions, arising either from the use of improper food or a disordered state of the nervous or other systems of the body. Lobsters, crabs, mussels, shrimps, dried fish, pork, cucumbers, mushrooms, and adulterated beer or porter, bear the character of frequently causing this affection. In childhood it commonly arises from teething. Occasionally, in persons of peculiar idiosyncrasy, the most simple article of food, as almonds, nuts, and even milk, rice, and eggs, will produce this affection.

The treatment may consist of the administration of gentle saline aperients, and in severer cases a gentle emetic, followed by the copious use of acidulated diluent drinks, as weak lemon-juice-and-water, effervescing potassa-draughts, &c., and, when required, diaphoretics. The clothing should be light, but warm, and the itching, when severe, may be allayed by the application of a lotion of water to which a little vinegar or camphorated spirit has been added; the latter must, however, be employed with caution. A hot knee-bath is useful in drawing the affection from the face and upper part of the body. A ‘compress,’ wrung out of cold water until it ceases to drip, and kept in contact with the stomach by means of a dry bandage, has been recommended to relieve excessive irritation of the stomach and bowels. It has been stated that decoction of Virginian snake-root is particularly useful in relieving chronic urticaria.

3. RED-RASH, RED-BLOTCH, or FIERY SPOT, is commonly the consequence of disordered general health, of dyspepsia, and particularly, of females, of tight lacing. Sometimes it is slight and evanescent; at others it approaches in severity to the milder forms of erysipelas, there being much swelling and inflammation. Chaps, galls, excoriations, and chilblains are varieties of this disease produced by cold, excessive moisture, or friction. The treatment is similar to that of nettle-rash.

4. ROSE-RASH, FALSE MEASLES, or ROSEOLA, is an efflorescence, or rather a discoloration of a rose-red tint, in small irregular patches, without wheals or papulæ, which spread over the surface of the body, and are ushered in by slight febrile symptoms. There are several varieties. The causes are the same as those which produce the preceding affections, and the treatment may be similar. In all of them strict attention to the diet, and a careful avoidance of cold applications, or exposure to cold, so as to cause a retrocession, are matters of the first moment.

=RASP′BERRY.= _Syn._ HINDBERRY. The fruit of _Rubus Idæus_ (Linn.), a small shrub of the natural order _Rosaceæ_. It is cooling, antiscorbutic, and mildly aperitive. It is frequently used to communicate a fine flavour to liqueurs, confectionery, wine, &c. See FRUITS and VEGETABLES.

Fresenius gives the following as the composition of raspberries:

CULTIVATED. Wild Red. Red. White. _Soluble Matter_—— Sugar 3·597 4·708 3·703 Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) 1·980 1·356 1·115 Albuminous substances 0·546 0·544 0·665 Pectous substances, &c. 1·107 1·746 1·397 Ash 0·270 0·481 0·318

_Insoluble Matter_—— Seeds } Skins, &c. } 8·460 4·106 4·520 Pectose 0·180 0·502 0·040

[_Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given_] [0·134] [0·296] [0·081] Water 86·860 86·557 88·180 ———————— ———————— ———————— 100·000 100·000 100·000

=RATAFI′A.= Originally a liquor drank at the ratification of an agreement or treaty. It is now the common generic name in France of liqueurs compounded of spirit, sugar, and the odoriferous and flavouring principles of vegetables, more particularly of those containing the juices of recent fruits, or the kernels of apricots, cherries, or peaches. In its unqualified sense this name is commonly understood as referring to cherry-brandy or peach-brandy.

Ratafias are prepared by distillation, maceration, or extemporaneous admixture, in the manner explained under the head LIQUEUR. The following list includes those which are commonly prepared by the French liquoristes:——

=Ratafia d’Angelique.= From angelica seeds, 1 dr.; angelica stalks, 4 oz.; blanched bitter almonds, bruised, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 6 quarts; digest for 10 days, filter; add, of water, 1 quart; white sugar, 3-1/2 lbs.; mix well, and in a fortnight decant the clear portion through a piece of clean flannel.

=Ratafia d’Anis.= See (Liqueur) CORDIAL, ANISEED.

=Ratafia de Baume de Tolu.= From balsam of Tolu, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, add water, 3 pints; filter, and further add of white sugar, 1-1/2 lb. Pectoral and traumatic.

=Ratafia de Brou de Noix.= From young walnuts with soft shells (pricked or pierced), 60 in no.; brandy, 2 quarts; mace, cinnamon, and cloves, of each 15 gr.; digest for 8 weeks; press, filter, add of white sugar, 1 lb.; and keeping it for some months before decanting it for use. Stomachic.

=Ratafia de Cacao.= _Syn._ R. DE CHOCOLAT. From Caracca cacao-nuts, 1 lb.; West Indian do., 1/2 lb.; (both roasted and bruised;) proof spirit, 1 gall.; digest for 14 days, filter, and add, of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; tincture of vanilla, 1/2 dr. (or shred of vanilla may be infused with the nuts in the spirit instead); lastly, decant in a month, and bottle it.

=Ratafia de Café.= From coffee, ground and roasted, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, 2 lbs. (dissolved in); water, 1 quart; as last.

=Ratafia de Cassis.= From black currant juice, 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.; cloves and peach kernels, of each 1/2 dr.; brandy, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; digest for a fortnight, and strain through flannel.

=Ratafia de Cerise.= From Morello cherries, with their kernels bruised, 8 lbs.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; as last.

=Ratafia de Chocolat.= Ratafia de cacao (see _above_).

=Ratafia de Coings.= From quince juice, 3 quarts; bitter almonds, 3 dr.; cinnamon and coriander seeds, of each 2 dr.; mace, 1/2 dr.; cloves, 15 gr. (all bruised); rectified spirit, (quite flavourless), 1/2 gall.; digest for a week, filter, and add of white sugar, 3-1/2 lbs.

=Ratafia de Crème.= From crème de noyeau and sherry, of each 1/4 pint; capillaire, 1/2 pint; fresh cream, 1 pint; beaten together.

=Ratafia de Curaçoa.= Curaçoa.

=Ratafia de Framboises.= Raspberry cordial.

=Ratafia de Genièvre.= From juniper berries (each pricked with a fork), 1/4 lb.; caraway and coriander seed, of each 40 gr.; finest malt spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall.; white sugar 2 lbs.; digest a week, and strain with expression.

=Ratafia de Grenoble.= From the small wild black cherry (with the kernels bruised), 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; citron peels, a few grains; as before.

=Ratafia de Grenoble, de Teyssère.= From cherries (bruised with the stones), 1 quart; rectified spirit, 2 quarts; mix, digest for 48 hours, then express the liquor, and heat it to boiling in a close vessel; when cold, add of sugar or capillaire, q. s., together with some noyeau, to flavour, and a little syrup of the bay laurel, and of galangal; in 3 months decant, and bottle it.

=Ratafia de Noyeau.= From peach or apricot kernels (bruised), 120 in no.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 quarts; white sugar, 1 lb.; digest for a week, press, and filter.

=Ratafia de Œillets.= From clove-pinks (without the white buds), 4 lbs.; cinnamon and cloves, of each 15 gr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 10 days, express the tincture, filter, and add of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.

=Ratafia d’Ecorce d’Orange.= Crème d’Orange.

=Ratafia de Fleurs d’Oranger.= From fresh orange petals, 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; as last. Instead of orange flowers, neroli, 1 dr., may be used.

=Ratafia à la Provençale.= From striped pinks, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 quart; white sugar, 3/4 lb.; juice of strawberries, 3/4 pint; saffron, 20 gr.; as before.

=Ratafia des Quatre Fruits.= From cherries, 30 lbs.; gooseberries, 15 lbs.; raspberries, 8 lbs.; black currants, 7 lbs.; express the juice, and to each pint add, of white sugar, 6 oz.; cinnamon, 6 gr.; cloves and mace, of each 3 gr.

=Ratafia Rouge.= From the juice of black cherries, 3 quarts; juices of strawberries and raspberries, of each 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.; mace and cloves, of each 15 gr.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 galls.; white sugar, 7 lbs.; macerate, &c., as before.

=Ratafia Sec.= Take of the juice of gooseberries, 5 pints; juices of cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, of each 1 pint; proof spirit, 6 quarts; sugar, 7 lbs.; as before.

=Ratafia à la Violette.= From orris powder, 3 oz.; litmus, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 10 days, strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs.; dissolved in soft water, 1 gall.

=RATS.= The common or brown rat is the _Mus Decumanus_ (Linn.), one of the most prolific and destructive species of the _Rodentia_. It was introduced to these Islands from Asia; and has since spread over the whole country, and multiplied at the expense of the black rat (_Mus Rattus_——Linn.), which is the old British species of this animal, until its inroads on our granaries, our stores, and dwelling-houses have increased to such an extent, that its extirpation has become a matter of serious, if not of national, importance.

For the destruction of these noxious animals two methods are adopted:——

1. Trapping. To render the bait more attractive, it is commonly sprinkled with a little of one of the rat scents noticed below. The trap is also occasionally so treated.

2. Poisoning. The following are reputed the most effective mixtures for this purpose:——

ARSENICAL PASTE. From oatmeal or wheaten flour, 3 lbs.; powdered indigo, 1/2 oz.; finely powdered white arsenic, 1/4 lb.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 dr.; mix, add of melted suet, 2-1/2 lbs.; and beat the whole into a paste. A similar compound has the sanction of the French Government.

ARSENICAL POWDER. From oatmeal, 1 lb.; moist sugar, 1/4 lb.; white arsenic and rotten cheese, of each 1 oz.; rat-scent, a few drops.

MILLERS’ RAT POWDER. From fresh oatmeal, 1 lb.; nux vomica (in very fine powder), 1 oz.; rat-scent, 5 or 6 drops. This is highly spoken of by those who have used it.

MINERAL RAT-POISON. From carbonate of baryta, 1/4 lb.; sugar and oatmeal, of each 6 oz.; oils of aniseed and caraway, of each a few drops.

PHILANTROPE MUOPHOBON. A French preparation, which, according to Mr Beasley, consists of tartar emetic, 1 part, with farinaceous matter, 4 parts, and some other (unimportant) ingredients.

PHOSPHOR PASTE.

RAT-SCENTS. The following are said to be the most attractive:

_a._ Powdered cantharides steeped in French brandy. For traps. It is said that rats are so fond of this, that if a little be rubbed about the hands they may be handled with impunity.

_b._ From powdered assafœtida, 8 gr.; oil of rhodium, 2 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; oil of lavender, 1/2 dr.; mix by agitation.

_c._ From oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 1/4 oz.

_d._ From oil of aniseed, 1/4 oz.; nitrous acid, 2 to 3 drops; musk, triturated with a little powdered sugar, 1 gr.

=RA′ZORS.= See PAPERS, PASTE, and SHAVING.

=REA′GENTS.= See TESTS.

=REAL′GAR.= This valuable red pigment is the bisulphide of arsenic. It is found native in some volcanic districts; but that of commerce is prepared by distilling, in an earthen retort, arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of sulphur and arsenic, of orpiment and sulphur, or of arsenious acid, sulphur, and charcoal, in the proper proportions. See DISULPHIDE OF ARSENIC.

=RECOMMENDATIONS TO FARMERS.= A series of valuable suggestions, intended for the guidance of farmers in the purchase of manures and cattle-feeding materials have lately been issued by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In substance they are as follows:——In the purchase of feeding-cakes, the guarantee of ‘pure’ should be insisted upon, since this means a legal warranty that the article is produced from good clean seed. The terms ‘best’ and ‘genuine’ are of no value, and should be objected to. Furthermore, the sample should be subjected to analysis. For this purpose a sample should be taken out of the middle of the cake, whilst the remainder of the cake from which the sample has been selected, should be sealed up and placed aside for reference in case of dispute.

The following advice is given to farmers about to purchase manures:——Raw bones or bone dust should be purchased ‘as pure,’ whilst they should be guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and 4 per cent. of ammonia. ‘Boiled bones’ should be purchased as ‘pure’ boiled bones, guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and 1-3/4 per cent. of ammonia. Dissolved bones vary so greatly that the buyer should insist on a guarantee of quality under the heads of ‘soluble phosphate of lime,’ ‘insoluble phosphate of lime,’ and ‘nitrogen’ or ‘ammonia,’ also for an allowance at current rates for each unit per cent. if the bones should prove on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed per-centages, &c. It should be insisted that mineral superphosphates are delivered dry and in good condition, and be guaranteed to contain a certain per-centage of soluble phosphates at a certain price per unit per cent. No value is to be attached to ‘insoluble phosphates.’ Compound artificial manures, which are rarely used, should be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of soda should be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of soda should be guaranteed to contain 94 to 95 per cent. of pure nitrate. Sulphate of ammonia should yield 35 per cent. of ammonia. Peruvian guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry, friable condition, and to contain a certain per-centage of ammonia.

In buying artificial manures the purchaser is recommended to obtain a guarantee that they shall be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition to allow of sowing by the drill.

Samples, taken out of three or four bags, should be well mixed together, and they should be analysed not later than three days after delivery. Two tins, holding about half a pound each, should be filled in the presence of a witness, sealed up, one sent to the analyst, and the other retained for future reference.

=RECTIFCA′TION.= The redistillation, &c., of a fluid, for the purpose of rendering it purer.

=RED.= A term denoting a bright colour, resembling blood. Red is a simple or primary colour, but of several different shades or hues, as scarlet, crimson, vermilion, orange-red, &c.

=RED, AN′ILINE.= _Syn._ ROSANILINE. This artificial base is prepared by the action of bichloride of tin, mercurial salts, arsenic acid, and many other oxidising agents, upon aniline. The aniline reps of commerce, now so largely used for dyeing, are saline compounds, more or less pure, of rosaline, with 1 equiv. of acid. These compounds are known under the names of ‘magenta,’ ‘fuchsine,’ ‘roseine,’ ‘azaleine,’ &c. In England the aniline red commonly employed is the acetate of rosaniline, which has been prepared by Mr Nicholson in splendid crystals of very considerable dimensions. In France the hydrochlorate of rosaniline is chiefly employed. The free base presents itself in colourless crystalline plates, but its compounds with 1 equiv. of acid have, when dry, a beautiful green colour, with golden lustre, and furnish with water an intensely coloured red solution. See PURPLE (Aniline) and RED DYE, also TAR COLOURS.

=RED DYE.= The substances principally employed for dyeing reds are cochineal, lac-dye, and madder, which, under proper treatment, yield permanent colours of considerable brilliancy, the first and third more particularly so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours are also obtained from Brazil wood, safflower, archil, and some other substances. For purple-red or crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c.), on silk or wool, the aniline reds (salts of rosaniline) are now extensively used. (See TAR-COLOURS.) The mode of applying them is noticed under PURPLE DYE. SILK is usually dyed of a permanent red or scarlet with cochineal, safflower, or lac dye; wool, with cochineal and, still more frequently, with madder; and cotton, with madder (chiefly), Brazil wood, &c. The leading properties of these substances are given under their respective names, and the methods of employing them are generally referred to in the articles DYEING, MORDANTS, &c., and, therefore, need not be repeated here. The following may, however, be useful to the reader:——

1. First, give the ‘goods’ a mordant of alum, or of alum-and-tartar, rinse, dry, and boil them in a bath of madder. If acetate of iron be used instead of alum, the colour will be purple, and by combining the two, as mordants, any intermediate shade may be produced.

2. The yarn or cloth is put into a very weak alkaline bath at the boiling temperature, then washed, dried, and ‘galled’ (or, when the calico is to be printed, for this bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent exposure to the air for a day or two, and immersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this way the stuff gets opened, and takes and retains the colour better). After the ‘galling’ the goods are dried, and alumed twice; then dried, rinsed, and passed through a madder bath, composed of 3/4 lb. of good madder for every lb. weight of the goods; this bath is slowly raised to the boiling point in the course of 50 or 60 minutes, more or less, according to the shade of colour required; after a few minutes the stuff is taken out, and slightly washed; the operation is then repeated, in the same manner, with fresh madder; it is, lastly, washed and dried, or passed through a hot soap bath, which carries off the fawn-coloured particles.

3. (ADRIANOPLE RED, TURKEY R.) This commences with cleansing or scouring the goods by alkaline baths, after which they are steeped in oily liquors brought to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda; a bath of sheep’s dung is next often used as an intermediate or secondary steep; the oleaginous bath, and the operation of removing the superfluous or loosely adhering oil with an alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, due care being taken to dry the goods thoroughly after each distinct process; then follow the distinct operations of galling, aluming, maddering, and brightening, the last for removing the dun-coloured principle, by boiling at an elevated temperature with alkaline liquids and soap; the whole is generally concluded with treatment by spirit of tin. In this way are given the most brilliant reds on cotton.

_Obs._ Wool takes from half its weight of madder to an equal weight to dye it red; cotton and linen take rather less. On account of the comparative insolubility of the colouring matter of madder, this dye-stuff must be boiled along with the goods to be dyed, and not removed from the decoction, as is the practice in using many other articles. Other dye-stuffs are frequently added to the madder bath, to vary the shades of colour. Decoction of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, &c., are often thus employed, the mordants being modified accordingly. By adding bran to the madder bath the colour is said to be rendered much lighter, and of a more agreeable tint.

=RED GUM.= A slight eruptive disease of infancy, occasioned by teething, and, less frequently, by irritation from rough flannel worn next to the skin. See STROPHULUS.

=RED LAV′ENDER.= See TINCTURE OF LAVENDER (Compound).

=RED LIQ′UOR.= The crude solution of acetate or sulpho-acetate of alumina employed in calico printing. It is generally prepared by mixing crude sulphate of alumina with about an equal weight of crude pyrolignite of lime, both being in the state of solution.

=RED PIG′MENTS.= The preparation of the principal red pigments are described under their respective names. The following list includes most of the reds in use:——

=Arme′nian Bole.= _Syn._ BOLE ARMENIAN; BOLUS ARMENIÆ, L. Formerly imported from Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c.; now generally made by grinding together a mixture of whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre, in nearly equal proportions.

=Red, Brown.= A factitious mixture of red oxide of iron and red ochre, in variable proportions.

=Car′mine.=

=Carmina′ted Lake.=

=Red Chrome.= _Syn._ DICHROMATE OF LEAD, RED CHROMATE OF L.; PLUMBI DICHROMAS, P. CHROMUS RUBRUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Boil pure carbonate of lead with chromate of potassa, in excess, until it assumes a proper colour; then wash it well with pure water, and dry it in the shade.

2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little water of ammonia or lime water.

3. (Liebig and Wöhler.) Fuse saltpetre at a low red heat in a Hessian crucible, and throw in chromate of lead (pure chrome yellow), by small portions at a time, as long as a strong ebullition follows upon each addition of the pigment, observing to stir the mixture frequently with a glass rod; after repose for a minute or two, pour off the fluid part, and, as soon as the solid residuum is cold, wash it with water, and dry it by a gentle heat.

_Obs._ Great care must be taken, in conducting the last process, not to employ too much heat, nor to allow the saline matter to stand long over the newly formed chrome-red, as the colour is thus apt to change to a brown or orange. When well managed the product has a crystalline texture, and so beautiful a red colour that it vies with native cinnabar. The liquid poured from the crucible is reserved for manufacturing chrome yellow.

=Red, In′dian.= _Syn._ PURPLE OCHRE; OCHRA PURPUREA PERSICA, TERRA PERSICA, L. This is a native production, brought from Ormus. A factitious article is prepared by calcining a mixture of colcothar and red ochre.

=Lakes= (Various).

=Red, Light.= From yellow ochre, by careful calcination. It works well with both oil and water, and produces an admirable flesh-colour by admixture with pure white. All the ochres, both red and yellow, are darkened by heat.

=Red Or′ange.= _Syn._ SANDIX. Obtained from white lead by calcination. Very bright.

=Real′gar.= Bisulphide of arsenic.

=Red Bole.= See ARMENIAN and VENETIAN BOLE. (Ochres.)

=Red Chalk.= A clay iron ore, much used for pencils and crayons, and, when ground, also for paints.

=Red Lead.= _Syn._ MINIUM. The finest red lead is prepared by exposing ground and elutriated massicott, or dross of lend, in shallow iron trays (about 12 inches square, and about 4 or 5 inches deep), piled up on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, to a heat of about 600 to 650° Fahr., with occasional stirring, until it acquires the proper colour. The furnace employed for the preparation of massicot during the day usually possesses sufficient residuary heat during the night for this process, by which fuel is saved. Lead for the above purpose should be quite free from copper and iron.

=Red O′chre.= A natural product abounding on the Mendip hills.

=Red Or′piment.= _Syn._ RED ARSENIC. Tersulphide of arsenic.

=Red Vene′tian.= _Syn._ BOLUS VENETA, L. A species of ochre, brought from Italy.

=Rose Pink.= This is whiting coloured with a decoction of Brazil wood to which a little pearlash has been added. A very pretty colour, but it does not stand. It is always kept in a damp state. The colour may be varied by substituting alum for pearlash, or by the addition of a little spirits of tin.

=Vermil′ion.= (See under that word.)

=REDUC′TION.= _Syn._ REVIVIFICATION. A term in its fullest sense applied to any operation by which a substance is restored to its neutral state; but now generally restricted, in chemistry, to the abstraction of oxygen, and hence frequently termed deoxidation or deoxidisement. This change is operated by either heating the substance in contact with carbon or hydrogen, or in exposing it to the action of some other body having a powerful affinity for oxygen. See POTASSIUM, &c.

=REFI′′NING.= A term employed in commercial chemistry and metallurgy synonymously with purification. The separation of the precious metals from those of less value, as in the operation of parting, constitutes the business of the ‘refiner.’ See GOLD, SILVER, &c.

=REFRAC′TION (of Light).= The deviation of a ray of light from its original path on entering a medium of a different density or power. For the practical application of this property, see GEMS.

=REFRI′′GERANTS.= Medicines or agents which tend to lessen the animal temperature without causing any marked diminution of sensibility or nervous energy. Among internal refrigerants cold water, weak acidulous drinks, and saline aperients, are those which are probably the best known and the most useful. Among external refrigerants are cold water, evaporating lotions, weak solutions of subacetate of lead, &c.

=REFRIGERA′TION.= The abatement of heat; the act or operation of cooling.

Among the purposes to which refrigeratory processes are applied in the arts, the principal are——the condensation of vapours——the cooling of liquids——the congelation of water, and——the production of extreme degrees of cold in chemical operations. The first of these is referred to under the heads DISTILLATION, STILL, &c., and the second under WORT. It is, therefore, only necessary to notice here the third and fourth applications of cold, artificially produced, above referred to.

The refrigeratory processes at present employed depend upon the greater capacity for heat which the same body possesses as its density lessens, or its attenuation increases; as exhibited in the sudden liquefaction of solids, the rapid evaporation of liquids, and the almost instantaneous return of atmospheric air, or other gaseous body, from a highly condensed state to its normal condition. The loss of sensible heat in the first example is the basis of the various processes of producing cold by what are commonly called ‘FREEZING-’ or ‘FRIGORIFIC-MIXTURES,’ all of which act upon the principle of liquefying solid substances without supplying heat. The caloric of liquidity being in these cases derived from that previously existing in the solid itself in a sensible state, the temperature must necessarily fall. The degree of cold produced depends upon the quantity of heat which is thus diffused through a larger mass, or which, as it were, disappears; and this is dependent on the quantity of solid matter liquefied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline compounds are the substances most frequently employed for this purpose, and those which have the greatest affinity for water, and thus liquefy the most rapidly, produce the greatest degree of cold. Similar changes occur during the evaporation of liquids. When heat passes from the sensible to the insensible state, as in the formation of vapour, cold is generated. This may be shown by pouring a few drops of ether or rectified spirit on the palm of the hand, when a strong sensation of cold is experienced. A still more familiar illustration of this fact is exhibited in the rapidity with which the animal body loses heat when enveloped in damp or wet clothing. The evaporation of water produces a degree of cold which is greater than that of other liquids, in exact proportion as the insensible or latent heat of its vapour exceeds theirs. In the attenuation or rarefaction of gases similar phenomena occur.

It has been found that evaporation proceeds much more rapidly from the surface of fluids in a vacuum than in the atmosphere. Water may be easily frozen by introducing a surface of sulphuric acid under the receiver of an air-pump, over which is placed a capsule filled with water, so that the vapour arising from the latter may be immediately absorbed by the former. After a few strokes of the piston the water is converted into a solid cake of ice. The acid operates by absorbing the aqueous vapours as soon as generated, and thus maintaining the integrity of the vacuum. Professor Leslie found that, when air is thus rarified 250 times, the surface of evaporation was cooled down 120° in winter; and when only 50 times, a depression of 80° or even 100° took place. “Sulphuric acid is capable of congealing more than 20 times its weight of water before it has imbibed nearly its own bulk of that liquid, or has lost about 1/8th of its refrigerating power.” (Ure.) Sulphuric acid, which has become diluted in this way, may be reconcentrated by heat. Any substance having a great tendency to absorb moisture may be substituted for the sulphuric acid. Fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, nitrate of magnesium, chloride of zinc, and oatmeal (dried nearly to brownness before a common fire), have been used for this purpose. Again, instead of employing an air-pump, a vacuum may be produced by the agency of steam, afterwards condensed by the affusion of cold water.

A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of the evaporative power of a vacuum, is the ‘CRYOPHORUS,’ or ‘FROST-BEARER,’ of Dr Wollaston. This instrument consists of two small glass globes, united by a tube, one of which is partly filled with water. The whole apparatus is perfectly free from air, and is, consequently, filled with attenuated aqueous vapours. No sooner is the pressure removed as by plunging the empty ball into a freezing mixture (which condenses the vapour), than rapid evaporation commences, and the water in the other ball is frozen in two or three minutes.

Even in hot climates ice may be produced under favorable circumstances by evaporation. On the open plains, near Calcutta, this is effected by exposing a thin stratum of water to the atmosphere, during the fine clear nights of December, January, and February. The pans are made of porous earthenware, and water is poured in to the depth of about 1-1/2 inch. A large number of these vessels are arranged in an excavation in the ground, 30 or 40 feet square and 2 feet deep, the bottom of which is covered, to the depth of 10 or 12 inches, with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian corn. At sunrise the pans are visited, the ice separated from the water, and packed as tight as possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened from the heat.

Several machines have recently been invented by which water is frozen in large quantities by exposure to condensed air in the act of its subsequent expansion. They are worked by either hand or steam power. The refrigerating apparatus invented by Mr Kirk, of the Bathgate Paraffin Works, acts on this principle; and it does its work so efficiently that it produces a cooling effect equivalent to two tons of ice every twenty-four hours, at a very small expenditure of fuel. A small model worked by hand will readily freeze mercury. Kirk’s apparatus is used at Bathgate to cause the crystallisation of solid paraffin from the heavy paraffin oils. Formerly, a machine, acting by the evaporation of ether, was employed for the same purpose.

For the production of an extremely low temperature, such as is required for the liquefaction of some gases, Faraday employed solid carbonic acid mixed with a little ether.

In the production of ice or an extreme degree of cold, by saline mixtures, the salts should be in the crystallised state, and as rich as possible in water, but without being in the least damp. They should also be coarsely pulverised at the time of using them, and should not be mixed until immediately before throwing them into the liquid ingredients. The mixture should be made in a thick vessel, well clothed, to prevent the accession of external heat; and the substance to be acted on should be contained in a very thin vessel, so as to expose it more fully to the action of the mixture. On the large scale, a vessel called a ‘FREEZING POT’ or ‘SABOTIÈRE’ is commonly employed. The following table, though founded on experiments made more than 50 years ago by Mr Walker, gives full and accurate information on the subject of freezing mixtures:——

Table _exhibiting a few of the most useful_ FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES. _Drawn up from actual experiments performed by_ MR WALKER.

+----------------------------------------+------------------------+---------------+ | | | Deg. of cold | | Ingredients. | Thermometer sinks. | produced. | +----------------------------------------+------------------------+---------------+ | Snow or pounded ice 2 parts { From any | | | Chloride of sodium 1 ” { temperature. to -5° | —— | +----------------------------------------{------------------------+---------------+ | Snow or pounded ice 5 ” { From any | | | Chloride of sodium 2 ” { temperature. to -12° | —— | | Sal ammoniac 1 ” { | | +----------------------------------------{------------------------+---------------+ | Snow or pounded ice 12 ” { From any | | | Chloride of sodium 5 ” { temperature to -25° | —— | | Nitrate of ammonia 5 ” { | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 8 ” | | | Hydrochloric From +32° to -27° | 59° | | acid (_concentrated_) 5 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 2 ” | | | Crystallised chloride From +32° to -50° | 82° | | of calcium 3 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Sal ammoniac 5 ” | | | Nitrate of potassa 5 ” From +50° to +10° | 40° | | Water 16 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” From +50° to +4° | 46° | | Water 1 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” | | | Carbonate of soda 1 ” From +50° to +7° | 57° | | Water 1 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Phosphate of soda 9 ” | | | Nitrate of ammonia 6 ” From +50° to -21° | 71° | | Diluted nitrous acid[135]4 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Sulphate of soda 8 ” From +50° to 0° | 50° | | Hydrochloric acid 5 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 3 ” From 0° to -46° | 46° | | Diluted nitrous acid[135]2 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 2 ” | | | Sulphuric acid[136] 1 ” From -20° to -60° | 40° | | Water 1 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 1 ” | | | Crystallised chloride From 0° to -66° | 66° | | of calcium 2 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 1 ” | | | Crystallised chloride From -40° to -73° | 33° | | of calcium 3 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 8 ” | | | Sulphuric acid 5 ” From -68° to -91° | 23° | | Water 5 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

[Footnote 135: Fuming “nitrous acid,” 2 parts; water, 1 part; by weight.]

[Footnote 136: Prof. Pfaundler has shown that an acid containing 66·19 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4}, is the most advantageous to employ for this purpose; one part of an acid of this strength with 1·097 parts of snow forming a refrigerating mixture which will reduce the temperature to -37° C. (-36° F.). For practical purposes it is suggested an excess of snow would be better, since the refrigerating value of the mixture is thereby largely increased, though the lowest temperature is not obtained. See ICE.]

_Obs._ The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the temperature required in the second, by the use of other mixtures.

=REG′ULUS.= A term applied by the alchemists to various metallic matters obtained by fusion; as REGULUS OF ANTIMONY, ARSENIC, &c. It is now obsolete.

=REL′ISHES.= See SAUCES.

=REMEDIES, FERRUGINOUS.= Rob. Freygang:——

STEEL BRANDY is an ordinary clear brownish brandy, containing a very little bitter matter, like the stomachic bitters of the apothecaries, and mixed with about 1 per cent. of sugar. 10,000 parts contain about 1-1/2 part oxide of iron.

STEEL STOMACHIC BITTERS. This is more aromatic, but otherwise similar to the steel brandy; 10,000 parts contain 2/3 part iron oxide.

STEEL LIQUEUR is a clear, agreeably-tasting liqueur, of the colour and containing much of the juice of raspberries. 10,000 parts contain nearly 1,200 of sugar and only 1 of iron oxide.

STEEL SYRUP——Syrop ferrugineux de Quinquina. A clear slightly violet-coloured, thin, sweet fluid, containing spirit and sugar, of which cinchona bark may be an ingredient, though it is appreciable by neither taste nor tests. It contains 1-1/4 part iron in 10,000 parts.

STEEL BONBONS contain a trace of iron oxide.

The iron present in the above preparations is in the form of citrate. (Hager.)

=REMIT′TENT.= A term applied to fevers, and other diseases, which exhibit a decided remission in violence during the twenty-four hours, but without entirely leaving the patient, in which they differ from intermittents or agues.

=REN′NET.= _Syn._ RUNNET, PREPARED CALF’S MAW. The fourth or true digesting stomach of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and useless membrane, washed, treated with either brine or dry salt for a few hours, and then hung up to dry. When well prepared, the dried ‘vells’ somewhat resemble parchment in appearance.

_Uses, &c._ Rennet is employed to curdle milk. A piece of the requisite size is cut off, and soaked for some hours in whey or water, after which the whole is added to the milk for curdling, slightly warmed, and the mixture is slowly heated, if necessary, to about 122° Fahr. In a short time after this temperature has been attained the milk separates into a solid white coagulum (curd), and into a yellowish, translucent liquid (whey). Two square inches from the bottom of a good ‘vell’ are sufficient for a cheese of 60 lbs. It is the gastric juice of the stomach that operates these changes. The stomachs of all sucking quadrupeds possess the same properties. See CHEESE.

=Rennet, Liquid.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF RENNET. _Prep._ From fresh rennet (cut small), 12 oz.; common salt, 3 oz.; knead them together, and leave the mixture at rest, in a cool place, for 5 or 6 weeks; then add of water 18 oz.; good rum or proof spirit, 2 oz.; lastly, digest for 24 hours, filter, and colour the liquid with a little burnt sugar.

=Rennet, Liquid.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF RENNET. Fresh rennet, 12 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 oz.; white wine, a quart; digest for 24 hours and strain. A quart of milk requires 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls. WISLIN directs 10 parts of a calf’s stomach; salt, 3 parts. The membrane of the stomach is to be cut with scissors and kneaded with the salt, and with the rennet found in the interior of that organ; the whole left in a cool place in an earthen pot till the cheesy odour is replaced by the proper odour of rennet, which will be in one or two months. Then add 16 parts of water and 1 of spirit. Filter and colour with burnt sugar.

The German Pharmacopœia gives the following formula for liquid rennet:——3 parts of the mucous membrane of fresh calf’s rennet, macerated for three days in 26 parts of white wine, 1 part of table salt being added.

_Obs._ 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls will curdle a quart of milk. Some persons use white wine instead of water, with simple digestion for a day or two.

=RES′IN.= _Syn._ RESINA, L. This name is applied to many vegetable principles composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The resins (RESINÆ) cannot be very accurately defined, but we may in a general way describe them as substances which are solid at ordinary temperatures, more or less transparent, inflammable, readily fusible, do not volatilise unchanged, become negatively electrified by rubbing; are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol; mostly inodorous, and readily incorporated with fatty bodies by fusion. Their sp. gr. varies from ·9 to 1·2. According to Liebig, they are oxidised essential oils. Common resin, rosin, or colophony, and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are familiar examples of these substances. (See _below_.)

=Resin, Black.= _Syn._ ROSIN‡, BLACK R.‡, COLOPHONY; RESINA NIGRA, COLOPHONIA, L. What remains of turpentine after the oil has been distilled. When this substance, whilst still fluid, is agitated with about 1-8th part of water, it forms the yellow resin of pharmacy. Used for violin bows, dark-coloured ointments, varnishes, &c.

=Resin, Yel′low.= _Syn._ YELLOW ROSIN‡, WHITE R.‡; RESINA FLAVA, RESINA (Ph. L.), La. Detergent. Used in ointments, plasters, &c. (See _above_.)

=RES′INOIDS.= _Syn._ RESINOUS EXTRACTS, CONCENTRATED E.; EXTRACTA RESINA, L. Under this head, the so-called ‘Eclectics,’ who form a numerous class among American physicians, place their most important ‘concentrated remedies.’ “Viewed as pharmaceutical preparations eligible for use in medicine, though not purified so as to rank as distinctive proximate principles, these are very appropriately named ‘resinous extracts,’ or ‘resins.’ The term ‘resinoid,’ so commonly used, is less appropriate to the class, implying, as it does, a resemblance to resins, while all of these are either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less mixed proximate principles possessing no real resemblance to the class of resins.” (Parrish.) Most of them are prepared from plants indigenous to North America, by precipitating a strong alcoholic tincture with water. They are all brought to the condition of powder, those which are naturally soft and oily being mixed with a sufficient quantity of sugar of milk, or other dry material. One of these eclectic remedies has been introduced into regular practice. See PODOPHYLLIN.

=RESIN, or ROSIN OIL.= This is a product of the dry distillation of resin. The apparatus used consists of an iron pot, a head piece, a condensing arrangement, and a receiver.

In distilling the resin, a bright oil first comes over with water. As soon as a cessation in the flow of the distillate occurs the receiver is changed, and the heat is further raised, when a red-coloured and heavy rosin oil comes over. The black residue remaining in the pot is used as pitch. The light oil, called ‘pinoline,’ is rectified, and the acetic acid water passing over with it is saturated with calcium hydrate, filtered and evaporated to dryness; and the calcium acetate obtained is employed in the manufacture of acetic acid. The rosin oil, obtained after the light oil has passed over, has a dark violet-blue colour, and is called ‘blue rosin oil.’ The red oil is boiled for a day with water, the evaporated water being returned to the vessel; next day the water is drawn off, and the remaining rosin oil is saponified with caustic soda lye of 36° Baumé, and the resulting solid mass is distilled so long as oil passes over.

The product obtained is ‘rectified rosin oil,’ which is allowed to stand in iron vessels, protected by a thin layer of gypsum, whereby after a few weeks a perfectly clear oil is obtained free from water. The oil of first quality is obtained by a repetition of the foregoing operation upon the once rectified oil. The residues of both operations are melted up with the pitch.[137]

[Footnote 137: Dingler’s ‘Polytech. Journ.,’ ccvi, 246 (‘Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ new series, vol. xi, 304).]

Rosin oil is employed in the manufacture of axle grease, the oil being previously converted into a soap by heating with slaked lime.

=RESOLV′ENTS.= _Syn._ DISCUTIENTS; RESOLVENTIA, L. Substances or agents which discuss or resolve inflammatory and other tumours. See DIGESTIVES.

=RESPIRA′TION.= The peculiar function by which the blood is submitted to the action of the air, for the purpose of removing carbonic acid, and restoring its vitality by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen.

The air expired from the lungs is found to have undergone a most remarkable change. It is now loaded with aqueous vapour, whilst a considerable portion of its oxygen has disappeared, and its place is supplied by about a like volume of carbonic acid. It is no longer capable of supporting animal life, and even a lighted taper plunged into it is immediately extinguished. In the mean time the ‘venous blood’ which entered the lungs from the right chambers of the heart has lost its dingy hue, and has acquired the rich florid colour which is characteristic of ‘arterial blood.’ In this state it is returned to the left chambers of the heart, and is propelled by that organ to every part of the body, from which it passes by the capillaries to the veins, and by these again to the heart and lungs, to undergo the same changes and circulation as before. The carbon and hydrogen of the blood, ultimately derived from the food, are, in this course, gradually converted into carbonic acid and water by a species of slow combustion; but how these changes are effected is not definitely ascertained.

The lungs, as is well known, receive the atmospheric air through the trachea or windpipe. At the root of the neck this divides into two branches, called bronchi, and each bronchus, upon entering its respective lung, divides into an infinity of small tubes. The latter terminate in small pouches, called the air-cells, and a number of these little air-cells communicate together at the extremity of each small tube. The number of air-cells in the two lungs has been estimated at 1,744,000,000, and the extent of the membrane which lines the cells and tubes together at 1500 square feet. (Dr Addison.) Under ordinary circumstances, from 22 to 43 cubic inches of air are thrown out at each expiration; but, by a forced effort, 50 or 60 inches are ordinarily expelled. The number of respirations per minute in health, when the individual is tranquil and undisturbed, is about 15. Exercise increases this number. See FOOD, NUTRITION, &c.

=Respiration, Artificial.= Various means have been adopted for this purpose, among which blowing air into the lungs is, perhaps, that generally adopted. A better, and, in general, a much more efficient method, is as follows:——Powerful but not violent pressure is made upon the sides of the chest and upon the abdomen at the same time, by which the cavity of the thorax is diminished, and the air contained in the lungs is expelled; the compression is then suddenly withdrawn, when the elasticity of the ribs causes them to resume their old expanded positions; the chest is again enlarged, a partial vacuum is formed, and air rushes into the lungs, to be again expelled by pressure upon the ribs and abdomen as before. By this means artificial respiration may be kept up for a great length of time, without the use of bellows, or any other apparatus. The chief principle of Dr Marshall Hall’s so-called ‘ready method’ is the postural performance of artificial respiration. The patient is first placed gently on the face, and then turned on the side; then on the face again, alternately; these measures being repeated deliberately, efficiently, and perseveringly, fifteen times in the minute. When the prone position is resumed, equable, but efficient, pressure is applied along the spine; this pressure is removed immediately before rotation on the side.

The ‘Silvester method,’ invented by Dr Henry Silvester, is now acknowledged to be far more effective than Dr Hall’s method, and is adopted by the Royal Humane Society for the restoration of the apparently drowned. It consists in laying the patient on the back, slightly raising the head and shoulders, drawing the tongue forwards, and keeping it so by passing an elastic band over it and under the chin. The arms are then grasped just above the elbows, and drawn gently upwards until they meet above the head (this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs), keeping the arms in that position for two seconds. The patient’s arms are then turned down, and pressed gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides of the chest (this is for the purpose of pressing the air out of the lungs). Artificial breathing is thus carried on. These efforts are repeated fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire is perceived. During the employment of these means the nostrils are excited with snuff or smelling salts, or the throat is tickled with a feather. After natural breathing has been restored, warmth and circulation are induced by wrapping the body in hot blankets, applying bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet, and by rubbing the limbs upwards firmly and energetically.

In the ‘Landw. Versuchs Stat.’ (xviii, 81-169)[138] Rudolph Pott has recorded a series of interesting experiments instituted with the object of determining the comparative quantities of carbonic acid excreted by respiration and perspiration in different species of animals in equal intervals of time; together with some experiments on the excretion of carbonic acid by the same animals under different physiological conditions.

[Footnote 138: ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ 1876, vol. i, p. 721.]

The author states that in his researches he used an air tight box, with glass sides, in which the animal is placed, and through which the air can be drawn at any rate required by means of an aspirator.

The air before entering the glass chamber passes over caustic potash and through baryta water; after leaving the chamber it passes through three flasks containing known quantities of baryta water.

In the first part of this paper the author estimates the amount of carbonic acid excreted by different animals during the space of six hours, and under otherwise similar circumstances. The following are the most important conclusions he arrives at:——

1. The greatest quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their weight is given off by birds. Mammals are the next in order. Insects exhale less than either of these.

2. Worms, amphibia, fishes, and snails form another group which excrete much less carbonic acid. Of these worms exhale the most and snails the least.

3. Those animals of the second group, which live in water, give off the greatest part of their carbonic acid to the air, and only a much smaller portion to the surrounding water.

4. Young animals excrete more carbonic acid than old ones; this is most marked in amphibia. For example 100 grams of an old frog (_Rana temporaria_) exhaled in six hours ·213 grm., whereas 100 grams of a young frog gave off in the same time ·765 grm.

5. The larvæ of insects exhale less carbonic acid than the insects themselves.

6. Different individuals of the same species exhale in the same time nearly the same quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their body-weight.

In the second part of this paper the author describes experiments in the influence of coloured light on the excretion of carbonic acid; in the same animal (mouse) and for the same time.

He concludes that——

1. The excretion of carbonic acid is less in ordinary daylight than in coloured light.

2. The violet and red rays exercise the least influence on the excretion of carbonic acid, the green and yellow are the most active; and the milk-white and blue rays occupy an intermediate position. The relation of these different actions may be expressed by the following figures:——

Violet. Red. Milk-white. 86·89 93·38 100

Blue. Green. Yellow. 122·63 128·52 174·79

Finally, the author experimented with a mouse during the night, and found then the excretion of carbonic acid at that time is considerably less than during the day.

=REVALEN′TA ARABICA.= A mixture of the red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with barley flour, and a little sugar or salt. (‘Lancet.’) See LENTIL and REVALENTA.

=REVERB′ERATORY FURNACE.= See FURNACE.

=REVI′′VER.= _Prep._ 1. (BLACK REVIVER, PARIS’S ANTICARDIUM.)——_a._ Blue galls (bruised), 4 oz.; logwood and sumach, of each 1 oz.; vinegar, 1 quart; macerate in a closed vessel, at a gentle heat, for 24 hours, then strain off the clear, add iron filings and green copperas, of each 1 oz., shake it occasionally for a week, and preserve it in a corked bottle.

_b._ Galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lb.; boil for 2 hours in water, 5 quarts, until reduced to a gallon, then strain, and add of green copperas 1/2 lb. Used to restore the colour of faded black cloth.

2. (BLUE REVIVER.) From soluble Prussian blue, 1 oz.; dissolved in distilled water, 1 quart. Used for either black or blue cloth.

=RHAM′NIN.= _Prep._ Express the juice from buckthorn berries scarcely ripe, which is to be rejected; boil the cake or residue with water, strain with pressure, and filter the liquid whilst hot; crude rhamnin will be deposited as the liquid cools, which, by solution in boiling alcohol and filtration, may be procured in crystals.

_Obs._ Buckthorn juice (succus rhamni), “the juice of the fruit of _Rhamnus catharticus_ (Linn.),” is officinal in the Ph. L.

=RHAT′ANY.= _Syn._ RHATANY ROOT; KRAMERIÆ RADIX (B. P.); KRAMERIA (Ph. L. E. & D.), RHATANIÆ RADIX, L. “The root of _Krameria triandria_.” (Ph. L.) It is stomachic, and powerfully astringent and styptic.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr., either in powder or made into a decoction or infusion. It is much employed in tooth powders, to fix the teeth when they become loosened by the recession of the gums, and also for improving the natural red colour of the lips and gums. A saturated tincture or fluid extract, made with brandy, forms the ‘wine-colouring’ used by the Portuguese to give roughness, colour, and tone to their port wine. Hard extract of rhatany is also much employed for the same purpose.

=RHE′IN.= _Syn._ CHRYSOPHANIC ACID. The yellow colouring principle of rhubarb.

=RHEUMATIC and GOUT PILLS.= (W. Gross Cardiff). Pills weighing 2 grammes rolled in lycopodium, the essential ingredients of which are quinine sulphate, gamboge, jalap, resin, and a little rhubarb. (Hager.)

=RHEU′MATISM.= _Syn._ RHEUMATISMUS, L. An affection of the joints, and of the external muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of the body, attended with swelling, stiffness, and great pain. Acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever,——arthritis, inflammation of the synovial membrane, or rheumatic gout,——sciatica, or rheumatism of the cellular envelope of the great sciatic nerve, affecting the hip,——and lumbago, or rheumatism of the loins, are varieties of this disease.

The treatment of rheumatism consists in the administration of purgatives and diaphoretics or sudorifics, accompanied by tonics, as bark, quinine, &c. Calomel with opium, and iodide of potassium, have also been frequently and successfully employed in this complaint. Of late years the administration of the bicarbonate, citrate, or nitrate of potassa, in rather large doses, has been strongly recommended, and in numerous cases adopted with success. Lemon juice, liberally taken, has also proved useful in suddenly cutting short severe attacks of certain forms of rheumatism. The compound powder of ipecacuanha, taken at night, will generally promote the ease and sleep of the patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend considerably to hasten a cure. Where possible, a dry atmosphere and a regular temperature should be sought, since a damp atmosphere, and, indeed, exposure to damp under any form, are the principal causes of rheumatism. Stimulating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and, above all, the hot or vapour bath, are also frequently serviceable in rheumatism, especially in lumbago and casual attacks arising from cold. The daily use of oranges, or of lemon juice diluted with water, has been found, in the majority of cases, to lessen the susceptibility of those who employ them to attacks of rheumatism and rheumatic gout arising from a damp situation or exposure to the weather. See LEMON JUICE.

=RHO′DIUM.= A whitish metal discovered by Wollaston, in 1803, associated with palladium in the ore of platinum.

It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs of metallic pens (‘rhodium’ or ‘everlasting pens’). A very small quantity added to steel is said to improve its closeness, hardness, and toughness, and to render it less easily corrodible by damp.

=RHU′BARB.= _Syn._ RHEI RADIX (B. P.); RHEUM (Ph. E. & D.), RHEUM——Sinense (Ph. L.), RHABARBARUM†, RHŒM†, L. “The root of uncertain species of Rheum.” (Ph. L.) According to Dr F. Farre, the term ‘sinense’ (Chinese), employed by the London College, “was placed after ‘rheum,’ to include the so-called Russian and East Indian rhubarbs, which are considered to be the produce of China and Chinese Tartary, and to exclude European, Himalayan, &c.”

Three principal varieties of rhubarb are known in this country:——

Russian or Turkey rhubarb is the produce of six-year-old plants of the mountain declivities of Chinese Tartary; and its principal excellence depends on its more careful preparation, and subsequent garbling, both before its selection for the Russian market, and after its arrival at Kiachta, and again at St Petersburg. At Kiachta all pieces of a porous, grey, or pale colour are rejected, the whole being pared and perforated, the better to determine the quality of the interior portion. At St Petersburg the pieces are again carefully examined and garbled, and are, finally, packed in close cases or chests, which are rendered air-tight by the application of pitch on the outside.

East India or Chinese rhubarb is the produce of the locality just referred to, as well as of other parts of China. It is obtained from younger plants, and its preparation and subsequent selection or garbling is conducted with less care.

English rhubarb is principally produced at Banbury, Oxfordshire, from the _Rheum rhaponticum_. It is cut and dressed up after the manner of Turkey rhubarb, for which it is sold by itinerant vendors, habited as Turks.

_Adult._ Dr Maisch[139] says the presence of turmeric may be detected in powdered rhubarb by the following method:——A small quantity of the suspected rhubarb is agitated for a minute or two with strong alcohol, and then filtered, chrysophanic acid being sparingly soluble in this menstruum. The brown yellow colour of the filtrate is due to the resinous principles of rhubarb mainly; if adulterated with turmeric, the tincture will be of a brighter yellow shade; a strong solution of borax produces in both tinctures a deep red-brown colour.

[Footnote 139: ‘American Journal of Pharmacy,’ xliii, 259.]

If now pure hydrochloric acid be added in large excess, the tincture of pure rhubarb will instantly assume a light yellow colour, while the tincture of the adulterated powder will change merely to a lighter shade of brown-red.

The test is a very delicate one, and is based on the liberation of boracic acid, which imparts to curcumine a colour similar to that produced by alkalies, while all the principles of rhubarb soluble in strong alcohol yield pale yellow solutions in acid liquids.

_Qual._ Russian or Turkey rhubarb occurs in irregular plano-convex or roundish lumps, perforated with a circular hole; it possesses a yellow colour outside; when recently broken, the inside presents a rich mottled appearance, and evolves a peculiar and somewhat aromatic odour. It is firm, compact, heavy, perfectly free from moisture, and easily grated. Its taste is bitter, slightly astringent, and sub-acid; and when chewed it feels gritty, and tinges the saliva of a beautiful yellow colour. It breaks with a rough, hackly fracture, is easily pulverised, and its powder is of a bright buff-yellow colour.

East India, Canton, or Chinese rhubarb is in flat pieces, seldom perforated, and its taste and odour are stronger than the other. It is also heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hue, and when pulverised the powder is redder than that of Russian rhubarb.

English rhubarb possesses all the preceding qualities in a greatly less degree. It is light and spongy, does not feel gritty between the teeth, its taste is mucilaginous, and its powder has a peculiar pinkish hue not present in either of the other varieties of rhubarb. As a medicine it possesses little value, and is chiefly employed to adulterate East India and Turkey rhubarb.

_Prop., &c._ Rhubarb is astringent, stomachic, and purgative. In small doses its operation is principally or wholly confined to the digestive organs; in larger ones, it first acts as a mild aperient, and, afterwards, as an astringent; hence its value in diarrhœa. It has also been used externally to promote the healing of indolent sores.——_Dose._ As a stomachic, 1 to 5 gr.; as a purgative, 10 to 20 gr. It is most effective when chewed, or in the form of powder produced by grating it.

=Rhubarb, Roast′ed.= _Syn._ BURNT RHUBARB; RHEUM USTUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Rhubarb, in coarse powder, is carefully and regularly heated in a smooth shallow iron disc, with constant stirring, until its colour has changed to a moderately dark brown, when it is allowed to cool out of contact with the air; when cold, it is reduced to powder, and at once put into a well-closed bottle.

2. (Hoblyn.) Roast powdered rhubarb, in an iron vessel, constantly stirring, until it becomes almost black; then smother it in a covered jar.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; as an astringent in diarrhœa, and a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. Prof. Procter, the well-known American Pharmaceutist, recommends the rhubarb to be only roasted to a ‘light brown.’

=RICE.= _Syn._ ORYZA, L. The seed of _Oryza sativa_, a plant of the natural order _Graminaceæ_. Several varieties are known in commerce, distinguished by the name of the country or district which produces them. The finest is that imported from Carolina. It reaches this country in a decorticated condition. ‘Paddy’ is rice with the husk upon it. Dr Letheby estimates that it affords nourishment to not less than a hundred millions of people.

As an article of diet, rice is highly nutritious and wholesome when combined with fresh animal or other nitrogenised food; but, owing to the very small quantity of ‘flesh-formers’ which it contains, and its comparative destitution in saline matter, it is totally unfit to form the principal portion of the diet of the working classes, or the poorly fed, at least in this climate. “It does not appear so well calculated for European constitutions as the potato, for we find the poor constantly reject it when potatoes can be had.” This preference evidently depends on something more than mere whim or taste, for some years ago, when rice was substituted for potatoes in some of our union workhouses, the most serious consequences followed. In one of these, nine or ten deaths from scurvy and allied diseases occurred in a single fortnight. Large quantities of rice are annually imported into Britain, and used by distillers in the manufacture of spirits.

Letheby gives the following as the composition of rice:——

Nitrogenous matter 6·3 Carbo-hydrates 79·5 Fatty matter 0·7 Saline matter 0·5 Water 13·0 —————— 100·0

Payen gives the following as the composition of dried rice:——

Nitrogenous matter 7·55 Starch 88·65 Dextrin, &c. 1·00 Fatty matter 0·80 Cellulose 1·10 Mineral water 0·90 —————— 100·00

Ash of rice:——

Potash 18·48 Soda 10·67 Lime 1·27 Magnesia 11·69 Oxide of iron 0·45 Phosphoric acid 53·36 Chlorine 0·27 Silica 3·35 —————— 99·54

=Rice, To Cook.= If rice is boiled it should be subjected to a low temperature. The best way of cooking rice, however, is by thoroughly steaming it. By this method, it is said, the loss of nitrogenous matter is prevented, and the grain consequently suffers no diminution of nutritive power, as in the case of boiling.

_Microscopic appearance of Rice._

Fig. 1——Transverse section of the husk of rice.

Fig. 2.——Appearance of husk as seen in a transparent medium of glycerin and gum: _a_, Siliceous granules arranged in longitudinal and transverse ridges, perforated by openings——stomata, some having hairs over them. _b c_, Transverse and longitudinal, brittle, rough-edged fibres, _d_, A fine membrane of transverse angular cells; these overlie a very delicate membrane of large cells, _e_.

=RICINO′LEIC ACID.= A variety of oleic acid discovered in saponified castor oil.

=RICK′ETS.= _Syn._ RACHITIS, L. A disease, generally confined to childhood, characterised by a large head, prominent forehead, protruded breast bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, emaciated limbs, and great general debility. The bones, more particularly those of the spine and legs, become distorted, and exhibit a deficiency of earthy matter; the stools are frequent and loose, a slow fever succeeds, with cough, painful and difficult respiration, and, unless the child rallies, atrophy is confirmed, and death ensues. When recovery takes place there is always more or less deformity left.

The common causes of rickets are bad nursing, exposure to damp and cold, and insufficient nutrition, arising from the use of white bread containing alum, or any of the pernicious compounds vended under the names of ‘FARINACEOUS FOOD,’ ‘INFANTS’ F.,’ ‘PATENT F.,’ &c. Rickets, like caries of the bones, is a disease which is scarcely known amongst infants whose pap is made of pure wheaten bread, and whose mothers or nurses consume the same themselves.

The treatment of rickets depends more on proper domestic management than on direct medication. Careful nursing, warm dry clothing, thorough ventilation, moderate exercise, and, above all, a light nutritious mixed diet abounding in nitrogenous matter and the phosphates, will do much to effect a cure. To these may be added the administration of the milder chalybeate tonics, bark, or quinine, with occasional doses of some mild aperient, as phosphate of soda, or, when there is diarrhœa, of rhubarb or some other tonic purge. The administration of small doses of phosphate of lime or of dilute phosphoric acid, frequently repeated, or, still better, the daily use of jelly made of pure ivory or bone shavings, will often effect wonders in those cases in which the bones are implicated from an apparent deficiency of earthy matter. See BREAD, FARINA, NURSING, &c.

=RING′WORM.= _Syn._ SCALD-HEAD; PORRIGO, L. The common ringworm, the PORRIGO SCUTULATA of medical writers, is a disease that appears in circular patches of little pustules, which afterwards form scabs, leaving a red pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs of the hair in its progress. It spreads rapidly, and is very infectious, often running through a whole school. It chiefly affects the neck, forehead, and scalp of weakly children, and frequently arises without any apparent cause, but, in general, may be traced to uncleanness, or contact with parties suffering from the disease.

The treatment of ringworm consists in shaving the part, and keeping it clean with soap and water, at the same time that an occasional mild saline aperient is administered, and a light, nutritious diet, of which the red meat and ripe fruits should form a portion, be rigorously adhered to. When the scabbing commences, dressings of tar ointment, or of the ointment of nitrate or red oxide of mercury, or a mixture of equal parts of the first and either the second or third, should be applied, in each case diluting the mixture with sufficient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability of the part. During this treatment the head should be covered with an ordinary nightcap, or some simple bandage, and not enveloped in a bladder or oil-skin case, as is commonly the practice, since the complete exclusion of atmospheric air tends to aggravate the disease.

=RI′′PENING.= See BREWING, MALT LIQUORS, WINE, &c.

=ROAST′ING.= Alexis Soyer recommends, “as an invariable rule,” that “all dark meats, such as beef and mutton, should be put down to a sharp fire for at least fifteen minutes, until the outside has acquired a coating of osmazome, or condensed gravy, and then removed back, and allowed to cook gently. Lamb, veal, and pork, if young and tender, should be done at a moderate fire. Veal should even be covered with paper.

“Very rich meat, if covered with paper, does not require basting. Fowls, &c., should be placed close to the fire, to set the skin, and in about ten minutes rubbed over with a small piece of butter, pressed in a spoon. Meats, whilst roasting, should be dredged with flour, just at the time when the gravy begins to appear; the flour absorbs it, and forms a coating which prevents any more coming out. Hares and small game should be treated in the same manner.”

Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire, and the distance between it and the joint, beef, mutton, and veal, take about 1/4 hour per lb. in roasting. Lamb, poultry, and small game, require only 12 to 14 minutes per lb.; whilst veal takes fully 15 minutes, and pork takes from 1/4 hour to 20 minutes, as they must always be well done. The flesh of old animals requires more cooking than the flesh of young ones; and inferior, tough, and bony parts than the prime joints and pieces.

Roasting is not an economical method of cooking pieces of meat abounding in bone or tendinous matter, since the nutritious portion of these is either destroyed or rendered insoluble by the heat employed. Thus, the raw bones from a joint are capable of affording a rich and excellent basin of soup, highly nutritious; whilst the bones from a corresponding joint which has been roasted are nearly worthless when so treated. The same applies with even greater force to the gristly and tendinous portions. A dry heat either destroys them or converts them into a horny substance, unfit for food; whilst by boiling they are transformed into a highly succulent and nutritious article of food, besides affording excellent soup or jelly. Hence the policy of ‘boning’ meat before roasting or baking it; or, at all events, of removing the bony portion which would be most exposed to the action of the fire. See BONE and JELLY.

=ROB.= _Syn._ ROOB. A term, derived from the Arabic, formerly applied to the inspissated juice of ripe fruit, mixed with honey or sugar to the consistence of a conserve of thin extract. Rob of elder-berries (ELDER ROB; ROOB SAMBUCI), juniper berries (JUNIPER ROB; ROOB JUNIPERI), mulberries (MULBERRY ROB; ROOB DIAMORUM), and walnuts (WALNUT ROB; ROOB DYACARYON), with a few others, are still found in some of the foreign Pharmacopœias.

=ROCK.= The popular name of a sweetmeat formed of sugar boiled to a candy, and then poured upon an oiled slab, and allowed to cool in the lump. It is variously flavoured.

=ROCK CRYS′TAL.= Native crystallised silica. See QUARTZ.

=ROCK OIL.= See PETROLEUM.

=ROCK SOAP.= A native silicate of alumina; used for crayons, and for washing cloth.

=ROC′KETS.= (In pyrotechny.) _Prep._ The CASES.——These are made of stout cartridge paper, rolled on a mould and pasted, and then throttled a little below the mouth, like the neck of a phial. The diameter should be exactly equal to that of a leaden ball of the same weight, and the length should be equal to 3-1/2 times the external diameter. Above the spindle there must be one interior diameter of composition driven solid. They are filled with the following mixtures, tightly driven in, and when intended for flight (SKY-ROCKETS), they are ‘garnished,’ and affixed to willow rods to direct their course.

The COMPOSITION.——1. (Marsh.)——_a._ For 2-oz. rockets. From nitre, 54-1/2 parts; sulphur, 18 parts; charcoal, 27-1/4 parts; all in fine powder, and passed through lawn.

_b._ For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; charcoal, 20 parts; as the last.

_c._ For 1/2-lb. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62-3/4 parts; sulphur, 15-3/4 parts; charcoal, 21-1/2 parts.

2. (Ruggieri.)——_a._ For rockets of 3/4-inch diameter. From nitre, 16 parts; charcoal, 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts.

_b._ For 3/4- to 1-1/2-inch rockets, use 1 part more of nitre.

_c._ For 1-3/4-inch rockets, use 2 parts more of nitre.

_d._ By using 1 part less of charcoal and adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts of fine steel filings, the above are converted into ‘BRILLIANT FIRES,’

_e._ By the substitution of coarse cast-iron borings for filings, and a further omission of 2 parts of charcoal from each, the latter are converted into ‘CHINESE FIRE,’

HAND-ROCKETS and GROUND-ROCKETS are usually loaded with nothing but very fine meal gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or borings.

After SKY-ROCKETS and WATER-ROCKETS are charged, a piece of clay is driven in, through which a hole is pierced, and the ‘head’ or ‘garniture’ filled with stars, and a little corn-powder is then applied. See FIRES, STARS, and PYROTECHNY.

=ROLLS.= A variety of fancy bread, generally in the form of small semi-cylindrical cakes, prepared by the bakers, and intended to be eaten hot for breakfast. They differ from ordinary fine or French bread, as it is called, chiefly in containing more water. Some are wetted up with milk and water, and are hence called ‘milk rolls.’

=ROLL (Wine).= _Prep._ Soak a French roll or sponge-biscuit in raisin, marsala, or sherry wine, surround it by a custard or cream thickened with eggs, and add some spice and ornaments.

=ROOT.= _Syn._ RADIX, L. That part of a plant which imbibes its nourishment from the soil or medium in which it grows. In popular language, bulbs, corms, tubers, &c., are improperly included under this term.

=RO′′PINESS.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.

=RHYPOPH′AGON.= _Prep._ From yellow soap, sliced, 1 oz.; soft soap (finest), 3 oz.; melt them by the heat of hot water, then allow them to cool a little, and stir in of oil of cloves, 1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 drops. It is kept a month before sale. Used for shaving.

=ROSE.= _Syn._ ROSA, L. The typical genus of the natural order _Rosaceæ_. It includes numerous species greatly prized as garden plants.

=Rose, Cabbage.= _Syn._ HUNDRED-LEAVED ROSE; ROSÆ CENTILFOLIÆ PETALA (B. P.), ROSA CENTIFOLIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The fresh petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are used in medicine. Odorous and slightly astringent and laxative. See WATERS and SYRUP.

=Rose, Dog.= The _Rosa canina_, or wild briar. See HIPS.

=Rose, French.= _Syn._ RED ROSE; ROSÆ GALLICÆ PETALA (B. P.), ROSA GALLICA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The fresh and dried unexpanded petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are officinal. The white claws of the petals are removed before drying them.

_Uses, &c._ The red rose is an elegant astringent and tonic, and, as such, is used as the basis of several pharmaceutical preparations. See CONFECTION, HONEYS, INFUSION, and SYRUP.

=ROSE′MARY.= _Syn._ ROSMARINUS (Ph. L. E. & D.) The flowering tops of _Rosmarinus officinalis_ (Linn.), or the common rosemary of our gardens, are officinal in the Ph. E. & D.; as is also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in the B. P. and Ph. L. The odour of both is refreshing, and they are reputed carminative, emmenagogue, and neurotic. The dried leaves are occasionally used by the hysterical and hypochondriacal as a substitute for China tea. The oil is an ingredient in Hungary water, and is much used in various cosmetic compounds, under the presumption of its encouraging the growth of hair and improving its quality.

=ROSE PINK.= See RED PIGMENTS.

=RO′SIN.= See RESIN.

=ROSY-DROP.= See ACNE.

=ROT.= _Syn._ GREATROT, HYDROPHIC R.,

SHEEP R., WET R. A disease peculiar to sheep, produced by the presence in the liver of the _Distoma hepatica_, a parasite commonly known under the name of “a fluke.” Rot prevails during very wet or rainy seasons. The leading symptoms are loss of flesh and vivacity; the lips and tongue look vivid, and the eyes sad and glassy; the pelt comes off on the slightest pull; the breath is fetid, and the urine highly coloured and scanty; and there is either black purging or obstinate costiveness. The treatment consists in a change to a dry warm elevated situation, and a dry diet, consisting of oats, barley meal, tail-wheat, &c., to which some turnips, carrots, or mangel wurzel may be added, with a liberal supply of common salt, and a few grains of sulphur, daily. These last two substances form the active ingredients in Flesh’s ‘Patent Restorative.’ See MEAT, DISEASE OF.

=ROT (in Timber).= See DRY ROT.

=ROTA′TION (of Crops).= The rotation or succession of crops is absolutely necessary for the successful and economical cultivation of the soils. Crops have been divided by agriculturists into exhausting crops, restoring crops, and cleaning crops. The most exhausting crops are usually considered to be those of corn, but all those that are allowed to ripen their seed and which are carried off the ground are also exhausting, but in different degrees. Even clover, tares, and grass cut green are considered as exhausting, but in a less degree than those that are allowed to ripen. Restoring crops are such as are allowed to decay upon the ground, or are consumed upon it by domestic animals. Cleaning crops are such as are grown in drills, and undergo the usual operations of weeding, hoeing, &c.; the majority of these may also be regarded as exhausting crops. An exhausting crop should always be followed by a restoring or a cleaning crop; or, where possible, by both combined. Crops should also succeed each other in such a way that the soil may not be exhausted of any one particular kind of nutriment. This is best effected by so rotating the crops that plants which are nearly allied should not succeed each other on the same soil, or, at all events, not more than once. See AGRICULTURE, SOILS, &c.

=ROT′TEN STONE.= See TRIPOLI.

=ROUGE.= _Syn._ TOILET ROUGE; ROUGE VEGETAL, ROUGE D’ESPAGNE, Fr. _Prep._ Wash safflower (any quantity) until the water comes off colourless; dry and pulverise it, and digest the powder in a weak solution of crystallised carbonate of soda; then place some fine cotton-wool at the bottom of a porcelain or glass vessel, pour the filtered tinctorial solution on this, and throw down the colouring matter, by gradually adding lemon juice or white-wine vinegar, until it ceases to produce a precipitate; next wash the prepared cotton in pure cold water, and dissolve out the colour with a fresh solution of soda; to the new solution add a quantity of finely powdered talc or French chalk, proportionate to the intended quality of rouge; mix well, and precipitate with lemon juice, as before; lastly, collect the powder, dry it with great care, with as little heat as possible, and triturate it with a very small quantity of oil of olives, to render it smooth and adhesive.

_Obs._ According to the best authorities, this is the only article which will brighten a lady’s complexion without injuring the skin. The relative fineness and proportion of talc employed determines the quality of the rouge. It is applied by means of a camel-hair pencil, a small ‘powder puff,’ or a hare’s foot. It is also employed under the form of ‘pommade’ and ‘crepons.’ The last of these consist of pieces of white woollen crape, upon which the colouring matter of the carthamus has been precipitated, instead of upon the talc, noticed above.

The following articles also pass under the name of rouge, and are used for the purposes named after each:——

=Rouge, Brown-red.= Jeweller’s rouge.

=Rouge, Chinese Card.= This is said to be a ‘carthamate of soda,’ it is colourless when applied, but, being decomposed by the acid secretions of the skin, acquires a most beautiful rose-like tint. (O’Shaughnessy.)

=Rouge, Jeweller’s.= Sesquioxide of iron prepared by calcination. Used to polish gold, &c.

=Rouge, Liquid.= The red liquid left from the preparation of carmine; or a solution of carmine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of pure rouge in alcohol acidulated with acetic acid.

=Rouge, Indienne.= The terra persica, or Indian red; imported from Ormuz.

=Rouge de Prusse.= Light red or burnt yellow ochre. See RED PIGMENTS.

=Rouge, Spanish Lady’s.= This is cotton wool which has been repeatedly wetted with an ammoniacal solution of carmine, and dried. It is applied like ‘rouge crepons.’

=Rouge d’Athenes, Vert.= _Syn._ PURE ROUGE. See CARTHAMINE.

=ROUGH′ENING.= See WINES.

=RUBEFA′′CIENTS.= _Syn._ RUBEFACIENTIA, L. Substances or agents which, when applied for a certain time to the skin, occasion a redness and increase of heat, without blistering. They act as counter-irritants. Mustard, powdered ginger (both made into a paste with water), hartshorn and oil, and ether and spirit of wine (when their evaporation is prevented), are familiar examples of this class of remedies.

=RUBE′OLA.= See MEASLES.

=RUBIA′CIN.= An orange-coloured substance, obtained from madder.

=RUBID′IUM.= [Eng., L.] A metal belonging to the alkaline group discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff by means of spectrum analysis. It is found in many mineral waters associated with cæsium.

=RU′BY.= See GEMS and PASTES.

=RUE.= _Syn._ RUTÆ FOLIA, RUTA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The leaf _Ruta graveolens_.” (Ph. L.) A powerful antispasmodic, diuretic, and stimulant. It is also reputed nervine and emmenagogue. The fresh leaves are powerfully acrid, and even vesicant; but they become milder in drying.——_Dose._ Of the powder, 15 to 30 gr., twice or thrice daily; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c. See INFUSION and OILS (Volatile).

=RUM.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS JAMACIENSIS, SPIRITUS SACCHARI, L. An ardent spirit obtained by distillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar-boilers (syrup scum), the drainings of the sugar-pots and hogsheads (molasses), the washings of the boilers and other vessels, together with sufficient recent cane juice or wort, prepared by mashing the crushed cane, to impart the necessary flavour. The sweet liquor before fermentation commonly contains from 12 to 16% of saccharine, and every ten gallons yield from one to two gallons of rum.

The average strength of rum, as imported into this country, is about 20 O.P. Like all other spirits, it is colourless when it issues from the still, but owing to the taste of the consumer the distiller is compelled to colour it before it leaves his premises.

_Obs._ Rum is imported from the West Indies. The best comes from Jamaica, and is hence distinguished by that name. Leeward Island rum is less esteemed. The duty on rum is 10_s._ 2_d._ per proof-gallon if imported direct from any of the British Colonies (Colonial rum), but 10_s._ 5_d._ if from any other part of the world (foreign rum). The consumption of rum has long been declining in England; its place being chiefly supplied by gin. Rum owes its flavour to a volatile oil and butyric acid, a fact which the wary chemist has availed himself of in the manufacture of a butyric compound (essence of rum) for the especial purpose of enabling the spirit dealer to manufacture a factitious rum from malt or molasses spirit. In Jamaica it is usual to put sliced pine apples into the puncheons containing the finer qualities of rum, which is then termed pine-apple rum. See ALCOHOL, SPIRIT, &c.

=RUM, BAY, R. Rother’s Formula for.= According to an American authority, true bay rum is made from _Pimenta acris_ (_Myrica acris_, Schwartz; _Myrtus acris_, Willd.), and not from _Laurus nobilis_, as commonly supposed; the method of its distillation not being known outside the West Indies, it has been customary to make it extemporaneously with the oil of bay distilled from the leaves of the former plant. This preparation is inferior in fragrance, however, to the genuine article. The following formula of R. Rother is said to give very good results. Take of oil of bayberry, 1 fl. oz.; Jamaica rum, 1 pint; strong alcohol, 4 pints; water, 3 pints. Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix and filter.

=RUPERT’S DROPS.= These are made by letting drops of melted glass fall into cold water. By this means they assume an oval form, with a tail or neck resembling a retort. They possess this singular property that, if a small portion of the tail is broken off, the whole bursts into powder with an explosion, and a considerable shock is communicated to the hand.

=RUPIA.= This is an affection of the skin attended by the formation on it of vesicles, that develop into ulcers which copiously discharge a foul, unhealthy, and reddish matter. After a time this matter hardens and forms a thick incrustation over the sores.

The best treatment is to put the patient upon a generous diet, including wine, and to administer iodide of potassium with sarsaparilla or quinine. The scabs should be poulticed.

=RUP′TURE.= See SURGERY.

=RUSKS.= _Prep._ From 4 eggs; new milk and warm water, of each 1/2 pint; melted butter and sugar, of each 1/4 lb.; yeast, 3 table-spoonfuls; beat well together with as much flour, added gradually, as will make a very light paste; let it rise before the fire for half an hour, then add a little more flour, form into small loaves or cakes 5 or 6 inches wide, and flatten them; bake these moderately, and, when cold, cut them into slices of the size of rusks, and put them into the oven to brown a little. A nice tea-cake when hot, or with caraways, to eat cold. PLAIN RUSKS are made by simply cutting loaves of bread into slices, and baking them in a slow oven to the proper colour.

=RUS′MA.= An arsenical iron pyrites, found in Galatia, which, when reduced to powder, and mixed with half its weight of quicklime, is used by the Turkish ladies to make their ‘PSILOTHRONS,’ or compounds to remove superfluous hair. See DEPILATORY.

=RUST.= _Syn._ RUBIGO, L. The coating or film of oxide or carbonate which forms on the surface of several of the metals when exposed to a moist atmosphere; more particularly, that which forms on iron or steel (FERRI HYDRATE; HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; FERRUGO, FERRI RUBIGO).

To prevent iron or steel goods rusting, it is merely necessary to preserve them from damp or moisture. In the shops, small articles in steel are, commonly, either varnished or enclosed in quick-lime finely pulverised; large articles are generally protected with a coating of plumbago, or of boiled oil, or some cheap varnish, applied to them, previously gently heated. Surgical instruments are frequently slightly smeared with a little strong mercurial ointment, with the same intention.

Spots of rust may be removed from the surface of polished iron or steel by rubbing them with a little tripoli or very fine emery made into a paste with sweet oil; or, chemically, by a mixture of polisher’s putty-powder with a little oxalic acid, applied with water. When the last is employed, the articles should be afterwards well rinsed in pure water, then wiped dry, and finished off with a warm and dry rubber, in order to remove every trace of acid.

=RUTHENIC ACID.= _Syn._ RUTHENIC ANHYDRIDE (RuO_{3}). This may be procured by heating any of the preceding oxides with potassic nitrate. Ruthenic acid is insoluble in water.

=Ruthenic Sesquioxide= (Ru_{2}O_{3}); occurs in the anhydrous form when the metal is ignited in a current of air. It is the most stable of the basic oxides of the metal. Alkalies fail to dissolve it. With acids it forms soluble salts of a yellow colour; when, to a solution of these, an alkali is added, a bulky blackish-brown precipitate of the hydrated oxide, having the composition Ru_{2}O_{3},8H_{2}O, is thrown down.

There are three chlorides of ruthenium:——RuCl_{2}; RuCl_{3}; and RuCl_{4}.

=RUTHEN′IUM.= (Ru. = 104·2.) A metal discovered by Claus, associated with iridium, in the residue from crude platinum, which is insoluble in aqua regia. It forms small angular masses, with a metallic lustre; is very brittle and infusible; resists the action of acids, but readily oxidises when heated in the air. Sp. gr. 11 to 11·4.

In Fremy’s process for separating osmium from the residues of platinum ore, ruthenium occurs in a dioxide. By heating this dioxide in a current of oxygen, the metal may be obtained in the form of a powder of dark grey colour.

With oxygen, ruthenium forms four compounds:——RuO; Ru_{2}O_{3}; RuO_{2}; and RuO_{3}.

=Ruthenium Trichloride= (RuCl_{3}), which is the most important of the chlorides, may be procured by dissolving the sesquioxide in hydrochloric acid. The solution being evaporated, the trichloride occurs as a greenish-blue deliquescent mass, which is soluble in alcohol.

_Tests._ In solutions of the trichloride, hydrogen sulphide gives a brown precipitate of ruthenic sesquisulphide, the supernatant liquid being of a bright blue colour. This reaction is a very delicate as well as a very characteristic one.

Metallic zinc reduces the yellow trichloride to the blue dichloride, the metal being afterwards precipitated as a black powder. Plumbic acetate gives a purplish-red precipitate, mercuric cyanide a blue one, the supernatant liquid being also blue. The caustic and carbonated alkalies throw down a black precipitate of sesquioxide of ruthenium, which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant. If the salts of ruthenium are boiled with sodic formiate or oxalate the solution becomes colourless, but no precipitate of reduced metal takes place.

=RYE.= _Syn._ SECALE, L. The seed of _Secale cereale_, a gramineous plant, the native country of which is undetermined. It is a more certain crop and requires less culture and manure than wheat, and is hence largely cultivated in Germany, Russia, and in the northern parts of Europe, where it is extensively employed for bread. When roasted it is occasionally used as a substitute for coffee. It furnishes an excellent malt for the distillation of spirit, and is much used in the making of Hollands.

Rye bread is very likely to cause diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to partake of it. By continued use, however, this inconvenience disappears. Rye bread is acid and dark in colour. It is about equal in nutritive power to wheat. It is less abundant than wheat in fibrin, but richer in casein and albumen.

The foregoing plate represents the microscopic appearance of rye.

Sommer recommends the microscopic examination of rye flour to be conducted as follows:——The flour is placed on a glass slide, and moistened with water; a single drop of oil of vitriol is added, and a small disc is laid upon it. If, now, it be viewed with a magnifying power of 200, the starch grains of wheat and rye are seen to dissolve in a uniform manner, but the grains of barley starch, after losing their external coat, break up into a number of polyhedrons before their solution is completed.

=Rye, Spurred.= See ERGOT.

=SABADIL′LA.= _Syn._ CEBADILLA, CEVADILLA, SABADILLA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. The dried fruit (_Asagræa officinalis_). A drastic and dangerous cathartic, occasionally used in tapeworm; and, externally, to destroy pediculi, but, even for this purpose, when the scalp has been denuded or ulcerated, it has sometimes caused death. It is now used chiefly as a source of VERATRINE.

=SA′BLE.= The _Mustella Zibellina_ (Linn.), a small quadruped of the martin-cat family, found in Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable for its fine quality and rich colour, and for the hairs turning with equal ease in every direction. The skins of the rabbit, cat, &c., dressed, painted, and lustred, are sold under the name of COMMON or MOCK SABLE.

=SABOTIÈRE.= [Fr.] An apparatus of peculiar construction, employed by the French confectioners for making ices. It consists of a pail to contain a freezing mixture, and an inner vessel for the creams to be iced. It may be used with a mixture of pounded ice and salt, or any other freezing mixture. The pail and cream vessels being loaded, and closely covered, an alternate rotatory motion is given to the apparatus by means of the handle, for 10 or 15 minutes, care being taken to occasionally scrape down the frozen portion of the cream from the sides, by means of a wooden spoon. See ICES and REFRIGERATION.

=SACCHAR′IC ACID.= _Syn._ OXALHYDRIC ACID†. A compound, resulting from the action of dilate nitric acid on sugar.

=SAC′CHARINE.= The technical name of the uncrystallisable sugar found in malt-wort.

=SACCHARINE FERMENTATION.= This occurs during the germination and kiln-drying of grain in the operation of malting, and in the mashing of malt in brewing. The sweetening of bread during its exposure to heat in the oven is also included under this head by many writers.

The substance which most powerfully excites the sugar fermentation was first shown by Payen and Persoz to be a peculiar principle to which they have given the name of ‘DIASTASE,’ This is always present in good malt, and possesses the singular property of converting STARCH successively into gum (dextrin) and sugar, at a temperature ranging between 149° and 168° Fahr. During the action of this substance on starch it is itself decomposed; and when the sugar fermentation ceases it is found to have entirely disappeared. It is the presence of diastase in malt which alone converts the starch of the grain into sugar during the operation of mashing with hot water; and hence the absolute necessity of employing water at the proper temperature, as on this depends the strength and sweetness of the wort, and consequently its fitness for undergoing the vinous fermentation, and for making beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten also possess the property of exciting the saccharine fermentation, but in a considerably inferior degree to diastase.

The sugar formed during the germination of seeds containing starch results from the action of diastase, and disappears as soon as the woody fibre (lignin), which has a similar constitution, is developed, forming the skeleton of the young plant. (Liebig.) See BREWING, DIASTASE, DEXTRIN, &c.

=SACCHAROM′ETER.= An instrument similar in principle to the common spirit hydrometer, but so weighted and graduated as to adapt it for the indication of the richness of malt-worts in sugar, or saccharine, expressed in pounds per barrel, or the excess of gravity over that of water, the last being taken at 1000. See BREWING, SYRUP, WORT, &c.

=SACH′ET.= _Syn._ SACCULUS, L. Sachets (SACCULI) are little bags containing dry substances, used for the external medication of parts, or for communicating agreeable perfumes to wearing apparel, drawers, furniture, &c. Those belonging to perfumery are commonly filled with mixtures of fragrant vegetable substances, reduced to coarse powder, and differ from those employed for _pot pourri_ chiefly in being used in the dry state. Sacculi are now seldom employed in this country in legitimate medicine. See POWDERS (Scented), &c.

=Sachet, Ammoniacal.= _Syn._ SACCULUS AMMONIACALIS. _Prep._ Equal parts of sal ammoniac and quicklime are mixed, and sprinkled between cotton wadding, which is to be quilted in muslin.

=Sachet, Anodyne.= (Quincy.) _Syn._ SACCULUS ANODYNUS. _Prep._ Chamomiles, 1 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; lavender flower, 1/2 oz.; henbane seed, 1 dr.; opium, 1 dr. To be dipped in hot spirits.

=Sachet, Anti-phthisic.= _Syn._ SACCULUS ANTI-PHTHISICUS, L. _Prep._ Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz., in strong decoction of fresh rue, 1/2 pint; next fold a piece of soft muslin in eight folds large enough to cover the chest and part of the stomach; steep this in the decoction, and dry it in the shade; lastly, place in a small bag, one side of which is formed of scarlet silk or wool, and the other, intended to be worn next the skin, of the finest net or gauze. A celebrated domestic remedy for consumption and asthma. It is intended to be constantly worn on the chest.

=Sachet, Resolv′ent.= _Syn._ MELTING BAG; SACCULUS RESOLVENS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Breslau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; dry, and reduce each separately to fine powder; mix them, and enclose 1/2 oz. to 1 oz. of the mixed powder in a small bag of linen or silk. Used as a resolvent to indolent tumours, especially goitres and scrofulous indurations. It should be worn on the part night and day for some time. The part next the skin should be well pricked with a needle, and the powder shaken up and readjusted every 2 or 3 days; and it should be renewed about once a fortnight.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; burnt sponge, 4 parts; fine sawdust, 5 parts; as before.

=Sachet, Sponge.= _Syn._ SACCULUS SPONGII, COLLIER DE MORAND. _Prep._ Muriate of ammonia, chloride of sodium, burnt sponge, of each 1 oz.; mix, sprinkle the powder on a piece of cotton wool, and quilt between muslin, in the form of a cravat. To be worn constantly in goitre or bronchocele, renewing it every month.

=Sachet, Stomachic.= (Fuller.) _Syn._ SACCULUS. _Prep._ Mint, 4 drm.; wormwood, thyme, red roses, each 2 drm.; balastines, angelica root, caraway seed, nutmeg, mace, cloves, of each 1 drm. Coarsely powder the ingredients, and put them into a bag, to be moistened with hot red wine when applied for flatulence.

=SACK.= (From SEC, Fr., dry.) A wine used by our ancestors, supposed by some to have been Rhenish or Canary; but, with more probability, by others, to have been dry mountain——vin d’Espagne; vin sec——(Howell, ‘Fr. and Eng. Dict.,’ 1650). Falstaff[140] calls it ‘sherris sack’ (sherry sack), from Xeres, a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of sack (wine) is made. (Blount.) At a later period the term came to be used as a general name for all sweet wines.

[Footnote 140: In Shakespeare’s day sack was occasionally adulterated with lime, as we learn from Falstaff’s speech to the Drawer: “You rogue, there’s lime in this sack.”]

=SAF′FLOWER.= _Syn._ BASTARD SAFFRON, DYER’S S.; CARTHAMUS, L. The florets of _Carthamus tinctorius_, a plant cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. It contains two colouring principles——the one yellow, and the other red. The first is removed by water, and is rejected. The second is easily dissolved out by weak solutions of the carbonated alkalies, and is again precipitated on the addition of an acid. This property is taken advantage of in the manufacture of rouge, and in dyeing silk and cotton.

The most lively tints of cherry, flame, flesh, orange-red, poppy, and rose colour, are imparted to silk by the following process, modified to suit the particular shade required:——The safflower (previously deprived of its yellow colouring matter by water) is exhausted with water containing either carbonate of soda or of potassa, in the proportion of about 5% of the weight of the prepared dye-stuff acted on; the resulting liquid is next treated with pure lemon juice until it acquires a distinct and rich red colour; the silk is then introduced and turned about as long as it is perceived to take up colour, a little more lemon juice being added as may appear necessary; for deep shades this is repeated with one or more fresh baths, the silk being dried and rinsed between each immersion; it is, lastly, brightened by turning it for a few minutes through a bath of warm water, to which a little lemon juice has been previously added. For flame colour the silk should receive a slight shade with annotta before putting it into the safflower bath. For the deeper shades, when expense is an object, a little archil is commonly added to the first and second bath. See CATHARMIN.

=SAF′FRON.= The prepared stigmata or stigmas of the _Crocus sativus_, or saffron crocus. There are two principal varieties known in commerce:——

1. (SAFFRON, HAY’S.; CROCUS IN FŒNO, C. HISPANIOLUS, CROCISTIGMATA; CROCUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) This consisted of the stigmas, with part of the styles, carefully picked from the other parts of the flowers, and then dried on paper by a very gentle heat, generally in a portable oven constructed for the purpose.

2. (CAKE SAFFRON; CROCUS IN PLACENTÂ.) This, professedly, merely varies from the last, it being compressed into a cake after it has become softened by the fire, and being then dried in that condition. The ‘cake saffron’ of commerce is now, however, mostly, if not entirely, composed of safflower made into a paste with some sugar and gum water, rolled out on paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches long, 9 or 10 broad, and about 1/8th of an inch thick, and then dried. “I can detect neither saffron nor marigold in them.” (Dr Pereira.)

_Pur._ Saffron, of all the articles of commerce, except French brandy, is, perhaps, the one most largely and constantly adulterated. Abroad it is frequently mixed with safflower, and in England with ‘prepared marigolds,’ or ‘French (mock) saffron.’ These frauds may be detected by the inferiority of the colour, and by soaking the leaves in water, when the stigmas of the _Crocus sativus_ may be readily distinguished from the florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds. Winckler and Grüner proposed to detect these substances by means of a solution of nitrate of silver or of sesquichloride of iron. The infusion of true saffron is not altered by those reagents, but that of either of the above-mentioned adulterants is rendered opaque, and is at length precipitated. “It consists of tripartite filaments, of an orange-red colour, with the small filaments towards the apex dilated.” (Ph. E.) In the wholesale drug trade prepared marigolds are not only employed to mix with genuine saffron, but are extensively sold to the country dealers for that purpose. Old and dry saffron is ‘freshened up’ by rubbing it between the hands slightly oiled, and then repicking it.

The late Mr D. Hanbury, F.R.S., found that the article known in commerce as alicante saffron was largely sophisticated with carbonate of lime, which he says had been made to adhere to the thread-like saffron without in the least altering its general appearance. To ascertain the amount of earthy matter thus fraudulently added, he subjected several specimens of saffron to incineration, each having in the first instance been dried in warm air until it caused it to lose its weight. The result indicated that while good Valentia saffron yields from 4 to 6 per cent. of ash, the alicante furnishes from 12 to 28 per cent. The method of taking a sample of saffron for earthy adulteration which Mr Hanbury recommends is this:——Place in a watch glass a small quantity (say 1 grain) of the saffron, and drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of water; lightly touch the saffron with the tip of the finger, so as to cause the water to wet it. If the drug is free from earthy matter, a clear bright-yellow solution will be immediately obtained; if adulterated, a white powder will instantly separate, causing the water to appear turbid; and if a drop of hydrochloric acid be now added, a brisk effervescence will take place.

Mr Hanbury says that saffron almost always contains a few of the pale yellow stamens, accidentally gathered; but the pollen from them which is detached when the drug is wetted, but which is minute in quantity, is easily distinguished from carbonate of lime, by not dissolving when hydrochloric acid is added. Moreover, the form of pollen grains may be easily recognised under the microscope.

Mr Hanbury furthermore states that an effectual method of examination is to scatter a very small pinch of saffron on the surface of a glass of warm water. The stigma of the saffron-crocus immediately expands, and exhibits a form so characteristic that it cannot be confounded with the flowerets of safflower, marigold, or arnica, or with the stamens of crocus itself.[141]

[Footnote 141: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

_Prop., &c._ Saffron is anodyne, cordial, emmenagogue, and exhilarant; but is now seldom employed, except as an adjuvant, in medicine. Amongst cooks, confectioners, and liquoristes, it is largely used on account of its fine colour.

=Saffron, Mead′ow.= See COLCHICUM.

=SAGAPE′NUM.= This substance is described in the London Pharmacopœia as a gum resin, the production of an uncertain species of _Ferula_. The mass of the sagapenum sold to the retail trader is, however, a factitious article, formed by softening a mixture of assafœtida, 3 parts, and galbanum, 15 parts, over a water or steam bath, and then stirring in about 1/17th of their weight of oil of turpentine, with a little oil of juniper. This mixture is labelled ‘Gum Sagapeni Opt.’ an inferior sort being made by adding sundry portions of yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth to the above.

PREPARED SAGAPENUM (SAGAPENUM PRÆPARATUM——Ph. L.) is ordered to be prepared in the same manner as ‘prepared ammoniacum.’

_Obs._ Sagapenum is the feeblest of all the fetid gum resins.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., made into pills; as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.

=SA′GO.= _Syn._ SAGO (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The fæcula (starch) from the stem of _Sagus lœvis_, _S. Rumphii_, and, perhaps, of other species of palms.” (Ph. L.) It forms the principal portion of the pith of the Sago palms, the Gommuti palm, the Talipot palm, and other allied trees. Its properties and uses, for the most part, resemble those of arrow-root. It is used for making puddings, jellies, &c.

Under the microscope the starch-grains of sago present an elongated form, rounded at the larger ends, and compressed at the smaller. They differ altogether in appearance from potato starch.

The pilum of the sago starch-grains is a point, or, more frequently, a crop, slit, or star, and is seated at the smaller end, whilst in the marsanta arrow-root the pilum is situated at the larger end. Rings are more or less clearly seen.

=Sa′go, To Prepare.= Wash an ounce of pearl sago in cold water; then boil it very gently in a pint of fresh water, stirring it frequently till dissolved. It may be flavoured with wine, spices, and sugar. For children, and for consumptive and debilitated persons, it will be found advantageous to substitute milk for water. The common sago being in larger grains, more time is required to dissolve it, and it is usually steeped for some hours before boiling it.

=Sa′go Milk.= (See _above_.)

=Sa′go Posset.= (For invalids.) Macerate a table-spoonful of sago in a pint of water for two hours on the hob of a stove, then boil for 15 minutes, assiduously stirring. Add sugar, with an aromatic, such as ginger or nutmeg, and a table-spoonful or more of white wine. If white wine be not permitted flavour with lemon juice.

=ST VITUS’ DANCE.= See CHOREA.

=SAL.= [L.] Salt. A word much used in compound names, handed down to us from the old chemists.

=Sal Absin′thii.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Sal Acetosel′læ.= Binoxalate and quadroxalate of potassium.

=Sal Alem′broth.= Ammoniated mercury (white precipitate).

=Sal Ammo′′niac.= Chloride of ammonium.

=Sal de Duobus.= Sulphate of potassium.

=Sal Diure′ticus.= Acetate of potassium.

=Sal Enix′um.= Crude bisulphate of potassium.

=Sal Gem′mæ.= Rock or fossil salt (chloride of sodium).

=Sal Mar′tis.= Sulphate of iron.

=Sal Mirab′ile.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Sal Perla′tum.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Sal Polycrest′us.= Sulphate of potassium.

=Sal Prunel′la.= _Syn._ SORE-THROAT SALT, CRYSTAL MINERAL; POTASSÆ NITRAS FUSA, NITRUM TABULATUM, SAL PRUNELLÆ, L. From nitre fused in a Hessian crucible, and poured out on a smooth surface, or into moulds, to cool. Its usual form and size is that of an ordinary musket bullet, with the tail, in which state it is known in the drug trade as ‘sal prunellæ globosum.’ When in cakes it is often called ‘sal p. in placentis,’ or ‘s. p. tabulatum.’ A small portion allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, the saliva being slowly swallowed, often removes incipient inflammatory sore throat.

=Sal Saturn′i.= Sugar of lead (neutral acetate of lead).

=Sal Seignette′.= Rochelle salt (tartrate of potassium and sodium).

=Sal Volat′ile.= Sesquicarbonate of ammonia. The name is commonly used as an abbreviation of aromatic spirit of ammonia. See SPIRITS (Medicinal).

=SAL′ADS= are generally made of esculent vegetables, either singly or mixed, chosen according to taste or time of year, and ‘dressed’ with oil, vinegar, and salt, and sometimes also with mustard and other condiments. Sliced boiled egg is a common addition.

Sydney Smith’s recipe for salad dressing:——

To make this condiment your poet begs The powdered yellow of two hard-boiled eggs; Two boiled potatoes passed through kitchen-sieve Smoothness and softness to the salad give; Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl, And, half suspected, animate the whole; Of mordant mustard add a single spoon (Distrust the condiment that bites too soon); But deem it not, thou man of taste, a fault To add a double quantity of salt; And, lastly, o’er the flavoured compound toss A magic soupçon of anchovy sauce. Oh! green and glorious! Oh! herbaceous treat! ’Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat; Back to the world he’d turn his fleeting soul, And plunge his finger in the salad bowl; Serenely full the epicure would say, “Fate cannot harm me, I have dined today.”[142]

[Footnote 142: The poet has inadvertently ignored the oil and vinegar.]

Another recipe for salad dressing:——Yolk of two eggs; table salt, 1/4 oz.; salad oil, 4 oz.; mustard, 1/2 oz.; best vinegar, 6 oz.; isinglass, 1 dr.; soluble cayenne, 10 grams. (‘Phar. Jour.’)

Cold meat, poultry, and game, sliced small, with some cucumber or celery, and a little onion or chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some pickles, make a very relishing salad. Fish are also employed in the same manner.

Mr C. J. Robinson, writing to ‘Nature’[143] on our salad herbs, says:——“There is, perhaps, no country in the world so rich as England in native materials for salad making, and none in which ignorance and prejudice have more restricted their employment. At every season of the year the peasant may cull from the field and hedgerow wholesome herbs which would impart a pleasant variety to his monotonous meal, and save his store of potatoes from premature exhaustion. Besides there can be no question that in hot seasons a judicious admixture of fresh green food is as salutary as it is agreeable. Much has been said lately about the advantage which the labouring man would derive from an accurate acquaintance with the various forms of fungus; he has been gravely told that the _Fistulina hepatica_ is an admirable substitute for beef-steak, the _Agaricus gambosus_ for the equally unknown veal cutlet.

[Footnote 143: August 18th, 1870.]

“But deep-seated suspicion is not easily eradicated, and there will always be a certain amount of hazard in dealing with a class of products in which the distinctions between noxious and innocuous are not very clearly marked.

“There is not this difficulty with regard to salad herbs, and we conceive that the diffusion of a little knowledge as to their properties and value would be an unmixed benefit to our rural population.

“The first place must be assigned on the score of antiquity to the sorrel plant (_Rumex acetosa_), which in some districts still preserves the name of ‘green sauce,’ assigned to it in early times, when it formed almost the only dinner vegetable.

“Its acid is pleasant and wholesome, more delicate in flavour than that of the wood-sorrel (_Oxalis acetosella_), which, however, is used for table purposes in France and Germany. Chervil (_Anthriscus cerefolium_) is often found in a wild state, and is an admirable addition to the salad bowl; and it is unnecessary to enlarge upon the virtues of celery (_Apium graveolens_) when improved by cultivation.”

John Ray, writing in 1663, says that “the Italians use several herbs for sallets, which are not yet, or have not been used lately, but in England, viz. _Selleri_, which is nothing else but the sweet smallage; the young shoots whereof, with a little of the head of the root, cut off, they eat raw with oil and pepper,” and to this we may add that the alisander (_Smyrnium olusattrum_) is no bad substitute for its better-known congener. The dandelion, which in France is blanched for the purpose, affords that _amarie aliquid_ which the professed salad maker finds in the leaves of the endive, and the same essential ingredient may be supplied by the avens (_Geum urbanum_), the bladder campion (_Silene inflata_), and the tender shoots of the wild hop. Most people are familiar with the properties of the watercress (_Nasturtium officinale_), garlic hedge mustard (_Erysimum aliaria_), but it may not be generally known that the common shepherd’s purse (_Eupsulla Bursa-pastoris_) and the lady’s-smock (_Cardamine pratensis_) are pleasant additions, whose merits have long been recognised by our foreign neighbours. In fact, there is scarcely a herb that grows which has not some culinary virtue in a French peasant’s eyes. Out of the blanched shoots of the wild chicory (_Cichorium Intybus_) he forms the well-known _barbe de capucius_, and dignifies with the title of _Salade de chamoine_ our own neglected corn-salad (_Fedia olitaria_). It would be very easy to extend the dimensions of our list of native salad herbs, for there are, perhaps, some palates to which the strong flavours of the chives (_Allium schœnoprasum_) and stonecrop (_Sedum reflexum_) may commend themselves; but enough has been said to show that nature has not dealt niggardly with us, and that only knowledge is needful to make the riches she offers available.

If the British peasant can be taught to discover hidden virtues in these plants, with whose outward forms he has had life-long familiarity, we do not despair of his acquiring the one secret of salad-making, viz. the judicious employment of oil, so as to correct the acrid juices of the plants, and yet preserve their several flavours unimpaired.

=Salad, Let′tuce.= _Prep._ Take two large lettuces, remove the faded leaves and the coarser green ones; next cut the green tops off, pull each leaf off separately, rinse it in cold water, cut it lengthways, and then into four or ten pieces; put these into a bowl, and sprinkle over them, with your fingers, 1 small teaspoonful of salt, 1/2 do. of pepper, 3 do. of salad oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French vinegar; then with the spoon and fork turn the salad lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed; the less it is handled the better. A teaspoonful each of chopped chervil and tarragon is an immense improvement.

_Obs._ The above seasoning is said to be enough for 1/4 lb. of lettuce. According to Soyer, it is “such as the Italian count used to make some years since, by which he made a fortune in dressing salads for the tables of the aristocracy.” The above may be varied by the addition of 2 eggs, boiled hard, and sliced, a little eschalot, or a few chives or young onions. Several other salad herbs, especially endive, water-cresses, and mustard-and-cress, may be ‘dressed’ in the same manner; always remembering that the excellence of a salad depends chiefly on the vegetables which compose them being recently gathered and carefully cleansed.

To improve the appearance of the above and other salads, when on the table or sideboard, before being used, the gay flower of the nasturtium or marigold, with a little sliced beet-root or radish, and sliced cucumber, may be tastefully intermixed with them.

=Salad, Lobs′ter.= _Prep._ (Soyer.) “Have the bowl half filled with any kind of salad herb you like, as endive, lettuce, &c.; then break a lobster in two, open the tail, extract the meat in one piece, break the claws, cut the meat of both in small slices, about a quarter of an inch thick, and arrange these tastefully on the salad; next take out all the soft part from the belly, mix it in a basin with 1 teaspoonful of salt, half do. of pepper, 4 do. of vinegar, and 4 do. of oil; stir these well together, and pour the mixture on the salad; lastly, cover it with 2 hard eggs, cut into slices, and a few slices of cucumber.” “To vary this, a few capers and some fillets of anchovy may be added, stirred lightly, and then served either with or without some salad sauce. If for a dinner ornament it with some flowers of the nasturtium and marigold.”

=SAL′EP.= _Syn._ SALOP, SALOOP. The tuberous roots of _Orchis mascula_, and other allied species, washed, dried, and afterwards reduced to coarse powder. That imported from Persia and Asia Minor occurs in small oval grains, of a whitish-yellow colour, often semitranslucent, with a faint, peculiar smell, and a taste somewhat resembling gum tragacanth. It consists, chiefly, of bassorin and starch, is very nutritious, and is reputed aphrodisiac. It is employed in the same way as sago. A decoction of about 1 oz. of this substance in a pint of water was formerly sold at street-stalls. A tea made of sassafras chips, flavoured with milk and coarse brown sugar or treacle, was also sold in the same way, and under the same name.

FRENCH SALEP is prepared from the potato. Dr Ure says that the _Orchis mascula_ of our own country, properly treated, would afford an article of salep equal to the Turkey, and at a vastly lower price.

=SAL′ICIN.= C_{13}H_{18}O_{7}. A white, crystalline substance discovered by Le Roux and Buchner in the bark and leaves of several species of _Salix_ and _Populus_. It occurs most abundantly in the white willow (_Salix alba_) and the aspen (_Salix helix_), but is also found in all the bitter poplars and willows. From willow bark which is fresh, and rich in salicin, it may be obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold aqueous infusion.

_Prep._ 1. (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by repeated coction with water, concentrate the mixed liquors, and, while boiling, add litharge until the liquid is nearly decoloured; filter, remove the dissolved oxide of lead, first by sulphuric acid, and afterwards by sulphuret of barium; filter, and evaporate, that crystals may form; the crystals must be purified by re-solution and recrystallisation.

2. As No 1, but using a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, to free the solution from lead.

3. (P. Codex.) To a strong filtered decoction of willow bark add milk of lime, to throw down the colour; filter, evaporate the liquor to a syrupy consistence, add alcohol (sp. gr. ·847), to separate the gummy matter, filter, distil off the spirit, evaporate the residuum, and set it aside in a cool place to crystallise; the crystals are purified by solution in boiling water, agitation with a little animal charcoal, and recrystallisation.

_Prop., &c._ Salicin forms white, silky needles and plates; it is intensely bitter; inodorous; neutral; non-basic; fuses at 230° Fahr., with decomposition; burns with a bright flame; is soluble in 5-1/2 parts of water at 60°, and in much less at 212°; dissolves readily in alcohol, but is insoluble in ether. It is tonic, like sulphate of quinine, but less liable to irritate the stomach. It is given in indigestion and intermittent diseases, in from 5- to 10-gr. doses.

Salicin has lately been used with considerable advantage in acute rheumatism.

Dr Maclagan[144] states that he found when administered in doses of 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., every 2 to 4 hours, the pain and fever ceased in the course of 48 hours. The results are stated to have been quite as favorable as those following the employment of salicylic acid. It was found to effect with certainty a great reduction in the bodily temperature.

[Footnote 144: ‘Lancet,’ March 4th and 11th, 1876.]

_Pur. & Tests._——1. It is entirely soluble in water and rectified spirit.——2. When strongly heated it is wholly dissipated, and, if kindled, burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky charcoal.——3. Its solution is absolutely neutral to test-paper.——4. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes it to agglutinate into resin-like lumps, with the accession of an intense blood-red colour.——5. When its aqueous solution is mixed with some hydrochloric acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, and the mixture is boiled for a short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid, and deposits SALIRETIN, under the form of a granular crystalline precipitate. This is characteristic.——6. No reagent deposits salicin without decomposition. See SALICYLIC and SALICYLOUS ACIDS.

=SAL′ICYL.= C_{7}H_{4}O. A compound radical, forming the basis of the so-called SALICYL-COMPOUNDS, or SALICYL-SERIES. It is known only in combination. The volatile oil of meadow-sweet is a natural hydride of salicyl, a substance which, when artificially prepared, is better known under the name of SALICYLOUS ACID. (See _below_.)

=SALICYL′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{7}H_{4}O_{3}. A peculiar volatile, crystallisable acid, discovered by Piria. It is obtained by fusing salicylous acid with solid hydrate of potassa in slight excess, until the mixture turns white and gas is disengaged, and treating a solution of the residuum with hydrochloric acid, in slight excess to separate the potassa; the salicylic acid separates in crystals, which are purified by solution in hot water. It may also be obtained from the oil of partridge-berry (_Gaultheria procumbens_), by acting on it with a strong and hot solution of potassa, and afterwards separating the acid as before. This oil is methylo-salicylic ether, or salicylate of methyl. In its general properties, salicylic acid closely resembles benzoic acid.

The greater part, if not the whole, of the salicylic acid of commerce is now obtained by a method invented by Professor Kolbe. This process, which consists in acting on sodium carbolate with carbonic acid, is thus described in the ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 3rd series, v, 445.[145] In a strong crude soda liquor of known strength is dissolved a sufficiency of previously melted crystals of carbolic acid to saturate the soda.

[Footnote 145: ‘Pharm. Journal,’ 3rd series, v, 421.]

The solution is then evaporated in an iron capsule, and by means of stirring brought to a dry powder. The sodium carbolate so obtained is gradually heated in a retort to a temperature of from 220° to 250° C., in a continuous current of dry carbonic anhydride.

The reaction is ended when at the above-mentioned temperature no more carbolic acid passes over. It might have been expected that, the reaction going forward in this manner, a molecule of carbonic anhydride would have been introduced into the molecule of sodium carbonate, and thus a molecule of sodium salicylate be formed.

This, however, is not the case, only half the sodium carbolate being converted into salicylate. The reaction proceeds according to the following equation:——

2NaC_{6}H_{5}O + CO_{2} = Na_{2}C_{7}H_{4}O_{3} + HC_{6}H_{5}O.

The disodic salicylate is dissolved in water and decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Salicylic acid then separates in crystalline films and may be purified by recrystallisation out of its solution in hot water.

_Props._——Salicylic acid is a white solid which forms acicular crystals; it melts at from 155°-156° C.; it dissolves in about 1800 parts of cold water, but is more soluble in boiling water as well as in alcohol and in ether. An aqueous solution of salicylic acid mixed with one of a ferric salt produces a deep violet colour.

Professor Kolbe surmised that from the constitution of salicylic acid, as revealed by his synthetical process, that it would split up with heat into carbonic anhydrate and carbolic acid, and hence that it might be employed as an antiseptic and antiputrefactive agent. He quotes the following experiments as confirmatory of his views on this point:——Mustard meal, which, in a few minutes after being mixed with warm water, gave off a strong smell of mustard oil, formed with water a scentless mixture, when a little salicylic acid had been previously added. No fermentation was set up by yeast in a fermentation of grape sugar, to which salicylic acid had been added; whilst in a sugar solution already in fermentation the action stopped after the addition of some salicylic acid. The preservation influence of this acid upon fresh meat is also recorded.

The following, among other experiments, in their results, illustrate the physiological action of salicylic acid:——

Solution of amygdalin mixed with emulsion of sweet almonds developed no smell of bitter almonds if some salicylic acid were added. Beer, to which salicylic acid, in the proportion of 1 to 1000, was added, was thereby prevented from being spoiled by fungoid growth.

Fresh pure cow’s milk, mixed with 0·04 per cent. of salicylic acid, and allowed to stand in an open vessel at a temperature of 18° C., curdled thirty-six hours later than a similar quantity of milk standing by the side of it, but containing no salicylic acid. The milk remained of a good flavour, the small quantity of salicylic acid present not being perceptible to the palate.

Some fresh urine was divided into two portions, and placed in separate vessels, after some salicylic acid had been added to one portion.

The urine containing the acid was on the third day still clear and free from ammoniacal odour, whilst the other portion was far advanced in putrefaction.

Professor Thiersch has investigated the antiseptic action of this acid, specially in relation to surgery. He has found that as a powder, either alone or mixed with starch, it destroys for a long time the fetid odour of cancerous surfaces or uncleansed wounds, without setting up any inflammatory symptoms. A solution of one part of salicylic acid, and three parts of sodium phosphate in fifty parts of water, promotes the healing of granulated surfaces.

According to Dr Rudolph Wagner, salicylic acid may be applied to the following industrial purposes:——

If a concentrated aqueous solution of salicylic acid be applied to fresh meat, and the meat be then placed in well-closed vessels, it will remain perfectly fresh for a long period. This solution is also very useful in the manufacture of sausages and such food. Butter containing a bitter salicylic acid will remain fresh for months, even in the hottest weather. The same acid prevents the moulding of preserved fruits. In the manufacture of vinegar this acid is of great utility.

The addition of a little salicylic acid renders glue more tenacious. The acid also prevents decomposition in gut and parchment during their manufacture.

Skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution of salicylic acid.

Weaver’s or bookbinder’s glue and other allied substances may be preserved for a long period by treating them with a solution of this acid.

Albumen may be preserved by the same means.

This acid is a very delicate test reagent for iron.

The methyl ether and amyl ether of salicylic acid are used as perfumes. The calcium salt on keeping and distilling with water yields a liquid which has a strong odour of roses.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, contends that the antiseptic powers of salicylic acid have been much overrated. He states that he had tried it for the preservation of the syrups of marshmallow, raspberry juice, and milk, and that it was a failure. Professor Salkowsky regards it as of less value as an antiseptic than benzoic acid.

Dr Muter gives the following method for estimating the value of commercial samples of salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and similar organic solutions:——A standard solution of pure salicylic acid (1 grain of acid dissolved in 1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. represents 1 mgm. of acid) is prepared; the _indicator_ solution consists of a solution of pure neutral ferric chloride, of such a strength that 1 c.c. added, drop by drop, to 50 c.c. of standard acid, just ceases to give any increase in intensity of colour; 1 gram of the commercial sample is then dissolved in 1 litre of water, and 50 c.c. is put into a Nessler tube; to this 1 c.c. of ferric solution is added, and the colour observed after standing for five minutes, some of the standard acid is also poured into another tube, and made up to 50 c.c. with water, and the 1 c.c. of ferric chloride added. When the colours are alike the amount of pure acid present in the sample is equal to the amount of pure acid added. All mineral acids should be absent, even acetic acid affects the reaction. To detect the presence of salicylic acid added to beer or milk, four ounces of these liquids are dialysed for twelve hours in a pint of distilled water; if after that time salicylic acid is still found to be present, the dialysis must be continued for forty-eight hours. The amount present is determined in the manner above stated.

=SALICYL′OUS ACID.= C_{7}H_{6}O_{2}. _Syn._ SALICYLOL, HYDROSALICYLIC ACID†, HYDRIDE OF SALICYL, ARTIFICIAL OIL OF MEADOW-SWEET. A nearly colourless, oily, inflammable liquid, discovered by Pagenstecher in the volatile oil of _Spiræa ulmaria_ (meadow-sweet), which, when pure, entirely consists of it; and by Piria, as a product of the decomposition of salicin.

_Prep._ The oil of meadow-sweet is mixed with a strong solution of caustic potassa, and the yellow crystalline mass which separates on agitation is purified by pressure between folds of bibulous paper and recrystallisation from alcohol; the resulting crystals (salicylite of potassium) are then decomposed by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil separated from the water, and freed from moisture by careful distillation from chloride of calcium.

_Prop., &c._ Salicylous acid is soluble in ether and alcohol, and slightly so in water, to which it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the characteristic property of striking a deep violet colour with the sesquisalts of iron. It is distinguished from salicylic acid, which also exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form and odour.

=SALI′VA.= See MASTICATION.

=SALM′ON.= _Syn._ SALMO, L. The _Salmo Salar_ (Linn.), a well-known, soft-finned abdominal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern seas, which, during the breeding season, it ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months, against all obstacles, for the purpose of depositing its spawn.

The salmon is an excellent and highly esteemed fish; but it is rich, oily, and difficult of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the delicate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, or smoked it is only fitted for persons of very strong stomachs, although in this state it is regarded as a great delicacy by epicures.

Salmon has the following composition:——

Nitrogenous matter 16·1 Fat 5·5 Saline matter 1·4 Water 77· ——————— 100·0

Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One weighing 10 lbs. will require to be gently simmered for about an hour, reckoning from the time the water commences boiling. For fish of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb. may be allowed. See FISH, &c.

=SALOOP′.= Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured with milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. See SALEP.

=SALT.= _Syn._ SAL, L.; SEL, Fr. Salts may be regarded as acids in which one or more atoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of all true acids, are replaced by a metal or other basic radical. This relationship between acids and salts will be better understood by reference to the subjoined list of acids and their corresponding potassium and ammonium salts:——

Acids. Salts.

HCl (Hydrochloric acid) —— KCl (Chloride of potassium). ” ” ” —— NH_{4}Cl (Chloride of ammonium). HNO_{3} (Nitric acid) —— KNO_{3} (Nitrate of potassium). ” ” ” —— NH_{4}NO_{3} (Nitrate of ammonium). H_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphuric acid) —— K{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of potassium). ” ” ” —— (NH_{4})_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of ammonium).

Acids are, in fact, hydrogen salts. The so-called DOUBLE SALTS are, according to one view, combinations of two salts of the same acid, but of different basic radicles; thus, common alum is a compound of sulphate of aluminum and sulphate of potassium.

The salts are a most important class of bodies, and their applications and uses in the arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite. See NOMENCLATURE, &c.

=Salt of Bark.= See EXTRACT OF BARK, DRIED.

=Salt, Bitter Pur′ging.= Epsom salt.

=Salt, Cathar′tic.= Of GLAUBER, sulphate of sodium; ENGLISH or BITTER S., sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salt).

=Salt, Common.= _Syn._ CULINARY SALT. Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Diuret′ic.= Acetate of potassium.

=Salt, Ep′som.= Sulphate of magnesium.

=Salt, Feb′rifuge.= Chloride of potassium.

=Salt, Fu′′sible.= Phosphate of ammonium.

=Salt, Glauber’s.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Salt, Macqueer’s.= Binarseniate of potassium.

=Salt, Microcos′mic.= Phosphate of sodium and ammonium.

=Salt, Red.= Common salt wetted with an infusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture of red sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed through a sieve. Used to impart a colour to gravies, &c. Infusion of saffron also gives a beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been proposed to colour Epsom salt in this way, to distinguish it from oxalic acid.

=Salt, Rochelle.= Tartrate of potassium and sodium.

=Salt, Sea.= Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Sed′ative.= Boracic acid.

=Salt, Smelling.= See SALTS (_below_).

=Salt, Sore-throat.= Sal prunella.

=Salt, Taste′less.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Salt, Veg′etable.= Tartrate of potassium.

=Salt, Vol′atile.= Common carbonate of ammonium.

=Salt of Lem′ons.= _Syn._ SAL LIMONUM, L. Citric acid. That sold in the shops for the removal of ink spots from linen is binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or mixed with one half its weight of cream of tartar.

=Salt of Sor′rel.= Binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium.

=Salt of Steel.= Sulphate of iron.

=Salt of Tar′tar.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Salt of Vit′riol.= Sulphate of zinc.

=Salt of Wormwood.= Carbonate of potassium.

=SALT′ING.= PICKLING. _Syn_. This is an easy method of preserving butcher’s meat, fish, and, indeed, most animal substances. It is performed in two ways:——

1. (DRY SALTING.) This, as practised in Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large establishments elsewhere, consists in merely well rubbing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with a little saltpetre, into the meat, until every crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, afterwards, sprinkling some over it, and placing it on a board or in a trough, in such a manner that the brine may drain off. On the small scale, in private families, a mixture of salt, 2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1-1/2 or 2 oz., either with or without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the pieces are turned every day, or every other day, until sufficiently cured, a little fresh salt being added as required. Sometimes the fresh meat is packed at once in casks, with the best coarse-grained or bay salt. This method is that commonly adopted for sea stores.

2. (WET SALTING, or PICKLING IN BRINE.) When the meat is allowed to lie in the liquor that runs from it (see _above_), or is at once plunged into strong brine, it is said to be ‘pickled,’ or ‘wet salted.’ On the small scale, this is most conveniently performed by rubbing the fresh meat with salt, &c., as above, and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it into a pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs. of good salt and 2 oz. of saltpetre in 1 gall. of water, either with or without the addition of 1/2 to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor gets weaker by use, and should, therefore, be occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed, at the same time adding some more of the dry ingredients. Three to ten days, depending on the size, is sufficiently long to keep meat in the brine. When it is taken out it should be hung up to dry, after which it may be packed in barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, whichever may be desired. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat a red colour, and brown sugar improves the flavour.

The sooner animal substances, more especially flesh, are salted after being killed, the better, as they then possess considerable absorbent power, which they gradually lose by age. See PUTREFACTION, SCURVY, SMOKING, &c.

=SALTPE′TRE.= Nitrate of potassium.

=SALTS for producing Factitious Mineral Waters.= AERATED, OR CARBONATE WATERS. These require the aid of the powerful machine employed by soda-water manufacturers, to charge the waters strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The gas is made from whiting and diluted sulphuric acid, and is forced by a pump into the watery solution. Sometimes the gas is produced by the mutual action of the ingredients introduced into the bottle of water, which must be instantly closed; but this method is found practically inconvenient, and is only adopted in the absence of proper apparatus. The quantity of gas introduced is directed, in the French and American pharmacopœias, in most cases, to be 5 times the volume of liquid. For chalybeate and sulphuretted waters the water should be previously deprived of the air it naturally contains, by boiling, and allowing it to cool in a closed vessel.

There are various manufacturers of aerated-water machines, and of syphon bottles for holding these waters when made. The names and addresses of these makers may be found in any trade directory.

SIMPLE AERATED WATER. Carbonic-acid gas water. Water charged with five or more volumes of carbonic-acid gas, as above.

ALKALINE AERATED WATERS. Aerated soda and potash waters should be made by dissolving a drachm of the carbonated alkali in each pint of water, and charging it strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The soda water of the shops generally contains but little (or no) soda.

AERATED MAGNESIA WATER. This is made of various strengths.

MURRAY’S and DINNEFORD’S FLUID MAGNESIA may be thus made:——To a boiling solution of 16 oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 pints of water add a solution of 19 oz. of crystallised carbonate of soda in the same quantity of water; boil the mixture till gas ceases to escape, stirring constantly; then set it aside to settle; pour off the liquid, and wash the precipitate on a cotton or linen cloth, with warm water, till the latter passes tasteless. Mix the precipitate, without drying it, with a gallon of water, and force carbonic-acid gas into it under strong pressure, till a complete solution is effected. The _Eau Magnésienne_ of the French codex is about a third of this strength; and we have met with some prepared in this country not much stronger.

CARBONATED LIME WATER. Carrara water. Lime water (prepared from lime made by calcining Carrara marble) is supersaturated by strong pressure with carbonic acid, so that the carbonate of lime at first thrown down is redissolved. It contains 8 gr. of carbonate of lime in 10 fl. oz. of water.

AERATED LITHIA WATER. This may be conveniently made from the fresh precipitated carbonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as directed for fluid magnesia. Its antacid and antilithic properties promise to be useful.

SALINE CARBONATED WATERS.

The following afford approximate imitations of these waters. The earthy salts, with the salts of iron, should be dissolved together in the smallest quantity of water. The other ingredients to be dissolved in the larger portion of the water, and the solution impregnated with the gas. The first solution may be then added or be previously introduced into the bottles. The salts, unless otherwise stated, are to be crystallised.

BADEN WATER. Chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 40 gr.; perchloride of iron, 1/4 gr. (or 3 minims of the tincture); chloride of sodium, 30 gr.; sulphate of soda, 10 gr.; carbonate of soda, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint; carbonic-acid gas, 5 volumes.

CARLSBAD WATER. Chloride of calcium, 8 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 gr.; carbonate of soda, 60 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

EGER. Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; sulphate of soda, 4 scruples; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; chloride of calcium, 5 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint. (Or it may be made without apparatus, thus:——Bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve, and add a scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.)

EMS. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of potash, 1 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; carbonated water, a pint.

MARIENBAD. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of soda, 96 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; carbonated water, a pint. (Or, bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 10 gr.; dissolve in a pint of water, add 25 gr. of dry bisulphate of soda, and cork immediately.)

MARIENBAD PURGING SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 5 oz.; dried sulphate of soda, 12 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 1-1/2 oz.; sulphate of magnesia, dried, 2 oz.; dried bisulphate of soda, 2-1/2 oz. Mix the salts, previously dried, separately, and keep them carefully from the air.

PULLNA WATER. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; chloride of calcium, 15 gr.; chloride of magnesium (dry), a scruple; chloride of sodium, a scruple; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; water, slightly carbonated, 1 pint. One of the most active of the purgative saline waters.

PULLNA WATER WITHOUT THE MACHINE. Bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; chloride of sodium, a scruple; dissolve in a pint of water; add, lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.

SALTS FOR MAKING PULLNA WATER. Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 2 dr.; dry tartaric acid, 3/4 oz. (or rather dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).

SEIDLITZ WATER. This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a solution of 2 dr. of sulphate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is also made with 4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salts to a pint of water.

SEIDLITZ POWDER. The common seidlitz powders do not resemble the water. A closer imitation would be made by using effloresced sulphate of magnesia instead of the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact compound will be the following:——Effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1/2 oz.; dry bisulphate of soda, 1/2 oz.; mix, and keep in a close bottle.

SEIDSCHUTZ WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 3 dr.; chloride of calcium, nitrate of lime, bicarbonate of soda, of each 8 gr.; sulphate of potash, 5 gr.; aerated water, 1 pint.

SELTZER WATER. Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, of each 4 gr.; dissolve these in a small quantity of water, and add it to a similar solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr. of chloride sodium, and 2 gr. of phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of 1/4 gr. of sulphate of iron; put the mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with aerated water. Much of the Seltzer water sold is said to be nothing more than simple carbonated water, containing a little chloride of sodium. An imitation of Seltzer water is also made by putting into a stone Seltzer bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicarbonate of soda, and 2 dr. of citric acid in crystals, corking the bottle immediately. Sodaic powders are sometimes sold as Seltzer powders.

VICHY WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops; aerated water, a pint. Dorvault directs 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 4 gr. of chloride of sodium, 1/5 gr. sulphate of iron, 10 gr. sulphate of soda, 3 gr. sulphate of magnesia, to a pint of water. By adding 45 gr. (or less) of citric acid, an effervescing water is obtained.

M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Longchamps, imitates Vichy water by the following combination:——Bicarbonate of soda, 135 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2-1/2 gr.; cryst. chloride of calcium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 11-1/2 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3-3/4 gr.; tartrate of iron and potash, 1/8 gr.; water, 2-1/10 pints (1 litre); carbonic acid, 305 cub. inches (5 litres). Dissolve the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, and add the sulph. magnes. and then the chlor. calc. in the remaining water. Charge now with the carbonic-acid gas under pressure.

VICHY SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 1 scruple; dry tartarised potash and iron, 1 gr.; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or dry bisulphate of soda); mix the powders, previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle.

SALINE WATERS, &C., NOT CARBONATED.

SEA WATER. Chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1/4 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 4 gr.; bromide of potassium, 2 gr.; water, a gallon. A common substitute for sea water as a bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 oz. of common salt in a gallon of water.

The following mixture of dry salts may be kept for the immediate production of a good imitation of sea water:——Chloride of sodium (that obtained from evaporating sea water, and not recrystallised, in preference), 85 oz.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 15 oz.; dry chloride of calcium, 4 oz.; dry chloride of magnesium, 16 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr. Mix, and keep dry. Put 4 or 5 oz. to a gallon of water.

BALARUC WATER. Chloride of sodium, 1 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr.; water, a gallon. Chiefly used for baths.

SULPHURETTED WATERS.

SIMPLE SULPHURETTED WATERS. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water (previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled in a closed vessel) till it ceases to be absorbed.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 12 gr.; chloride of sodium, 25 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; simple sulphuretted water, 2-1/2 oz.; water, slightly carbonated, 17-1/2 oz.

BARÈGES WATER. (Cauterets, Bagnères de Luchon, Eaux Bonnes, St Sauveur, may be made the same.) Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 1-1/2 gr.; water (freed from air), a pint. A stronger solution for adding to baths is thus made:——Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 2 oz.; water, 10 oz.; dissolve. To be added to a common bath at the time of using.

NAPLES WATER. Crystallised carbonate of soda, 15 gr.; fluid magnesia, 1 oz.; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.; aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the sulphuretted water into the bottle last.

HARROGATE WATER. Chloride of sodium, 100 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 6 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 gr.; water, 18-1/2 oz. Dissolve, and add simple sulphuretted water, 1-1/2 oz.

CHALYBEATE WATERS.

SIMPLE CHALYBEATE WATER. Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate of iron, 1/2 gr.

AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Sulphate of iron, 1 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; water (deprived of air and charged with carbonic-acid gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is equivalent to 4 gr. of carbonate of iron.

BRIGHTON CHALYBEATE. Sulphate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of each 2 gr.; carbonate of soda, 3 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

BUSSANG, FORGES, PROVINS, and other similar waters, may be imitated by dissolving from 1/2 to 2/3rds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of sodium, in a pint of aerated water.

MONT D’OR WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 70 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2/3 gr.; chloride of sodium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1/2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PASSY WATER. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; chloride of sodium, 3 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PYRMONT WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 20 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 16 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; Carrara water, a pint.

VARIOUS AERATED MEDICINAL WATERS NOT RESEMBLING ANY NATURAL SPRING.

MIALHE’S AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of iron, 15 gr.; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda.

TROSSEAU’S MARTIAL AERATED WATER. Potassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr.; artificial Seltzer water, a pint.

BOUCHARDAT’S GASEOUS PURGATIVE. Phosphate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; carbonated water, a pint.

MIALHE’S IODURETTED GASEOUS WATER. Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 75 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve and add sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, 75 gr. Cork immediately.

DUPASQUIER’S GASEOUS WATER OF IODIDE OF IRON. Solution of iodide of iron (containing 1/10th of dry iodide), 30 gr.; syrup of gum, 2-1/2 oz.; aerated water, 17-1/2 oz.

=SALTS (Smelling).= _Syn._ SAL VOLATILIS OLEOSUS, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING SALTS,’ and, with the addition of a few drops of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill ‘SMELLING BOTTLES,’ but when a strong and durable pungency is desired, the carbonate should alone be used, as in one or other of the following formulæ:——

1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/4 oz.; rub them together, and sublime; keep the product in well-stopped bottles.

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender, 2 oz.; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 oz.; as the last.

3. Carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of verbena, 1/4 oz.; otto of roses, 1 dr.; as before.

4. Carbonate of ammonia, 3/4 lb.; essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1/2 oz.; essence de petit grain, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as before.

5. (Extemporaneous.)——_a._ From sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.; grind them together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops.——_b._ From carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia (bruised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence, a few drops.

According to Dr Paris, GODFREY’S SMELLING SALTS are made by resubliming volatile salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine (and essential oil).

=SALVE.= A name indiscriminately applied by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation used in medicine.

=Salve, Lip-.= _Syn._ CERATUM LABIALE, L.

_Prep._ 1. (RED or PERUVIAN.) From spermaceti ointment, 1/2 lb.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; melt them together until sufficiently coloured, strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; stir well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear portion from the dregs; lastly, stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets rancid.

2. (ROSE.) See CERATE.

3. (WHITE.) From the finest spermaceti ointment or cerate, 3 oz.; finely powdered white sugar, 1 oz.; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s.

_Obs._ Numerous formulæ are extant for lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the preceding are those generally employed in trade. The perfumes may be varied at will and the salve named after them. A very small quantity of finely powdered borax is occasionally added. FRENCH LIP-SALVE is said to contain alum, in fine powder; and GERMAN LIP-SALVE is said to be made of cacao butter. See CERATE, POMMADE, and OINTMENT.

=SAND.= _Syn._ ARENA, L. River and sea sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly purely silica, and is, therefore, selected for the manufacture of glass. Sand is used by moulders in metal, and as a manure for heavy land. It is a large and necessary portion of every fertile soil.

=SAND PAPER.= The ‘American Builder’ gives the following process for making sand-paper of superior quality, at almost nominal cost:

“The device for making sand-paper is simple and at hand to any one who has occasion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass is taken (that having a green colour is said to be the best) and pounded fine, after which it is passed through one or more sieves of different degrees of fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then any tough paper is covered evenly with glue, having about one third more water than is generally employed for wood work. The glass is sifted upon the paper, allowed a day or two in which to become fixed in the glue, when the refuse glue is shaken off, and the paper is fit for use.”

=SAN′DAL WOOD.= 1. (RED SANDERS WOOD, R. SAUNDERS W.; LIGNUM SANTALI RUBRI, LIGNUM SANTALINUM RUBRUM, PTEROCARPUS——Ph. L. & E.) The wood of _Pterocarpus santilinus_. It is used in medicine as a colouring matter. It is also employed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. WOOL may be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alternately into an infusion of this wood and an acidulous bath, (Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant of alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish-yellow. (Bancroft.) See SANTALIN.

2. (WHITE SANDAL WOOD, WHITE SANDERS; SANTALUM ALBUM.) The young timber, or, according to others, the outside wood of _Santalum album_. (Linn.)

3. (YELLOW SANDAL WOOD; SANTALUM CITRINUM, S. FLAVUM.) The old timber, or, according to others, the heart of the same tree. Both the latter are much esteemed on account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable essential oil.

=SAN′DARACH.= _Syn._ SANDRAC, GUMS. A resin obtained from _Thuja articulata_, and _Juniperus communis_ (in warm climates). It is slightly fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1·05 to 1·09. It is used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c.

=SAN′DERS WOOD.= See SANDAL WOOD.

=SAN′DIVER.= _Syn._ GLASS GALL; FELL VITRI, SAL VITRI, L. The saline scum that swims on glass when first made. It is occasionally used in tooth powders.

=SANGUINA′RINE.= _Syn._ SANGUINARINA, L. Obtained from the root of _Sanguinaria Canadensis_ (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in anhydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak sulphuric acid; precipitating by liquor of ammonia; dissolving out by ether, and precipitating sulphate of sanguinarine by the addition of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble in ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms soluble salts, remarkable for their beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are used in medicine as expectorants, in doses of fractions of a grain.

The ‘sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclectics’ is prepared by precipitating a saturated tincture of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep reddish-brown colour. See RESINOIDS.

=SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANITARY DISTRICTS.= With the exception of the metropolis, the whole of England and Ireland is divided into urban and rural sanitary districts, which are respectively governed by urban and rural authorities.

The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines an urban district, and an urban authority in England:——

----------------------------------------+--------------------- _Urban Districts._ | _Urban Authority._ ----------------------------------------+--------------------- Borough, constituted such either before | The mayor, aldermen, or after the passing of this Act. | and burgesses, | acting by the | council. | Improvement act district, constituted | The improvement such before the passing of the Public | commissioners. Health Act, 1872, and having no | part of its area situated within a | borough or local government district. | | Local government district constituted | The local board. such either before or after the passing | of this Act, having no part of | its area situated within a borough, | and not coincident in area with a | borough or improvement act district. | ----------------------------------------+---------------------

Provided that——

1. Any borough the whole of which is included in and forms part of a local government district or improvement act district, and any improvement act district which is included in and forms part of a local government district, and any local government district which is included in and forms part of an improvement act district, shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included, or of which it forms part; and the Improvement commissioners, or local board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban authority therein; and

2. Where an improvement act district is coincident in area with a local government district, the improvement commissioners, and not a local board, shall be the urban authority there; and

3. Where any part of an improvement act district is situated within a borough or local act district, or where any part of a local government district is situated within a borough, the remaining part of such improvement act district or of such local government district so partly situated within a borough, shall for the purposes of this Act continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if this Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Blandford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, Isle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs.

The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed an improvement act district, the borough of Oxford is to be included in the local government district of Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of Folkestone.

An English rural sanitary district and authority are thus defined by the Public Health Act (sec. 9):——

“The area of any union which is not coincident in area with an urban district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of such district, provided that——

“1. An _ex officio_ guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority, unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for the union.

“2. An elective guardian of any parish belonging to such union, and forming or being included within an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority.

“3. Where part of a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such parish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the due representation of the part of the parish situated within the rural district; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same manner as if no part of such parish formed part of, or was situated in, the urban district.”

Where the number of elective guardians, who are not by this section disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority, is less than five, the Local Government Board may from time to time by order nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify them as elective guardians for the union; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote as members of the rural authority, but not further or otherwise.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes, orders, and legal provisions applicable to any board of guardians shall apply to them in their capacity of rural authority under this Act for the purposes of this Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority act.

Sanitary districts in Ireland are:——The City of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts.

And urban authorities are:——

In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting by the town council.

In towns corporate, the town council.

In towns exceeding 6000, having commissioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV; or having municipal commissioners under 3 and 4 Vict., c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said commissioners, municipal, or town councillors respectively.

In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or township commissioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3).

The Irish rural sanitary districts and authorities are exactly analogous to the English.

In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised by town councils, police commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a board of supervision; but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to them.

Under the English Public Health Act, there may also be formed united districts; for example:

Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any contributory places, in any rural district or districts, to be formed into a united district for all or any of the purposes following:——

1. The procuring a common supply of water; or

2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into effect a system of sewerage for the use of all such districts, or contributory places; or

3. For any other purposes of this Act, the Local Government Board may, by provisional order, form such districts or contributory places into a united district.

All costs, charges, and expenses of and incidental to the formation of a united district are, in the event of the united district being formed, to be a first charge on the rates leviable in the united district in pursuance section 279 of the Public Health Act.

Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality; and should the union be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united district is governed by a joint board consisting of such _ex officio_, and of such number of elective members as the provisional order determines.

The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a sanitary authority.

The joint board is a body corporate having a name——determined by the provisional order——a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed. With the exception of these special objects, the component districts continue as before to exercise independent powers.

Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of any component district the exercise of any of its powers, or the performance of any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281).

Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution and maintenance of works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as well as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health. Districts when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, the Local Government Board having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas.

1. The Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve any local government district, and may merge any such district in some other district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a local government or a rural district immediately adjoining a local government district to be included in such last mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a local government district immediately adjoining a rural district to be included in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area shall, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining part (if any) of such local government district or rural district affected by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if such order had not been made, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an improvement act district, or having an area coextensive with such district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve such district, and transfer to the council of the borough, all or any of the jurisdiction and powers of the improvement commissioners of such district, remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act.

3. The Local Government Board may, by order, dissolve any special drainage district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised, and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated; but in the cases where a loan has been raised the Local Government Board can only do this by provisional order (Public Health Act, sec. 271).

Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by the Local Government Board after local inquiry (Public Health Act, sec. 278).

Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a district has been formed subject to the jurisdiction of a joint sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such districts or district may be dissolved by provisional order, and the Local Government Board may constitute it a united district, subject to the jurisdiction of a joint board (Public Health Act, sec. 323).

The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural district to be a local government district.

The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a rural authority with urban powers as follows:

“The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the assessment of whose hereditaments amounts at the least to one tenth of the net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein, by order to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ or in such other manner as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations of an urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in which such powers, rights, duties, liabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be exercised and attach, provided that an order of the Local Government Board made on the application of one tenth of the persons rated to the relief of the poor in any contributory place shall not invest the rural authority with any new powers beyond the limits of such contributory places” (Public Health Act, sec. 276).

_Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities._ In England urban sanitary authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health Act of 1875, and in addition they have to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act, and the Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act. They also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-houses Acts, and the Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts; but where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The powers of any local act for sanitary purposes (except a River Conservancy Act) are transferred to the urban authority.

The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act.

The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish Sanitary Authorities are similar.

The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given without distinction to urban and rural sanitary authorities.

The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acts which apply to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical officers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c.

Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all sanitary authorities are invested with ample powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their duty consists in perfecting drainage, sewerage, and water supply. In towns they have the control of streets and houses, both private and public, and in all localities they possess ample powers to cause every species of nuisance to be abated, which is in the least inimical to health.

The Public Health Act contains a proviso for dealing with an authority which fails in its duty. Under these circumstances, the Local Government Board is invested with compulsory powers, and may compel the due performance of whatever it may deem necessary.

=SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS——Gesundheitskräuter-Bitter.= An indispensable household remedy for every family, for colic, stomach-ache, cramp in the bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite, nausea, chronic liver diseases, constipation, and diarrhœa; also as a soothing agent for infants (Gottschlich). The fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble portion of about ·8 gramme opium. (Hager.)

=SANITARY LIQUEUR——Gesundheits Liqueur.= Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb in place of the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and spirit. (Hager.)

=SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS.= It is a popular sanitary error to think that the more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. To believe that the more hours children study the faster they learn. To conclude that, if exercise is good, the more violent the more good is done. To imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act on the presumption that the smallest room in the house is large enough to sleep in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes one to feel immediately better is good for the system, without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat without an appetite; or to continue after it has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. To eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the morning (‘Sanitary Record’).

=SANITARY RATAFIA——Gesundheits Ratafia.= For removing all stomach, chest, and bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhœa, vomiting, flatulence, dysuria, and affections caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps containing, in 250 grammes by weight, 75 grammes sugar, 105 grammes water, 100 grammes strong spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange peel and tincture of orange berries, 2·5 grammes each tincture of cloves and tincture of wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops acetic ether, and some drops of caramel. (Dr Horn.)

=SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of.——Gesundheitsblumengeist.= A mixture of spirit, 500 parts; tinct. aromatica, 5 parts; oils of bergamot, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 parts; oil of thyme, 3 parts; oil of spearmint, 1 part. (Hager.)

=SANITATION, DOMESTIC.= Not one of the least creditable or important benefits conferred of late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and enlightened enterprise upon the poorer classes of this country, has been the erection——in cities and large towns more particularly——of healthy houses for them to dwell in. In the construction of these habitations the architects and designers have for the most part been guided by sound sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has been effected by means of legislative supervision, and if needful, of legislative action.

The result of these measures has, in most cases, been to provide residences for our poorer brethren, wherein, amongst other advantages, they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air and water. That the richer, upper, and middle classes, whilst devising and achieving so much in the way of comfort and health for those beneath them, should themselves in so many cases live in houses notoriously unhealthy, and should fail to recognise the advantages of the compulsory enforcement of necessary hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so amazing as to be, at first sight, scarcely credible. Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to discomfit those who are incredulous on this point. The average mortality in London is 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwellings of the poor it is only 14 in the 1000.

This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and valuable paper read before the Social Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H. Collins. In this paper Mr Collins refers only to the houses of the metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as regards the enforcement of sanitary precautions in house building, London and its suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than many second-rate provincial towns, most of which, he says, have the construction of their buildings and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under the powers of the Public Health Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in London the various Acts of Parliament for this purpose have been inoperative. Mr Collins describes the insanitary condition of some of the high-rented houses he examined and says the descriptions which follow equally apply to many others situated in the most aristocratic quarters of London.

Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps, had been voting for the passing of the “Nuisance Removals Act,” returning from his parliamentary duties to such a mansion as is portrayed by Mr Collins in the following extract:——“I have recently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of a mansion in Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, who had spent, as I was informed, a fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I found the principal water-closet built out of the house altogether; the soil-pipe of it, however, was carried through the basement, where it was supposed to be connected with the drain. Upon removing the floor-boards to examine it, I found the ground surrounding the connection literally one mass of black sewage, the soil oozing through the point even at the time of the examination, and the connection with the main-drain laid in it at right angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of the house, having a very slight gradient, and had evidently not been laid in many years, yet they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, and but little space was left for the passage of the fluid. With but a slightly increased pressure the joints would have given way, and the sewage would have flowed under the boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, water-closets, and cisterns were all badly situated, and all more or less defective in sanitary arrangement. In the butler’s pantry the sink was placed next to the turn-up bedstead of the butler, who must have inhaled draughts of impure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-pipes of the closets had indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular tube, but, as this had been so placed as to let the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight into the house, and the odour being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his lordship’s directions (as I am told) closed. Here was evidence that it had at all events been doing some service, and probably had only poisoned a few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-pipes likewise riddled with holes, as described by Dr Leargus. There happened to be a housemaids’ sink situated close to a bedroom, the waste from which had been carefully connected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the closets been satisfactorily ventilated, this arrangement would have defeated the object in view. I should also mention that the best water-closet was situated on the bedroom floor under the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated through a small shaft formed of wood boarding and carried to the roof; it also opened by a window to the main or principal staircase. The gutter of the roof ran through the bedrooms and under the floors; at the time of examination it was full of black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of the sanitary arrangements of a nobleman’s town house, situated in one of the best streets of this great metropolis in the year of grace 1875.”

Let us take another example:——“A few years ago a client of mine, who resided in a large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife and two daughters had suffered in health ever since they had occupied their house, that he had consulted several medical men without beneficial result, and that he wished me to make a survey of the premises. He paid a rental of about £200 per annum. I found that the drainage was in every way defective, although he told me that he had spent a large sum of money in making it ‘perfect,’ the gradients were bad, the pipes choked, and the joints unsound. The servants’ water-closet was adjacent to the scullery, which was in communication with the kitchen, the sink being directly opposite the kitchen range. The water-closet was supplied direct from the cistern, the waste from which entered the drain, although it was said to be trapped. The waste of the sink was simply connected with the drains and trapped with an ordinary bell-trap, the cover or trap of which I found broken. Under the kitchen range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening, also leading into the drain. The domestics complained of frequent headaches and general depression, and I need not add that it excited no surprise, seeing that the kitchen fire was continuously drawing in from the sewers and house drains a steady supply of sewer-gas to the house and drinking-water cistern. In addition I found the basement walls damp, owing to the absence of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas. The upper water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns were situated over each other, off the first-floor landing, and directly opposite the bedroom doors. The bath and lavatory were fixed in the dressing-room, communicating with the best bedroom, the wastes from which were carried into the soil-pipe of closets. This latter was unventilated, but was trapped with an S pipe at bottom. The water-closets were pan closets, and were trapped by D traps. The upper closet periodically untrapped the lower closet, and both traps leaving the impure air free access to the house and cistern, which latter was also in communication by means of its waste-pipe with the house-drains. The overflows from safes of the water-closets were practically untrapped. The peculiar nauseating odour of sewer-gas was distinctly perceptible, and I had but little doubt but that atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads on the occupants. The landlord refused to recognise the truth of my report. My client, acting on my advice, relinquished his lease, took another house, the sanitation of which was carefully attended to, and his wife and children have had no recurrence of illness.”

Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many town-houses to be the existence of old disused cesspools in the centre of the buildings. These receptacles, which are frequently nearly filled with decaying fæcal substances, are very often found to be insecurely covered over with tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the construction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr Collins regards attention to the following conditions as essential:——“All subsoil should be properly drained, proper thickness of the concrete should be applied to the foundations, damp-proof courses should be inserted over footings, earth should be kept back from walls by dry areas properly drained and ventilated, external walls should be built of good hard well-burnt stock brickwork, of graduated thicknesses, and never less than 14 inches thick; internal divisions should be of brick in cement. The mortar and cement should be of good quality. All basement floors should have a concrete or cement bottom, with air flowing under the same, and the boarding thereof should be tongued so as to prevent draught and exhalation penetrating through the joints of the same. Ample areas back and front should be insisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of which should never be allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow free circulation and to prevent the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. The main drains should be carried through the back yards, and, to prevent inconvenience to adjoining owners from any obstruction, they should be laid in subways, so that the sewer inspector could gain ready access thereto without entering any of the premises or causing any annoyance to the tenants. No basement should on any account be allowed to be constructed at such a level as will not permit of the pipes having good steep gradients to the sewer.

All sinks should be placed next external walls, having windows over the same, and removed from the influence of the fire-grates. All wastes should discharge exteriorly over and not into trapped cess-pits, all of which should be provided with splashing stones fixed round the same. The basement cisternage should be placed in convenient and accessible positions, protected from dirt and guarded from the effects of alternations of temperature. They should be of slate and galvanised iron, and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted with overflows discharging over the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They should be supplied with stout lead encased, block-tin pipe, the services therefrom for all drinking purposes should be of the same description, and should be attached to an ascending filter, so that water may be delivered free from lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is more frequent than is generally believed. Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under dressers, or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and when fitted up should always be well ventilated. All passages should be well lighted and ventilated. Borrowed lights are better than none at all. Every room should be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over doors and windows should be freely disposed. It would conduce to the health of the house, without adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct the products of combustion from gas and other impure or soiled air, &c., into the same, from ventilators placed in the centre of or close to the ceilings, as may be found most convenient. By carefully proportioning the inlet and outlet ventilation, the air will be kept moving without draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet condition for respiration. The windows and doors will then serve only their legitimate objects of admitting light, and of affording ingress and egress to the various apartments. The staircase should be made the main ventilator of the house, and it is essentially necessary to preserve the air surrounding the same, uncontaminated, pure, and undefiled. It will be better to light and ventilate it from the top; and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of London finding their way into the house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under it, which can periodically be easily removed and cleansed, or it may be furnished with a movable inner, ornamental flat light.

Under no circumstances must lavatories or sinks be brought in connection with the drains. Most people desire the bath-room to be in proximity to the bedrooms; whether so placed or not, all connection with main drainage must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known as the flow and return pipes, should be of galvanised iron, with junctions carefully made with running joints in red lead; on no account should these be in contact with any other pipes. The wastes from the bath safe (and lavatories if any) should be carried through the front wall of the house, and should turn over and into rain-water head, covered with domical wire grating to prevent birds building their nests therein, and carried down to the basement area, where they must discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as before described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve to obviate the nuisance of the soap-suds flowing over the pavement. A brush passed up and down these waters now and then will effectually remove any soapy sediment which may cling to their surfaces. The waste from bath, &c., into heads should be furnished with a ground valve flap and collar to prevent draught, and the bath should be fitted with india-rubber seatings between the metal and wood framing. Mansarde or sloping roofs should be avoided; they are injurious to the health of the domestics, whose sleeping chambers they are generally appropriated to; they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and prejudicially cold in winter, laying the basis for future disease for those least able to bear it. Gutters taken through roofs, known as ‘trough,’ should never be permitted; they congregate putrescent filth, which remains in them for years to taint and poison the atmosphere.” Consult also, as supplementing this subject, the articles DRAINS, DUSTBINS, CESSPOOLS, TANKS, TRAPS, WATER-CLOSETS.

=SAN′TALIN.= The colouring principle of red sanders wood.

=SAN′TONIN.= C_{15}H_{18}O_{3}. _Syn._ SANTONIC ACID; SANTONINUM, L. The crystalline and characteristic principle of the seed of several varieties of _Artemisia_.

_Prep._ (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Take of worm-seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, 1-1/2 part; mix, and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil, off 3-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder to one half, which, at the boiling temperature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and afterwards with water; on repose, impure santonin subsides; wash this with a little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter; the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of santonin as it cools; these are to be dried, and kept in opaque bottles.

Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two singular effects are known to result from the administration of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual derangements and a peculiar alteration in the colour of the urine. He adds that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure white santonin, he became conscious, while reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and a yellow haze in the air. His own hands, and the complexions of others, appeared of a sallow unhealthy colour; and the evening sky, which was really of a pale lavender colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not perfectly distinct for some hours, and was accompanied by a certain vagueness of definition. Mr Smith endorses the observations of previous observers who had noticed that the urine of persons under the influence of santonin is tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. The coloured urine resembles that of a person slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently stains linen of a light yellow colour.

The best test for santonin in the urine is an alkali, upon the addition of which the urine immediately assumes a fine cherry-red colour, varying in depth according to the amount of santonin present. Potash was found to be the preferable alkali.

_Prop., &c._ Prismatic or tubular crystals; inodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter; fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water; soluble in cold alcohol and ether; freely soluble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a tasteless worm medicine, and is especially adapted to remove lumbricales (large round worms).——_Dose_, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.

(Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, with 1 gall. of distilled water, and 5 oz. of slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an hour, strain through a stout cloth and express strongly. Mix the residue with 1/2 gall. of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil for half an hour, strain and express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let them settle, decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate to the bulk of 2-1/2 pints. To the liquor while hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric acid, until the fluid has become slightly and permanently acid, and set it aside for five days that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by skimming, any oily matter which floats on the surface, and carefully decant the greater part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect this on a paper filter, wash it first with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless and nearly free from acid reaction, then with 1/2 fl. oz. of solution of ammonia, previously diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water, and, lastly, with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless. Press the filter containing the precipitate between folds of filtering paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Scrape the dry precipitate from the filter, and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal. Pour on them 9 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, digest for half an hour, and boil for ten minutes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a cool dark place to crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from the crystals, and concentrate to obtain a further product. Collect the crystals, let them drain, redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and let the solution crystallise as before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the dark and preserve them in a bottle protected from the light.

=SAP GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SAPONIFICA′TION.= See SOAP.

=SAP′ONIN.= _Syn._ SAPONINUM, L. A white, non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of _Saponaria officinalis_ (Linn.), or soapwort.

_Prop., &c._ Saponin is soluble in hot water, and the solution froths strongly on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder causes violent sneezing.

=SARCOCOL′LA.= A gum-resin supposed to be derived from one or more plants of the natural order _Renæaceæ_, growing in Arabia and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum Arabic, except in being soluble in both water and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly used in surgery.

=SAR′COSINE.= C_{3}H_{7}O_{2}N. A feebly basic substance, obtained by boiling kreatine for some time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms colourless, transparent plates, freely soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether; it may be fused and volatilised.

=SARSAPARIL′LA.= _Syn._ SARSÆ RADIX (B. P.), RADIX SARZÆ, RADIX SARSAPARILLÆ, SARZA (Ph. L. & E.), SARSAPARILLA (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. “Jamaica sarza. The root of _Smilax officinalis_, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and probably of other species.” (Ph. E.)

The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided by Dr Pereira into two classes:——‘Mealy sarsaparilla’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’ In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras; the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true Vera Cruz.

The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by “the mealy character of the inner cortical layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls when we fracture the roots.” The medulla or pith is also frequently very amylaceous.

The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are characterised by a deeply coloured (red or brown), usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, and much thinner than in the mealy sorts.” “If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a transverse section of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex and wood acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and, sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but does not yield a blue colour when a solution of iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract, when rubbed down with a little cold distilled water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid liquid, nor become blue on the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case with the decoction and extract of the mealy varieties.

The JAMAICA, RED JAMAICA, or RED-BEARDED SARSAPARILLA (SARZA JAMAICENSIS——Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone be used in medicine. This kind yields from 33 to 44% of its weight of extract (Battley, Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy matter than the other varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the above peculiarities in a marked degree, by the dirty reddish colour of its bark, which “is not mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully with rootlets” (fibres).——Ph. L. Its powder has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The other varieties of sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the Jamaica by the druggists in the preparations of the decoctions and extracts of this drug; but the products are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root, is very liable to ferment, even by a few hours’ exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads of the strong decoction, after exposure for a single night, in as active a state of fermentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that was not wholly removed by several hours’ boiling. When this occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the product in extract is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet this is frequently allowed to occur in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be——always begin a ‘bath of sarza’ (as it is called), and, indeed, of other perishable articles, early in the morning, and finish it, completely and entirely, the same day.

Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases; and, especially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body, and to remove the symptoms arising from the injudicious use of mercurials, often falsely called ‘secondary syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It is, however, much more effective in warm than in northern climates.——_Dose._ In substance, 1/2 to 1 dr., three or four times daily; but, preferably, made into a decoction or infusion.

The articles so much puffed under the names of American or United States sarsaparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are “nothing more than the decoction of a common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting the swamps and marshes of the United States. When cut up it has the appearance of chaff, but not the slightest resemblance in character, colour, or taste, to even the most inferior species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with benzoin and sassafras, and, finally, preserved from decomposition by means of the bichloride of mercury.” “I have heard of several cases of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symptoms, following its use.” “We do not believe that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered into the composition of either of the articles referred to.” (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 227.) See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=SARSAPARIL′LIN.= _Syn._ PARIGLIN, PARILLIC ACID, SALSAPARIN, SMILACIN. A white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance, discovered by Pallotta and Folchi, in sarsaparilla.

_Prep._ The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is treated with hot rectified spirit, and the resulting tincture reduced to about one third by distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly concentrated by evaporation, and set aside to crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redissolved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with a little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits crystals of nearly pure smilacin as it cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water.

_Prop., &c._ A non-nitrogenised neutral body. Water holding a very small quantity of it in solution froths considerably on agitation. This is especially the case with infusion of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has consequently been proposed as a test of the quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of sarsaparilla. According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative, and diminishes the vital energies in proportion to the quantity taken.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr.; in the usual cases in which the root is given.

=SAS′SAFRAS.= _Syn._ SASSAFRAS RADIX (B. P.), SASSAFRAS RADIX, SASSAFRAS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The root of _Sassafras officinale_, Nees. _Laurus sassafras_, Linn.”——Ph. L. It has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic; and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips), under the name of sassafras tea, has been a popular ‘diet drink’ in various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c.

=SATURA′TION.= The state in which a body has taken its full dose, or chemical proportion, of any other substance with which it can combine, or which it can dissolve; as water with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an acid, when the properties of both are neutralised.

=SAUCERS (for Dyeing).= _Prep._ 1. (BLUE.) From blue carmine, made into a paste with gum water, which is then spread over the inside of the saucers, and dried.

2. (PINK.)——_a._ From pure rouge mixed with a little carbonate of soda, then made into a paste with thin gum water, and applied as the last.

_b._ Well-washed safflower, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 oz.; water, 2 gall.; infuse, strain, add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid; collect the red powder, drain it, add a very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c.

=SAUCE.= A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or seasoning for food. The following receipts for sauces may be useful to the reader:

=Sauce, Ancho′vy.= 1. (Extemporaneous.) From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter, 3 oz.; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls; flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over the fire till it thickens, then rub it through a coarse hair sleeve.

2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies. Other fish sauces may be made in the same manner.

=Sauce, Apple.= From sharp apples, cored, sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water, and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and many other like sauces, may be made in the same manner.

=Sauce, Aristocratique.= From green-walnut juice and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace, and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, 1/2 pint of port wine, 1/4 pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the whole stand for a few days, and decant the clear liquor.

=Bech′amel.= A species of fine white broth or consommée, thickened with cream, and used as ‘white sauce.’

=Sauce, Caper.= Put twelve table-spoonfuls of melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of capers; shake the stewpan round over the fire until the butter is melted, add a little pepper and salt, and serve where directed. Also as mint sauce.

=Sauce, Chut′ney.= 1. From sour apples (pared and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana raisins, of each 3 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 oz.; garlic and shallots, of each 1 oz.; pound the whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 do.; and digest, with frequent agitation, for a month; then pour off nearly all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews, &c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’ ‘Chetney,’ or ‘Chitni,’ which must be ground to a smooth paste with a stone and muller, and then put into pots or jars. It is used like mustard.

2. (BENGAL CHITNI.) As the last, but using tamarinds instead of apples, and only sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste.

=Cor′atch.= From good mushroom ketchup, 1/2 gal.; walnut ketchup, 3/4 pint; India soy and chillie vinegar, of each 1/2 pint; essence of anchovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight.

=Sauce, Epicurienne.= To the last add of walnut ketchup and port wine, of each 1 quart; garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 4 oz.; chillies (bruised), 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1/2 oz.

=Sauce, Fish.= From port wine 1 gall.; mountain do., 1 quart; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts; anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs.; 8 lemons, 48 shallots, scraped horseradish, 1-1/2 lb.; flour of mustard, 8 oz.; mace, 1 oz.; cayenne, q. s.; boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.

=Ketchup.= See under that name.

=Sauce, Kitchener’s.= _Syn._ KITCHENER’S RELISH. From salt, 3 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 oz.; burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all bruised or scraped); macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle.

=Lem′on Pickle.= From lemon juice and vinegar, of each 3 gall.; bruised ginger, 1 lb.; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 8 oz.; salt, 3-1/2 lbs.; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and nutmegs, of each 1 oz.; digest for 14 days.

=Sauce, Lobs′ter.= From lobsters, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Sauce, Mint.= From garden mint, chopped small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.

=Sauce, On′ion.= From onions boiled to a pulp and then beaten up with melted butter and a little warm milk.

=Sauce, Oys′ter.= From about 12 oysters, and 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cayenne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, stirred together over a slow fire, then brought to a boil, and served.

=Sauce, Piquante.= From soy and cayenne pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine, 1/2 pint; brown pickling vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; mix, and let them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling.

=Sauce, Quin’s.= From walnut pickle and port wine, of each 1 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each 2 dozen; soy, 1/2 pint; cayenne, 1/4 oz.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a fortnight strain, and bottle.

=Sauce au Roi.= From brown vinegar (good), 3 quarts; soy and walnut ketchup, of each 1/2 pint; cloves and shallots, of each 1 doz.; cayenne pepper, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, and digest for 14 days.

=Sauce, Shrimp.= From shrimps or prawns, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Soy.= See that article.

=Sauce, Superlative.= From port wine, and mushroom ketchup, of each 1 quart; walnut pickle, 1 pint; soy, 1/2 pint; powdered anchovies, 1/2 lb.; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots, and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz.; allspice and black pepper (bruised), of each 1 oz.; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each 1/4 oz. (or currie powder, 3/4 oz.); digest for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very relishing.

=Sauce, Toma′to.= From bruised tomatoes, 1 gall.; good salt, 1/2 lb.; mix, in 3 days press out the juice, to each quart of which add of shallots, 2 oz.; black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, ginger, nutmegs, and cochineal, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it into bottles.

=Sauce, Waterloo.= From strong vinegar (nearly boiling), 1 quart, port wine, 3/4 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1/2 pint; walnut ketchup, 1/4 pint; essence of anchovies, 4 oz.; 8 cloves of garlic; cochineal (powdered), 1/2 oz. (or red beet, sliced, 3 oz.); let them stand together for a fortnight or longer, occasionally shaking the bottle.

=Sauce, White.= _Syn._ BUTTER SAUCE, MELTED BUTTER. From good butter, 4 oz.; cream, 2-1/2 oz.; salt (in very fine powder), 1/2 teaspoonful; put them into a pot or basin, set this in hot water, and beat the whole with a bone, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a perfectly smooth, cream-like mixture, avoiding too much heat, which would make it run oily. A table-spoonful of sherry, marsala, lemon juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added; but the selection must depend on the dishes the sauce is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of the ‘bottled sauces,’ an excellent compound sauce of the added ingredient is immediately obtained.

=Sauces, American.= White vinegar, 15 gall.; walnut ketchup, 10 gall.; Madeira wine, 5 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall,; table salt, 25 lbs. (troy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. (troy); allspice, powdered, coriander powder, of each 1 lb. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 1/2 lb. (troy); assafœtida, 1/4 lb. (troy); dissolved in brandy, 1 gall.; 20 lbs. of hog’s liver is boiled for 12 hours with 10 gall. of water, renewing the water from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water, and work it through a sieve; mix with the sauce.

2. White vinegar, 240 gall.; Canton soy, 36 gall.; sugar-house syrup, 30 gall.; walnut ketchup, 50 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 50 gall.; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy); powdered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy); allspice, coriander, of each 7 lbs. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 4 lbs. (troy); assafœtida, 2-1/2 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix rum, 1 gall.

3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton soy, molasses, of each 1 pint; walnut ketchup, 1-1/2 pint; table salt, 4 oz.; powdered capsicum, allspice, of each 1 oz.; coriander, 1/2 oz.; cloves, mace, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr., assafœtida 1/4 oz. in 4 oz. of rum.

=SAUERKRAUT.= [Ger.] _Prep._ Clean white cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a cask along with culinary salt and a few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down as hard as possible, without crushing them, and to cover them with a lid pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask should be placed in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived. Used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe, like our ‘pickled cabbage,’ but more extensively.

=SAU′SAGES.= From the fat and lean of pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or of beef (BEEF SAUSAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice, and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum of bread is also added. Their quality is proportionate to that of the ingredients, and to the care and cleanliness employed in preparing them.

A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork, and a little salt, was largely consumed by the German soldiers during the Franco-German campaign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this sausage to consist of——16·2 parts of water, 7·19 of salts, 12·297 of albuminates, 33·65 of fat, and 30·663 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, but can be made into soup, although much relished for a few days. The soldiers soon became tired of it. In some cases it gave rise to flatulence and diarrhœa. See MEAT.

=SAV′ELOYS.= Pork sausages made in such a way that they keep good for a considerable time. _Prep._ (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and 1/2 lb. of common salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3 teaspoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb. of grated bread; mix well, fill the skins, and steam them or bake them half an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be good either hot or cold.

=SAV′INE.= _Syn._ SAVIN; FOLIA SABINÆ, SABINA (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The recent and dried tops of _Juniperis sabina_, Linn.,” or common savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient, escharotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt to occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. SAVINE POWDER mixed with verdigris is often applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the form of ointment.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice daily (with care), in amenorrhœa and worms. See CERATE.

=SAVONETTES.= [Fr.] _Syn._ WASH BALLS. These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps, scented at will, generally with the addition of some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given to them by pressure in moulds, or by first roughly forming them with the hands, and, when quite hard, turning them in a lathe. According to Mr Beasley, “they are formed into spherical balls by taking a mass of the prepared soap in the left hand, and a conical drinking-glass with rather thin edges in the right. By turning the glass and ball of soap in every direction, the rounded form is soon given; when dry, the surface is scraped, to render it more smooth and even.”

_Prep._ 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs.; finest yellow soap, 2 lbs. (both in shavings); soft water, 3/4 pint; melt by a gentle heat, stir in of powdered starch (farina), 1-1/2 lb.; when the mass has considerably cooled, further add of essence of lemon or bergamot, 1 oz., and make it into balls.

2. (CAMPHOR.) Melt spermaceti, 2 oz.; add camphor (cut small), 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the liquid mass to white curd soap, 1-1/2 lb., previously melted by the aid of a little water and a gentle heat, and allowed to cool considerably as above. These should be covered with tin-foil.

3. (HONEY.) From the finest bright-coloured yellow soap, 7 lbs.; palm oil, 1/4 lb.; melt, and add of oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-grass, 1 oz.; as No. 1. Sometimes 1/2 oz. of oil of rosemary is also added.

4. (MOTTLED.)——_a._ RED. Cut white curd or Windsor soap (not too dry) into small square pieces, and roll these in a mixture of powder bole or rouge, either with or without the addition of some starch; then squeeze them strongly into balls, observing to mix the colour as little as possible.——_b._ BLUE. Roll the pieces in powdered blue, and proceed as before.——_c._ GREEN. Roll the pieces in a mixture of powder blue and bright yellow ochre. By varying the colour of the powder, mottled savonettes of any colour may be produced.

5. (SAND.) From soap (at will), 2 lbs.; fine siliceous sand, 1 lb.; scent, q. s.; as No. 1. For the finer qualities, finely powdered pumice-stone is substituted for sand.

6. (VIOLET.) From palm-oil soap, 4 lbs.; farina, 2 lbs.; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb. Sometimes a little smalts, or indigo, is added.

=SAWDUST, Preparation of Alcohol from.= M. Zetterland[146] states that he has obtained alcohol from sawdust by the following process:——Into an ordinary steam-boiler, heated by means of steam, were introduced 9 cwt. of very wet sawdust, 10·7 cwt. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·18), and 30 cwt. of water; after eleven hours boiling there was formed 19·67 per cent. of grape sugar.

[Footnote 146: ‘Chemical News,’ xxvi——181.]

The acid was next saturated with chalk, so as to leave in the liquid only a small quantity (1/2 degree by Ludersdorf’s acid areometer); when the saccharine liquid was cooled down to 30° yeast was added, and the fermentation finished in twenty-four hours. By distillation there were obtained 26·5 litres of alcohol of 50 per cent. at 15°, quite free from any smell of turpentine, and of excellent taste. It appears that the preparation of alcohol from sawdust may be successfully carried on industrially when it is precisely ascertained what degree of dilution of acid is required, and how long the liquid has to be boiled.

If all the cellulose present in sawdust could be converted into sugar, 50 kilos of the former substance would yield, after fermentation, 12 litres of alcohol at 50 per cent.

=SCAB′IES.= See ITCH.

=SCAB IN SHEEP.= This disease, corresponding to mange in the dog, the horse, or in cattle, is caused by a species of acaris, a minute insect which burrows under the skin of the sheep, and sets up therein a considerable amount of irritation, which is followed by an irruption of pimples, accompanied with scurf, but frequently the wool comes off from the affected part.

The following are some of the numerous remedies employed for this disease:——

1. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; rub them together until the globules are no longer visible; then add 1/2 pint of oil of turpentine, and 4 lbs. of lard. The mode of applying this ointment is as follows:——Begin at the head of the sheep, and proceeding from between the ears along the back to the end of the tail, divide the wool in a furrow till the skin can be touched; and let a finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, be drawn along the bottom of the furrow. From this furrow similar ones must be drawn along the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far as the wool extends. And if much infected, 2 or more should also be drawn along each side, parallel with that on the back, and one down each side before the hind and fore legs. It kills the sheep-fag, and probably the tick and other vermin. It should not be used in very cold or wet weather. (Sir Joseph Banks.)

2. Tar oils. Tobacco juice. Stavesacre. (Finlay Dun.)

3. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; mix. (Youatt.)

4. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; spirit of turpentine, 2 oz., lard, 4-1/2 lb.; to be made and used as No. 1. In summer 1 lb. of resin may be substituted for alike quantity of lard. (Clater.)

5. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 8 oz.; sulphur, 12 oz.——WHITE.

6. _Mild._ Flowers of sulphur, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rancid lard, 2 lbs.; strong mercurial ointment, 4 oz.; mix well.——CLATER.

7. Lard or other fat, with an equal quantity of oil of turpentine.——DAUBENTON.

8. _Without mercury._ Lard, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 4 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 6 oz.——WHITE.

9. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 8 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. If mixed by heat, care must be taken not to use more heat than is necessary, and to add the oil of turpentine when the other ingredients begin to cool and to stir till cold.——M’EWEN.

10. Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz.; white hellebore, 3 oz.; fish oil, 6 quarts; resin, 1/2 lb.; tallow, 1/2 lb. The sublimate and then the hellebore to be rubbed with a portion of the oil till perfectly smooth, and then mixed with the other ingredients melted together.——STEVENSON.

11. The following once had considerable local celebrity, but it obviously requires to be used with caution. Dissolve 2-1/4 oz. of corrosive sublimate in the same quantity of muriatic acid, and beat up the solution with 6 lbs. of strong mercurial ointment; put in a large pan, and pour on it 19-1/2 lbs. of lard, and 1-1/2 lb. of common turpentine, melted together and still hot, and stir the whole continually until it becomes solid.

12. Castor-oil seeds well bruised and steeped for 12 hours in sour milk, after straining rub the liquid briskly into the skin. (An Indian remedy.)

=SCAGLIO′LA.= A species of plaster or stucco, made of pure gypsum, with variegated colours, in imitation of marble. In general, the liquid employed is a weak solution of Flanders glue; and the colours, any which are not decomposed or destroyed by admixture with sulphate of lime and exposure to the light. The composition is often applied upon hollow columns formed of wood, or even of laths nailed together, and the surface, when hard, is turned smooth in a lathe, and polished.

=SCALES.= A special article under the head of “BALANCE” has been devoted to the scales employed by the chemist and analyst.

But although these claimed from their greater complexity of structure and the extreme delicacy of movement required of them a separate notice, every pharmacist and apothecary will recognise the importance of bestowing an equal amount of attention upon his dispensing scales; and, to ensure accurate weighing by them, will take care to keep them scrupulously clean, and properly poised.

For dispensing purposes, scales fitted with glass pans (or at least with one glass pan, in which medicinal substances can be weighed) should always be employed. The beams should be of steel, and the attachments of one piece of brass only, in preference to chains, or supports of silken thread. The beams are best cleaned with sand paper, or rotten stone, and may be protected from rust by being rubbed over with a little almond oil.

=SCALD-HEAD.= See RINGWORM.

=SCALDS.= See BURNS AND SCALDS.

=SCALL.= _Syn._ SCALD. The popular name of several skin diseases distinguished by scabs or scurfiness, whether dry or humid. See ERUPTIONS, RINGWORM, &c.

=SCAM′MONY.= _Syn._ SCAMMONIUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The “gum resin emitted from the cut root of _Convolvulus Scammonia_, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or Aleppo scammony plant.

There are three principal varieties or qualities of scammony known in the market; viz. VIRGIN (sp. gr. 1·21); SECONDS (sp. gr. 1·460 to 1·463); and THIRDS (sp. gr. 1·465 to 1·500). The best, and that only intended to be used in medicine, is imported from Aleppo.

_Pur._ Scammony is not only largely adulterated in the country of its production, but again after its arrival in England. SMYRNA SCAMMONY, a very inferior variety, is also commonly dressed up, and sold as Aleppo scammony. In many cases substances are sold at the public sales in London, and elsewhere, as scammony, which contain only a mere trace of that article. This is all ground up to form the scammony powder of the shops. (_Vide_ ‘Evid. Com. Ho. Com.,’ 1155.) PURE SCAMMONY has a peculiar cheesy smell, and a greenish-grey colour. It is “porous and brittle, and the freshly broken surface shines; hydrochloric acid being dropped on it, it emits no bubbles; nor does the powder digested in water, at heat of 170° Fahr., become blue by the simultaneous addition of iodide of potassium and dilute nitric acid. Out of 100 gr., 78 (80——Ph. E.) should be soluble in ether.” (Ph. L.) The tincture of pure scammony is not turned green by nitric acid. If the powder effervesce with dilute acids, it contains chalk.

_Uses, &c._ Pure scammony is a powerful drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmissible in inflammatory conditions of the alimentary canal, but well adapted for torpid and inactive conditions of the abdominal organs. Associated with calomel, rhubarb, or sulphate of potassa, it is useful in all cases in which an active cathartic or vermifuge may be required, especially for children.——_Dose._ (For an adult) 5 to 15 gr., in powder, or made into a bolus or emulsion.

=SCARLATI′NA.= See SCARLET FEVER.

=SCAR′LET DYE.= _Proc._ (Poërner.)——_a._ The ‘Bouillon.’ Take of cream of tartar, 1-3/4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil in a block-tin vessel, and when dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of 1 lb. each of nitric acid and water, and 1-1/2 oz. of sal ammoniac), 1-3/4 oz.; boil for 3 minutes, then introduce the cloth, boil for 2 hours, drain it, and let it cool.——_b._ The ‘Rougie.’ Next take of cream of tartar, 1/4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil, and add powdered cochineal, 1 oz.; again boil for 5 minutes, then gradually add of solution of tin, 1 oz., stirring well all the time; lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as possible. The quantities given are those for 1 to 1-1/4 lb. of woollen cloth. The result is a full scarlet. To make the colour turn on the ‘ponceau’ or poppy, a little turmeric is added to the bath.

_Obs._ Scarlet is red with a tinge of yellow; it is nearly always produced by cochineal. See RED DYE.

=SCARLET FE′VER.= _Syn._ SCARLATINA, FEBRIS SCARLATINA, L. A highly contagious disease, so named after the peculiar eruption or efflorescence of the skin which accompanies it. The milder form of this disease (SCARLATINA SIMPLEX, S. MITIS) comes on with languor, chilliness alternated by fits of heat, nausea, vomiting (frequently), and other common symptoms of fever; followed, on the third or fourth day, by a scarlet efflorescence upon the skin, which after three or four days ends in the cuticle or scarf-skin peeling off in branny scales. Dropsical swelling of the whole body sometimes follows the disappearance of the eruption; but this, with the febrile symptoms, and the soreness of the throat (if any), then give way, and the patient gradually regains his former health and strength. In the _malignant form_ of scarlet fever (SCARLATINA CYNANCHICA, S. ANGINOSA, S. MALIGNA) the febrile symptoms, from the first, are more alarming; there is bilious vomiting, great soreness and ulceration of the throat, the pulse is small and quick, and the breathing laborious. These symptoms rapidly increase on the appearance of the eruption; the body then becomes swollen, the nose and eyes inflamed, the breath fetid, the throat suppurates, putrid symptoms ensue, and the patient is either suddenly cut off or recovers very slowly.

The early symptoms of scarlet fever are distinguished from those of the MEASLES and SMALLPOX by the greater extent and want of elevation of the eruption, and by its not congregating into patches. Nor are there the cough or running from the eyes and nose which usher in the measles.

The treatment of the milder form of scarlet fever, especially that of childhood, may consist of the administration of an emetic, followed by a saline aperient, to clear the bowels; the latter being repeated as occasion may require. The patient should be kept in a cool and well-ventilated room, the diet should be light and farinaceous, and the use of diluent drinks copiously indulged in. If the febrile symptoms are severe, or the throat much affected, small doses of some mild mercurial, as calomel, mercurial pill, or quicksilver with chalk, may be administered, either separately or combined with antimonial diaphoretics or Dover’s powder. In malignant scarlet fever a smart emetic should be given early, and mercurials and diaphoretics at once freely exhibited. Acidulated gargles may be used for the throat, and, when the heat of the body is much above the natural standard, sponging the whole body with cold water, or with vinegar and water, may be had recourse to. If the malignant symptoms run high, and assume a typhoid or putrid character, the system must be supported with stimulant tonics as wine, bark, capsicum, &c.

According to Hahnemann, Koreff, and Randhahn, belladonna is a prophylactic against scarlet fever. The homœopathists also hold it to be almost a specific in the disease.

Dr Renfrew’s medicinal treatment consists in the administration of a mixture consisting of tincture of perchloride of iron and chlorate of potash. He contends that the chlorine which the mixture contains destroys the blood poison, that the hydrochloric acid supplies a desirable ingredient for the blood, that the iron improves the impaired red blood disks and assists in forming new ones, whilst the chlorate of potash is a source of oxygen whereby the disintegrated matters floating in the blood are burnt up and destroyed.

Scarlet fever is common to all ages of life, but children and young persons are the most subject to it. Unlike the smallpox, it occasionally attacks the same person more than once. It is most common in dirty, close, damp situations.

_In horses_, the commencing symptoms are very similar to those in man——indisposition to movement, febrile symptoms as indicated by a hot and dry skin, and sore throat, the glands about the head and neck being frequently tender and swollen. The respiration becomes quickened and the pulse thready. In about 48 hours scarlet spots about the size of a pea show themselves on the mucous membrane about the lips and nostrils, the spots after a time becoming confluent. Except the attack be a very mild one, similar spots spread all over the body, but are most plentiful about the animal’s head and neck. After about a fortnight or three weeks, the hair leaves the parts on which the spots are, and then desquamation sets in, and bare bald patches are left. The after results bear a great resemblance to those which frequently follow an attack of the same disease in the human being. The best treatment consists in placing the animal in a cool, well-ventilated loose box, applying bandages to the legs, and a linen cover to the body, with a warm rug over that.

A dose of nitre and Mindererus spirit should be given in water three times a day, combined with mild tonics, stimulants, and diuretics. See DISINFECTANTS.

=SCENE′-PAINTING.= A variety of distemper painting employed in theatres, &c., governed by perspective, and having for its object the production of striking effects when viewed at a distance. Water, size, turpentine, and the ordinary pigments, are the materials used for the purpose.

=SCENT BAGS.= See SACHETS.

=SCENT BALLS.= _Syn._ PASTILLES DE TOILETTE ODORANTES, Fr. These are prepared from any of the materials noticed under POT POURRI, SCENTED POWDERS, and SACHETS, made into a paste with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and moulded into any desired forms, as that of balls, beads, medallions, &c. The larger ones are frequently polished.

=SCENTED CAS′SOLETTES.= See POT POURRI, and _above_.

=SCENTS (Pommade).= _Prep._ 1. (COWSLIP.) From essence of bergamot, 8 oz.; essence of lemon, 4 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 oz,; essence de petit grain, 1 oz.

2. (JONQUILLE.) From essence of bergamot and lemon, of each 8 oz.; oils of orange peel and cloves, of each 2 oz.; oil of sassafras, 1 oz.; liquid storax, 1/2 oz,; digest, with warmth and agitation, for a few hours, and decant the clear portion in a week.

3. (MILLEFLEUR.) From essence of ambergris (finest), 4 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 oz.; oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of each 2 oz.; essence de petit grain, essence of bergamot, and balsam of Peru (genuine), of each 1 oz.; as the last.

_Obs._ The above are employed to scent pomatums, hair oils, &c. 1 oz. of any one of them, dissolved in one pint of the strongest rectified spirit, produces a delicious perfume for the handkerchief.

=SCENTS (Snuff).= _Prep._ 1. Essence of bergamot, 2 oz.; otto of roses and neroli, of each 1 dr.

2. Oil of lavender, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.

3. To the last, add of oil of cloves, 2 oz.

4. Essence of musk and ambergris, of each 1 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 1/2 dr. See SNUFF, &c.

=SCHEELE’S GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SCHLIPPE’S SALT.= Sulphantimoniate of sodium. See ANTIMONY, SULPHANTIMONIATE.

=SCHWARTZ’S DROPS.= See DROPS, WORM.

=SCIAT′ICA.= See RHEUMATISM.

=SCIENCE.= “Man,” says Whewell, “is the interpreter of nature. Science the right interpretation. The senses place before us the _characters_ of the ‘Book of Nature,’ but these convey no knowledge to us till we have discovered the alphabet by which they are to be read.”

Various classifications of the sciences have been proposed by different authors. Dr Neil Arnott conceived that the object of all the sciences, viz. a knowledge of nature, might be best attained by the study of physics, chemistry, life and mind, including under this latter the laws of society, or the modern science of sociology.

As to mathematics he regarded it as a system of “technical mensuration,” invaded by the mind in order to enable it to study the other sciences. In his ‘Cours de Philosophie Positive,’ Comte traverses the entire circle of the theoretical, abstract, or fundamental sciences, and divides them into mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. He admits no distinct science on psychology or the science of mind.

Mr Herbert Spencer proposes to classify the sciences into three groups; viz.:——1. Abstract science, which treats of the forms of phenomena detached from their embodiments. 2. Abstract concrete science, or the phenomena of nature analysed into their separate elements. 3. Concrete science or natural phenomena in their totalities.

“For the classification of the sciences it is convenient to prepare the way by distinguishing between theoretical sciences which are the sciences properly so called, and practical science. A theoretical science embraces a distinct department of nature, and is so arranged as to give in the most compact form the entire body of ascertained (scientific) knowledge in that department, such as mathematics, chemistry, physiology, and zoology. A practical science is the application of scientifically obtained facts and laws in one or more departments to some practical end, which end rules the selection and arrangement of the whole; as for example, navigation, engineering, mining, and medicine. Another distinction must be made before laying down the systematic order of the theoretical sciences.

“A certain number of these sciences have for their subject-matter each a separate department of natural forces or powers; thus, biology deals with the department of organised beings, psychology with mind. Others deal with the application of powers elsewhere recognised to some region of concrete facts or phenomena. Thus, geology does not discuss any natural powers not found in other sciences, but seeks to apply the laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to account for the appearance of the earth’s crust.

“The sciences that embrace peculiar natural powers are called abstract, general, or fundamental sciences; those that apply to the powers treated of under these, to regions of concrete phenomena, are called concrete, derived, or applied sciences.”[147]

[Footnote 147: ‘Chambers’s Encyclopædia.’]

The separation of the sciences into these two sections is that now generally accepted.

The first section, that of the abstract or theoretical sciences, is subdivided by almost common consent into mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology (vegetable and animal physiology), psychology (mind), and sociology (the laws of society).

The second section, that of the concrete sciences, includes meteorology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, geology, and geography.

The order in which the abstract sciences are arranged above has also been found to best illustrate the sequence in which they may be most advantageously studied.

=SCIL′LITIN.= _Syn._ SCILLITINA, SCILLITITE. A whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deliquescent substance, obtained by Vögel from squills. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and is purgative, acrid, and poisonous.

=SCORBU′TUS.= See SCURVY.

=SCO′′RIA.= Dross; the refuse or useless part of any substance, more especially that left from bodies which have been subjected to the action of fire. It is frequently used in the plural (SCORIÆ).

=SCOTT’S DROPS.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=SCOUR′ING.= The common method of cleaning cloth is by heating and brushing it, unless it be very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of scouring. This is best done on the small scale, as with ARTICLES OF WEARING APPAREL, as follows:——A little curd soap is dissolved in water, and, after mixing it with a little clarified ox-gall, is applied to all the spots of grease, dirt, &c., and well rubbed into them with a stiff brush, until they appear to be removed; after which the article is well cleaned all over with a brush or sponge dipped into some warm water, to which the previous mixture and a little more ox-gall has been added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed in clean water, and hung up to dry. For dark-coloured cloths, some fullers earth is often added to the mixture of soap and gall. When the article is nearly dry, the nap is laid smooth, and it is carefully pressed (if with a hot iron, on the wrong side), after which a soft brush, moistened with a drop or two of olive oil, is frequently passed over it, to give it a finish and gloss.

Cloth is also cleaned in the dry way:——The spots being removed, as above, and the wetted parts having become dry, clean damp sand is strewed over it, and beaten into it with a brush, after which the article is well gone over with a hard brush, when the sand comes out, and brings the dirt with it.

BUFF and DRAB CLOTH is generally cleaned by covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay and water, either with or without a little umber to temper the colour, which, when dry, is rubbed and brushed off.

When the article requires renovation as well as scouring, it is placed, whilst still damp, on a board, and the threadbare parts are rubbed with a half-worn hatter’s card filled with flocks, or with a teasel, or a prickly thistle, until a nap is raised; it is next hung up to dry, after which it is ‘finished off’ as before. When the cloth is much faded, it is usual to give it a ‘dip,’ as it is called, or to pass it through a dye bath to freshen up the colour. BLACK and DARK BLUE CLOTH, if rusty or faded, is commonly treated to a coat of ‘reviver,’ instead of being ‘re-dipped,’ and is then hung up until next day, before being pressed and finished off. See SPOTS and STAINS.

=SCOURING IN ANIMALS.= See DIARRHŒA.

=SCOURING DROPS.= See DROPS.

=SCROFULA.= _Syn._ KING’S EVIL, STRUMA, STRUMOUS DISEASE. By modern pathologists scrofula is regarded as a constitutional tendency to form and deposit in various tissues and organs of the body a substance called _tubercle_.[148] The _tendency_ may, however, in some cases only exist without any actual tuberculous deposit taking place. Sir James Paget thus describes scrofula as generally understood to be a “state of constitution distinguished in some measure by peculiarities of appearance even during health, but much more by peculiar liability to certain diseases, including pulmonary phthisis. The chief of these ‘scrofulous’ diseases are various swellings of the lymphatic glands, arising from causes which would be inadequate to produce them in healthy persons.

[Footnote 148: See Phthisis.]

“The swellings are due sometimes to mere enlargement, as from an increase of natural structure, sometimes to chronic inflammation, sometimes to an acute inflammation or abscess, sometimes to tuberculous disease of the glands.

“But besides these it is usual to reckon as ‘scrofulous’ affections certain chronic inflammations of the joints; slowly progressive carious inflammations of bones; chronic and frequent ulcers of the cornea; ophthalmia attended with extreme intolerance of light, but with little, if any, of the ordinary consequences of inflammation; frequent chronic abscesses; pustules or other cutaneous eruptions frequently appearing upon slight affection of the health or local irritation; habitual swelling and catarrh of the mucous membrane of the nose; habitual swelling of the upper lip.”

Scrofula is a disease which almost always shows itself during childhood, and rarely after maturity has been attained.

Scrofulous children, or those of scrofulous diathesis, are frequently narrow-chested, or their chests present that projecting appearance known as ‘pigeon-breasted,’ their abdomens are also unnaturally large, and their limbs emaciated. Their circulation is languid, and they are very generally attacked with chilblains during inclement weather. They also suffer from obstinate indigestion. Bearing in mind the fact that scrofula is frequently induced, irrespective of hereditary taint, in the children of the poor by bad and damp air, insufficient food and clothing, exclusion from sunshine, and such like insanitary surroundings, the chief treatment that will suggest itself will consist in remedying these adverse conditions. Hence the patient should live on generous but digestible food, partaking of meat twice a day. Milk and eggs also form an excellent diet for the scrofulous. A scrofulous mother should refrain from suckling her offspring, and procure a wet-nurse for that purpose. Flannel should be worn both summer and winter. Various medicines have been employed in this disease, including cod-liver oil, sarsaparilla, bark, syrup of iodide of iron, the alkalies, and mineral acids. Of these cod-liver oil and syrup of iodide of iron deservedly enjoy the highest reputation.

=SCUDAMORE’S LOTION.= See LOTION, GOUT.

=SCURF.= _Syn._ FURFURA. Scurf “is a natural and healthy formation, and though it may be kept from accumulating, it cannot be prevented. It is produced on every part of the body where hair is found, although, from the more active growth of hair on the scalp, the facilities for collecting, and the contrast of colour, it strikes the eye most disagreeably in that situation. This will show how futile any attempt must be which shall have for its object to prevent the formation of the scurf. It may be removed, and should be removed, every day, with the hair-brush; but prevention is impossible, inasmuch as it is opposed to a law of nature. Occasionally, as a morbid action, an unusual quantity of scurf is produced, in which case medical means may be adopted to bring the scalp into a more healthful state.” (Eras. Wilson.) In such cases the daily use of some mild stimulating or detergent wash, with due attention to the stomach and bowels, will generally abate this annoyance.

=SCURF POWDER——Grindpulver= (Mahon, Paris). Three powders which, according to Chevalier and Figuier, are nothing but wood ashes. Buchner found no alkalies, but announced the following composition:——Organic calcium carbonate (oyster shells, egg shells, crab shells), with a little gypsum, charcoal powder, and more or less brick-dust, powdered, mixed, and exposed to a moderate red heat in a covered crucible, till part of the chalk is converted into quicklime, and the gypsum reduced by the charcoal powder to calcium sulphide, which in its turn is gradually converted by the air into calcium sulphite. All three powders are made of the same ingredients, but in different proportions. No. 1 has more gypsum and charcoal powder; No. 2 less charcoal and more chalk; and No. 3 more brickdust. (Wittstein.)

=SCURF SALVE——Grinsalbe.= In France it is generally a mixture of 2 parts slaked lime, 5 parts soda crystals, and 25 parts fat. (Hager.)

=SCUR′VY.= _Syn._ SCORBUTUS, L. This disease commences with indolence, sallow looks, debility, and loss of spirits; the gums become sore and spongy, the teeth loose, and the breath fetid; the legs swell, eruptions appear on different parts of the body, and, at length, the patient sinks under general emaciation, diarrhœa, and hæmorrhages.

The treatment of ordinary cases of this disease mainly consists in employing a diet of fresh animal and green vegetable food, with mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as beverages; scrupulously avoiding salted and dried meat. The fresh-squeezed juice of lemons is, perhaps, of all other substances, the most powerful remedy in this disease in its early stages, and is useful in all of them. Effervescing draughts formed with the bicarbonate of potassa (not soda) are also excellent.

In former years, before the nature of this malady had been intelligently investigated, and the proper preventive methods and remedial measures for combating it were unknown, scurvy was not only a very common but a very fatal disease in our own navy, as well as in the navies of other powers. Of 961 men who constituted Anson’s fleet sent out during our war with Spain in 1742, 626 died of scurvy in nine months; whilst Sir Gilbert Blane records that in the year 1780, out of a fleet composed of between 7000 and 8000 men, more than 1000, or one in seven, perished from the same cause. Sir Richard Hawkins, one of the naval celebrities of Elizabeth and James’ reign, affirmed that daring twenty years he had known 20,000 sailors fall victims to scurvy alone; and a Portuguese writer, quoted by Sir Charles Blane, speaking of the number of victims from scurvy, during a naval exploring expedition of his own country men, says “that if the dead who from this cause had been thrown overboard between the coast of Guinea and the Cape of Good Hope, and between that Cape and Mozambique, could have had tombstones placed for them, each on the spot where he sank, the whole way would have appeared one continued cemetery.”[149]

[Footnote 149: Dr Guy.]

The statistical report of the navy for 1871 offers a gratifying contrast to the above figures. From this document it appears that out of a total force of 4720 sailors, only four were affected with scurvy during that year. The much greater number of men attacked by the disease on board merchant ships appears to be due to the inferior or worthless character of the lime or lemon juice purchased by them.

Writing on the hygienic condition of the merchant marine in 1867, Mr Harry Leach says:——

“We are prepared to maintain, from the following table (and other statistics from which these have been taken), that the want of good lime or lemon juice was distinctly the cause of scurvy in the vessels below mentioned.

No. of Hands Cases of Result of examination Name of Ship. (all told). Scurvy. of Lime juice.

Hermione 17 5 Sulphuric acid. Merrie England 29 10 Stinking. Stirling Castle 32 6 Very weak. Hoang-Ho 21 5 Acetic acid. Blanche Moore 35 8 Musty and nauseous. St Andrew’s Castle 19 7 Citric acid. Tamerlane 21 4 Nauseous. Marlborough 23 8 Very weak. Galloway 29 6 Short allowance. Tamar 17 2 Very weak. French Empire 27 7 or 8 Citric acid. Eaglet 14 3 Thick and nasty. Geelong 14 9 Taken irregularly. Thorndean 35 2 Spoiled (short supply of provisions).

Taken with ships that, with others, have arrived in the port of London during the past two years with cases of scurvy.

“Of direct causes this is undoubtedly first and foremost; but of indirect causes we have a few words to say. Dirt, bad provisions, and any form of disease to which sailors, in common with other men, are subject, will predispose to scurvy. This cannot and should not be denied, but it affords to parsimonious captains a very large peg whereon to hang sundry invectives as to the cry lately made about the continued prevalence of this disease in the mercantile marine. Such captains, with pardonable ignorance, consider scurvy a form of venereal disease, give the wretched subject thereof mercury, and bring him into port salivated as well as scorbutic.”

Mr Leach further adds:——

“In summing up statistics of scurvy for the past year (1867), we find that a total of 235 accredited cases were admitted into British hospitals, giving no account of those who convalesced in sailors’ homes or elsewhere.

“To this we may add, that seven sailors were left at St Helena, from a ship recently arrived in the Thames; that a vessel put into Falmouth on the 29th ult., with no less than sixteen severe cases of scurvy on board, and that between twenty and thirty cases have arrived in this port during the present month. It would be well (as a supplementary aid to the prevention of scurvy by inspection of lime juice) that the dues levied for the St Helena Hospital should be abolished. It was stated to us some weeks ago by a very old inhabitant of that Island, that this fact alone caused many ships to pass without calling for needful supplies of antiscorbutic material.

“I would however remark, that if the system proposed by the Seamen’s Hospital Society were put in force, no such aid to the prevention of this disease would be required, inasmuch as every ship would then be supplied with good lime juice.”

The following figures, giving the number of patients suffering from scurvy admitted into the Seamen’s Hospital, shows a decrease in the disease, since the publication of the above:——

In 1865, from British vessels, 101; foreign do. 1 ” 1866 ” ” 96 ” 5 ” 1867 ” ” 90 ” 4 ” 1868 ” ” 64 ” 10 ” 1869 ” ” 31 ” 9 ” 1870 ” ” 30 ” 21 ” 1871 ” ” 24 ” 16

=SEAL′ING WAX.= See WAX.

=SEA SICKNESS.= The most effectual preventive of sea sickness appears to be the horizontal position. When there is much pain, after the stomach has been well cleared, a few drops of laudanum may be taken, or an opium plaster may be applied over the region of the stomach. Persons about to proceed to sea should put their stomach and bowels in proper order, by the use of mild aperients, and even an emetic, if required, when it will generally be found that a glass of warm and weak brandy-and-water, to which 15 or 20 drops of laudanum, or, still better, 1 or 2 drops of creasote, have been added, will effectually prevent any disposition to sea sickness, provided the bowels be attended to, and excess in eating and drinking be at the same time avoided. A spoonful of crushed ice, in a wine-glassful of cold water, or weak brandy-and-water, will often afford relief when all other means fail. Smoking at sea is very apt to induce sickness. M. F. Curie, in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ asserts that drawing in the breath as the vessel descends, and exhaling it as it ascends, on the billows, by preventing the movements of the diaphragm acting abnormally on the phrenetic nerves, prevents sea sickness. On this Mr Atkinson, at one of the meetings of the British Association, observed that——if a person, seated on board ship, holding a tumbler filled with water in his hand, makes an effort to prevent the water running over, at the same time allowing not merely his arm, but also his whole body, to participate in the movements, he will find that this has the effect of preventing the giddiness and nausea that the rolling and tossing of the vessel have a tendency to produce in inexperienced voyagers. If the person is suffering from sickness at the commencement of his experiment, as soon as he grasps the glass of liquid in his hand, and suffers his arm to take its course and go through the movements alluded to, he feels as if he were performing them of his own free will, and the nausea abates immediately, and very soon ceases entirely, and does not return so long as he suffers his arm and body to assume the postures into which they seem to be drawn. Should he, however, resist the free course of his hand, he instantly feels a thrill of pain, of a peculiarly stunning kind, shoot through his head, and experiences a sense of dizziness and returning nausea.

Dr Doring, a Viennese physician, states that an ordinary dose of chloral hydrate is an unfailing remedy for sea sickness. In various cases recorded by him it seems to have been of the greatest service, even during long sea voyages, ensuring a good night’s rest, arresting violent sickness when it has set in, and preventing its return.

=SEDATIVE PILLS, Gunther’s.= These are composed of the following ingredients:——Assafœtida powder, 50 parts; extract of valerian, 50; extract of belladonna, 3; oxide of zinc, 1 part; castor, 2 parts. Make into a pill-mass, to be administered in doses of 3 to 10 grains, twice daily, in chorea, &c.

=SED′ATIVES.= _Syn._ SEDATIVA, L. Medicines and agents which diminish the force of the circulation or the animal energy, and allay pain. Foxglove, henbane, tobacco, potassio-tartrate of antimony, and several of the neutral salts and acids, act as sedatives. Cold is, perhaps, the most powerful agent of this class.

=SEED.= _Syn._ SEMEN, L. The seeds of plants are conspicuous for their vast number and variety, and their extreme usefulness to man. The seeds of certain of the _Graminaceæ_ furnish him with his daily bread; some of those of the _Leguminosæ_ in either the immature or ripe state, supply his table with wholesome esculents, or provide a nourishing diet for his domestic animals; whilst those of numerous other plants, dispersed through every class, orders, and family, yield their treasures of oil, medicinals, or perfumes for his use.

=SELEN′IC ACID.= H_{2}SeO_{4}. _Syn._ ACIDUM SELENICUM, L. _Prep._ By fusing selenium with nitrate of potassium or of sodium, acting on the fused mass with water, precipitating the resulting solution with acetate or nitrate of lead, and decomposing the precipitate (selenate of lead), diffused in water, with sulphuretted hydrogen. The selenic acid, thus obtained, may be cautiously concentrated in a glass vessel, if necessary; but if this be pushed too far, it is resolved into selenious acid (H_{2}SeO_{3}) and oxygen.

_Prop., &c._ Hydrated selenic acid is a colourless liquid, closely resembling sulphuric acid; its salts (selenates) bear the closest analogy to the sulphates.

SELENIC ACID (H_{2}SeO_{4}). No selenic anhydride is known. Selenic acid may be obtained in solution by deflagrating selenium or a selenite with potassic nitrate. The residue dissolved in water is mixed with a solution of plumbic nitrate, an insoluble plumbic seleniate being precipitated. The plumbic seleniate is suspended in water and decomposed by means of a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. Plumbic sulphide is precipitated, and the liberated selenic acid separated by filtration is concentrated until it acquires a sp. gr. of 2·6; if heated above 554° F. it decomposes into selenious anhydride, water, and oxygen. Selenic acid has a great resemblance to sulphuric acid. It acts upon the metals in the same manner, and even dissolves gold. The seleniates are also very similar in properties to the sulphates, and both classes of salts are isomorphous. The seleniates give the same characteristic odour before the blowpipe as the selenites. Their solutions give white precipitates with the salts of barium, strontian and lead, insoluble in nitric acid. If a soluble seleniate is boiled with hydrochloric acid, selenic acid is set free, and is reduced to selenious acid, sulphurous acid will then precipitate reduced selenium from the solution. Baric seleniate may be also decomposed in a similar manner, and this reaction distinguishes it from baric sulphate.

=SELE′NIUM.= Se. A rare chemical element, discovered by Berzelius in 1817 in the refuse of a sulphuric acid manufactory near Fahlun, in Sweden, it having been derived from the pyrites employed in the manufacture of the acid. Hence the pyrites of Fahlun forms the chief source of this rare body, although it exists, but less abundantly, in combination with a few other metals, termed selenides. Selenium is chiefly interesting to the chemist from its remarkable analogy in chemical properties to sulphur. Like this latter element, it is capable of assuming three allotropic forms——the amorphous, the vitreous, and the crystalline.

The latter variety of selenium, like the crystalline form of sulphur, dissolves in bisulphide of carbon, but much less readily. Selenium boils below a red heat and becomes converted into a deep yellow vapour, which, when heated, is subject to the same anomalous expansion as sulphur vapour. It is not so combustible as sulphur, which it still further resembles by burning with a blue flame when ignited in the air. During combustion it gives off a peculiar and characteristic smell, resembling that of putrid horse-radish. Heated with strong sulphuric acid, selenium forms a green solution. If this solution is poured into water, the selenium separates and is thrown down. Selenium is without taste or smell, is insoluble in water, and in its normal state is a non-conductor of heat and electricity. Selenium may be extracted from the Fahlun residue by the following process:——It should be first boiled with sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, and nitric acid should then be added in small quantities until the oxidation of the selenium is accomplished, which may be known when red fumes cease to be cooled. The solution which contains selenious (SeO_{2}) and selenic (SeO_{3}) acid is then to be largely diluted with water, filtered, the filtrate mixed with about one fourth of its bulk of hydrochloric acid, and then concentrated a little by evaporation, the result of which is that the hydrochloric acid reduces the selenic to selenious acid. A current of sulphurous acid being then passed through the solution, the selenium is precipitated in red flakes, which form into a dense black mass when the liquid is gently heated. The following equation illustrates the reaction:——

H_{2}O,SeO_{2} + H_{2}O + 2SO_{2} = 2(H_{2}SO_{3}) + Se.

Like sulphur, selenium combines with oxygen and forms an anhydride corresponding to sulphurous anhydride. SELENIOUS ANHYDRIDE (SeO_{2}) may be obtained by burning selenium in a current of oxygen; it is, however, more easily prepared by boiling selenium with nitric acid or with aqua regia, the excess of acid being expelled by heat, the selenious anhydride is left as a white mass. When this is dissolved in water it yields a crystalline hydrate of selenious acid (H_{2}SeO_{3}). The salts formed by selenious acid (selenites), with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are mostly insoluble in water. They are easily known by the peculiar odour of selenium which they give off when heated on charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe; solutions of the selenites give a reddish-brown precipitate when treated with sulphurous acid.

=Seleniuretted Hydrogen= (H_{2}Se). This may be obtained in a precisely similar manner, namely, by acting on selenide of iron or potassium with diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. Seleniuretted hydrogen is soluble in water, and precipitates many metals from their salts as selenides. The solution is feebly acid, and, like its analogue solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, if exposed to the air, absorbs oxygen and deposits selenium. The selenides of the alkali metals are soluble in water. The selenides of cerium, zinc, and manganese are flesh-coloured; most of the others are black. This gas is inflammable like sulphuretted hydrogen; it has, however, a still more offensive smell than this latter gas, Berzelius lost his sense of smell for several hours by the application to his nose of a bubble of seleniuretted hydrogen not larger than a pea. There are two chlorides of selenium——a dichloride (Se_{2}Cl_{2}), a volatile liquid of a brown colour, and a tetra-chloride (SeCl_{4}), which occurs as a white crystalline solid. Selenium unites with sulphur, forming a bisulphide (SeS_{2}) and a tersulphide (SeS_{3}). A very curious physical property of selenium when exposed to the action of light was first noticed in 1873 by Mr May, assistant chemist at the Telegraph Station at Valentia, in Ireland, who observed that a stick of crystallised selenium which had been used for some time in telegraphy, where high electrical resistance was required, offered a considerably diminished resistance to the current when exposed to the light than when kept in the dark. Mr May’s discovery, which was at first received with some amount of incredulity, has since been amply corroborated by the observations and researches of many physicists, amongst them by Professor Werner Siemens, the result of whose experiments on this interesting subject we quote from a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution by his brother, Dr William Siemens, in February, 1876. After describing the method by which his brother arranged the selenium, so that, when inserted in the galvanic current of a single Daniell’s cell, the surface action produced by the light upon it attained a maximum effect, and thereby did away with the necessity of employing a large galvanic battery, and at the same time allowed an ordinary galvanometer to be used instead of a delicate one, as hitherto employed, Dr Siemens proceeded to illustrate the action of light upon the element by experiment. “I here hold,” he said, “an element so prepared of amorphous selenium, which I place in a dark box, and insert in a galvanic circuit comprising a Daniell’s cell and a delicate galvanometer, the face of which will be thrown upon the screen through a mirror by means of the electric light.

“In closing the circuit it will be seen that no deflection of the needle ensues. We will now admit light upon the selenium disc and close the circuit, when again no deflection will be observed, showing that the selenium in its present condition is a non-conductor both in the dark and under the influence of light. I will now submit a similar disc of selenium which has been kept in boiling water for an hour and gradually cooled to the same tests as before. In closing the circuit while the plate is in the dark a certain deflection of the galvanometer will be discernible, but I will now open the lid of the box so as to admit light upon the disc, when on again closing the circuit a slight deflection of the galvanometer needle will be observed. In closing the box against the light this deflection will subside, but will again be visible the moment the light is readmitted to the box. Here we have, then, the extraordinary effect of light upon selenium clearly illustrated.

“I will now insert into the same circuit another selenium plate which has been heated up to 210° C, and, after having been kept at that temperature for several hours, has been gradually cooled; it will be observed that this plate is affected to a greater extent than the former by the action of light, and other conditions, to which I shall presently allude, prove the selenium heated to a higher temperature to be in other respects dissimilar to the other two modifications of the same. These differences will be best revealed in describing my brother’s experiment. He placed one of his amorphous preparations of selenium in an air-bath heated above the melting point of selenium (to 260° C.), while the connecting wires were inserted in a galvanic circuit consisting of only one Daniell’s element and a delicate reflecting galvanometer, and every five minutes the temperature and conductivity of the selenium were noted. Up to the temperature of 80° C. no current passed; from this point onward the conductivity of the material rapidly increased until it obtained its maximum at the temperature of 210° C., being nearly its melting point, after which an equally rapid diminution of conductivity commenced, reaching a minimum at a temperature of about 240° C., when the conductivity was only such as could be detected by a most delicate galvanometer. In continuing to increase the temperature of the fluid selenium very gradually but steadily, its conductivity increased again.

The interpretation of these experiments is as follows: Amorphous selenium retains a very large amount of specific heat, which renders it a non-conductor of electricity: when heated to 80° this amorphous solid mass begins to change its amorphous condition for the crystalline form, in which form it possesses a greatly reduced amount of specific heat, giving rise to the increase of temperature beyond that of surrounding objects when the change of condition is once set in. If care is taken to limit the rise of temperature of the selenium to 100° C., and if it is very gradually cooled after being maintained for an hour or two at that temperature, a mass is obtained which conducts electricity to some extent, and which shows increased conductivity under the influence of light. But in examining the conductivity of selenium so prepared at various temperatures below 80°, and without accession of light, it was found that its _conductivity increases with rise of temperature_, in which respect it resembles carbon, sulphide of metals, and generally electrolytes. This my brother terms his first modification of selenium.

But in extending the heating influence up to 210°, and in maintaining that temperature by means of a bath of paraffin for some hours before gradually reducing the same, he obtained a second modification of selenium, in which its conductivity increases with fall of temperature, and in which modification it is, therefore, analogous to the metals. This second modification of selenium is a better conductor of electricity than the first, and its sensitiveness to light is so great that its conductivity in sunlight is fifteen times greater than it is in the dark, as will be seen from the following table, in which is given the effects of different intensities of light on selenium (Modification II) obtained at Woolwich on the 14th of February, 1876:——

--------------------------------------------------------------- Selenium in |Relative Conductivities. | Resistance in |-------------------------| Ohms. |Deflections. | Ratio. | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Dark | 32 | 1·0 | 10,070,000 2. Diffused | | | daylight. | 110 | 3·4 | 2,930,000 3. Lamplight | 180 | 5·6 | 1,790,000 4. Sunlight | 470 | 14·7 | 680,000 ---------------------------------------------------------------

Unfortunately, however, the second modification is not so stable as the first; when lowered in temperature parts of it change back into the first or metalloid modification by taking up specific heat, and in watching this effect a point is discovered at which ratio of increase of conductivity with fall of temperature changes sign, or where the electrolyte substance appears to predominate over the metallic selenium. If cooled down to 15° C., the whole of the metallic selenium is gradually being converted back into the first variety. The physical conclusions here arrived at may be said to be an extension of Helmholtz’s theory that the conductivity of metals varies inversely as the total heat contained in them. Helmholtz had only the sensible heat of temperature (counting from the absolute zero point) in view, but it has already been shown by Hittorf and Werner Siemens that it applies in the case of tin and some other metals, also to specific heat and to the latent heat of fusion. In selenium the specific heat is an extremely variable quantity, changing in the solid mass at certain temperatures, and, it is contended, under the influence of light. Aided by these experimental researches, my brother arrives at the conclusion that the influence of light upon selenium may be explained by a “_change of its molecular condition near the surface, from the first or electrolyte into the second or metallic modification_, or in other words, by a _liberation of specific heat upon the illuminated surface of crystalline selenium_, which liberated heat is reabsorbed when the liberating cause has ceased to act.” Professor Adams, who has likewise investigated this singular action of light upon selenium, ascribes it to a different cause. He says:——

1. That the light falling on the selenium causes an electromotive force in it in the same direction as the battery current passing through it, the effect being similar to the effect due to polarisation in an electrolyte, but in the opposite direction.

2. That the light falling on the selenium causes a change on its surface akin to the change which it produces on the surface of a phosphorescent body, and that in consequence of this change the electro-current is enabled to pass more readily over the surface of the selenium.

=SEM′OLA (Bullock’s).= This preparation consists of wheaten flour deprived of much of its starch by washings with water, and contains the largest amount (48 per cent.) of nitrogenous or albumenoid principles consistent with its adaptability to culinary purposes. It is specially intended as a food for infants, weakly children, and invalids.

=SEMOLI′NA.= _Syn._ SÉMOULE, SEMOULINA. The large hard grains of wheat flour retained in the bolting machine, after the fine flour has passed through its meshes. “The best sémoule is obtained from the wheat of the southern parts of Europe. With the sémoule the fine white Parisian bread called ‘_gruau_’ is baked.” (Ure.)

=SEN′EGA.= _Syn._ SENEKA, SNAKEROOT, RATTLESNAKE R.; SENEGÆ RADIX (B. P.); SENEGA (Ph. L., E., & D.), RADIX SENEGÆ, L. “The root of the _Polygala Senega_, Linn.” (Ph. L.) A stimulating diaphoretic, and expectorant; in large doses diuretic, cathartic, and emetic. In America it is used as an antidote to the bite of the rattlesnake. Drs Chapman and Hartshorne extol it as an emmenagogue. Dr Pereira says that it is an exceedingly valuable remedy in the latter stages of bronchial or pulmonary inflammation, when this disease occurs in aged, debilitated, or torpid constitutions.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in powder or decoction (combined with aromatics, opium, or camphor), thrice daily.

According to Patrouillard senega is occasionally adulterated with the roots of _Asclepias vincetoxicum_. The branches of the latter root are cylindrical, very white, and almost devoid of taste; those of senega, on the contrary, are yellowish and twisted, and have a very acrid taste. The froth produced by shaking an infusion of senega keeps much longer than that produced by an infusion of the adulterant. In other respects there is a great resemblance between the two roots.

=SEN′EGIN.= _Syn._ POLYGALIN, POLYGALIC ACID. A white odourless powder, discovered by Gehlin in the bark of seneka root (_Polygala Senega_).

=SEN′NA.= _Syn._ SENNA, SENNÆ FOLIA, L. There are three principal varieties:——

1. ALEXANDRIAN SENNA (SENNA ALEXANDRINA——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), referred in the, Ph. L. to _Cassia officinalis_ and _Cassia obovata_, in the Ph. D. to _Cassia acutifolia_ (Delile), and in the Ph. E. to various species of cassia. The leaves are “unequal at the base, ovate acute, or obovate mucronate.” (Ph. L.) It is generally mixed with the leaves of _Solenostemma Argel_ (argel leaves), the presence of which is often the occasion of much griping. The leaf of argel is fully an inch long, warty, regular in its formation, and the lateral nerves are imperfectly seen on the under side; whilst that of the true Alexandrian senna never exceeds 3/4 inch in length, is oblique, and the nerves on the under side are very conspicuous.

2. INDIAN SENNA (SENNA INDICA——B. P.; Ph. L., & E.) is referred to _Cassia officinalis_ in the Ph. L., and in the Ph. E. & D. to _Cassia elongata_ (Lemaire, Lisancourt). The leaf is “unequal at the base,” and “Lanceolate.” (Ph. L.)

3. TINNEVELLY SENNA, forming the finest Indian, now introduced into the Ph. D., is therein described as composed of the leaflets of _Cassia oblongata_. These are pale green, thin, flexible, and from 1 to 2 inches long, and nearly 1/2 inch broad. This variety is equal in medicinal virtue to the best Alexandrian, and is to be preferred, on account of its being imported perfectly free from adulteration.

Senna is purgative in doses of 10 to 30 gr., either in powder or made into an infusion of tea with Water, combined with ginger, caraways, or some other aromatic, to prevent griping. It acts chiefly on the small intestines, and generally effects its purpose within 4 hours after being taken.

=SE′′PIA.= A pigment prepared from the ‘ink’ or black fluid secreted by _Sepia officinalis_ (Linn.), and several other varieties of cuttle-fish. The contents of the ‘ink bags’ are inspissated as soon as possible after collection, and then form the crude sepia of commerce. This is prepared for artists by boiling it for a short time in a weak lye of caustic alkali, precipitating the solution with an acid, and well washing and carefully drying the precipitate by a gentle heat. It possesses a fine brown colour, and is used like Indian ink.

=SER′PENTARY.= _Syn._ VIRGINIAN SNAKE-ROOT; SERPENTARIA RADIX (B. P.), SERPENTARIÆ RADIX, SERPENTARIA (Ph. L. & E.), ARISTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA (Ph. D.), L. An excellent stimulating diaphoretic and tonic; in typhoid and putrid fevers, dyspepsia, &c. It is admirably suited to check vomiting and to tranquilise the stomach, particularly in bilious cases. (Dr Chapman.)——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr., every third or fourth hour, its use being preceded by an aperient.

=SE′′RUM.= _Syn._ SERALBUMEN. The clear pale fluid in which the blood-globules float, and which separates from blood during its coagulation. It is, essentially, a feebly alkaline solution of albumen. See ALBUMEN.

=SESQUI-.= See NOMENCLATURE.

=SE′TON.= _Syn._ SETACEUM. An artificial ulcer, made by passing a portion of silk or thread under the skin by means of a seton needle, a part of which is drawn through daily, and thus keeps up a constant irritation. Occasionally the thread is anointed with some irritating substance for the purpose of increasing the discharge.

=SEVEN SEALS, or Golden Wonder——Dr Radcliffe’s Great Remedy.= According to the prospectus, this remedy is good for cholera morbus, dysentery, diarrhœa, burns, sprains, rheumatism, warts and corns, and all diseases. In a quadrangular bottle we find about 95 grammes of a brownish-orange clear fluid, which is a spirituous tincture of cayenne pepper mixed with ether, chloroform, American oil of peppermint, and a little camphor. The proportion of these ingredients is, approximately, 4 grammes ether, 6 grammes chloroform, 4 gramme camphor or camphoraceous oil, 2 grammes oil of peppermint, 35 grammes tincture of capsicum. 50 grammes spirit of wine (90 per cent.) (Hager.)

=SE′VUM (Prepared).= _Syn._ SEVUM PRÆPARATUM (B. P.), SEVUM MAGNETICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (‘Pharm. Journ.’) Mould candles, at least 2 years old, melted by a very gentle heat, and strained from the wicks.

2. As MAGNETIC ADEPS. Used to make mercurial ointment. Triturated with 8, 12, or 16 times its weight of quicksilver, the globules are completely extinguished in from 10 to 15 minutes.

=SEWAGE, Removal and Disposal of.= The waste and putrescible refuse discharged from dwelling-houses by house-pipes and drains into sewers may be said, in general terms, to consist, besides human fæces and urine,[150] of the dirty water and soapsuds arising from washing our bodies, our houses, and linen, more or less foul, as well as the water which, having been used for cooking operations, necessarily contains variable quantities of mineral and vegetable matter.

[Footnote 150: In the drainage of some towns the fæces are not allowed to enter the sewers. This, however, is the exception.]

The above statement will have prepared us not only for the complex nature of sewage water as shown in the following tables, but also for the variability in the amount of its constituents, this latter condition depending upon locality, and, as experiment shows, the hour of the day at which the sewage was collected.

_Composition of Sewer Water_ (WAY).

+-------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | Grains per Gallon. | | +--------+-------+-------+---------+ | | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | +-------------------------------+--------+-------+-------+---------+ |Organic matters (soluble) | 19·40 | 41·03 | 12·30 | } 9·20 | |Organic matters (suspended) | 39·10 | 17·00 | 24·37 | } | |Lime | 10·13 | 14·71 | 12·52 | 11·25 | |Magnesia | 1·42 | 1·82 | 1·59 | 1·35 | |Soda | 4·01 | 2·40 | 2·41 | 1·89 | |Potash | 3·66 | 3·57 | 3·31 | 1·09 | |Chloride of Sodium | 26·40 | 22·61 | 34·30 | 5·58 | |Sulphuric Acid | 5·34 | 5·31 | 6·40 | 3·43 | |Phosphoric Acid | 2·63 | 5·76 | 2·48 | 0·64 | |Carbonic Acid | 9·01 | 8·92 | 11·76 | } | |Silicia {Oxide of Iron} | 6·20 | 13·55 | 6·46 | } 4·77 | | {Oxide of Zinc} | | | | | |Ammonia | 7·48 | 8·43 | 7·88 | | | +--------+-------+-------+---------+ | |134·78 |145·11 |125·78 | 39·20 | +-------------------------------+--------+-------+-------+---------+

_London Sewer Water_ (LETHEBY).

+-----------------+---------------------------------------------+ | | Grains per gallon. | | +--------------+--------------+---------------+ | | Day Sewage. | Night Sewage.| Storm Sewage. | +-----------------+--------------+--------------+---------------+ |Soluble matters | 55·74 | 65·09 | 70·26 | |Organic matters | 15·08 | 7·42 | 14·75 | |Nitrogen | 5·44 | 5·19 | 7·26 | |Mineral matters | 40·66 | 57·67 | 55·71 | |Phosphoric acid | 0·85 | 0·69 | 1·03 | |Potash | 1·21 | 1·15 | 1·61 | |Suspended matters| 38·15 | 13·99 | 31·88 | |Organic | 16·11 | 7·48 | 17·55 | |Nitrogen | 0·78 | 0·29 | 0·67 | |Mineral | 22·04 | 6·51 | 14·33 | |Phosphoric acid | 0·89 | 0·64 | 0·98 | |Potash | 8·08 | 0·04 | 0·16 | +-----------------+--------------+--------------+---------------+

Letheby states that the sewer water in towns with water-closets has the following average composition per gallon:

Organic matter 27·72 Nitrogen 6·21 Phosphoric acid 1·57 Potash 2·03

Sewer water placed under the microscope reveals various dead decaying matters, besides swarms of bacteria, ciliated infusoria, amœbiform bodies, and fungi, consisting of spores and mycelium. The rotifera, diatoms, and desmids are few in number.[151] That a fluid having a composition such as sewage water has been shown to possess, when mixed with solid excreta, would, from the decomposition that so soon takes place in it, seriously endanger the health of those in whose habitations it was allowed to remain, is so self-evident to the sanitarian and pathologist that it is no wonder every civilised community should endeavour to get rid of this refuse from their habitations as speedily and effectively as possible. But the removal of the home sewage is a proceeding as illogical as it is imperfect if we afterwards neglect so to dispose of it as to render it innocuous or devoid of danger to the public health. The old method of getting rid of sewage (even when deprived of the fæcal matter) by turning it into rivers and streams, has, more particularly since the Report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners in 1870, been gradually abandoned. That when sewer water passes into a river it undergoes a great amount of purification from oxidation, subsidence, and the agency of water-plants is undeniable.

[Footnote 151: Parkes.]

Letheby considered that if sewage mixed with twenty times its bulk of water flowed for nine miles it would be perfectly oxidised. It appears, however, from the experiments of Frankland, that so far as sewage when mixed with twenty times its volume of water being oxidised during a flow of ten or twelve miles, scarcely two thirds of it would be so destroyed in the flow of 168 miles, at the rate of one mile per hour, or after the lapse of a week. The results of Frankland’s experiments led him to infer that there is no river in the United Kingdom of sufficient length to effect the destruction of sewage by oxidation; and he adds, “there is no process practicable on a large scale by which the noxious material (sewage matter) can be removed from water once so contaminated, and, therefore, I am of opinion that water which has been once contaminated by sewage or manure matter is thenceforth unsuitable for domestic use.”

The discharge of sewage water, whether with or without solid excreta, into our springs and rivers, was a practice so dangerous and prejudicial to health that it is no cause for wonder the Legislature should, during the session of 1876, have passed a measure the object of which was after the lapse of one year to facilitate legal proceedings being instituted against persons who permitted sewage or other deleterious refuse to flow into rivers or streams. This measure, known as the “Rivers Pollution Prevention Act,” is now in force, and permits offenders to be proceeded against; but it still leaves unsolved the important hygienic problem——How are we ultimately and with safety to the community to dispose of our sewage?

The numerous processes (the chief of which will be brought under notice) proposed for the attainment of this end have been divided by writers and authorities on sanitary science into——

1. WET METHODS.

2. DRY METHODS.

1. WET METHODS. These comprise the removal of excreta——(1) By discharging it into running water. (2) By storage in tank with overflow. (3) By carrying it into the sea. (4) By precipitation. (5) By irrigation and filtration.

(1) _By discharging it into running water._ Our previous remarks have already shown in what respect this proposal is fallacious, and why it has, therefore, been discontinued.

(2) _By storage in tank with overflow._ In this process the sewage runs into a well-cemented tank fitted with an overflow pipe, which sometimes leads into a second tank arranged in the same manner; the solids subside, and are removed from time to time, whilst the liquid is allowed to run away. Instead of permitting the liquid to escape into a ditch or stream, it has been proposed to carry it into drain pipes, which are buried from half a foot to a foot in the subsoil, where it will be readily sucked up by the roots of grasses. This plan is only suited for small villages, or for a single house or mansion.

(3) _By carrying it into the sea._ The precautions to be observed in the working of this system are, wherever possible, to let the outlet or discharge pipe, which conveys the sewage to the sea, be always under water even at ebb tide, and to take special care that the wind does not blow up the sewers. A tide-flap, opening outwards, which is usually fixed by a hinge on the sewer at its outlet, will obviate this last contingency. At high water the tide will fill the outfall sewers to its own level, and to that extent will check the discharge of sewage, and thus cause a deposit in the sewers filled with mixed sea water and sewage. It is most important that this should be removed.

“If the sewage cannot be got well out to sea, and if it issues in narrow channels, it may cause a nuisance, and may require to be purified before discharge.”[152]

[Footnote 152: Parkes.]

(4) _By precipitation._ The simplest of the plans proposed for this method of removal is by subsidence only, and would afterwards permit the discharge of the supernatant sewage water into running water or over the land. The removal of the solid material is effected in a manner somewhat similar to that followed in plan No. 2, but as the thin water which runs off must, when poured into rivers or streams, be almost as dangerous as the sewage itself, the process of precipitation by settlement alone has little to commend it over the old rude and objectionable practice, a circumstance that in these days will doubtless lead to its entire prohibition.

In order to ensure greater purification the sewage in the subsiding tanks is now usually mixed with certain chemical reagents, which, it is believed, have the effect not only of speedily precipitating the solid materials, but also carrying down injurious matters suspended in the sewage water, thus rendering it sufficiently pure to be discharged without risk to health into any watercourse.

Of the numerous precipitants employed for this purpose, we may mention the following:

_Lime and salts of lime._ Quicklime, in the proportion of 8 gr. to a gallon of water; or 1 lb. to about 600 galls. of sewage; lime, with the addition of about a fortieth of its weight of chloride of lime; calcic phosphate dissolved in sulphuric acid; Whitehead’s patent, which consists of a mixture of mono- and dicalcic phosphate; chloride of calcium.

_Aluminous compounds._ Bird’s process——A mixture of aluminous earths and sulphuric acid. Andersons and Lenk’s——Impure sulphate of alum; refuse of alum works, either alone or mixed with lime or charcoal. Scott’s cement process——Clay mixed with lime; natural phosphate of aluminium dissolved by sulphuric acid and mixed with lime.

The quantities of the above substances when used as precipitants vary, in some of them fifty, and in others eighty grains to a gallon of sewer water being employed.

_Magnesium salts._ Impure chloride of magnesium mixed with superphosphate of lime.

_Carbon._ As vegetable charcoal, peat, seaweed charcoal, carbonised tan, lignite, and Boghead coke.

_Iron._ In the form of sulphate. Ellerman’s and Dale’s——Perchloride; the sulphate is sometimes mixed with coal dust.

_Manganese._ Condy’s fluid.

_Zinc._ As sulphate and chloride.

_Sillar’s process._ The A. B. C. process, so called because composed of alum, blood, charcoal, and clay.

_Hill’s process._ Lime and tar are the precipitants. The effluent water is filtered through charcoal. The question now arises as to whether the sewer water after treatment with any of the above substances is in a fit condition to be poured into a stream or river. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners in their first and second reports give a number of analyses, from which it appears that on an average the chemical treatment removes 89·8 per cent. of the matters suspended in the sewage waters, but only 36·6 per cent. of the organic nitrogen is dissolved in them.

Of the A. B. C. process, Mr Crookes states that, when properly carried out, it removes all the phosphoric acid; and Professor Voelcker’s analysis of the effluent water from sewage treated by the acid phosphate of alumina process gives more ammonia than the original sewer water, less organic nitrogen by one half, and less phosphoric acid. Such a water is said by some authorities to be pure enough to be discharged into streams.

_General Scott’s process._ General Scott proposes to treat the sewer water with lime and clay, and instead of employing the precipitate obtained by this means as a manure, would, after burning it, use it as cement. He argues that the deposit contains so much combustible matter as to considerably reduce the quantity of coal usually expended in the manufacture of cement, and consequently the cement could be sold at a remunerative price.

This, like the ‘carbonisation’ process, possesses the merit of effectually destroying any noxious principles present in the deposit.

Commenting on the various precipitation processes Dr Parkes writes:——“When the sewer water is cleared by any of these plans is it fit to be discharged into streams? In the opinion of some authorities, if the precipitate is a good one it may be so, and it appears certain that in many cases it is chemically a tolerably pure water, and it will no longer silt up the bed nor cause a nuisance. But it still contains, in all cases, some organic matter, as well as ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. It has, therefore, fertilising powers certainly, and possibly it has also injurious powers. No proof of this has been given, but also no disproof at present, and when we consider how small the agencies of the specific diseases probably are, and how likely it is that they remain suspended, we do not seem to be in a position to expect that the water, after subsidence of the deposit, will be safe to drink.

(5) _By irrigation and filtration._ By this process is meant the passing of the sewer water over and through soil, with the object not only of effecting its purification to such an extent as to render it fit to be discharged into a river or stream, but also of employing it as a valuable manure. In the present article we shall treat only of the application of the process to the first of these purposes.

There is ample evidence to show that, if carried out with due attention to detail, no process for the treatment of effluent sewage water, so as to render it innocuous, is equal to that which subjects it to irrigation and filtration.

The Rivers Pollution Commissioners thus report on it:——“We are, therefore, justified in recommending irrigation as a safe as well as profitable and efficient method of cleansing town sewage.”

The conditions necessary for the successful carrying out of this system are thus stated by Mr T. J. Dyke, in explaining “the process of the downward intermittent filtration of sewage at Troedyrhiw, near Merthyr Tydvil:”——“1. The soil of the land to be used must be porous. 2. A main effluent drain, which must not be less than six feet from the surface, must be provided. 3. The surface of the soil to be so inclined as to permit the sewage stream to flow over the whole land. 4. The filtering area should be divided into four equal parts, each part to be irrigated with the sewage for six hours, and then an interval of eighteen hours to elapse before a second irrigation takes place; each of the four parts would thus be used for six hours out of the twenty-four. An acre of land so prepared would purify 100,000 gallons of sewage per day.” At Troedyrhiw the sewage has lime added to it, and the mixture is strained through cinders into tanks. From the tank it flows on to the conduit, by which it is conveyed to the filtering areas.

“These consist of about twenty acres of land, immediately adjoining the road on which the tanks are placed, and have been arranged into filtering areas or beds on a plan devised by Mr J. Bayley Denton. The land is a loamy soil, eighteen inches thick, overlying a bed of gravel. The whole of these twenty acres have been underdrained to a depth of from five to seven feet. The lateral drains are placed at regular distances from each other, and run towards the main or effluent drain. This is everywhere six feet deep. The surface of the land is formed into beds; these have been made to slope towards the main drain by a fall of 1 in 150.

“The surface is ploughed in ridges; on these vegetables are planted or seeds sown. The line of the ridged furrow is in the direction of the under drain. Along the raised margin of each bed, in each area, delivering carriers are placed, one edge being slightly depressed.

“The strained sewage passes from the conduits into the delivery carriers, and as it overflows the depressed edges runs gently into and along the farrows down to the lowest and most distant part of the plot. The sewage continues to be so delivered for six hours, then an interval of rest of eighteen hours takes place, and again the land is thoroughly charged with the fertilising stream. The water percolates through the six feet of earth, and reaches the lateral drains, which convey it to the main effluent drain.

“The result of this plan of disposing of sewage by downward intermittent filtration, may be seen in samples of the effluent water taken from the outlet of the main drain. Such water is bright, perfectly pellucid, free from smell, and tastes only of common salt. It may be safely drunk——in fact, is used by the workmen employed on the farm. During the process of irrigation no nuisance is caused, for the soil quickly absorbs all the fluids passed on to it; in fact, in two or three hours after the water has ceased to flow on the land, an observer would say that the ground had not been wetted for days. The workmen say that no unpleasant smell is noticed, nor has the health of the persons employed, in any one instance, been affected by any presumed poisonous exhalation.

“The only imperfection of the plan is that, at the end of the furrows nearest the lowest corner of a plot, a slight deposit of scum is formed. This scum is formed by the fine insoluble precipitate caused mainly by the addition of lime to the sewage stream.”

The table below, taken from the report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, gives the composition of the effluent water after it has passed through the soil.

If those results be compared with the condition of the supernatant sewage water, after treatment by any of the chemical precipitants already enumerated, the inferiority of these latter as methods of removal of the organic impurity of the sewage water will be evident.

The best of these precipitants give a removal of only 65·8 per cent. of organic nitrogen, whilst the A. B. C. process shows a diminution of 58·9 only. It appears from the first and second reports of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, that on an average the precipitation processes remove 89·8 per cent. of the suspended matters, but only 36·6 per cent. of the organic nitrogen dissolved in the liquid.

The effects of a soil upon sewage water passing through it are the following:——

1. The filtering property of the soil mechanically arrests and retains the suspended particles of the sewage.

2 and 3. The porosity and physical attraction of the soil lead to the oxidation of the organic matter contained in the sewage, as instanced in the discovery of nitrates and nitrites in the effluent water, which did not exist previous to filtration.

4. A chemical reaction takes place between the constituents of the sewage and those of the soil.

If the charges brought against the system of irrigation, viz. that it is detrimental to the health and comfort of those who reside near sewage farms cannot be denied, it seems pretty certain that, in most cases, any ill effects arising from the method may be traced to its defective management. The selection of the soil which is to receive the sewage is a highly important consideration. The best for this purpose seems to be a loose marl, containing oxide of iron and alumina; but sand, as well as chalk, are both said to answer excellently.

+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------+----------+ | |Percentage of dissolved|Percentage| | |Organic Pollution |suspended | | | removed. |Organic | |Results of irrigation, in part per 100,000.+----------+------------+Pollution | | | Organic | Organic |removed | | | Carbon. | Nitrogen. | | +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+----------+ | | | | | |On fallow land at Chorley (adhesive loam) | 62·3 | 70·2 | 100· | |At Edinburgh (both sand and clay) | 45·3 | 81·1 | 84·9 | |Barking (gravelly soil) | 65·8 | 86·2 | 100· | |Aldershot (light sand)—— | | | | | Best result | 91·8 | 87·3 | 99·7 | | Worst result | 69·9 | 82·9 | 87·7 | | Average result | 80·9 | 85·1 | 93·7 | |Carlisle (light loam) | 77·9 | 59·8 | 100· | |Penrith (light loam) | 75·0 | 77·2 | 100· | |Rugby (adhesive soil) | 72·3 | 92·9 | 96·0 | |Banbury (principally clay)—— | | | | | Best result | 87·8 | 91·3 | 96·0 | | Worst result | 64·1 | 80·1 | 90·3 | | Average result | 76· | 85·7 | 93·2 | |Warwick (stiff clay) | 71·7 | 89·6 | 100· | |Worthing (loam) | 42·7 | 85·3 | 100· | |Bedford (light gravelly soil), | | | | | average result | 71·6 | 81·3 | 100· | |Norwood (clay), average result | 65·0 | 75·1 | 100· | |Croydon (gravelly soil)—— | | | | | Best result | 73·2 | 93·2 | 100· | | Worst result | 61·6 | 90·4 | 100· | | Average result | 67·4 | 91·8 | 100· | +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+----------+

If the soil be of a stiff clayey nature it must be broken up and mixed with sand, lime, or ashes. The upper parts must be comminuted and rendered porous, and it must be efficiently and deeply drained. At Troedyrhiw, as we have seen, the effluent drain is six feet deep.

The sewer water should be poured over the land in as fresh a condition as possible, having been previously deprived of any solid or grosser parts by straining. At Carlisle, decomposition of the sewage during its flow is prevented by adding carbolic acid to it. Lastly, it is of the utmost consequence that the amount of land used as the filtering medium shall be large. Letheby has shown that where this precaution is neglected, not only is the purification of the sewage incomplete, but the plan becomes a public nuisance. The amount of filtering earth should not be less than one cubic yard for eight gallons of sewage in twenty-four hours, in properly prepared soils; in some soils more than a cubic yard is required.

The late Dr Parkes has given a summary of various reports that have from time to time been issued as to the effects of sewage farms upon the public health and comfort. He says:——“That sewage farms, if too near to houses, and if not carefully conducted, may give off disagreeable effluvia is certain; but it is also clear that in some farms this is very trifling, and that when the sewer water gets on the land it soon ceases. It is denied by some persons that more nuisance is excited than by any other mode of using manure. As regards health, it has been alleged that these farms may——1st, give off effluvia which may produce enteric fever or dysentery, or some allied affection; or, 2nd, and in the spread of entozoic diseases; or, 3rd, make ground swampy and marshy, and may also poison wells, and thus affect health.”

The evidence of Edinburgh, Croydon, Aldershot, Rugby, Worthing, Romford, the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, is very strong against any influence in the production of typhoid by sewage farms effluvia. On the other hand, Dr Clouston’s record of the outbreak of dysentery in the Cumberland Asylum is counter evidence of weight, and so is one of the cases noted by Letheby of typhoid fever outbreak in Copley, when a meadow was irrigated with the brook water containing the sewage of Halifax.

The negative evidence is, however, so strong as to justify the view that the effluvia from a well-managed sewage farm do not produce typhoid fever, or dysentery, or any affection of the kind. In a case at Eton in which some cases of enteric fever were attributed to the effluvia, Dr Buchanan discovered that the sewer water had been drunk; this was more likely to have been the cause.

With regard to the second point, the spread of entozoic diseases by the carriage of the sewer water to the land, has been thought probable by Cobbold, though as solid excreta from towns have been for some years largely employed as manure, it is doubtful whether the liquid plans would be more dangerous. The special entozoic diseases which, it is feared, might thus arise, are tapeworms, round worms, trichina, Bilharzia, and distoma hepaticum in sheep. Cobbold’s latest observations show that the embryos of Bilharzia die so rapidly, that even were it introduced into England there would be little danger.

The trichina disease is only known at present to be produced in men by the worms in the flesh of pigs which is eaten, and it seems doubtful whether pigs receive them from the land. There remain, then, only tapeworms and round worms for men and distoma hepaticum for sheep to be dreaded. With regard to these, the evidence at present is negative; and though much weight must be attached to any opinion of Cobbold’s, this argument against sewage irrigation must be admitted to want evidence from experience.

The third criticism appears to be true.

The land may become swampy and the adjacent wells poisoned, and disease (ague, and perhaps diarrhœa and dysentery) be thus produced. But this is owing to mismanagement, and when a sewage farm is properly arranged it is not damp, and the wells do not suffer.[153]

[Footnote 153: ‘Practical Hygiene.’]

The foregoing processes for the removal of excreta from dwellings necessitates the joint employment of sewers and large quantities of water. It may, however, sometimes happen that the adoption of either of these appliances may be not only difficult, but altogether impracticable; as for instance, in localities where a sufficient fall cannot be obtained for the sewers; or where the supply of water is not adequate; or when the severity of the climate at certain times is such, that for months in the year the water is frozen. Under these conditions the excreta must either be allowed to accumulate about houses, or else be removed by methods other than those we have described, at more or less short intervals. Of course their speedy removal is the best and safest; but in cases where they are permitted to accumulate, it is essential they should be mixed with deodorants, and confined in properly constructed receptacles (as far as possible from dwellings), from which category such pre-eminently unsanitary arrangements as cesspools and dead wells must be excluded.

When excreta are got rid of from houses by other means than those of sewers and water, the processes employed are termed,

2. DRY METHODS. These comprise——

1. Removal of the excreta without admixture.

2. Removal of the excreta after treatment with deodorising and anti-putrescent substances.

1. _Removal without admixture._ In some cases boxes and tanks receive the ordure and urine, and these are changed more or less frequently.

In Glasgow the excreta from a part of the city containing eighty thousand people is thus collected and removed without admixture,[154] daily.

[Footnote 154: Except that from the garbage of the houses.]

In Edinburgh there are also many closets supplied with movable metal pails, which are likewise removed daily. Many large dwelling-houses in this latter city are entirely without water-closet accommodation; hence the custom of placing pails full of excrement, urine, &c., outside the houses to be taken away by the scavenger. In Rochdale the excrement, &c., is collected in tubs, with tight-fitting lids, which are emptied twice or thrice a week. These tubs are manufactured out of disused paraffin casks. In Leeds, also, the excreta are collected in boxes without being subjected to admixture. In some towns in the north of England the excreta fall into receptacles constructed upon what is termed the ‘Goux’ principle. In this system the pails or receptacles are lined with some absorbent lining, which abstracts the urine;[155] another contrivance is to have the receptacle fitted with a pipe or drain; the object in each case being to render the fæces drier and to delay their decomposition.

[Footnote 155: The refuse of cloth manufacturers is chiefly used for this purpose.]

The pail or tub system (Fosses Mobiles) which is employed in Belgium, has for its object the collection of the fæces in a state of purity, without admixture with water, in a clean and odourless condition.

The apparatus for carrying it out consists of——

1. _The seat._ This consists simply of a soil-pan of stoneware or _faïence_, without woodwork, the soil-pan merely projecting from the top of the descent pipe. Its borders are furnished with a groove filled with water or sand, into which the raised rim of the lid fits.

2. _The connecting pipe._ This pipe is straight without a syphon, and joins the descent pipe at the very acute angle of 22°, and is about 4 inches in diameter inside. It is, like the next, made of stoneware, glazed inside.

3. _Descent pipe._ This is from 6 to 8 inches in internal diameter; it is vertical, and is composed of a series of pipes, connected with each other by dry sand joints, without cements, fixed to the wall by iron bands.

It rests at the ground-floor level on a strong flagstone. Its prolongation through and below this stone consists of a sliding pipe of wrought copper capable of being lengthened or shortened, and solidly fixed to the stone by a cast-iron connector. A sort of circular shallow dish (_ecuelle_), which can be hung under this last part of the descent pipe, serves at a given moment to shut its lower orifice.

4. _Tub_ (Tonneau). The excremental matters coming down the descent pipe fall into a tub of from 2 to 3 hectolitres (44 to 66 gallons), in a hole in the top of which the lower part of the pipe fits tightly. A cover fitted with a spring serves to shut and lute the tub when it is full. Placed on a stand furnished with wheels, the tub is easily managed.

When filled it is immediately replaced by another similar contrivance. If the tub is underground, the rails (on which the stand moves) should be placed on an incline, so that the removal and replacement may be easily effected. The underground chamber must be isolated, and the entrance to it placed outside the building. The thorough tarring of the interior of the tub not only preserves the staves, but also partly neutralises the effect of the mephitic gases which the excremental matters discharge.

_Ventilation pipe._ To prevent the smells and gases which are given off from the mouth of the tub from spreading themselves (in the house) by means of the opening in the privy seat, at the upper extremity of the descent pipe, is fixed a ventilation pipe, which rises above the coping of the roof, and the action of which is increased by means of a vane, or any other contrivance producing the same effect.[156]

[Footnote 156: Corfield.]

It is said that in the working of any of the above processes, little or no nuisance ensues, if only ordinary care and intelligence are used. In many cases the excreta collected by the methods above specified is conveyed to manufactories and then converted into manure.

It does not appear that in England the health of the workmen employed in a manure manufactory or of those who live in the neighbourhood of it suffers in consequence.

_Removal of the excreta after treatment with deodorising and antiputrescent substances._ This is the method usually adopted when the dry process is followed; the excreta mixed with the deodorising substance when removed from the house being at once applied to the land.

_a._ _Coal and wood ashes._ It is a common practice in the north of England to throw coal ashes on the excreta, which fall into closets made with hinged flaps or seats for the purpose of admitting the ashes, as at Manchester and Salford. Wood ashes are far more effective deodorisers than coal ashes, but they are seldom procurable. “In some towns there are receptacles called ‘middens,’ intended both for excreta and ashes; sometimes these are cemented, and there may be a pipe leading into a sewer so as to dry them. The midden system is a bad one; even with every care, the vast heaps of putrefying material which accumulate in some of our towns must have a very serious influence on the health, and the sooner the middens are abolished the better.”[157]

[Footnote 157: Parkes.]

_b._ _Deodorising powders._ At some of the Indian stations deodorants, such as M’Dougall’s, or Calvert’s carbolic acid powders, have been successfully employed, a comparatively small quantity being mixed with the excreta.

In Germany a mixture of lime, chloride of magnesium, and tar is largely used for the same purpose, and is known as Süverns’ deodoriser.”

Another deodoriser (the Müller Schür), also used in the dry method, is composed of lime, 100 lbs.; powdered wood charcoal 20 lbs.; peat powder or sawdust, 10 lbs.; and carbolic acid (containing 60 to 70 per cent. of real acid) 1 lb. After having been mixed, the mass is placed under cover for a night to avoid any chance of spontaneous ignition, and when dry it is packed in barrels.

_c._ _Charcoal._ The powerfully deodorising properties of charcoal obviously adapt it for the removal of excreta in the dry state, after the admixture with them. But the comparatively high price of animal charcoal, although nearly six times the value of dry earth as a deodorant, prohibits its being extensively used. Peat is, however, cheaper than animal charcoal. To obviate the objection of cost, Mr Stanford, in 1872, proposed to make charcoal for this purpose from seaweed. The charcoal obtained from this source is said to be cheap and of great service as an excretal deodoriser. The mixed charcoal and sewage is sufficiently odourless to be stored for some months in a convenient receptacle outside a dwelling-house.

After the seaweed charcoal has become thoroughly impregnated with fæces and urine, the mixture is recarbonised in a retort, and the carbon can be again used; the distilled products (ammoniacal liquor, containing acetate of lime, tar, and gas) are sufficient to pay the cost, and it is said even to yield a profit.[158]

[Footnote 158: About the same time carbonisation of sewage in retorts, with or without previous admixture with charcoal, was proposed by Mr Hickey, of Darjeeling. There can be little doubt that, regarded in a purely sanitary point of view, carbonisation of sewage matter is an excellent plan. Mr Hickey proposed the utilisation of the ammoniacal products resulting from his process.]

_d._ _Dried earth._ The Rev. Mr Moule was the first to direct attention to the value of dried earth as a deodorant of excreta.

Mr Moule’s ‘earth closet’ consists of a box with a receptacle below for the excreta. By pulling a plug dried earth, which is placed in a hopper above, enters the closet and falls upon the excreta, thus disinfecting and deodorising it. The consumption of earth averages from 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 lb. a day. The slop water should not be thrown into the closet, but disposed of in some other way. In another plan, as in Taylor’s improved closet, the urine is carried off without mixing at all with the fæces.

Clay, marl, and vegetable humus form the best kind of earths. When dried the clay may be easily reduced to powder. Chalk and sand are comparatively useless. The receptacle is emptied from time to time, the contents forming a valuable manure.

The earth closet is more particularly adapted for small villages and isolated mansions. One difficulty of its application by cottagers consists in the necessity of collecting, drying, and storing the earth; the cottager’s mostly limited space in his dwelling not permitting this. One great obstacle to the effective carrying out of this system amongst extensive communities is the difficulty of procuring the large supply of earth that its adoption necessitates. With proper supervision and care the ‘earth system’ answers admirably; but if these are not bestowed on it, it as signally fails. It has been adopted with great success in many schools, barracks, and other large buildings.

“It is coming into great use in India, and is carried out with great attention to detail. In those European stations where water is not procurable Mr Moule’s invention has been a boon of great value, and medical officers say that nothing has been done in India of late years which has contributed so much to the health and comfort of the men. The plan of separating the urine from the fæces has been strongly advocated by Dr Cornish, of Madras, and would, no doubt, be attended with great advantages in India if there are means of disposal of the urine. The chief difficulty in the European barracks in India is felt during the rainy season, when the mixed excreta and earth cannot be kept sufficiently dry. In the case of natives of India, however, a serious difficulty arises in the use of the earth system, in consequence of the universal use of water for ablution after using the closet. Every native takes with him a small vessel holding ten to twenty ounces of water, so that a large amount of fluid has to be disposed of. The usual earth closet does not suffice for this. Mr Charles Turner, C.E., of Southampton, has contrived a closet suitable for the native family; it is unfortunately too costly, and possibly a simple iron box, with a pipe to carry off the urine and ablution water, would be better suited for the poorer classes.”[159]

[Footnote 159: Parkes.]

_e._ _Captain Lieurnur’s pneumatic plan._ This process, the invention of a Dutch engineer, is in use at Amsterdam, Leyden, Drodrecht, and a few other Continental towns. It is also known as the ‘aspiration plan.’ Its outlines are as follows:——“The pipes and, tubes leading from the various water-closets and privies peculiar to the system are connected with street mains, which mains again communicate with underground horizontal cast-iron cylinders or tanks, these tanks being directly connected with a powerful air-pump worked by steam. Communication between the main and the tanks, as well as between the tanks and the pump, can be made or broken by means of stopcocks. Hence it follows that when access is allowed between one of the tanks and the air-pump, this latter will, when put into action, produce a vacuum in the tank, and if the stopcock of the main leading to the tank be then opened, the contents of all the privies and water-closets, the pipes of which run into the main, will be removed by being swept into the tank by pneumatic force. In this manner each tank is treated in succession. Similarly the sewage is carried to the large reservoirs of a manure manufactory. It is here mixed with a little sulphuric acid to prevent the formation of ammonia, and being evaporated down _in vacuo_ becomes converted, when sufficiently dry, into poudrette. In Lieurnur’s process all deodorants are dispensed with, and its mixture with water is prevented by means of porous drain pipes laid above the sewers, by which contrivance the subsoil water is kept out of the sewers.

=Sewage, Utilisation of.= “Mr Peregrine Birch read before the Institution of Surveyors a paper on ‘The Use of Sewage by Farmers,’ which embodied some facts that deserve to be noticed, as bearing on a question we have repeatedly discussed. It appears that there are at the present time ‘upwards of one hundred owners and occupiers of land in Great Britain who use sewage for the sake alone of what they can get out of it by agricultural means.’ Of these ‘more than sixty are tenant farmers, who continue to use it although they have, annually at least, the option of ceasing to do so,’ It seems five out of six of the tenant farmers purchase the sewage they employ, so that their adhesion to the method proves conclusively that it _pays_. Nearly four thousand acres of land are under regular cultivation with sewage. Mr Birch is of opinion that ‘advocates of sewage precipitation processes should not regard sewage farmers as their rivals, for a chemical process might be very largely used with advantage when farmers are being persuaded or taught to use sewage. But this should be the distinct aim of all cultivation, for there is no chemical process that could not be worked to greater advantage during two months of the year than twelve, or applied to a small quantity of sewage at less cost than to a large.’ Our primary interest is to see the utilisation of sewage generally adopted; the method employed must be determined by experience on the grounds of cheapness and expediency.”——_Lancet._

=SHAD′DOCK.= A large species of orange, the fruit of _Citrus Decumana_ (Linn.).

=SHAGREEN′.= This is prepared from the skins of the horse, wild ass, and camel, as follows:——The skin, freed from epidermis and hair by soaking in water, and, after dressing with the currier’s fleshing-knife, is sprinkled over, whilst still wet and stretched, with the seeds of a species of chenopodium, which are imbedded in it by strong pressure, and in this state it is dried; the seeds are then shaken off, and the surface rubbed or shaved down, nearly to the bottom of the seed-pits or indentations; it is next soaked in water, by which the skin swells, and the recently depressed surface rises into a number of minute prominences; it is, lastly, dyed and smoothed off. Black is given to it with galls and copperas; blue, with a solution of indigo; green, with copper filings and sal ammoniac; and red, with cochineal and alum. Shagreen was formerly very extensively used for covering the cases of watches, spectacles, surgical instruments, &c.

=SHALLOT′.= _Syn._ ESCHALOT. The _Allium ascalonicum_ (Linn.), a plant allied to the onion, the bulb of which is much used as a sauce or pot-herb.

=SHAMPOO′ING.= A practice common in the East, having for its object the increase or restoration of the tone and vigour of the body, or the mitigation of pain. It is applied either in the bath or immediately after quitting it, generally the latter, and consists in pressing and kneading the flesh, stretching and relaxing the knee-joints, and laboriously brushing and scrubbing the skin.

=SHARPS.= See FLOUR.

=SHA′VING.= The following are Mr Mechi’s instructions for this, to many persons, troublesome operation:——Never fail to well wash your beard with soap and cold water, and to rub it dry, immediately before you apply the lather, of which the more you use the easier you will shave. Never use warm water, which makes a tender face. Place the razor (closed, of course) in your pocket, or under your arm, to warm it. The moment you leave your bed is the best time to shave. Always put your shaving-brush away with the lather on it.

The razor (being only a very fine saw) should be moved in a sloping or sawing direction, holding it nearly flat to your face, care being taken to draw the skin as tight as possible with the left hand, so as to present an even surface and throw out the beard. The practice of pressing on the edge of a razor in stropping generally rounds it; the pressure should be directed to the back, which must never be raised from the strop. If you shave from heel to point of the razor, strop it from point to heel; but if you begin with the point, then strop from heel to point. If you only once put away your razor without stropping or otherwise cleaning the edge, you must no longer expect to shave well, the soap and damp so soon rust the fine teeth or edge. A piece of plate leather should always be kept with the razors.

=SHAVING FLUID.= See ESSENCE OF SOAP.

=SHAWLS, To Scour.= Scrape one pound of soap into thin shavings, and let it be boiled with as much water as will convert into a thin jelly. When cold, beat it with the hand, and mix with it three tablespoonfuls of oil of turpentine, and one of hartshorn. Let the shawl be well washed in this mixture, and afterwards rinsed in cold water, so as to get rid of all the soap.

Next let the shawl be rinsed in salt and water, then wring out the water from it, and fold it between two sheets, being careful not to allow two folds of the shawl to lie together; finally mangle, and iron with a cool iron.

=SHEEP.= _Syn._ OVIS, L. The _Ovis aries_, an animal domesticated almost everywhere. Its flesh supplies us with food, its skin with leather, its fleece with wool, and its intestines with catgut. Its fat (sevum) is officinal. See MUTTON, SUET, &c.

=Sheep Washes.= 1. Arsenious acid in powder, carbonate of potash, of each 6 oz.; water, 14 gall. Boil together for half an hour.

2. Arsenious acid in powder, soft soap, and carbonate of potash, of each 6 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; bruised hellebore root, 2 oz.; water, 14 gall. Boil the ingredients in a portion of the water for half an hour, or until the arsenic is dissolved, then add the remainder of the water, and strain through a coarse sieve. Mr Youatt says:——“More care than is usually taken should be exercised in order that the fluid may penetrate to every part of the skin, and which should be ensured by a previous washing in soap and water. The arsenic that necessarily remains about the wool when the water has dried away would probably destroy the acari as fast as they are produced. When a greater quantity of arsenic has been used, or the sheep has been kept too long in the water, fatal consequences have occasionally ensued.”

3. A sheep-dipping composition employed on the Continent is:——Arsenious acid, 1 lb.; sulphate of zinc, 10 lbs.; dissolved in 25 gallons of water.

4. The Australian sheep farmers use a weak solution of bichloride of mercury (1 oz. of the bichloride to 4 gall. of water).

5. Water, 40 parts, at the temperature of 50° to 57° C.; to this add 1 part of soluble glass (the soluble silicates). This is recommended as a very efficient and perfectly safe sheep wash by Messrs Baerle and Co., of Worms. In washing the sheep with this preparation care should be taken to cover the eyes of the animal with a bandage, to perform the washing with the solution instantaneously, and to remove the surplus with tepid water.

“Yards into which newly clipped sheep are to be turned should be previously cleared of all green food, hay, and even fresh water; if perfectly empty they are still safer. When the dipping is finished they should be cleaned, washed, and swept, and any of the unused dipping solution at once poured down the drains. Dipped sheep should remain, if possible, in an open exposed place, as on a dry road, or in a large open yard. Over-crowding should be avoided, and every facility given for rapid drying, which is greatly expedited by selecting for the operation fine, clear, drying weather. On no account should sheep be returned to their grazings until they are dry, and all risk of dripping over.[160]

[Footnote 160: Finlay Dunn.]

=SHELL-FISH.= The common name for the Crustacean and Molluscous animals that are used for food. ‘Shell-fish’ are extremely liable to disturb the functions of the stomach and bowels. The oyster (_Ostrea edulis_), and the cockle (_Cardium edule_), are, perhaps, the least objectionable. The crab (_Cancer pagurus_), the crayfish (_Astacus fluvialis_), the lobster (_Homarus vulgaris_), the mussel (_Mytilus edulis_), the prawn (_Palæmon serratus_), the periwinkle (_Littorina littorea_), and the shrimp (_Crangon vulgaris_), with the exception of the claws of the first three, are always suspicious, particularly in hot weather, and often absolutely poisonous. We have seen the most alarming, nay, fatal symptoms, follow the use of mussels, even amongst those habitually accustomed to take them; whilst it is a well known fact that the luscious bodies of the crab and lobster have too often formed the last supper of the epicure. See OYSTER, &c.

=SHEL-LAC.= See LAC.

=SHELLS (Prepared).= _Syn._ TESTÆ PRÆPARATÆ (Ph. L. 1836), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Wash oyster-shells (OSTRÆ——Ph. L.) with boiling water, having previously freed them from extraneous matters; then prepare them in the manner directed for chalk. The product is similar in constitution and properties to prepared chalk.

=Shells, To Polish.= 1. The surface of the shell should be first cleaned by rubbing it over with a rag dipped in hydrochloric acid, till the outer dull skin is removed. It must be then washed in warm water, dried in hot sawdust, and polished with chamois leather. Those shells which are destitute of a natural polished surface, may be either varnished or rubbed with a mixture of tripoli powder and turpentine applied by means of a wash-leather, after which fine tripoli alone should be used, and, finally, a little olive oil, the surface being brought up with the chamois leather as before.

2. “The shells are first boiled in a strong solution of potash, then wound on wheels, sometimes through one strata to show an underlying one, then polished with hydrochloric acid and putty powder. In this operation the hands are in great danger. Shell grinders are generally almost all cripples in their hands. (Spon.)

=SHER′BET.= [Pers.] A cooling drink, used in the East, prepared with the juices of fruit, and water, variously sweetened and flavoured. The word has been, of late years, commonly employed in these countries in a similar manner. See LEMONADE, ORANGEADE, and POWDERS.

=SHER′RY.= _Syn._ SHERRY WINE, SHERRIS; VINUM XERICUM (Ph. L.), VINUM ALBUM (Ph. E.), VINUM ALBUM HISPANICUM (Ph. D.), L. This is the only wine ordered in the British Pharmacopœias. See WINES.

=SHERRY-COBBLER.= _Prep._ (Redwood.) Half fill a tumbler with clean pounded ice; add a table-spoonful of powdered white sugar, a few thin slices of lemon with the peel (or some strawberries or other similar fruit, bruised), and a wine-glassful or more of sherry wine; mix them together (lightly), and as the ice melts, suck the liquor through a straw (or a small tube of silver or glass).

_Obs._ A favourite American drink; very refreshing in hot weather.

=SHIN′′GLES.= _Syn._ ZOSTER, HERPES ZOSTER, HERPES ZONA, L. A local variety of herpes or tetter, remarkable for forming a kind of belt round or partly round some part of the trunk of the body, chiefly the waist or abdomen. See TETTERS.

=SHODDY.= The epithet (we believe of American origin) is applied to the old, used-up wool and cloth, fraudulently mixed with fresh woollen fabrics. A plan for the examination of a fabric suspected of containing shoddy has been given by a German chemist, Herr Schlesinger, and is as follows:——Examine it with the microscope and note if it contains cotton, silk, or linen, as well as wool. If so dissolve them by ammoniacal solution of copper. A qualitative examination is thus obtained. Then direct attention to the wool. In shoddy both coloured and colourless fibres are often seen, the fibres having been derived from different cloths which have been partially bleached; the colouring matter, if any, instead of consisting of one pigment, will be composed of two or three different kinds, such as indigo, purpurin, or madder. Again, the diameter of the wool is never so regular as in fresh wool, but is seen to vary suddenly or gradually in diameter, and suddenly widens again with a little swelling, and tapers off again, besides which the cross markings or scales are almost always absent. When shoddy-wool is placed in liquor potassæ it is much more speedily attacked than new wool.

=SHOT METAL.= _Prep._ From lead, 1000 parts; arsenic, 3 parts. When the lead is coarse, 6 to 8 parts of metallic arsenic are required to fit it for this purpose.

=SHOW BOTTLES.= The large ornamental carboys and jars filled with coloured liquids, and displayed in the shop-windows of druggists, may be noticed under this head. They are striking objects when the solutions they contain are bright and of a deep pure tint, especially at night, when they are seen by transmitted light. The following formulæ for the solutions have been recommended by different persons:——

AMBER. From dragon’s blood (in coarse powder), 1 part; oil of vitriol, 4 parts; digest, and, when the solution is complete, dilute the mixture with distilled or soft water, q. s.

BLUE.——_a._ From blue vitriol, 2 oz.; oil of vitriol, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint.——_b._ A solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, diluted with water, q. s.——_c._ A solution of soluble Prussian blue in either oxalic or hydrochloric acid, slightly diluted, and afterwards further diluted with water to the proper shade of colour.

CRIMSON.——_a._ From alkanet root, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1 pint. Used chiefly for the bull’s eyes of lamps.——_b._ As PINK (_b_), _below_.

GREEN.——_a._ From sulphate of copper, 2 oz.; bichromate of potash, 1 dr., or q. s.; water, 1 pint.——_b._ A solution of sulphate of copper, 2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; water, 1 pint, or q. s.——_c._ A solution of distilled verdigris in acetic acid, diluted with water, q. s.——_d._ Dissolve blue vitriol in water, and add nitric acid until it turns green.

LILAC.——_a._ Dissolve crude oxide of cobalt (zaffre) in nitric or hydrochloric acid, add sesquicarbonate of ammonia, in excess, and afterwards sufficient ammonio-sulphate of copper to strike the colour.——_b._ As the purple, but more diluted.

MAGENTA. Acetate of rosaniline, dissolved in water, q. s.

OLIVE. Dissolve sulphate of iron and oil of vitriol, equal weights, in water, and add of nitrate of copper, q. s. to strike the colour.

ORANGE.——_a._ A solution of bichromate of potash in water, either with or without the addition of some hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.——_b._ Dissolve gamboge or annotta in liquor of potassa; dilute with water, and add a little spirit.

PINK.——_a._ To a solution of chloride or nitrate of cobalt, in water, add sesquicarbonate of ammonia, q. s. to dissolve the precipitate at first formed.——_b._ From madder (washed with cold water), 1 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz.; water, 3 pints; digest, with agitation, for 24 hours, then dilute with more water, and filter.

PURPLE.——_a._ A solution of sulphate of copper, 1 oz., in water, 1 quart, or q. s., with the addition of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1-1/2 oz.——_b._ To the last add a sufficient quantity of the first pink (_above_) to turn the colour.——_c._ To an infusion of logwood, add carbonate of ammonia or of potassa, q. s.——_d._ Sugar of lead, 3 oz.; powdered cochineal, 1 dr.; water, q. s.——_e._ Add sulphate of indigo, nearly neutralised with chalk, to an infusion of cochineal, till it turns purple.

RED.——_a._ Dissolve carmine in liquor of ammonia, and dilute with water.——_b._ Digest powdered cochineal in a weak solution of ammonia or of sal ammoniac, and afterwards dilute with water.——_c._ Add oil of vitriol, 4 oz., to water, 1 gall., and digest dried red rose leaves, 8 oz., in the mixture for 24 hours.——_d._ Dissolve madder lake in a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and dilute the solution with water.

VIOLET. To a solution of nitrate of cobalt in a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, add solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper, q. s. to strike the colour.

YELLOW.——_a._ A solution of sesquioxide or rust of iron, 1/2 lb., in hydrochloric acid, 1 quart, diluted with water.——_b._ To a strong decoction of French berries add a little alum.——_c._ A simple solution of chromate or bichromate of potash in distilled water.——_d._ A solution of equal parts of nitre and either chromate or bichromate of potash, in water.

_Obs._ Most of the above require filtering, which should be done through powdered glass, placed in a glass funnel, and never through paper. They usually need a second filtration, after being exposed to the light for some weeks; hence it is convenient always to make a little more of them than is required to fill the bottle, as several of them, when diluted after filtration, become again turbid. Distilled water or filtered rain water should be used.

=SHRIMP.= See SHELL-FISH.

=SHRUB.= A species of concentrated cold punch, prepared with lemon juice, spirit, sugar, and water. When the word is used in its unqualified form, RUM SHRUB is alluded to.

=Shrub, Brandy.= _Prep._ 1. Take of brandy, 1 gall.; orange and lemon juice, of each 1 pint; peels of 2 oranges; do. of 1 lemon; digest for 24 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs., dissolved in water, 5 pints; in a fortnight decant the clear liquid for use.

2. As RUM SHRUB (below), but using brandy.

=Shrub, Lemon.= _Syn._ LEMONADE SHRUB. Concentrated lemonade, either with or without the addition of a little spirit. Used to make lemonade or lemon sherbet.

=Shrub, Punch.= Concentrated punch, made with equal parts of spirit and water. Used to make punch.

=Shrub, Rum.= _Prep._ 1. As BRANDY SHRUB, but substituting rum for brandy.

2. Take of rum, at proof, 34 gall. (or, if of any other strength, an equivalent quantity); essential oils of orange and lemon, of each 2 oz., dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 quart; good lump sugar, 300 lbs.; dissolved in water, 20 galls.; mix well by ‘rummaging,’ and gradually and cautiously add of Seville orange juice, or of a solution of tartaric acid in water, q. s. to produce a pleasant but scarcely perceptible acidity; next ‘rummage’ well for 15 minutes, then add sufficient water to make the whole measure exactly 100 galls., and again ‘rummage’ well for at least half an hour; lastly, bung the cask down loosely, and allow it to repose for some days. In a fortnight, or less, it will usually be sufficiently ‘brilliant’ to be racked. The product is 100 galls., at 66 u. p.

_Obs._ Rum shrub is the kind in the greatest demand, and that having a slight preponderance of the orange flavour is the most esteemed. If wholly flavoured with lemon it is apt to acquire a kind of ‘dead’ or ‘musty’ flavour by long keeping. The substitution of a few gallons of brandy for a portion of the rum, or the addition, after racking, of about 1 oz. each of bruised bitter almonds, cloves, and cassia, the peels of about 2 dozen oranges, and a ‘thread’ of the essences of ambergris and vanilla, render it delicious.

=SIAL′OGOGUES.= Medicines which increase the flow of saliva. Mercurials and pellitory of Spain belong to this class.

=SICK′NESS.= Nausea and vomiting frequently arise from the use of improper food, and other articles which offend the stomach; at other times it is symptomatic of some disease, as colic, cholera, dyspepsia, head affections, incipient fever, &c.; in which case the primary affection should be attended to. Nausea lowers the pulse, contracts the small vessels, occasions cold perspiration, severe rigors, and trembling; and diminishes, as long as it lasts, the actions, and even the general powers, of life. The act of retching, and vomiting more especially, on the contrary, rouses rather than depresses, puts to flight all the preceding symptoms, and often restores the system to itself.

The best remedies or palliatives in these affections are effervescing saline draughts, either with or without the addition of a few drops of tincture of henbane, or tincture of opium. A glass of genuine lemonade, iced, or a spoonful of crushed ice in a wine-glassful of mint water, is also very serviceable. Pepsin (Bullock and Reynolds) and oxalate of cerium are said to be most valuable remedies in the sickness of pregnancy. See DRAUGHTS, PREGNANCY, SEA SICKNESS, &c.

=SIFT′ING= is to pulverulent substances what filtration is to liquids; but in this case the medium through which the substance passes is, usually, of a simpler and coarser description. Sieves are commonly employed for the purpose, which are fitted with silk or brass-wire gauze for fine purposes, and horsehair cloth, or wire netting, for coarser ones. Drum sieves are such as are furnished with covers and an enclosed space to receive the fine powder that passes through, by which dust and loss are prevented.

=SIGHT.= See VISION.

=Sight, Effect of Gaslight on.= The German Minister of Instruction has recently issued a report on the influence of gaslight on the eye. The conclusion arrived at in this report——the result of frequent conference with well-known physicians——is that no evil results follow a moderate use of gas, if the direct action of the yellow flame on the eye is prevented. For this purpose screens or shades are employed. Very great objections, however, exist to the use of zinc or lead shades, most evils affecting the eye being traceable to them. Their use, it is said, inevitably tends to blindness or inflammation, and other harmful effects. The milky-white glass shade is the best, as it distributes the light and has a grateful effect on the eyes. The burner should not be too close to the head, as congestions of the forehead and headaches result from the radiated heat. The glass plate below the gas, employed in some places, is especially useful for the purpose, as it causes an equal distribution of the light——necessary where a number are working at one burner——prevents the radiation of heat, and tends to a steady illumination by shielding the flames from currents of air. In cases of highly-inflamed eyes, dark-blue globes can be very beneficially employed. With precautions of this kind no evil effects from the burning of gas need be feared.

=SIG′NATURES (Fac-similes of).= These may be readily obtained as follows:——

1. Let the name be written on a piece of paper, and, while the ink is still wet, sprinkle over it some finely-powdered gum Arabic, then make a rim round it, and pour on it some fusible alloy in a liquid state. Impressions may be taken from the plates formed in this way, by means of printing ink and the copper-plate press.

2. By the use of transfer ink and lithography.

=SILBER LIGHT.= This light is thus described in ‘Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal,’[161]——This mode of illumination is recommended where gas cannot be had.

[Footnote 161: ccix, 79 (‘Journ. Chem. Society,’ vol. xi, new series, 1273).]

The material used is oil, which is converted into gas before combustion takes place, whereby the combustion of the wick is greatly lessened (one wick may last a year); the accumulation of impurity is obviated, and the prevention of smell completely effected. The light is regular and uniform, and of a white colour. The light, with a burner 1-1/4 inch wide, is equal to that of 28 sperm candles, each consuming 120 gr. per hour, and with one 1-3/4 inch wide a light is obtained equal to 50 such candles.

The burning apparatus consists of a row of concentrically enclosed double cylinders, perpendicularly arranged at definite intervals. The innermost cylinder contains the wick between its two walls, the hollow space in the interior serving to convey fresh air to the interior of the flame. The second cylinder conveys air to the outer side of the wick, and the third contains oil, and is in direct communication with both wick and reservoir. The mouths of all these chambers have a dome-shaped head, and form a suitable opening in this; the gas streams forth in such a manner that it comes in contact with a current of air, and thus a complete combustion is attained.

According to the nature of the oil burnt the construction is somewhat varied in its minor details. Rape oil or light hydrocarbon oils are mentioned.

=SIL′ICA.= SiO_{2}. _Syn._ SILICIC ANHYDRIDE, SILICIC ACID, SILEX, SILICEOUS EARTH†, EARTH OF FLINTS†. This exists in quartz and rock crystal in a nearly pure state. The sands of rivers and the sea-shore, flint, and almost all the scintillating stones, chiefly consist of it.

Silica occurs under two conditions——the crystalline and the amorphous. The former variety has a sp. gr. of 2·642; the amorphous of 2·2-2·3. Some of our well-known native gems and precious stones consist almost wholly of one of the above forms of silica. In agate and calcedony the two varieties are combined. Amethyst is silica, coloured purple by ferric oxide. Onyx is formed of calcedony arranged in layers of different colours. Cornelian is a red or brown variety of silica coloured with ferric oxide, whilst opal is amorphous silica combined with varying quantities of water. Silica is present in the stems of certain plants, such as wheat, many grasses, to which the shining appearance of the stems is due, &c. The Italians polish marble with the ashes of burnt straw, the usefulness of which for such a purpose depends upon the silica contained in the straw; for similar reasons the Dutch rush is thus employed. Silica also occurs in solution in many natural waters. In the geysers, or boiling springs of Iceland, it exists in large quantity.

It may be obtained in a state of absolute purity by passing gaseous fluoride of silicon into water, collecting the resulting gelatinous precipitate on a calico filter, washing it with distilled water, drying it, and heating it to redness. Another method is to precipitate a solution of silicate of soda or potassa (soluble glass) with dilute hydrochloric acid, and to treat the precipitate as before.

Nearly pure silica may also be procured by heating colourless quartz to redness, and plunging it into cold water, by which treatment the quartz is rendered so friable as to be easily reducible to fine powder. Ordinary flints, subjected to this method, are found to yield silica in a condition approaching to purity. Amorphous silica is much more easily attacked by solvents than the crystalline variety. The artificial forms of silica are all amorphous.

The test for a silicate consists in fusing the suspected body with sodic or potassic carbonate, heating the residue with acid, and evaporating to dryness. If the residue be then treated with hot water the silica remains undissolved in the form of a white powder, which will yield a colourless bead when fused with sodic carbonate upon a piece of platinum foil before the blowpipe flame. If silica be fused with borax it becomes slowly dissolved, forming a clear, colourless bead.

Chapman contests Plattner’s opinion that, when silicates are fused with phosphor salt, the ‘silica skeleton’ that results is especially due to the presence of alkalies or earthy bases.

Chapman says: “It is true enough that silicates in which these bases are present exhibit the reaction; but as other silicates——practically all, indeed——exhibit the reaction also, the inference implied in the above statement is quite erroneous.

“The opalescence of the glass arises entirely from precipitated silica.

“If some pure silica (or a silicate of any kind), in a powdered condition, be dissolved before the blowpipe flame in borax until the glass be saturated, and some phosphor salt be then added, and the blowing be continued for an instant, a precipitate of silicate will immediately take place, the bead becoming milky white (or, in the case of many silicates, opaque) on cooling. This test may be resorted to for the detection of silica in the case of silicates, which dissolve with difficulty in phosphor salt alone, or which do not give the pronounced ‘skeleton’ with that reagent.”[162]

[Footnote 162: Chapman on ‘Blow-pipe Reactions.’]

_Prop., &c._ A fine, white, tasteless, infusible powder, insoluble in all acids, after being heated, except the hydrofluoric; requires the heat of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe for its fusion; approaches the precious stones in hardness; soluble in strong alkaline solutions; its salts are called SILICATES. Sp. gr. 2·66. See GLASS, GLASS, SOLUBLE, &c.

=Silica, Hydrates of.= By pouring a dilute solution of sodium silicate into a considerable excess of hydrochloric acid the whole of the silica is retained in solution, together with the chloride of sodium formed by the action of the hydrochloric acid upon the soda. By subjecting this solution to dialysis (see DIALYSIS) the hydrochloric acid and chloride of sodium are removed, whilst the hydrate of silica is left behind, in solution, in the dialyser. Graham recommends a stratum of the liquid four tenths of an inch in depth, to be subjected for four or five days to dialysis, the water in the outer vessel to be changed every twenty-four hours.

If the solution so obtained be carefully evaporated down in a flask, and any drying of the silicic acid at the edges of the liquid being prevented, a solution may be obtained containing 14 per cent. of silica.

The solution has a very feebly acid reaction, and is without taste or colour. It cannot be preserved in the liquid state for more than a very few days, even in well-closed vessels, but becomes converted into a transparent gelatinous mass, which separates from the water. Hydrochloric acid, as well as small quantities of caustic potash or soda, retard the coagulation.

When the solution is evaporated _in vacuo_ at 59° F. over sulphuric acid, a lustrous transparent glass is left behind, which consists of 22 per cent. of water, which closely accords with the formula SiO_{2}H_{2}O.

By the action of moist air upon silicic ether a transparent glassy hydrate was obtained by Ebelmen, to which this chemist assigned the formula 2SiO_{2},3H_{2}O. Two hydrates of silica were obtained by Fuchs, one having the formula 3SiO_{2},H_{2}O, the other, 4SiO_{2},H_{2}O.

=Silicic Chloride.= _Syn._ SILICIC TETRACHLORIDE. (SiCl_{4}.) This compound is rarely, if ever, obtained by the direct method, viz. by heating silicon in chlorine, but by the following indirect process:——A paste is made of finely divided silica, oil, and charcoal, and heated in a covered crucible. The fragments of the charred substance (consisting of silica and carbon) are then placed in a porcelain tube, which is raised to a red heat in a furnace, and during the ignition of the fragments a current of dry chlorine is passed into and over them; the silicic chloride which is thus formed being made to distil over into a bent tube surrounded by a freezing mixture of ice and salt, whereby it becomes condensed.

Silicic chloride is a very voluble and strongly fuming gas, transparent and colourless, with an irritating and pungent smell. It is immediately decomposed by water into hydrochloric acid and hydrated silica, which deposits in the vessel.

=Silicic Fluoride.= _Syn._ SILICIC TETRAFLUORIDE. (SiF_{4}.) This gas is best prepared by heating in a capacious flask or retort equal parts of finely powdered fluorspar and white sand, or glass with ten or twelve times their weight of strong sulphuric acid. This gas must be collected over mercury, and in jars that are free from the least trace of moisture.

Silicic fluoride is a colourless gas, with a very pungent odour, fuming strongly in the air, and neither burning nor supporting combustion. Faraday succeeded in liquefying it under great pressure, and Natterer states that at a temperature of -220° F. it may be solidified. By water it is partially decomposed and partially dissolved, yielding silicic acid and hydrofluosilic acid.

With twice its volume of ammoniacal gas silicic fluoride combines to form a crystalline volatile. Silicic hydride has an acid reaction.

=Silicic Hydride.= (H_{4}Si?) To procure this gas silicide of magnesium is decomposed with cold diluted hydrochloric acid.

The silicide of magnesium may be prepared as follows:——Mix intimately 40 parts of fused magnesic chloride, 35 of dried sodic silico-fluoride, and 10 of fused sodic chloride; these are mixed in a warm, dry tube, with 20 parts of sodium in small fragments, and thrown into a red-hot Hessian crucible, which is immediately covered, the operation being finished when the vapours of sodium cease to burn.

Silicic hydride becomes spontaneously ignited in the air, and in doing so gives off white fumes, which consist of amorphous silica (SiO_{2}). A cold body, such as a piece of porcelain or glass, introduced into the flame, becomes covered with a brown deposit of reduced silicon. Passed into solutions of cupric sulphate, argentic nitrate, and palladium chloride, this gas throws down the metals, in most cases combined with silicon.

=SILICOFLUORIC ACID.= See FLUOSILICIC ACID.

=SIL′ICON.= Si. _Syn._ SILICIUM. An elementary substance forming the base of silica.

This element was first obtained by Sir Humphry Davy, by acting upon silica with potassium. It is now procured much more easily by the decomposition of silico-fluoride of potassium, at an elevated temperature, with potassium or sodium. By heating a mixture of fluorspar and ground flints with sulphuric acid a gaseous tetra-fluoride of silicon is formed, which, being partially soluble in water, yields an acid solution of the tetra-fluoride. Caustic potash is then added to the acid solution of the tetra-chloride until it becomes neutralised, and the sparingly soluble silico-fluoride of potassium thus formed is thoroughly dried and mixed in a glass or iron tube with eight or nine tenths of its weight of potassium or half its weight of sodium, and heated. The following equation explains the reaction that takes place:

2KF,SiF_{4} + 2K_{2} = Si + 6KF.

The resulting mass, consisting of potassic fluoride, and reduced silicon in partial combination with the excess of potassium, is treated with cold water, when a copious evolution of hydrogen gas ensues, owing to the decomposition of the water by the excess of potassium. The potassic fluoride is got rid of by washing with cold water, its entire removal being indicated by the water ceasing to have an alkaline reaction on test paper, whilst amorphous silicon is left behind in the form of a brown powder.

Another method by which silicon may also be procured is by passing the vapour of silicic chloride over heated potassium or sodium, placed on a porcelain tray in a glass tube. In this operation it is advisable to protect the lining of the tube with thin plates of mica.

The silicon obtained by the above processes is known as _amorphous silicon_, and, as already stated, occurs as a brown powder. It is dull in colour, and, being heavier than water, as well as insoluble in it, sinks in that fluid. It is a non-conductor of electricity, is unaffected by nitric or sulphuric acid, but dissolves readily in hydrofluoric acid, and in a warm solution of caustic potash. It burns with great brilliancy when heated in air or oxygen, and becomes converted into silica, which, owing to the great heat of combustion, fuses, and thus forms a superficial crust over the unburnt silicon. A _crystalline_ variety of silicon may also be procured by heating the brown amorphous silicon, already described, intensely in a platinum crucible, with exclusion of air. This crystalline silicon so obtained is much darker in colour than the amorphous, and also considerably denser; besides which it differs widely in properties from the latter. It will not take fire if heated strongly in the air or oxygen, even if before the blowpipe flame. Its density is such that it sinks in strong sulphuric acid, and hydrofluoric acid fails to dissolve it, although it is soluble in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. It does not become oxidised, even if fused with potassic nitrate or chlorate, unless a white heat is obtained, when it burns brilliantly, giving rise, on so doing, to the formation of silica.

In addition to the above, a _graphitoid_ form of silicon, occurring in plates, has been described by Deville and Wöhler. These chemists obtained this last modification from an alloy of silicon and aluminium, which was treated in succession with boiling hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. The plates of silicon which are left have a metallic lustre, and a sp. gr. of 2·49. The graphitoid bears a great resemblance in properties to the crystalline silicon. It is a conductor of electricity. Like the crystalline variety, it dissolves in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids, although slowly, but, unlike the crystalline, it undergoes no change when heated to whiteness in a current of oxygen.

Deville states that silicon requires a temperature between the melting points of iron and steel to fuse it. He effected its fusion in a platinum crucible lined with lime, the platinum crucible being then placed in a clay crucible, which was then exposed to intense heat in a wind furnace.

By passing the vapour of silicic chloride over pure aluminium, placed on a porcelain tray, and raised to an intense heat, the aluminium becomes volatilised as aluminic chloride, whilst the silicon remains behind in crystals possessing a reddish lustre. These crystals occur in regular six-sided prisms, terminated by three-sided pyramids, derived from the octohedra, and are so hard that glass may be cut by them, in the same way as by the diamond.

With oxygen silicon forms only one oxide, silica, described above.

=SILK.= As an article of clothing, as far as “roundness of fibre, softness of texture, absence of attraction for moisture, and power of communicating warmth, are concerned, silk is greatly superior to both linen and cotton; moreover, it gives the sensation of freshness to the touch which is so agreeable in linen. But, with all these advantages, silk (when worn next the body) has its defects; on the slightest friction it disturbs the electricity of the skin, and thus becomes a source of irritation. Sometimes, it is true, this irritation is advantageous, as causing a determination of blood to the surface; but when this action is not required, it is disagreeable, and quite equal, in a sensitive constitution, to producing an eruption on the skin. I have seen eruptions occasioned in this manner, and, when they have not occurred, so much itching and irritation as to call for the abandonment of the garment.” (Eras. Wilson.)

Silk is characterised by its fibres appearing perfectly smooth and cylindrical, without depressions, even under a magnifying power of 160. Its fibres (even when dyed) acquire a permanent straw-yellow colour when steeped in nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1·20 to 1·30. The fibres of white or light-coloured silk are similarly stained by a solution of picric acid. A thread of silk, when inflamed, shrivels and burns with difficulty, evolves a peculiar odour, and leaves a bulky charcoal. By these properties silk is distinguished from cotton and linen.

Cotton, wool, and silk may be easily distinguished from each other by means of the microscope.

The cotton fibre will be seen to consist of only one cell; wool (as well as hair and alpaca) is made up of numerous cells in juxtaposition; whilst silk fibre is similar to the secreted matter of spiders and caterpillars.

The silk fibre (fig. 1) is smooth, cylindrical, devoid of structure, not hollow inside, and equally broad. The surface is glossy, and only seldom are any irregularities seen on it. If it is desired to detect in a woven fabric the genuineness of the silk, it is best to cut a sample to pieces, place it under water under the object-glass of a microscope, magnifying 120 to 200 times, covering it with a thin piece of glass. The round, glazed, equally proportioned silk fibre (fig. 1), is easily distinguished from the unequalled and scaled wool fibre (W in fig. 2), and from the flat, band-like, and spiral cotton fibre (B, fig. 3). Under the microscope also the mixture of inferior with superior fibres of silk can be easily detected.

Black silk, the weight of which has been augmented by extensive sophistication, is not uncommon in English, French, and German markets. It is known as ‘weighted’ or ‘shotted’ silk, and very frequently contains no more——and frequently less——than one third of its weight of silk, the remaining two thirds consisting, according to Persoz, of a combination of iron salts, with some astringent substance, salts of tin, and cyanides. It is easily distinguishable from genuine silk by its want of elasticity and tenacity, and its much greater combustibility. Persoz found a specimen of this adulterated silk to yield, upon incineration, more than 8 per cent. of ferric oxide.

The cleaning and renovation of articles of wearing apparel made of silk are matters requiring some care. No silk goods look well after being washed, however carefully it may be done; and this method should, therefore, never be resorted to but from absolute necessity. It is recommended to sponge faded silks with warm water and curd soap, then to rub them with a dry cloth on a flat board, and afterwards to iron them on the wrong side with an ordinary smoothing iron. Sponging with spirit, benzol, or pure oil of turpentine, also greatly improves old silk, and is often preferable to any other method. The odour of the benzol passes off very quickly, that of the turpentine after exposure for a few days. When the ironing is done on the right side thin paper should be spread over the surface to prevent ‘glazing.’ See DYEING, GILDING, &c.

=Silk Material, a New.= The ‘Textile Manufacturer’ contains the following:——The utilisation of new substances as raw material for manufactures is a distinguishing feature of the scientific investigations of the nineteenth century. One of the most recent suggestions is the result of the researches of Herr Tycho Tulburg, an eminent German naturalist, on the products of the mussel. It will be remembered it was from one of the mussel species the famous purple dye was in past ages obtained, and this colour gained an imperishable renown from its being adopted by the Roman emperors, and the imperial purple became the symbol of sovereignty. In these latter days animal products have been displaced by aniline dyes, and there is no likelihood of their regaining their former celebrity. The researches of Tulburg have not, however, been in the direction of dyes, but in the adaptation of animal products other than the silkworm for silk yarns. The mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) fastens itself to the rocks by strong threads, called by naturalists _byssus_, and it is this substance which it is proposed to utilise for the manufacture of silk. The material is of a silky texture and very tough, and the experiments that have been made prove that it is well adapted to be made into yarn. Already the _Pinna_, one of the mussel tribe, has been already manufactured into fabrics, although it is not of general use, nor at present of much commercial value, and the same obstacles to the use of the _byssus_ of the common mussel are apparent. Notwithstanding the abundant supply of this popular shell fish, it is difficult to see how a sufficient quantity of _byssus_ can be collected to enable manufacturers to purchase the raw material at rates low enough for a marketable remuneration on the manufactured article. But the records of industrial progress testify to greater difficulties than these having been successfully overcome; and should the commercial value of the new material be satisfactorily demonstrated, there is no doubt some agency will be developed whereby the requisite supply may be obtained.

At present it is sufficient to notice the discovery that has been made, and to welcome another instance of the results of scientific labour being for the advantage of manufacturers.

=SILK′WORM, Diseases of.= Silkworms are liable to a disease known as _pébrine_, which Pasteur has shown to be due to the presence, on the body, the egg, and in the blood of the insect, of peculiar parasitic corpuscles.

Pasteur states that the black specks which constitute these bodies are very easily distinguishable in the moth of the silkworm, but that in the earlier stages of its development, such as in the egg and worm condition, the detection of them becomes difficult, if not impossible. Pasteur further adds that sound moths produce sound eggs, and unsound moths the reverse, and that although the unsound eggs show no sign of disease, they never give rise to healthy worms.

Pasteur advises the silk cultivator, therefore, to ensure breeding from healthy moths at starting, and to abandon the old and useless precaution of hatching apparently healthy eggs.

The loss resulting from the silkworm disease in Italy may be seen from the following tables, which are calculated for bales of 102 lbs. weight:[163]——

[Footnote 163: ‘British Manufactory of Industries,’ Stamford.]

Average production prior to disease, 81,600.

1863 Bales, 50,600 Deficit, 38 per cent. 1864 ” 38,000 ” 53 ” 1865 ” 38,700 ” 52 ” 1866 ” 39,600 ” 51 ” 1867 ” 44,000 ” 46 ” 1868 ” 41,000 ” 49 ” 1869 ” 47,300 ” 42 ” 1870 ” 69,900 ” 14 ” 1871 ” 76,300 ” 6 ” 1872 ” 68,000 ” 16 ”

The value of the cocoons grown in the whole world in 1870 was said to be as follows:——France, £4,334,000; Italy, £11,260,000; Spain and other European countries, £984,000; giving a total for Europe of £16,588,000. China, £17,000,000; India, £4,800,000; Japan, £3,200,000; Persia, £920,000; other Asiatic states, £2,192,000; giving a total for Asia of £28,112,000. Africa, £68,000. America, £20,000. Making a general total of £44,788,000.

=Silkworm Gut.= See GUT.

=SIL′LABUB.= _Prep._ Grate off the yellow peel of a lemon with lump sugar, and dissolve the sugar in 3/4 pint of wine; add the juice of 1/3 a lemon, and a 1/4 pint of cream; beat the whole together until of a proper thickness, and then put it into glasses.

_Obs._ 3/4 to 1 pint of new milk is often substituted for the cream, and strong cider or perry for the wine. Grated nutmeg is often added. When ‘whipped’ to a froth it is called ‘WHIPPED SILLABUB,’ See CREAM (Whipped).

=SILVER.= Ag. _Syn._ ARGENTUM, L. This metal, like gold, appears to have been as much valued in the remotest ages of antiquity of which we have any record, as at the present time. It is found in nature, both in the metallic state and mineralised, in the state of alloy, and combined with sulphur, chlorine, and other metallic sulphurets. In Great Britain it is found in combination chiefly with lead. It is extracted from its ores principally by the process of amalgamation, founded on its easy solubility in mercury, and by subsequent cupellation. It is only prepared on the large scale.

Chemically pure silver may be obtained by the methods noticed subsequently.

_Prop._ Pure silver has a very white colour, a high degree of lustre, is exceedingly malleable and ductile, and is the best conductor of heat and electricity known. Its hardness is between that of copper and gold; its sp. gr. is 10·475 to 10·500; it melts at about 1873° Fahr.; or bright redness (Daniell); is freely soluble in nitric acid, and dissolves in sulphuric acid by the aid of heat; it refuses to oxidise alone at any temperature, but, when strongly heated in open vessels, it absorbs many times its bulk of oxygen, which is again disengaged at the moment of solidification; its surface is rapidly tarnished by sulphuretted hydrogen and by the fumes of sulphur.

_Pur._ “Entirely soluble in diluted nitric acid. This solution, treated with an excess of muriate of soda, gives a white precipitate entirely soluble in ammonia water, and a fluid which is not affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.” (Ph. E.)

_Tests._ 1. The compounds of silver, mixed with carbonate of soda, and exposed on a charcoal support to the inner flame of the blowpipe, afford white, brilliant, and ductile metallic globules, without any incrustation of the charcoal.——2. The salts of silver are non-volatile and colourless, but most of them acquire more or less a black tint by exposure to full daylight.

The soluble salts of silver give——1. A white curdy precipitate (chloride of silver) with hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic chlorides, which is soluble in ammonia and insoluble in nitric acid, and blackened by exposure to light;——2. White precipitates with solutions of the alkaline carbonates, oxalates, and ferrocyanides;——3. Yellow precipitates with the alkaline arsenites and phosphates;——4. With the arseniates, red precipitates;——5. With the fixed alkalies, brown precipitates;——6. With sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia, a black powder, which is insoluble in dilute acids, alkalies, alkaline sulphurets, and cyanide of potassium, but readily soluble, with separation of sulphur, in boiling nitric acid; and——7. With phosphorus, and with metallic copper or zinc, pure silver.

_Assay._ 1. The method of assaying silver by cupellation has been explained under ASSAY and CUPELLATION; and that method is alone applicable when the alloy contains a very small quantity of silver, as a few ounces only per ton. When the reverse is the case, as with the silver of commerce, the following is a much more accurate method:——

2. _Humid assay of silver._——_a._ Dissolve 10 gr. of the silver for assay in 100 gr. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·28, by the aid of heat, the solution being made in a tall stoppered glass tube, furnished with a foot; then place it in a very delicate balance, bring it into an exact state of equilibrium, and add the test solution (see _below_), gradually and cautiously, until the whole of the silver be thrown down, the number of grains now required to restore the equilibrium of the balance or scales gives the exact quantity of pure silver in 1000 parts of the sample.——_Obs._ To ensure accuracy, after each addition the stopper should be placed in the tube, and the latter violently agitated for a short time, when the liquor will rapidly clear and enable us to see when the operation is concluded. We must then, as a check, add a small quantity of a solution of nitrate of silver to the liquor in the tube, after having first carefully taken the weight. If too much of the test liquor has been added, this will produce a fresh precipitate, and the assay cannot then be depended on.——Instead of weighing the quantity of test liquor used, a tube graduated into 100 parts, and holding 1000 gr., may be employed, every division of which, required to throw down the silver, will represent the 1/10th of a grain. See ALKALIMETRY and ACIDIMETRY.

_b._ The precipitate of chloride of silver may be collected in a paper filter, and be dried, washed, fused, and weighed. The previous weight of the paper, deducted from the gross weight of the filter and its contents, gives the quantity of chloride of silver present, which multiplied by 0·75278, gives the weight of the pure silver in the sample.

_Test liquor._ Dissolve 54·27 (54-1/4) gr. of pure sea salt in 9945·73 gr. (or 22 oz. and 320-3/4 gr. avoirdupois) of distilled water; filter, and keep the liquor in a stoppered bottle for use. Pure sea salt is obtained by boiling together, for a few minutes, in a glass vessel, a solution of common salt with a little pure bicarbonate of soda; then adding to the filtered liquor sufficient hydrochloric acid to render it neutral to litmus and turmeric paper, and, lastly, evaporating and crystallising.

_Obs._ The presence of mercury, lead, or sulphuret of silver, interferes with the accuracy of the above assay. When mercury is present, the precipitate blackens less readily by exposure to light; and when it contains 4/1000 or 5/1000 of chloride of mercury, it remains of a dead white; with 3/1000 it is not sensibly discoloured by the diffused light of a room, with 2/1000 only slightly darkened, with 1/1000 more so, but with pure chloride of silver, the effect is very rapid and intense. When this metal is present, which is, however, seldom the case, the assay sample must be placed in a small crucible, and exposed to a full red heat, before solution in the acid. Another method, proposed by M. Levol, and modified by M. Gay-Lussac, is to add to the nitric solution of the silver sufficient acetate of ammonia or crystallised acetate of soda to saturate all the nitric acid existing in the liquor, either in the free state or combined with the silver. When the alloy contains lead, shown by the precipitated chloride being partly soluble in water, it may either be laminated and subjected to the action of acetic acid before solution in the nitric acid; or, the test solution of chloride of soda should be replaced by one of chloride of lead; (139·355 gr. of the latter are equiv. to 58·732 gr. of the former). The presence of sulphuret of silver is detected whilst dissolving the sample in nitric acid, by the black flakes which may be observed floating about in the liquor in an insoluble state. These flakes may be dissolved by fuming nitric acid, or by adding pure concentrated sulphuric acid to the solution, which should be then heated for about a 1/4 hour in a steam-bath. When thus treated, the precipitate produced by the test liquor represents the whole of the silver contained in the alloy.

Dr Gräger[164] gives the following process of the preparation of pure metallic silver:——He dissolved the alloy of silver in nitric acid, taking care to use as small a quantity of the acid as possible. The solution is then transferred to a large-sized porcelain basin, and gradually neutralised with previously lixiviated chalk free from chlorine. The neutralised liquid is next boiled, and chalk again added to it, while boiling, until the fluid has become colourless. (In order to test more accurately, a drop of the liquid is poured on a piece of white filtering-paper, and next to that drop is placed one of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium; as long as the well-known red colouration, copper reaction, hereby ensues, chalk is added.) The fluid is next filtered to separate the carbonate of copper, and the filtrate (a solution of nitrate of silver, and nitrate of lime) is again boiled, and either further treated with carbonate of lime, or better still, with carbonate of soda. The bright yellow-coloured precipitate thereby ensuing, a mixture of carbonate of silver, and carbonate of lime, is washed, dried, and ignited, leaving a greyish-white mass of metallic silver, mixed with carbonate of lime. This mixture is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, washed with distilled water, and then fused along with borax, yielding pure silver. The bright green coloured carbonate of copper can be used as a pigment for painting purposes.

[Footnote 164: ‘Chemical News,’ xxv, No. 641, 119.]

Krüger says:——In frequently experimenting with silver salts, a mixture of solution of precipitates is obtained, in which silver exists in all kinds of combination. When such mixtures are shaken up with an ethereal solution of phosphorus, the solution and the precipitate soon separate, the former being more or less yellow, the latter intensely black. If light-coloured particles are perceived in the precipitate, the quantity of phosphorus solution employed is not sufficient, and more must be added till the precipitate is uniformly black. The precipitate is next filtered, washed, and dried, or placed while still damp, in a porcelain dish and boiled with potash solution. Pure metallic silver is thus obtained. If a solid fused mass is required, pure potassium hydrate is fused in a crucible, and to this the dried precipitate is added in small portions.

_Uses, &c._ Metallic silver, unless in a state of very minute division, has no action on the human body. A plate of silver is ordered, in the Ph. L., as a test of the presence of nitric acid in the acetic and phosphoric acids; and metallic silver (preferably granulated) is employed by the other colleges in the preparation of the nitrate. Its numerous applications in the arts are well known. The standard silver of England contains 111 parts of silver and 9 parts of copper.

_Concluding Remarks._ The researches of Tillet, D’Arcet, and Gay-Lussac have clearly shown that the percentage of silver in an alloy, as indicated by cupellation, is always below its real richness in that metal, owing to loss in the process; and, that the cupelled button always retains a trace of lead and copper, the precise quantity of which is variable. The following table exhibits the additions to be made on this score, when the quantity assayed (assay pound) is 20 gr.:——

+-------------------------+---------------+--------------+ | |Actual richness| Percentage | |Weight after cupellation.| in _pure_ |of richness in| | | _silver_. |_pure silver_.| +-------------------------+---------------+--------------+ | 19·979 | 20 | 100 | | 18·95 | 19 | 95 | | 17·92 | 18 | 90 | | 16·917 | 17 | 85 | | 15·914 | 16 | 80 | | 14·91 | 15 | 75 | | 13·905 | 14 | 70 | | 12·905 | 13 | 65 | | 11·906 | 12 | 60 | | 10·906 | 11 | 55 | | 9·906 | 10 | 50 | | 7·921 | 8 | 40 | | 5·948 | 6 | 30 | | 3·949 | 4 | 20 | | 1·982 | 2 | 10 | +-------------------------+---------------+--------------+

In assaying lead ores very poor in silver the best quantity to be taken for cupellation is 500 gr.; and from that quantity 0·0148 of silver, including compensation for loss, represents one ounce of silver to the ton. A cupel may absorb its own weight of lead. If the quantity of lead to be absorbed is more considerable, another cupel may be turned topsy-turvy, and the cupel in which the assay is to be made may be placed upon it. See Assay, and M. Gay-Lussac’s elaborate memoir on the ‘_Humid Assay of Silver_,’

For the recovery or reduction of silver from the chloride and its other compounds, several methods are employed:——

_a._ The washed chloride is placed in a zinc or iron cup, along with a little water strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid; or in a glass or porcelain cup along with a zinc plate; the whole may then be left to itself for some hours; or, to hasten the reduction, gently heated, or even boiled; the precipitated silver is washed with pure water, and dried.

_b._ (Hornung.) Digest the chloride with some ammonia and pure copper filings, for 24 hours, then wash and dry the powder.

_c._ (M. Levol.) The washed chloride is mixed with an equal weight of sugar, and the mixture is digested in an excess of a moderately strong solution of caustic potassa, with occasional agitation for 24 hours; or the whole is boiled for some time; the reduced silver is washed with distilled water.

_d._ (Mohr.) The dry chloride is mixed with 1-3rd of its weight of powdered black resin, and moderately heated in a crucible until the flame ceases to have a greenish-blue colour; the heat is then suddenly increased so as to melt the metal into a button or ingot.

_e._ (M. Gay-Lussac.) If the chloride, dry it, and throw it, in successive portions, into twice its weight of carbonate of potassa fused in a red-hot Hessian crucible; effervescence ensues, and the pure silver subsides to the bottom.——If a “soluble salt,” as the nitrate, acidulate the solution, and precipitate it by means of a polished plate of copper; the silver is then obtained in the form of powder. The products of the above processes, when the latter are carefully conducted, are chemically pure silver.

=Silver, Acetate of.= _Syn._ ARGENTI ACETAS, L. _Prep._ By adding a solution of acetate of potassa to a like solution of nitrate of silver, washing the precipitate with cold water, redissolving it in a little hot water, and setting the solution aside to crystallise. Small colourless needles.

=Silver, Ammoniuret of.= See FULMINATING SILVER (Berthollet’s, Nos. 1 and 2, _page_ 768).

=Silver, Ammonio-chloride of.= _Syn._ ARGENTOCHLORIDE OF AMMONIA; ARGENTI AMMONIO-CHLORIDUM, L. _Prep._ Add, gradually, chloride of silver (recently precipitated and well washed) to concentrated liquor of ammonia, as long as it is dissolved on agitation, applying a gentle heat towards the end; then heat the solution to the boiling-point, concentrate a little, and allow it to cool very slowly; collect the crystals which form, dry them by pressure (with care) between folds of bibulous paper, and at once preserve them from the light and air.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/8 gr.

=Silver, Ben′zoate of.= AgC_{7}H_{5}O_{2}. Thin transparent plates, which are blackened by exposure to the light. See BENZOATE.

=Silver, Bro′mide of.= AgBr. Resembles the chloride.

=Silver, Car′bonate of.= Ag_{2}CO_{3}. _Syn._ ARGENTI CARBONAS, L. A white insoluble powder, obtained by precipitating a cold solution of nitrate of silver with another of carbonate of sodium. It is decomposed by heat.

=Silver, Chlo′′ride of.= AgCl. _Syn._ ARGENTIC CHLORIDE. _Prep._ Precipitate a solution of nitrate of silver by dilute hydrochloric acid or a solution of common salt; wash the precipitate, and dry it in the shade.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 3 gr., thrice daily; in epilepsy, chronic dysentery, cholera, diarrhœa, &c. Dr Perry regards it as preferable to the nitrate. When fused, chloride of silver forms horn silver, the ‘luna cornea’ of the older writers.

=Silver, Cy′anide of.= AgCN. _Syn._ ARGENTIC CYANIDE, HYDROCYANATE OF SILVER. _Prep._ Add dilute hydrocyanic acid to a solution of nitrate of silver, as long as a precipitate falls; wash this with distilled water, and dry it.

_Prop., &c._ Cyanide of silver is a white powder, soluble in ammonia, and decomposed by contact with vegetable substances; light turns it violet-coloured.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/8 gr.; in syphilis, &c. It has been proposed as a source of hydrocyanic acid. (Everitt.)

=Silver Hyposul′phite of.= Ag_{2}S_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ ARGENTI HYPOSULPHIS, L. A white substance, insoluble in water, and very prone to decomposition. It is very soluble in the alkaline hyposulphites, forming compounds possessing an intensely sweet taste. See HYPOSULPHUROUS ACID.

=Silver, I′odide of.= AgI. _Syn._ ARGENTIC IODIDE; ARGENTI IODIDUM, L. _Prep._ Precipitate a solution of nitrate of silver with another of iodide of potassium; wash the precipitate with distilled water, and dry it in the shade. Pale greenish-yellow; insoluble in water and in liquor of ammonia; soluble in a solution of hyposulphite of soda. Used in some of the French hospitals in the stomach affections of scrofulous subjects: also in epilepsy.——_Dose_, 1/12 to 1 gr.

=Silver, Ni′trate of.= AgNO_{3}. _Syn._ ARGENTI NITRAS, L. This article is found in commerce under two forms:——

1. CRYSTALLISED. _Prep._ By dissolving grain silver in nitric acid diluted with about twice its weight of water, evaporating the solution until it is strong enough to crystallise on cooling, and then allowing it to cool very slowly. Colourless; transparent, anhydrous rhombic prisms or tables; soluble in an equal weight of cold and in half their weight of boiling water; soluble in alcohol; fuse when heated, and at a higher temperature suffer decomposition; blackened by light, and by contact with organic substances. Its solution in distilled water is not sensibly darkened by light, in the absence of organic matter. Used for solutions, and in photography.

2. FUSED (LUNAR CAUSTIC; ARGENTI NITRAS——B. P., Ph. L. & E., A. N. FUSUM——Ph. D.). _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Refined silver, 3 oz.; pure nitric acid, 4 fl. oz.; distilled water, 5 fl. oz.; mix in a glass flask, and apply in a gentle heat until the metal is dissolved; transfer the solution to a porcelain capsule (or a large porcelain crucible), decanting it off a heavy black powder which appears at the bottom of the flask, and, having evaporated it to dryness, raise the heat (in a dark room) until the mass liquefies; then pour it into a brass mould (iron moulds——Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836), furnished with cylindrical cavities of the size of a goose-quill, and which then admits of being opened by a hinge; preserve the concreted salt in well-stopped bottles, impervious to the light. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 are similar.

_Obs._ In preparing this salt care should be had that the silver is free from copper. Pure nitrate of silver may, however, be prepared from silver containing copper, by evaporating the nitric solution to dryness, and cautiously heating the mixed nitrates to fusion. A small portion of the melted mass is examined from time to time, until a little dissolved in water, and treated with ammonia in excess, ceases to strike a blue colour. When this point is arrived at, the fused nitrate is allowed to cool, when it is redissolved in water, filtered or decanted from the insoluble black oxide of copper, and evaporated in the usual way.

The heat employed in preparing the fused nitrate should not exceed 420° Fahr., and the fusion should be effected completely, but with moderate expedition, to prevent loss of nitric acid. Formerly, a mass of well-tempered white clay, perforated by means of a well-greased goose-quill, was used instead of metal moulds. In the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 the moulds are ordered to be greased; when this is done, the sticks of caustic should be wiped clean before rolling them in paper. The moulds should be gently heated before pouring the fused nitrate into them. Mr Benzoin, the celebrated Danish pharmaceutist, recommends mould formed of the massive white Bohemian talc or of English slate.

_Pur., &c._ Pure nitrate of silver, whether crystallised or fused, is entirely soluble in water, yielding a colourless solution, from which metallic silver is precipitated by a piece of bright copper; both are originally white, but are darkened by exposure to light and contact with organic matter.

_Uses, &c._ Nitrate of silver is a powerful tonic, antispasmodic, astringent and escharotic.——_Dose_, 1/8 to 1 gr., gradually increased, twice or thrice a day, made into a pill with crum of bread; in cholera, epilepsy, &c., preceded by purgatives. It has been highly extolled by Mr Ross as a remedy in cholera. Its continued use permanently colours the skin. It is also extensively employed externally as a caustic. It is powerfully poisonous. A solution of common salt, emetics, and demulcents, constitute the treatment in such cases. Nitrate of silver is much employed in the manufacture of ‘indelible ink’ for linen, and hair dyes.

=Silver, Di′oxide of.= Ag_{2}O_{2}. _Syn._ ARGENTI SUBOXYDUM, L. _Prep._ From dry citrate of silver heated to 212° Fahr., in a stream of hydrogen gas, until it turns dark brown, when it is dissolved in water; the solution is next treated with potassa, and the precipitate is carefully washed and dried. A black powder, easily decomposed, and soluble in ammonia.

=Silver, Oxide of.= Ag_{2}O. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF SILVER; ARGENTI OXYDUM, A. PROTOXYDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Lane.) Nitrate of silver, 2 parts; hydrate of potassa, 1 part; dissolve each separately in distilled water, mix the solutions, and, after frequent agitation during an hour, collect and wash the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat in the shade. A pale brown powder.

2. Recently precipitated chloride of silver is boiled in a solution of hydrate of potassium of the sp. gr. 1·25, with frequent stirring and trituration, until, on testing a little of it, it is found to be entirely soluble in dilute nitric acid, when it is washed and dried, as before. A black and very dense powder. Chemically pure.

3. Nitrate of silver, 1/2 oz.; water, 4 fl. oz., dissolve, and pour the solution into a bottle containing lime water, 2 quarts, or q. s.; agitate the mixture well, collect and wash the sediment, and dry it at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr. A dark olive-brown powder. Pure.

_Prop., &c._ Very soluble in solutions of ammonia and of the alkaline hyposulphites; slightly soluble in water; reaction alkaline; decomposed by light.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr.; in epilepsy, gastralgic irritations, &c. It is much used in France, and has been highly extolled in menorrhagia. By some, however, it is not considered superior to the nitrate.

=Silver Pencils, Nitrate of.= According to A. Huber, very thin pencils of nitrate of silver, such as are sometimes required for intra-uterine applications may be prepared in the following manner:——Silver nitrate is fused in a capsule, and the liquid drawn up by slow and cautious suction into a glass tube, the calibre of which is a trifle larger than the required diameter of the pencil. Especial care is to be taken that no cavities filled with air-bubbles are produced in the contents of the tube. When entirely cold the tube is warmed by turning over a spirit-lamp until the outer surface of the stick has become soft, when it may be easily pushed out by means of a knitting needle. With a little practice very handsome pencils of considerable length may be obtained in this manner.

=Silver, Perox′ide of.= _Syn._ ARGENTI PEROXYDUM, L. A black crystalline substance which forms on the positive electrode of a voltaic arrangement employed to decompose solution of nitrate of silver.

=Silver, Sul′phate of.= Ag_{2}SO_{4}. _Syn._ ARGENTI-SULPHAS, L. _Prep._ By boiling silver in sulphuric acid; or, by precipitating a solution of the nitrate by another of sulphate of sodium. It dissolves in 80 parts of hot water, and falls in small colourless needles as the solution cools.

=Silver, Sul′phide of.= Ag_{2}S. _Syn._ SULPHURET OF SILVER; ARGENTI SULPHURETUM, L. Prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate of silver; or, by melting its constituents together. It possesses a greyish-black colour, and is a strong sulphur-base.

=Silver, Ox′idised.= The high appreciation in which ornamental articles in oxidised silver are now held, renders a notice of the process followed interesting. There are two distinct shades in use, one produced by chlorine, which has a brownish tint, and the other by sulphur, which has a bluish-black tint. To produce the former, it is only necessary to wash the article with a solution of sal ammoniac. A much more beautiful tint may, however, be obtained by employing a solution composed of equal parts of sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac dissolved in vinegar. A fine black tint may be produced by a slightly warm solution of sulphide of potassium or of sodium. (‘Chem. Techn.’)

=SILVER DUST.= _Syn._ SILVER POWDER; ARGENTI CROCUS, A. PULVIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Pure pulverulent silver, obtained by any of the methods explained on the previous page. Used to coat pills, by japanners, &c.

2. Heat oxide of silver to dull redness in a porcelain crucible, cool, triturate the powder in an agate mortar, and pass it through a fine sieve. Used at the hospital of Montpellier.

=SILVER SHELLS.= These are prepared and used like gold shells.

=SIL′VERING.= The art of covering the surfaces of bodies with a thin coating of silver. Leather, paper, wood, &c., are silvered by covering them with silver leaf, by a similar process to that employed for gilding them.

=Silvering of Glass.= Two distinct methods are adopted for this purpose——one of which consists in employing a layer of tin-foil and mercury, falsely called ‘silvering,’ the other in using a coating of real silver precipitated from a solution of that metal.

1. Plane surfaces, as those of mirrors, &c., are commonly silvered as follows:——A sheet of tin-foil corresponding to the size of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth and solid marble table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully rubbed down with a brush; a portion of mercury is then poured on, and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece of very soft woollen stuff, or a hare’s foot, after which two rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured on to the depth of a crown-piece, when any oxide on the surface is carefully removed, and the sheet of glass, made perfectly clean and dry, is slid along over the surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt, or oxide can possibly either remain or get between them. When the glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle pressure is applied, and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mercury, after which it is covered with flannel and loaded with heavy weights; in 24 hours it is removed to a wooden table and further slanted, and this position is progressively increased during a month, until it becomes perpendicular.

For silvering convex or concave surfaces a mould of plaster of Paris is employed, so that the amalgamated foil may be accurately fitted to the surface.

Globes and other hollow vessels are commonly silvered by the application of one of the silvering amalgams noticed at page 117.

2. In the HUMID WAY.——_a._ (Drayton.) A mixture is first made of nitrate of silver (in coarse powder), 1 oz., ammonia, 1/2 oz., and water, 2 oz., which, after standing for 24 hours, is filtered (the deposit upon the filter, which is silver, being preserved), and an addition is made thereto of spirit (by preference, rectified spirit at 60% o. p.), or naphtha, 3 oz.; from 20 to 30 drops of oil of cassia are then added; and, after remaining for about 6 hours longer, the solution is ready for use. The glass to be silvered (first well cleaned and polished) is placed in a horizontal position, and a wall of putty, or other suitable material, formed around it; the above solution is then poured over it to the depth of from 1/8 to 1/4 inch; from 6 to 12 drops of a mixture of oil of cloves and spirit of wine (in the proportion of 1 part, by measure, of oil of cloves, to 3 of spirit of wine) are next dropped into it, at different places; or the diluted oil of cloves may be mixed with the solution before it is poured upon the glass, a larger quantity, in both cases, increasing the rate of the deposit. When the glass is sufficiently silvered, the solution is poured off; and as soon as the silver on the glass is perfectly dry, it is varnished with a composition formed by melting together equal quantities of beeswax and tallow. The solution, after being poured off, is allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days, in a close vessel; as it still contains silver, and may be again employed after filtration, and the addition of a sufficient quantity of fresh ingredients to supply the place of those which have been used. 18 gr. of nitrate of silver are sufficient for one square foot of glass. Hollow vessels may he silvered by pouring the solution into them. By the addition of a small quantity of oil of caraway, oil of cloves, or oil of thyme, the colour of the silver may be varied. (‘Patent Journ.’)

_b._ (Thomson & Mellish.) Nitrate of silver, 2 oz.; water and rectified spirit, of each 3 fl. oz.; dissolve, add of spirit of hartshorn or liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., mix, and after a short time filter the solution; to each ounce of this add of grape sugar, 1/4 oz., previously dissolved in a mixture of rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 pint; after 3 or 4 hours’ repose it is fit for use. This solution is applied to the glass, heated to about 160° Fahr., in a similar manner to the last. Patented.

_c._ The best plan of silvering plain or slightly curved surfaces is, however, the method employed for coating the specula of the silvered-glass Newtonian telescopes. This method is very easy, and has the advantages of giving a brilliant and durable surface on both sides, and the film is sufficiently firm to admit of being polished with rouge and fine wash-leather.

One half ounce of pure nitrate of silver is dissolved in 4 oz. of distilled water, and divided into two equal portions. One is treated with dilute ammonia until the brownish precipitate is entirely redissolved; and to this clear solution, 1/2 oz. of pure hydrate of potassium dissolved in 8 oz. of water added; and the brown precipitate, and grey sediment that remains after the brown precipitate disappears, dissolved by the cautious addition of ammonia, stirring well all the time. The remaining nitrate of silver solution is now added, stirring well until it gives a greyish precipitate that does not disappear after well stirring. The bulk of the solution is next made up to 100 oz., and allowed to settle, when the clear solution is poured off for use.

The reducing solution is prepared by dissolving 1/2 oz. of pure milk sugar in 10 oz. of hot water, and adding 10 minims of pure alcohol.

This quantity of silvering solution will coat over two square feet of glass surface with a brilliant film of pure silver. The glass must be perfectly clean, and is to be suspended face downwards on the surface of the solution and allowed to stand one hour; the temperature of the solution being best about 80° Fahr.

_d._ (R. Siemens.) As a reducing agent, acetic aldehyde is used in the form of aldehyde ammonia, prepared by passing dry ammoniacal gas into aldehyde. Four grams of silver nitrate and 2-1/2 grams of aldehyde ammonia are separately dissolved in a litre of distilled water, and the solutions mixed and filtered. The article to be silvered, after washing out with potassium carbonate, and then with spirits of wine and distilled water, to remove every trace of grease, is filled with this solution (as far as it is desired to silver), and then hung up in the water bath.

It is now gradually heated, and as soon as the temperature reaches 50° C. the separation of the silver mirror begins, and soon spreads over the whole inner glass surface. Its formation is soon finished, usually between 55° or 60°. When the beauty of the silver surface reaches a maximum it is time to withdraw the article from the water bath, and pour off the contents, or the brilliancy of the mirror will be impaired. The article is finally rinsed in distilled water.

_e._ (Martin.) M. Martin makes use of four liquids, viz., first, a 10 per cent. solution of nitrate of silver; second, liquor ammoniæ, sp. gr. ·970; third, a 4 per cent. solution of caustic soda; and fourth, a 12-1/2 per cent, solution of white sugar, to which he adds 2-1/2 per cent. of nitric acid, and after twenty minutes’ boiling he adds to it 25 parts of alcohol and water, to make up the bulk to 250. The silvering solution is made by mixing together 12 parts of solution No. 1, 8 parts of No. 2, 20 parts of No. 3, and 60 parts of distilled water, and finally, in twenty-four hours, 10 parts of No. 4. The object to be silvered is then immersed, when it will be covered with a film of reduced silver, which in ten minutes’ time will be sufficiently thick for use. After having been washed with distilled water and dried the surface may be polished with chamois leather and rouge.

=Silvering of Metals.= 1. (LEAF SILVERING.) This is performed with leaf silvering in the way described under GILDING for the gilding of polished metals.

3. (COLD SILVERING.) Mix chloride of silver, 1 part, with pearlash, 3 parts, common salt, 1-1/2 part, and whiting, 1 part; and well rub the mixture on the surface of the brass or copper (previously well cleaned), by means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened with water and dipped into the powder. When properly silvered the metal should be well washed in hot water slightly alkalised, and then wiped dry.

3. (ELECTEO-SILVERING.) This is described under ELECTROTYPE.

=Silver, A New Imitation of.= A patent for an alloy has been taken out by M. Lemarquand, which is said to bear a close resemblance to silver in appearance, and to be unaffected by atmospheric influences. It has the following composition:——

Pure copper 750 parts. Nickel 140 ” Black oxide of cobalt 20 ” Tin, in sticks 18 ” Zinc 72 ”

=SIMAROU′BA.= _Syn._ SIMARUBA (Ph. E. & D.), L. The root-bark of _Simaruba amara_ or _officinalis_, the mountain damson. Tonic, bitter, and astringent.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 gr.; in intermittents, obstinate diarrhœa, dysentery, and dyspepsia.

=SIN′AMINE.= C_{4}H_{6}N_{2}. A basic substance formed, along with sulphide of lead, when thiosinamine is treated with oxide of lead. It is very bitter tasted, has a powerful alkaline reaction, and, when slowly obtained from its concentrated aqueous solution, forms brilliant colourless crystals.

=SIN′APISM.= _Syn._ SINAPISMUS, L. A mustard poultice.

=SIN′APOLINE.= C_{7}H_{12}N_{2}O. A basic substance, formed, along with carbonic acid, when the volatile oil of mustard, or sulphocyanide of allyl, is treated with oxide of lead. It is soluble in water and alcohol, has an alkaline reaction, and crystallises in colourless plates.

=SINKS.= “In no case,” says Mr Eassie,[165] “should the waste pipe of sink, laboratory, or bath lead direct into the drains; yet how frequently is this the case, and a special card sent out to disease and death.

[Footnote 165: ‘Healthy Houses,’ by Wm. Eassie, C.E. Simpkin, Marshall & Co.]

“It must also be remembered it is every whit as dangerous if these waste conduits lead into the soil pipe of a closet. Waste pipes from the above-named places should be led down to within 12 or 18 inches from the ground, and should deliver on to the grating of a gully or yard trap.”

This subject has been already treated in the article on “Sanitation, Domestic,” wherein we have embodied the practical suggestions of Mr Collins, another sanitary house reformer, as well as in our article on “Drainage,” in which will be found details for carrying out the system recommended by Messrs Eassie and Symonds, and thus preventing the admission into our dwelling-houses of the poisonous sewer gas.

The matter has so important a bearing upon health, that we shall make no apology for having thus reiterated and emphasised it by quoting Mr Eassie’s words of warning. See TRAPS.

=SIT′FASTS.= These hard tumours, possessing but little sensibility, are situated in those superficial parts of the horse’s body which have been exposed to the unequal pressure of the collar, the saddle, or the harness. The tumour should be removed by the veterinary surgeon, if the previous application of either blisters, biniodide of mercury ointment, or a seton have been tried and failed to disperse it. The precursor of the sitfast is always a swelling filled with serum and lymph, caused, as before stated, by badly-fitting harness. Hence the soundest treatment is to prevent its development into the hard form, by proper means, directly it shows itself, the best remedies being the application of salt and water or Goulard water, and correcting the defects of the harness.

=SIZE.= Obtained, like glue, from the skins of animals, but is evaporated less, and kept in the soft state. See GOLD and GOLD SIZE.

=Size, Oil.= This may be made by grinding yellow ochre or burnt red ochre with boiled linseed oil, and thinning it with oil of turpentine.

=SKATE.= The _Raia batis_ (Linn.). Other varieties of _Raia_ also pass under the name. It is a coarse fish, and is principally salted and dried for exportation.

=SKIN (The).= _Syn._ CUTIS, DERMIS, PELLIS, L. Every person must be familiar with the external appearance and general properties of the skin; but there are many of our readers who may not be aware of its peculiar compound character. The skin, then, although apparently a single membrane, is composed of three distinct layers or membranes, each of which performs its special duties:——1. The exterior of these is called the cuticle, epidermis, or scarf-skin. It is an albuminous tissue, possessing no sensibility, and is found thickest on those parts of the body most exposed to friction or injury.——2. The mucous net, or rete mucosum, which is a thin layer of soft pulpy matter, which lies immediately under the cuticle, and is supposed to be the seat of the colour of the skin.——3. The derma, cutis vera, or true skin, is a highly sensitive, vascular, gelatinous texture, the third, and last in succession from the surface of the body. It is this which, when the scarf-skin and hair have been removed, is converted by the process of tanning or tawing into leather.

The skin, because of its tough, elastic, flexible nature and its underlying layer of fat, is admirably adapted for covering the various internal parts and organs, as well as for bodily movement and exertion. Besides this, it exercises, in common with the lungs, the liver, and the kidneys, the important function of a depurator, and may, with the organs above specified, be regarded as one of the main outlets for the waste products of the body; the effete and noxious matters of which, when in a healthy condition, it effects the removal, are those contained in the perspiration, and in addition carbonic acid, and, in the case of unhealthy subjects, nitrogen. The importance of the removal of these substances from the organism will be realised when it is stated that, when this excretory function of the skin has, in the course of experiments upon animals, been prevented by covering their bodies over with a coat of varnish or some other impermeable agent, the animal has quickly perished.

The perspiration is variable in amount, owing to various causes, such as temperature, the amount of exercise taken, the more or less hygroscopic condition of the surrounding atmospheres, the quantity of fluid swallowed, the season of the year, &c., with the exception of that which occurs under the armpits and upon the soles of the feet, it has generally an acid reaction, due to the presence in it of uncombined formic and lactic acids. Under ordinary conditions of life it averages daily about 2 lbs. in quantity, being, as might be expected, more abundant than the urine in summer, and less in winter. The perspiration is of very complex composition, and contains lactates, butyrates, and acetates of sodium and ammonium, sodic chloride, phosphate of calcium, and sulphates——these latter, however, occurring in but small quantities. It also contains a peculiar nitrogenous substance that very quickly decomposes, and a peculiar odorous principle. According to Anselmino the proportion of solid matter in the perspiration varies from 5 to 12·5 parts in 1000.

Various observers have arrived at different conclusions respecting the amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the skin. Professor Scharling believed it to be from a fortieth to a sixtieth the amount given off by the lungs. Recent observations seem, however, to have shown that this estimate was too high. Dr Edward Smith, operating upon himself by placing every part of his body except the head in a caoutchouc bag, and subsequently collecting the evolved carbonic acid (the experiment being performed in the summer time), found the quantity evolved to be 6 grains per hour, or about a hundredth part of that passing off from the lungs.

Aubert’s experiments led him to the conclusion that it was about half the amount given by Smith; whilst Reinhart estimated it at 34 or 35 grains a day.

These excretory processes of the skin are effected by means of very minute vessels called the _sudoriparous_ or _sweat-glands_. These glands abound in almost every part of the human skin. They are of largest size under the axillæ or arm-pits, where perspiration is most profuse. They are also very abundant upon the palms of the hand. Professor Erasmus Wilson says that as many as 3528 of these sweat-glands exist in a square inch of surface on the palm of the hand; and as every tube, when straightened out, is about a quarter of an inch in length, it follows that, in a square inch of skin from the palm of the hand, there exists a length of tube equal to 882 inches, or 73-1/2 feet. These glands, as we have seen, vary in number for different parts of the human body; but if we take Professor Wilson’s average for the superficial area of a man of ordinary stature, viz., 2800 of them to the square inch, it follows “the total number of pores on such a man’s skin would be about _seven millions_, and the length of perspiratory tubing would then be 1,750,000 inches, or 145,833 feet, or 48,611 yards, or nearly 28 miles.”[166]

[Footnote 166: Carpenter’s ‘Human Physiology.’]

In addition to the _sudoriparous_, the skin also possesses _sebaceous_ glands which stud almost every part of its surface except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. The sebaceous glands secrete a semi-fluid, greasy kind of substance, the office of which is probably to aid in rendering the skin soft and supple, and to prevent the too rapid evaporation of moisture from it. The sebaceous glands are more particularly found on the scalp, the anus, and the nose, their locality in the skin of this last feature being sometimes marked by small black specs, which when squeezed yield a little white mass resembling a maggot in appearance. This is merely the solidified secretion from the sebaceous gland. A parasite known as the _Acarus folliculorum_ infests the sebaceous glands. In the cartilaginous part of the external passage of the ear are other glands, the _ceruminous_, which secrete the wax that forms a protective film for the membrane of the tympanum or drum, and guards it against dust, insects, &c. See EXERCISE, PERSPIRATION.

=SKIN BALSAM, Glycerin——Glycerin Haut, Balsam.= A mixture of 1000 parts glycerin, 120 parts orange-flower water, 1 part each oils of neroli and bitter almonds. (Hager.)

=SKIN COSMET′ICS.= The simplest, cheapest, and most generally employed cutaneous cosmetics are soap and water, which at once cleanse and soften the skin. Soap containing a full proportion of alkali exercises a solvent power upon the cuticle, a minute portion of which it dissolves; but when it contains a small preponderance of oily matter, as the principal part of the milder toilet soaps now do, it mechanically softens the skin and promotes its smoothness. Almond, Naples, and Castile soaps are esteemed for these properties, and milk of roses, cold cream, and almond powder (paste), are also used for a similar purpose. To produce an opposite effect, and to harden the cuticle, spirits, astringents, acids, and astringent salts, are commonly employed. The frequent use of hard water has a similar effect. The application of these articles is generally for the purpose of strengthening or preserving some particular part against the action of cold, moisture, &c.; as the lips, or mammæ, from chapping, or the hands from contracting chilblains; but in this respect oils, pommades, and other oleaginous bodies, are generally regarded as preferable.

Another class of cutaneous cosmetics are employed to remove freckles and eruptions. Among the most innocent and valuable of these is Gowland’s lotion, which has long been a popular article, and deservedly so, for it not only tends to impart a delightful softness to the skin, but is a most valuable remedy for many obstinate eruptive diseases which frequently resist the usual methods of treatment. Bitter almonds have been recommended to remove freckles (Celsus), but moistening them with a lotion made by mixing 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, and a teaspoonful of hydrochloric acid with 7 or 8 fl. oz. of water, is said to do this more effectually. A safe and excellent cosmetic is an infusion of horseradish in cold milk. (Withering.)

Hermann prescribes the following lotion:——Blanched almonds, 2 oz.; rose water, 8 oz.; orange-flower water, 2 oz. Make an emulsion, strain, and add sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; simple tincture of benzoin, 2 dr.

Skin paints and skin stains are employed to give an artificial bloom or delicacy to the skin. Rouge and carmine are the articles most generally used to communicate a red colour. The first is the only cosmetic that can be employed, without injury, to brighten a lady’s complexion. The other, though possessing unrivalled beauty, is apt to impart a sallowness to the skin by frequent use. Starch powder is employed to impart a white tint, and generally proves perfectly harmless. The American ladies, who are very fond of painting their necks white, use finely-powdered magnesia, another very innocent substance. Several metallic compounds, as the trisnitrate, chloride, and oxide of bismuth (pearl white, Fard’s white, &c), carbonate of lead (flake white), white precipitate, &c., are frequently used to revive faded complexions; but they are not only injurious to the skin, but act as poisons if taken up by the absorbents. Trisnitrate of bismuth (pearl white), probably the least injurious of these articles, has been known to cause spasmodic tremblings of the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis. (‘Voght. Pharm.’) The employment of liquid preparations containing sugar of lead, which are commonly sold under the name of milk of roses, cream of roses, &c., is equally injurious. Another disadvantage of these metallic preparations is, that they readily turn black when exposed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or the vapours of sulphur, such as frequently escape into the apartment from coal fires. There are many instances recorded of a whole company being suddenly alarmed by the pearly complexion of one of its belles being thus transformed into a sickly grey or black colour.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the best purifiers of the skin are soap and water, followed by the use of a coarse but not a stiff cloth, in opposition to the costly and smooth diapers that are commonly employed; and the best beautifiers are health, exercise, and good temper.

=Skin, Goldbeat′er’s.= See GOLDBEATER’S SKIN.

=SKINS (of Animals).= The preparation and preservation of fur skins are noticed under PELTRY; the preparation and uses of the skins of the larger animals under LEATHER, TANNING, TAWING, &c.

=SLACK.= Small coal, such as is used for kilns.

=SLAG.= The semi-vitrified compounds, produced, on the large scale, during the reduction of metallic ores by fluxes. Those from iron and copper works are often used for building materials, mending roads, &c.

According to Egleston[167] the following are some of the industrial applications to which the slag from blast furnaces is put.

[Footnote 167: Dingler’s ‘Polytech. Journ.,’ ‘Journ. Chem. Society.’]

When required for building stones the slag is run from the blast furnace into a semicircular vessel on moving wheels, and having its bottom covered three centimetres deep with sand and coke dust. By means of a bent iron instrument the slag is mixed with sand and coke dust till the escape of gases has nearly ceased and the mass is sufficiently tough. With the same tool it is next pressed into a mould furnished with a lid, which is forced down as soon as the escape of gas ceases. The red-hot stone is then placed in the cooling oven, covered with coke dust, and allowed to remain three or four days to cool completely. These stones are impervious to damp, and make good foundations. According to another method the slag, which should contain from 38 to 44 per cent. of silica, is run down a shoot into a large cavity, and then covered over with sand and ashes, and left to cool from five to ten days, when it is distributed in moulds, and there hardens. In certain parts of Belgium slag is poured upon iron plates and cooled by water, and thus a kind of glass is manufactured.

In other districts the slag is granulated as it flows from the blast furnace by means of a stream of water. The granulated slag is preferred by the puddlers to the sand for the moulds of pig iron. The slag gravel may be advantageously substituted for sand in mortar making, a more rapid hardening being thus secured, a matter of great moment in building foundation walls.

Artificial stone is also manufactured from the granulated slag, and used for building purposes, furnishing warm dry houses of handsome appearance.

When stones for building with enamelled surfaces are required they are obtained in some parts of Europe as follows:——The unburnt bricks are covered with granulated slag, and after drying are burnt in a furnace where they do not come in contact with carbon. The stones are completely glazed, and according to the different kinds of slag used are tinted of different colours. This operation is also employed advantageously with tiles, pipes, and earthenware.

If, in the preparation of fire-proof bricks, a certain proportion of mixture of clay and granulated slag be added to the mixture, very hard and durable fire bricks are obtained. These have been tested in a brass furnace, and experiments are being tried as to their applicability to building puddling furnaces. This granulated slag may also be advantageously used for manure. Blast furnace slag has also been drawn out in fine threads or filaments, furnishing the so-called ‘furnace wool.’ This substance, being a very bad conductor of heat, has suggested various household and other uses. A cheap and valuable cement, said to be equal to Portland cement, has been prepared from the finely granulated slag, which will also resist well the action of acids.

Mr Britten in 1876 patented a process for the manufacture of glass from blast furnace slag. Large works for the purpose of carrying out this invention, under the title of ‘Britten’s Patent Glass Company,’ have been erected at Finedon in Northamptonshire, and are, we believe, successfully worked in manufacturing glass bottles.

The method consists in removing molten slag in a ladle from the blast furnace, and pouring into a Siemen’s furnace, when certain amounts of carbonate of sodium and silica are added, depending upon the quality of the slag used, and of the glass required.

=SLATE.= The excellence of this material for water cisterns deserves a passing notice here.

Irish slate (_Lapis Hibernicus_) is an argillaceous mineral, said to contain iron and sulphur, found in different parts of Ireland. It is a common remedy, among the vulgar, for internal bruises, taken in a glass of gin.

=SLEEP.= During the period of our waking hours the exercise of the animal functions entails a waste or destruction of tissue in the organs performing them, which, unless duly repaired, would soon lead to the enfeeblement and consequent failure of the powers of the organs themselves. For the animal economy therefore to be maintained in a state of efficiency the repair of the reduced tissues is a necessity; and this essential condition is effected by the agency of sleep, during which respiration, circulation, digestion, &c., continue to be carried on simultaneously with assimilative processes which end in the regeneration of the impaired tissue.

A proper amount of sleep is therefore as great or even a greater necessity than a proper supply of food; and any one failing to obtain it soon perishes of exhaustion. Thus it is that any great mental emotion——such as intense remorse, grief, anxiety, or the depressing effect of a reverse of fortune——so frequently expedites death. Like Macbeth “it murders sleep,” one of the great needs of man’s existence.

Infants and children it is well known require much more sleep than adults. In these latter the organism, being already matured, demands only so much sleep as will enable it to make up for the daily waste of the body, which waste falls very far below the amount of nutrition required by the growing infant. In a still earlier state of development, viz., the fœtal one, life may be said to be passed entirely in slumber; whilst children prematurely born scarcely ever wake except for food. We may assume that, as a general rule, infants take treble the amount of sleep that adults do, and that very young infants thrive the better the larger the amount of sleep they get, is borne out by the experience of medical practitioners, who affirm that they have known many children who were born small and weakly, but who slept the greatest part of their early existence, afterwards became strong and healthy; whilst those children on the contrary who, being born large and strong, were not good sleepers, became subsequently enfeebled and unhealthy. As regards the sleep of adults, if the slumber has been of average length, or the subject of it awakes fully refreshed therefrom, a second sleep instead of being conducive is prejudicial to health, and should never be encouraged.

During sickness a patient, if in a very helpless and enfeebled state, may often be exposed whilst asleep to great peril, unless the nurse who attends him exercises intelligence and a proper amount of vigilance. In his work on ‘Household Medicine’ Dr Gardner has pointed out the dangers that beset the sleeping patient, and the means by which they may be avoided. “Having disposed,” he says, “of the patient in bed in the best manner, be careful that no part of the pillow can project over the mouth or nose, and that the bedclothes do not cover the mouth.

“The attendant should be particularly attentive to these points, when a narcotic has been taken, when the disease is paralysis, fever, head diseases, bronchitis, or any pulmonary complaint. The patient should be watched until he sleeps, and during his sleep, if a nurse is not constantly present, should be visited frequently, to observe whether the mouth and nostrils are free, and nothing obstructs the breathing.

“Very little suffices for an obstruction in such cases, which may extinguish life. Hundreds, perhaps we may say thousands of persons die prematurely from suffocation during sleep, in a low condition of the vital energies.

“How often does it happen that a patient left in a calm sleep is found dead upon being visited an hour or two after. Soft yielding pillows, in which the head and face get buried, are the instruments of suffocation to weakly persons, very, very often.”

The larger amount of sleep indulged in by the very old, over adults, is referable to the incapacity of the aged for exercise, and to their enfeebled powers of nutrition. Besides age, temperament, habit, and surrounding circumstances exercise considerable influence on the amount of sleep necessary for man. Persons of lymphatic temperament are generally great sleepers; whilst those of a nervous and active nature are mostly the reverse. The late Earl Russell was we believe in the years of his active political life a very small sleeper, his slumbers seldom extending over five hours. So, likewise was the Duke of Wellington; General Elliott, the defender of Gibraltar, seldom slept more than four hours out of the twenty-four. As a contrast to these cases may be mentioned that of Dr Reid, the metaphysician, of whom it is stated that he could take as sufficient food and afterwards as much sleep as would suffice for an ordinary man for two days.

Several well-attested cases of excessive slumber are on record in which the sleep lasted in some cases for weeks, and in others even for months.

In the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for 1864 Dr Blanchet records the case of one of his patients, a lady of 24 years of age, who had slept for 40 days when she was 18 years of age. Two years later she had a sleep lasting 50 days. Upon a subsequent occasion she fell asleep on Easter Sunday, 1862, and did not wake till March, 1863. She was fed during this period with milk and soup. She continued motionless and insensible, the pulse was low, the breathing scarcely perceptible, there were no evacuations, and she betrayed no signs of wasting away, whilst her complexion is described as florid and healthy.

This, however, as well as other cases of a similar kind, must not be regarded as an extreme instance of healthy slumber, but as a form of lethargy or coma, as indicative of disease, as the opposite condition or sleeplessness, that is frequently an accompaniment of certain forms of fevers, inflammatory affections, and brain disorders.

Mr Durham, of Guy’s Hospital, seems to have disposed of the condition that sleep is caused by the pressure of the distended veins on the brain.

A piece of bone being removed from a dog’s skull so that the animal’s brain could be observed when sleeping, it was found, 1, the veins were not distended. 2. During sleep the brain is in a comparatively bloodless condition, and the blood in the encephalic vessels is not only diminished in quantity, but moves with diminished rapidity; and this is corroborated by the observations of Dr Hughlings Jackson on the ophthalmoscopic condition of the retina during sleep, the optic disk being then whiter, the arteries smaller, and the retina generally more anæmic than in the waking state. 3. The condition of the cerebral circulation during sleep is from physical causes, that which is most favorable to the nutrition of the brain tissue. See BED, WATCHFULNESS.

=SLEEPLESSNESS AND COLD FEET.= The association betwixt cold feet and sleeplessness is much closer than is commonly imagined. Persons with cold feet rarely sleep well, especially women. Yet the number of persons so troubled is considerable. We now know that if the blood-supply to the brain be kept up, sleep is impossible. An old theologian, when weary and sleepy with much writing, found that he could keep his brain active by immersing his feet in cold water; the cold drove the blood from the feet to the head.

Now, what this old gentleman accomplished by design is secured for many persons much against their will. Cold feet are the bane of many women. Light boots keep up a bloodless condition of the feet in the day, and in many women there is no subsequent dilatation of the blood-vessels when the boots are taken off. These women come in from a walk and put their feet to the fire to warm——the most effective plan of cultivating chilblains. At night they put their feet to the fire, and have a hot bottle in bed. But it is all of no use; their feet still remain cold. How to get their feet warm is the great question of life with them——in cold weather. The effective plan is not very attractive at first sight to many minds. It consists in first driving the blood-vessels into firm contraction, after which secondary dilatation follows. See the snowballer’s hands! The first contact of the snow makes the hands terribly cold; for the small arteries are driven thereby into firm contraction, and the nerve-endings of the finger-tips feel the low temperature very keenly. But as the snowballer perseveres, his hands commence to glow; the blood-vessels have become secondarily dilated, and the rush of warm arterial blood is felt agreeably by the peripheral nerve-endings. This is the plan to adopt with cold feet. They should be dipped in cold water for a brief period; often just to immerse them, and no more, is sufficient; and then they should be rubbed with a pair of hair flesh gloves, or a rough Turkish towel, till they glow, immediately before getting into bed. After this a hot-water bottle will be successful enough in maintaining the temperature of the feet, though without this preliminary it is impotent to do so. Disagreeable as the plan at first sight may appear, it is efficient; and those who have once fairly tried it continue it, and find that they have put an end to their bad nights and cold feet. Pills, potions, lozenges, “night-caps,” all narcotics, fail to enable the sufferer to woo sleep successfully: get rid of the cold feet, and then sleep will come of itself.——_British Medical Journal._

=SMALLPOX.= See POX.

=Smallpox in Sheep.= _Syn._ VARIOLA OVINA. This disease, although bearing the same name as that which attacks the human subject, is a perfectly distinct malady, and incapable of being communicated to man either by inoculation or contagion. In about ten days from the time of the animal’s having imbibed the contagion feverish symptoms set in accompanied with a mucous discharge of a purulent character from the nose. Red inflammatory pimples then begin to develop, first appearing where the skin is thin. After the pimples have been out about three days they assume a white appearance, and are filled with serum and pus. “Some of the vessels dry up, leaving brown scabs; others, especially in the severer cases, run together, and the scarf skin is detached, leaving an ulcerated surface. It is in this ulcerated stage that the prostration reaches its height, and that most sheep die. The mortality from smallpox in sheep ranges from 25 to 90 per cent.”[168]

[Footnote 168: Finlay Dun.]

The disease being a very infectious one, the affected animals must be kept separate from the healthy ones. Thirty grains of chlorate of potash should be given three times a day, whilst the food should be nutritious and such as to tempt the animal’s appetite. It may consist of bruised oilcake, bran, and steeped oats. Professor Simonds recommends inoculation as a prophylactic measure.

=Smallpox Marks, Prevention of.= 1. For preventing disfigurement from smallpox marks, Dr Bernard suggests that the pustules as soon as they have acquired a certain size should be punctured with a fine needle, and then repeatedly washed with tepid water.

2. Dr Thorburn Patterson prescribes the following ointment:——Carbonic acid, 20 to 30 minims; glycerine, 1-1/2 dr.; ointment of oxide of zinc, 6 dr.

3. Cream smeared on the pustules, frequently during the day, with a feather. See also OINTMENTS.

=SMALTS.= _Syn._ AZURE, POWDER BLUE, SILICEOUS B., SMALT, AZURUM, SMALTA, L. This consists, essentially, of glass coloured by fusing it with oxide of cobalt.

_Prep._ 1. Cobalt ore is roasted, to drive off the arsenic, then made into a paste with oil of vitriol, and heated to redness for an hour; the residuum is powdered, dissolved in water, and the ferric oxide precipitated with carbonate of potassium, gradually added, until a rose-coloured powder begins to fall; the clear portion is then decanted, and precipitated with a solution of silicate of potassium (prepared by fusing together, for 5 hours, a mixture of 10 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely ground flints, and 1 part of charcoal); the precipitate after being dried is fused, and reduced to a very fine powder. A very rich colour.

2. Roasted cobalt ore and carbonate of potassium, of each 1 part; siliceous sand, 3 parts; fuse them together, and cool and powder the residuum. Used as a blue pigment, also to colour glass, and for ‘blueing’ the starch used to get up linen. See BLUE PIGMENTS.

=SMELL′ING SALTS.= See SALTS, SMELLING.

=SMELT.= A beautiful little abdominal fish abounding in the Thames, and a few other rivers, between the months of November and February. It is esteemed a great delicacy by epicures, but sometimes proves offensive to the delicate and dyspeptic.

=SMOKE PREVEN′TION.= Although the full consideration of this subject belongs to public hygiene and civil engineering, its immediate application and advantages are interesting and important to everybody.

The history of smoke burning scarcely commences before the year 1840, at which date Mr Charles Wye Williams obtained a patent for this purpose. Since that time a ‘thousand-and-one’ schemes, either patented or non-patented, professedly for the same object, have been brought before the public. Most of these have been supported by the most reckless statements regarding their value, made by interested parties; and the most serious inconvenience and losses have often followed their adoption. Williams’s method is to admit an abundant supply of cold air through a large number of small perforations in the door and front part of the furnace. Lark’s method is based on the admission of heated air, under due regulation, both through the door, and at the bridge or back of the furnace, by which means combustion is rendered more complete, and smoke thereby prevented.

Ivison’s plan consists in the introduction of steam by minute jets over the fire, which is thus greatly increased in intensity without the production of smoke, and with a saving of fuel. In Jucke’s arrangement the grate bars of a furnace are replaced by an endless chain web, which is carried round upon two rollers, in such a way that each part of the fuel is exposed to conditions most favorable for perfect combustion. Other inventions are based upon supplying fuel to the fires from beneath, so that the products of combustion must pass through the incandescent coals above.

For household fires, the smokeless grate, invented by Dr Arnott, will be found entirely successful, and most economical. Its general introduction would be a great advance in both domestic and public hygiene; and, being hence of national importance, should be enforced by law.

=SMO′′KING.= This is done, on the large scale, by hanging up the articles (previously more or less salted) in smoking rooms, into which smoke is very slowly admitted from smothered dry-wood fires, kindled in the cellar, for the purpose of allowing it to cool and deposit its cruder part before it arrives at the meat. This process requires from six days to as many weeks to perform it properly, and is best done in winter. In farm-houses, where dry wood is burnt, hams, &c., are often smoked by hanging them up in some cool part of the kitchen chimney. When the meat is cut into slices, or scored deeply with a knife, to allow the smoke to penetrate it, it is called ‘BUCANING,’

“The quality of the wood has an influence upon the smell and taste of the smoke-dried meat; smoke from beech wood and oak being preferable to that from fir and larch. Smoke from the twigs and berries of juniper, from rosemary, peppermint, &c., impart somewhat of the aromatic flavour of these plants.” (Ure.) The occasional addition of a few cloves or allspice to the fuel gives a very agreeable flavour to the meat.

Hung beef, a highly esteemed variety of smoked beef, is prepared from any part, free from bone and fat, by well salting and pressing it, and then drying and smoking it in the usual manner. It is best eaten shredded. See PUTREFACTION, SALTING, &c.

=SNAKE-POISONING, Mortality from.= The ‘Lancet’[169] quoting a letter from T. B. Beighton, Esq., of the Bengal Civil Service, magistrate of the Culna district of the Burdwan province of Bengal, says:——“The Culna district comprises, we presume, 80 or 100 square miles, and has a population of about 300,000. Mr Beighton says that deaths from snakebite are singularly common in the subdivision. An average of one per day is reported through the police. The actual deaths are probably double the number reported. If this daily average is meant to apply the whole year round, we should thus get in a comparatively small district the frightful death of 700 persons from snakebite. It is lamentable to think that despite the supposed remedial discoveries in this direction, we still seem to be without an agent to neutralise the effects of the bites of poisonous snakes.”

[Footnote 169: ‘Analyst,’ 11th, 1870.]

=SNAKE-ROOT.= See SENEGA. For ‘Virginian snake-root’ see SERPENTARY. Snakeweed (_Bistortæ radix_) is the root of _Polygonum Bistorta_ (Linn.).

=SNIPE.= The _Scolopax Gallinago_, a well-known bird indigenous to this country. It is fine-flavoured, but rather indigestible.

=SNOW, Foreign Bodies in.= M. Bondier[170] having lately made an examination of snow, records that of the solid matters floating in the air and retained in the snow, the most abundant was found to be soot; next some cells of _Protococcus virictis_, and spores and filaments of other cryptograms; then granules of starch and cells and fibres of various plants. Epithelial cells and hairs of animals were also present, as well as fibres of wool and silk. These last, being dyed, indicated the presence of man, as did also the fibres of hemp, cotton, and indigo. The amount of foreign matter was greatest in the snow collected at the lowest levels, especially in the vicinity of human habitations and of woods, which are both fertile sources of floating particles. Permanganate of potassium was used to estimate the amount of organic matter dissolved by the filtered snow water.

[Footnote 170: ‘Journ. Ch. Soc.’]

Immediately mixed with the soot were the ferruginous corpuscles observed by Tissandier. These are regarded by the author, in opposition to the opinion of Tissandier, as of terrestrial origin.

=SNUFF.= _Syn._ PULVIS TABACI, L.; TABAC EN POUDRE, Fr. A powder, prepared from tobacco, for the purpose of being sniffed up the nose as a stimulant or intoxicant.

The finer kinds of snuff are made from the soft portions of the best description of manufactured leaf-tobacco, separated from the damaged portion; but the ordinary snuffs of the shops are mostly prepared from the coarser and damaged portions, the mid-ribs, stems, or stalky parts that remain from the manufacture of ‘shag tobacco,’ the dust or powder sifted from the bales, and the fragments that are unfit for other purposes.

_Prep._ The proper material being chosen, and if not in a sufficiently mature state rendered so by further fermentation, they are sufficiently dried by a gentle heat or exposure to the air to admit of being pulverised. This is performed, on the large scale, in a mill, and on the small scale, with a kind of pestle and mortar. During the operation the tobacco is frequently sifted, that it may not be reduced to too fine a powder, and is several times slightly moistened with rose or orange-flower water, or eau d’ange, which are the only liquids fit for the superior kinds of snuff. In preparing the dry snuffs no moisture is used. The scent or other like matters are next added, and, after thorough admixture, the snuff is packed in jars or canisters.

_Adult._ During the grinding of tobacco it is frequently mixed with dark-coloured rotten wood, various English leaves, colouring, and other matter. Ammonia, hellebore, euphorbium, and powdered glass are common additions to snuffs to increase their pungency. We have seen powdered sal ammoniac sent by the hundredweight at one time to a certain celebrated London tobacconist. The moist kinds of snuff are generally drugged with pearlash, for the triple purpose of keeping them damp and increasing their pungency and colour. The dry snuffs, especially ‘Scotch’ and ‘Welsh,’ are commonly adulterated with quicklime, the particles of which may be occasionally distinguished even by the naked eye. This addition causes their biting and desiccating effect on the pituitary membrane. “We were once severely injured by taking snuff which, after our suspicions were awakened, we found to contain a mixture of red lead and umber.” (Cooley.)

The following circumstance related by Dr Garrod[171] in a lecture at King’s College Hospital leads to the inference that the custom of packing snuff in lead is not free from danger. The doctor says:——A gentleman, a resident in India, began to suffer some time since from nervous exhaustion, anæmia, and debility of both extremities; he was a great snuff taker, taking on an average as much as an ounce in the course of a day. He consulted several medical men in India, and they attributed his symptoms to inordinate snuff taking. He, however, continued to take snuff and to get worse, and at last came to England to seek further advice. When Dr Garrod saw him he discovered a blue line on the gums. His suspicions were directed to the snuff, which he found to contain a considerable quantity of lead. To ascertain whether or not the presence of lead in this circumstance was an accidental circumstance, six packets were ordered from the house in Calcutta with which the gentleman had been in the habit of dealing. The snuff was contained in sheet-lead packages, which were all found to contain lead to about the same extent as the first specimen. Dr Garrod exhibited a solution, which he tested in the following way:——Ten grains of snuff were burned in a platinum crucible, and the ash was treated with nitric acid, the crystallised result was dissolved in water with the addition of a small quantity of acetic acid, and then tested with iodide of potassium, which threw down an abundant precipitate of yellow iodide of lead. The leaden packages were labelled ‘best brown rappee,’ and bore the name of a well-known English firm, from which they had been exported to India. The snuff itself was rather moist. Where it adhered to the sides of the case it was dotted with white spots, probably consisting of carbonate of lead, formed by, Dr Garrod suggests, the fermentation of the damp snuff.

[Footnote 171: ‘Lancet.’]

Since Dr Garrod’s attention has been directed to this subject, he has spoken to a medical man recently returned from Calcutta, who told him that he had quite lately met with three cases of lead-poisoning, which, on investigation, were found to be due to the use of snuff.

_Var._ Snuffs are divided into two kinds——DRY SNUFFS, as ‘Scotch,’ ‘Irish,’ ‘Welsh,’ and ‘Spanish snuff,’ ‘Lundyfoot,’ &c.; and MOIST SNUFFS, or RAPPEES, including ‘black’ and ‘brown rappee,’ ‘carrotte,’ ‘Cuba,’ ‘Hardham’s mixture,’ ‘prince’s mixture,’ ‘princeza,’ ‘queen’s snuff,’ &c. The last three also come under the denomination of SCENTED SNUFFS.

The immense variety of snuffs kept in the shops, independently of the above-named conditions, depend for their distinguishing characteristics on the length of the fermentation, the fineness of the powder, the height to which they are dried, and the addition of odorous substances. Tonquin beans, essence of tonquin bean, ambergris, musk, civet, leaves of orchis fusca, root and oil of calamus aromaticus, powder and essence of orris root, and the essences or oils of bergamot, cedra, cloves, lavender, petit grain, neroli, and roses (otto), as well as several others, either alone or compounded, are thus employed. TABAC PARFUMÉE AUX FLEURS is perfumed by putting orange flowers, jasmins, tuberoses, musk roses, or common roses, to the snuff in a close chest or jar, sifting them out after 24 hours, and repeating the treatment with fresh flowers, as necessary. Another way is to lay paper, pricked all over with a large pin, between the flowers and the snuff.

MACOUBA SNUFF is imitated by moistening the tobacco with a mixture of treacle and water, and allowing it to ferment well.

SPANISH SNUFF is made from unsifted ‘Havannah snuff,’ reduced by adding ground Spanish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with treacle water, and allowing it to sweat for some days before packing.

YELLOW SNUFF is prepared from ordinary pale snuff moistened with a mixture of yellow ochre diffused in water, to which a few spoonfuls of thin mucilage have been added; when dry, the colour that does not adhere to the snuff is separated with a fine sieve.

RED SNUFF. As last, but using red ochre.

=Snuff, Asarabac′ca.= _Syn._ CEPHALIC SNUFF, COMPOUND POWDER OF ASARABACCA; PULVIS ASARI COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D. 1826.) Asarabacca leaves, 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 1 dr. (both dried); mix and powder them.

2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Asarabacca leaves, 3 dr.; leaves of marjoram and flowers of lavender, of each 1 dr.; as before. Both are used as errhines in headaches and ophthalmia. See SNUFF, CEPHALIC, ASARABACCA, &c.

=Snuff, Cephal′ic.= _Prep._ 1. From asarabacca leaves and Lundyfoot snuff, of each 2 oz.; lavender flowers, 1/4 oz.; essence of bergamotte and oil of cloves, of each 2 or 3 drops; mixed and ground to a powder, the perfume being added last.

2. (Boeli’s.) From tobacco or pure snuff and valerian root, of each 1/2 oz.; reduced to powder, and scented with the oils of lavender and marjoram, of each 5 or 6 drops.

_Obs._ The first formula is an excellent one; and the product is very useful in nervous headaches, dimness of sight, &c. See SNUFF, ASARABACCA (_above_).

=Snuff, Eye.= _Prep._ From finely levigated tribasic sulphate of mercury (‘Turpeth mineral’), 1/2 dr.; pure dry Scotch or Lundyfoot snuff, 1 oz.; triturate them well together. A pinch of this, occasionally, has been recommended in inflammation of the eyes, dimness of sight, headache, polypus, &c.; but it should be used with caution, and not too often.

=SOAP.= _Syn._ SAPO, L.; SAVON, Fr. SPANISH, CASTILE, or HARD SOAP, made with olive oil and soda (SAPO, SAPO EX OLIVÆ OLEO ET SODÂ CONFECTUS——Ph. L.; SAPO DURUS——B. P., Ph. E., & D.), and SOFT SOAP, made with olive oil and potash (SAPO MOLLIS——B. P., Ph. L., & E., SAPO EX OLIVÆ OLEO ET POTASSÂ CONFECTUS——Ph. L.), are the only kinds directed to be employed in medicine. The former is intended whenever ‘soap’ is ordered, and is the one which is principally employed internally; the latter is used in ointments, &c., and in some of the officinal pills.

_Prep._ The fatty or oleaginous matter is boiled with a weak alkaline lye (soap-lye) rendered caustic by quicklime, and portions of stronger lye are added from time to time, the ebullition being still continued, until these substances, reacting on each other, combine to form a tenacious compound, which begins to separate from the water; to promote this separation and the granulation of the newly-formed soap, some common salt is generally added, and the fire being withdrawn, the contents of the boiler are allowed to repose for some hours, in order that the soap may collect into one stratum, and solidify; when this happens it is put into wooden frames or moulds, and when it has become stiff enough to be handled it is cut into bars or pieces, and exposed to the air, in a warm situation, to further harden and to dry.

In the print works of Alsace, where an immense quantity of egg albumen is consumed, there collect, as a necessary result, enormous quantities of the yolks of egg. Amongst other purposes to which these are applied that of soap-making is one. According to Kingzett, the olein is not the only ingredient of the yolk which reacts upon the soda or potash, and thus produces soap; but the yolk also contains another body, which, absorbing water under the influence of the bases, splits up into oleic and margaric acids.

“Besides the olein contained in the free state, there is,” says Mr Kingzett, “present a body called _lecithine_ of the formula C_{42}H_{84}NPO_{9}.” Gobloy, Diakonow, Strecker, Thudicum, and Kingzett have studied this substance, and express its chemolysis as follows:——

Lecithine. Water. Glycero-phosphoric acid. C_{42}H_{84}NPO_{9} - 3H_{2}O = C_{3}H_{9}PO_{6}

Choline. Oleic acid. Palmitic acid. + C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2} + C_{18}H_{34}O_{2} + C_{16}H_{32}O_{2}.

That is to say, bases have the power, by abstracting water, to split up _lecithine_ into, among other products, oleic and palmitic acid; so that when eggs are used for soap-making this process actually occurs, the soda or potash employed being sufficient to effect the necessary decomposition, and the resulting soap being, therefore, the product from not only the olein, but from the fatty acids so formed.

Tessie du Mothay has proposed a method for the recovery of potash, soda, &c., from soap water, which is as follows:——He decomposes the soap water by calcium, barium, or magnesium carbonate, and then passes carbonic acid through the liquid. The bicarbonate form precipitates organic matter and other impurities, and these settle down. The solution is then evaporated or treated with baryta water, which precipitates the last portion of foreign matters, and leaves a solution of caustic alkali. At a particular stage of the process an acid is used in order to hasten the separation of the resinous substances, and, in certain cases, of the sulphides of sodium and calcium, or barium and calcium and ferric oxide, and then passes carbonic acid into the liquid. The precipitated metallic substances carry down with them the humus-like substances present.

_Var._ The principal varieties of soap found in commerce are:——

ALMOND SOAP (SAPO AMYGDALINUS), made from almond oil and caustic soda, and chiefly used for the toilet.

The P. Codex gives the following formula for its preparation:——Solution of caustic soda (1·334), by weight, 10 oz.; oil of almonds, by weight, 21 oz.; add the lye to the oil in small portions, stirring frequently; leave the mixture for some days at a temperature of from 64° to 68° Fahr., stirring occasionally, and when it has acquired the consistence of a soft paste, put it into moulds until sufficiently solidified. It should be exposed to the air for one or two months before it is used.

ANIMAL SOAP. SAPO ANIMALIS, CURD SOAP (B. P.). A soap made with soda and a purified animal fat consisting principally of stearin (P. Cod.). Put 5 parts of beef marrow with 10 parts of water into a porcelain or silver basin, heat, and when melted add by portions, with constant stirring, 2-1/2 parts of liquor sodæ (1·33); when saponified, add 1 part of salt; stir, remove the soap from the surface, drain it, melt it with a gentle heat, and pour it into moulds.

CASTILE SOAP, SPANISH S., MARSEILLES S.; SAPO CASTILIENSIS, SAPO HISPANICUS. An olive-oil soda soap, kept both in the white and marbled state. The former is said to be the purest, the latter the strongest.

CURD SOAP, made with tallow (chiefly) and soda (see _above_).

MEDICATED SOAPS, containing various active ingredients. The chief of these are noticed _below_.

MOTTLED SOAP, made with refuse kitchen-stuff, &c.

SOFT SOAP (of commerce), made with whale, seal, or cod oil, tallow, and caustic potash.

N. Gräger[172] gives the following method for the easy determination of the fat and alkali in soft (potash) soaps:——25 to 50 grammes of soap are dissolved in 150 c.c. of water by aid of heat, cooled, and mixed with an excess of salt, so that a soda-soap separates out; the latter is washed on a paper filter with a saturated solution of salt. In the filtrate the free alkali is estimated by a normal acid. The precipitate is decomposed by warming with excess of normal acid, and the quantity of acid neutralised by the combined alkali, determined by a standard soda solution. The cake of fat which separates in the last operation, is dried and weighed after adding to it, while melted, a known weight of stearin or paraffin to give it hardness.

[Footnote 172: ‘Dingler’s Journal’ (‘Journ. of Chem. Soc.,’ vol. ix, new]

TOILET SOAPS, prepared from any of the preceding varieties, and variously coloured and scented. Formulæ are given _below_.

YELLOW SOAP, RESIN SOAP, made with tallow, resin, and caustic soda. Soluble glass is now largely employed in place of resin.

Soaps are also divided into SOFT or POTASH SOAPS, and HARD or SODA SOAPS.

_Assay._ 1. For the WATER. A piece, fairly taken from the sample, and weighing 100 gr., is reduced to thin shavings, which are dried by the heat of boiling water, until they cease to lose weight. The loss indicates the proportion of free water. This should not exceed 35% for ordinary curd and mottled soap, 45% for yellow soap, and about 15% to 16% for Castile soap.

2. For the ALKALI. 100 gr. of the soap are dissolved in 4 or 5 fl. oz. of boiling water, and the solution tested by the common method of alkalimetry. Curd and yellow soap usually contain from 6% to 7%, mottled soap from 7% to 8%, and Castile soap 8% to 9% of soda.

3. For the OIL or FAT. The solution tested for alkali (see No. 2) is heated, and then allowed to cool slowly; when cold the floating fatty matter is removed, freed from water, and weighed. When the fat or oil has little consistence, 100 gr. of pure white wax is added to the soap solution before heating it. The weight obtained, in grains in the one case, and the excess above 100 gr. in the other, give the proportion of oil or fat present. This, in ordinary mottled soap, should be about 68%; in yellow soap, 65%; in curd soap, 60%; and in Castile soap, 75%.

4. UNSAPONIFIED FATTY MATTER.——_a._ Pure soap is entirely soluble in distilled water and insoluble in saline solution; if a film of fatty matter forms on its solution in the former, after repose, that portion has not been saponified.

_b._ The fat separated from soap (see No. 2), when it has been perfectly saponified, is entirely soluble in alcohol.

5. OTHER IMPURITIES. Pure soap is soluble in rectified spirit, forming a colourless or nearly colourless solution. The undissolved portion, if exceeding 1%, is adulteration.

ANOTHER METHOD OF SOAP ASSAY (M. Moffit). The constituents to be determined in an analysis of soap are alkalies (combined and free), carbonates, fatty acids, resin, glycerin, salts, colouring matters, and water.

Three portions of the finely divided soap are weighed off, containing respectively 10 grams, 20 grams, and 40 grams. Ten grams are digested with alcohol on the water-bath and filtered. The residue containing carbonates and other salts, colouring matter, &c., is dried at 100°, weighed, digested with water, and titrated with normal oxalic acid. Every c.c. of acid used indicates 0·053 Na_{2}CO_{3}.

Regard must be had to a slight precipitate of calcium oxalate. The weight of Na_{2}CO_{3} found is subtracted from the total residue insoluble in alcohol, the difference is the weight of the salts and foreign matters. The filtrate is subjected to a stream of carbonic acid, filtered, and the precipitate dissolved in water and titrated with oxalic acid. Each c.c. of acid indicates 0·031 free soda, or 0·042 free potash. No precipitate shows the absence of free alkalies. The filtrate from the precipitate produced by the carbonic acid is, after the addition of 15 c.c. of water, evaporated to remove the alcohol. The aqueous solution, treated with normal oxalic acid to acid reaction, shows for every c.c. of acid 0·031 soda, or 0·042 potash in combination. Sulphuric acid is then added, and the whole is heated on a water bath with pure beeswax to separate the fatty acids and resin, which are then weighed, the weight of the beeswax being subtracted.

Forty grams of the soap are next dissolved in water and mixed with sulphuric acid, as long as any precipitate is formed. On standing the fatty acids separate, and can be dried and weighed. These fatty acids are digested with a mixture of equal volumes of water and alcohol, till the liquid on cooling ceases to appear milky. The solid layer is again weighed, and the difference between the weight and that obtained above shows the weight of the resin.

The melting point of the acids is next determined. Ten grams are then dissolved in alcohol, and sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol is added, till a precipitate is no longer formed. The liquid is filtered, mixed with barium carbonate, and again filtered. The sweet residue left after evaporation of the alcohol is glycerin. The weights of the carbonates, salts, and foreign matters, free and combined alkalies, fatty acids, resin, and glycerin are added together, and the sum subtracted from 10 grams gives the weight of the water.

See also Soap analysis, ‘Chem. News,’ xxxv, 2. The article is too long to allow of insertion here.

_Uses, &c._ The common uses of soap need not be enumerated. As a medicine it acts as a mild purgative and lithontriptic, and it has been thought by some to be useful in certain affections of the stomach arising from deficiency of bile. _Externally_ it is stimulant and detergent.——_Dose_, 3 to 20 or 30 gr., made into pills, and usually combined with aloes or rhubarb.

_Concluding Remarks._ Prior to the researches of Chevreul, no correct ideas were entertained as to the constitution of soap. It was long known that the fixed oils and fats, in contact with caustic alkaline solutions at a high temperature, undergo the remarkable change which is called saponification; but here the knowledge of the matter stopped. Chevreul discovered that if the soap, so produced, be afterwards decomposed by the addition of an acid, the fat which separates is found to be completely changed in character; to have acquired a strong acid reaction when applied in a melted state to test paper, and to have become soluble with the greatest facility in warm alcohol; in other words——that a new substance, capable of forming salts, and exhibiting all the characteristic properties of an acid, has been generated out of the elements of the neutral fat under the influence of the base. Stearin, when thus treated, yields stearic acid, palmitin gives palmitic acid, olein gives oleic acid, and common animal fat, which is a mixture of several neutral bodies, affords, by saponification by an alkali and subsequent decomposition of the soap, a mixture of the corresponding fatty acids. These bodies are not, however, the only products of saponification; the change is always accompanied by the formation of a very peculiar sweet substance called glycerin, which remains in the mother liquor from which the acidified fat has been separated. The process of saponification itself proceeds with perfect facility, even in a closed vessel; no gas is disengaged; the neutral fat, of whatsoever kind, is simply resolved into an alkaline salt of the fatty acid, which is soap, and into glycerin, a neutral body resembling syrup, and, like that liquid, miscible with water in every proportion.

“When yellow soap is made with the cheaper kinds of fat it will hardly acquire a sufficient degree of firmness or hardness to satisfy the thrifty washerwoman. It melts away too rapidly in hot water, a defect which may be well remedied by the introduction into the soap of a little (1·20th) fused sulphate of soda; and this salt concreting gives the soap a desirable hardness, whilst it improves its colour, and renders it a more desirable article for the washing tub.” (Ure.) This process was patented by Dr Normandy, but soon proved a source of annoyance and molestation to him on the part of the Board of Excise, it being an enormous crime in law to attempt to improve and cheapen soap.

“Soda which contains sulphurets is preferred for making mottled or marble soap, whereas the desulphuretted soda makes the best white curd soap.” “The Barillas always contain a small proportion of potash, to which their peculiar value, in making a less brittle or more plastic hard soap than the factitious sodas, may, with great probability, be ascribed.” (Ure.)

The mottled appearance is usually given, in the London Soap-works, by watering the nearly finished soap with a strong lye of crude soda, by means of a watering can furnished with a rose spout. For ‘Castile soap’ a solution of sulphate of iron is so employed. See SOAPS (Medicated and Toilet).

=Soap, Arsen′ical.= _Syn._ SAPO ARSENICALIS, L. _Prep._ (Bécœurs.) From carbonate of potash, 12 oz.; white arsenic, white soap, and air-slaked lime, of each 4 oz.; powdered camphor, 3/4 oz.; made into a paste with water, q. s. Used to preserve the skins of birds, and other small animals.

=Soap, Black.= _Syn._ SAPO NIGER, S. MOLLIS COMMUNIS, L. A crude soft soap, made of fish oil and potash; but the following mixture is usually sold for it:——Soft soap, 7 lbs.; train oil, 1 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil to a proper consistence, adding ivory black or powdered charcoal, q. s., to colour. Used by farriers.

=SOAPS (Med′icated).= A few only of these deserve notice here:——

=Soap, Antimo′′nial.= _Syn._ SAPO ANTIMONIALIS, SAPO STIBIATUS, L. _Prep._ (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) Golden sulphuret of antimony, 2 dr.; solution of caustic potassa, 6 dr. (or q. s.); dissolve and triturate the solution with medicated (Castile) soap (in powder), 1-1/2 oz., until the mass assumes a pilular consistence. It should be of a greyish-white colour.

=Soap, Chlorina′ted.= _Syn._ SAPO CALCIS CHLORINATÆ, L.; SAVON ANTISYPHILITIQUE, Fr. _Prep._ From Castile soap (in powder), 11 oz.; chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 oz.; mix, beat them to a mass with rectified spirit, q. s.; (holding in solution) oil of verbena or of ginger grass, 1/4 oz.; lastly, form the mass into flat tablets, and wrap these in thin sheet gutta percha. A most excellent detergent and stimulant soap in various affections, admirably adapted for hospital use, and for removing stains from the skin and rendering it white. It is the most powerful known agent against infection from contagious diseases communicable by contact.

=Soap, Cod-Liver Oil.= _Syn._ SAPO OLEI JECORIS (Deschamps). _Prep._ Cod-liver oil, 2 oz.; caustic soda, 2 dr.; water, 5 dr.; dissolve the soda in the water, and mix it with the oil. An ioduretted soap is made by mixing with the above, 1 dr. of iodide of potassium dissolved in 1 dr. of water.

=Soap, Cro′ton.= _Syn._ SAPO CROTONIS, L. _Prep._ From croton oil and liquor of potassa, equal parts; triturated together in a warm mortar until they combine. Cathartic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 gr.

=Soap of Gamboge.= _Syn._ SAPO GAMBOGIÆ. (Soubeiran.) _Prep._ Mix 1 part of gamboge with 2 of soap, dissolve it with a little spirit, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.

=Soap, of Gua′iacum.= _Syn._ SAPO GUAIACI, SAPO GUAIACINUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Liquor of potassa, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz.; mix in a porcelain capsule, apply heat, and gradually add of resin of guaiacum (in powder), 6 dr., or as much as it will dissolve; next decant or filter, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; in chronic rheumatism, various skin diseases, &c.

=Soap I′odine.= _Syn._ SAPO IODURATUS, L. _Prep._ From Castile soap (sliced), 1 lb.; iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) water, 3 fl. oz.; melt them together in a glass or porcelain vessel, over a water bath. Excellent in various skin diseases; also as a common soap for scrofulous subjects.

=Soap of Jal′ap.= See JALAP, SOAP OF.

=Soap, Larch.= _Syn._ SAPO LARICIS. (Dr Moore.) _Prep._ Dissolve 12 oz. of white curd soap in 24 oz. of rose water on a steam bath. Infuse 4 oz. of wheat bran in 10 oz. of cold water for 24 hours, and express. Add to the last, 3 oz. of pure glycerin. Dissolve 6 dr. of extract of larch bark in 1 oz. of boiling water. Mix these solutions with the dissolved soap, evaporate over a steam bath to a proper consistence, and pour into moulds to cool. For the local treatment of psoriasis.

=Soap, Macquer’s Acid.= _Syn._ SAPO VITRIOLICUS, L. _Prep._ From Castile soap, 4 oz.; softened by heat and a little water, and then continually triturated in a mortar with oil of vitriol (added drop by drop). Detergent. Used where alkalies would be prejudicial.

=Soap, Marine.= _Patent._ This is made by substituting cocoa nut oil for the fats and oils used in the manufacture of common soap. It has the advantage of forming a lather with salt water.

=Soap, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ SAPO HYDRARGYRI. (M. Herbert.) 1. _Prep._ Dissolve 4 oz. of quicksilver in its weight of nitric acid without heat; melt in a porcelain basin by water bath 18 oz. of veal suet, and add the solution, stirring the mixture till the union is complete. To 5 oz. of this ointment, add 2 oz. of solution of caustic soda (1·33), porphyry slag, till a soap is formed, which is completely soluble in water. For external use, alone, or dissolved in water, in some cutaneous diseases.

2. SAPO MERCURIALIS, L. _Prep._ (SAPO SUBLIMATIS CORROSIVI.) From Castile soap (in powder), 4 oz.; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; beaten to a uniform mass in a porcelain or wedgwood-ware mortar.

3. (SAPO HYDRARGYRI, PRECIPITATI ALBI——Sir H. Marsh.) _Prep._ Beat 12 oz. of white Windsor soap in a marble mortar, add 1 dr. of rectified spirit, 2 dr. of white precipitate, and 10 drops of otto. Beat the whole to a uniform paste.

4. (SAPO HYDRARGYRI, PRECIPITATI RUBRI——Sir H. Marsh.) From white Windsor soap, 2 oz.; nitric oxide of mercury (levigated), 1 dr.; otto of roses, 6 or 8 drops; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as the last. Both the above are employed as stimulant detergents and repellants, in various skin diseases; also as SAVON ANTISYPHILITIQUE.

=Soap of Subacetate of Lead.= _Syn._ SAPO SATURNI (Bristol Infirmary). _Prep._ Boil 1 lb. of white soap in 4 pints of rain water; when the soap is dissolved add 1 oz. of camphor pulverised with spirit, and mixed with 2 oz. of liquid subacetate of lead, stir the whole till cold.

=Soap, Sul′phuretted.= _Syn._ SAPO SULPHURIS, SAPO SULPHURATUS, L. _Prep._ (Sir H. Marsh.) From white soap, 2 oz.; sublimed sulphur, 1/4 oz.; beaten to a smooth paste in a marble mortar with 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rectified spirit strongly coloured with alkanet root, and holding in solution otto of roses, 10 or 12 drops. In itch and various other cutaneous diseases.

=Soap, Tar.= _Syn._ SAPO PICIS LIQUIDÆ, SAPO PICEUS, L. _Prep._ From tar, 1 part; liquor of potassa and soap (in shavings), of each 2 parts; beat them together until they unite. Stimulant. Used in psoriasis, lepra, &c.

=Soap, Tur′pentine.= _Syn._ STARKEY’S SOAP; SAPO TEREBINTHINÆ, S. TEREBINTHINATUS, L.; SAVON TÉRÉBINTHINE, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Subcarbonate of potash, oil of turpentine, and Venice turpentine, equal parts; triturate them together, in a warm mortar, with a little water, until they combine; put the product into paper moulds, and in a few days slice it, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

=SOAPS (Toilet).= Of toilet soaps there are two principal varieties:——

1. (Hard.) The basis of these is, generally, a mixture of suet, 9 parts, and olive oil, 1 part, saponified by caustic soda; the product is variously scented and coloured. They are also made of white tallow, olive, almond, and palm-oil soaps, either alone or combined in various proportions, and scented.

2. (Soft.) The basis of these is a soap made of hog’s lard and potash, variously scented and coloured.

3. Guido Schnitzer, writing to ‘Dingler’s Journal’ (cciii, 129-132),[173] says that the use of sodium silicate (ordinary water-glass) has proved of great value in the manufacture of palm oil and cocoa-nut oil soaps, as it increases their alkalinity, and gives to them greater hardness and durability. It is for these reasons the silicate is much used in the manufacture of toilette soaps.

[Footnote 173: ‘Journ. of Chem. Soc.,’ new series, vol. x.]

He states that during the American war, when the price of resin soap reached a high price, sodium silicate was much used as a substitute in soap making. The soap is found to be the more active and durable in proportion to the amount of silica in the silicate.

Schnitzer made a series of experiments in order to discover a mixture which, on fusing, will yield a silicate as rich as possible in silica, without being insoluble in boiling water, and he found the following proportions yielded on fusion the best silicate for the above purposes:——

100 parts of soda ash (containing 91 per cent, of Na_{2}CO_{3}), and 180 of sand. In the solution of silicate obtained on treatment with boiling water, the proportion of the Na_{2}O to the SiO_{2} would then be as 1 to 2·9.

After long boiling with water, there ordinarily remains a slimy residue, which, on boiling up with fresh dilute soda-lye for a long time, furnishes a concentrated solution of silicate. This residue, consisting of silica, with insoluble higher silicates, was boiled with soda solution at 6° Baume, and the solution concentrated to 40° Baume, when the proportion therein of Na_{2}O to SiO_{2} was found to be as 1 to 1·, and on cooling those crystallised out, sodium silicate of the formula Na_{2}SiO_{3} × 8H_{2}O, in white foliated crystals.

On the small scale the perfume is generally added to the soap melted in a bright copper pan by the heat of a water bath; on the large scale it is mixed with the liquid soap, at the soap-maker’s, before the latter is poured into the frames.

The following are examples of a few of the leading toilet soaps:[174]

[Footnote 174: See also SAVONETTES.]

=Soap, Bitter Al′mond.= _Syn._ SAVON D’AMANDE, Fr. _Prep._ From white tallow soap, 56 lbs.; essential oil of almonds, 3/4 lb.; as before.

=Savon au Bouquet.= [Fr.] _Prep._ From tallow soap, 30 lbs.; olive-oil soap, 10 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.; oils of cloves, sassafras, and thyme, of each 1 oz.; pure neroli, 1/2 oz.; brown ochre (finely powdered), 1/2 lb.; mixed as the last.

=Soap, Cin′namon.= _Prep._ From tallow soap, 14 lbs.; palm-oil soap, 7 lbs.; oil of cinnamon (cassia), 3 oz.; oil of sassafras and essence of bergamot, of each 1/2 oz.; levigated yellow ochre, 1/2 lb.

=Soap, Float′ing.= _Prep._ From good oil soap, 14 lbs.; water, 3 pints; melted together by the heat of a steam or water bath, and assiduously beaten until the mixture has at least doubled its volume, when it must be put into the frames, cooled, and cut into pieces. Any scent may be added.

=Soap, Glycerin.= Any mild toilet soap being liquefied, glycerin is intimately mixed with it in the proportion of from a 20th to a 25th of the weight of the soap. Sometimes a red, and others an orange tint is given to it. The scent usually consists of bergamot, or rose geranium, mixed with a little oil of cassia, to which sometimes a little oil of bitter almonds is added.

2. (Spon.) 40 lbs. of tallow, 40 lbs. of lard, and 20 lbs. of cocoa-nut oil, are saponified with 45 lbs. of soda lye, and 5 lbs. of potash lye, of 40° Baume, when the soap is to be made in the cold way. To the paste then add, pure glycerin 6 lbs., oil of Portugal, 1/2 oz., oil of bergamot, 1/3 oz., bitter almond oil, 5 oz., oil of vitivert, 3 oz.

=Soap, Hon′ey.= _Prep._ 1. From palm-oil soap and olive-oil soap, of each 1 part; curd soap, 3 parts; melted together and scented with the oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-grass.

2. From the finest bright-coloured yellow soap, scented with the oils of ginger-grass and bergamot.

=Soap, Liquid Glycerin——Glycerinseife, Flüssige.= Sesame or cotton-seed oil is saponified with sufficient caustic potash, and while moist is dissolved in six times its weight of spirit of wine. The solution is filtered, five-sixths of the spirit is distilled from a water bath, and the cooled residue is reduced to the consistence of thin honey, with a mixture of 2 parts glycerin and 1 part spirit. It is then perfumed.

=Soap, Musk.= 1. A good ox suet or tallow soap is generally used for the basis of this. The scent is composed of a mixture of essence of musk, with small quantities of the oils of bergamot, cinnamon, and cloves. The quantity of musk must be regulated by the amount of fragrance required. The soap is usually coloured with caramel.

2. Another kind is made with tallow and palm-oil soap, to which is added a mixture of the powders of cloves, roses, and gilliflowers, oil of bergamot, and essence of musk. The colouring matter is brown ochre.

=Soap, Musk.= As CINNAMON SOAP, but with essence of musk, supported with a little essence of bergamot and oil of cloves, as perfume, and burnt sugar, to colour.

=Soap, Naples.= From olive oil and potash.

=Soap, Orange-flower.= As SAVON À LA ROSE, with oil of neroli or essence de petit grain, supported with a little of the essence of ambergris and Portugal, for perfume.

=Soap, Palm-oil.= _Syn._ VIOLET SOAP. Made of palm oil and caustic soda lye. It has a pleasant odour of violets and a lively colour.

=Soap, Pearl.= _Syn._ ALMOND CREAM; CRÊME D’AMANDES, Fr. _Prep._ From a soap made of lard and caustic potash lye; when quite cold it is beaten in small portions at a time in a marble mortar, until it unites to form a homogeneous mass, or ‘pearls,’ as it is called; essence of bitter almonds, q. s., to perfume, being added during the pounding.

=Savon à la Rose.= [Fr.] _Prep._ From a mixture of olive-oil soap, 36 lbs.; best tallow soap, 24 lbs. (both new and in shavings); water, 1 quart; melted in a covered bright copper pan, by the heat of a water bath, then coloured with vermilion (finely levigated), 2-1/2 oz.; and, after the mixture has cooled a little, scented with otto of roses, 3 oz.; essence of bergamot, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of cloves and cinnamon, of each 1 oz.

=Soap, Rondeletia.= This is merely cinnamon soap scented with the essence made with mixed essential oils, &c., known as rondeletia. It is coloured with brown or yellow ochre.

=Soap, Sha′′ving.= See PASTE (Shaving).

=Soap, Transpa′′rent.= _Prep._ From perfectly dry almond, tallow, or soft soap, reduced to shavings, and dissolved, in a closed vessel or still, in an equal weight of rectified spirit, the clear portion, after a few hours’ repose, being poured into moulds or frames; after a few weeks’ exposure to a dry atmosphere, the pieces are ‘trimmed up’ and stamped, as desired. It may be scented and coloured, at will, by adding the ingredients to it while in the soft state. A rose colour is given by tincture of archil; and yellow, by tincture of turmeric or annotta. It does not lather well.

=Soap, Windsor.= _Syn._ SAPO VINDESORÆ, S. VINDESORIENSIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (WHITE; S. V. ALBUS.) The best ‘English’ is made of a mixture of olive oil, 1 part, and ox tallow or suet, 9 parts, saponified by caustic soda. ‘French Windsor-soap’ is made of hogs’ lard, with the addition of a little palm oil. That of the shops is merely ordinary curd soap, scented with oil of caraway, supported with a little oil of bergamot, lavender, or origanum. To the finer qualities a little of the essences of musk and ambergris is occasionally added. 1-1/2 lb. of the mixed scents is the common proportion per cwt.

2. (BROWN; S. V. FUSCUS.) This merely differs from the last in being coloured with burnt sugar, or (less frequently) with umber. Originally it was the white variety, that had become mellow and brown with age.

=SO′DA.= See SODIUM.

=SO′DIUM.= Na. _Syn._ NATRIUM. The metallic base of soda. It was first obtained by Sir H. Davy, in 1807, by means of a powerful galvanic battery; but it may be more conveniently and cheaply procured, in quantity, by the method described under POTASSIUM. The process, when well conducted, is, however, much easier and more certain than that for the last-named metal.

_Prep._ The anhydrous carbonate of sodium, 6 parts, is dissolved in a little water, and the solution mixed with charcoal in fine powder, 2 parts, and charcoal in small lumps, 1 part; the whole is then evaporated to dryness, transferred to an iron retort, and treated in the manner described at page 1353.

_Obs._ Very important improvements have been made in the manufacture of this metal by Deville, consisting partly in the simplification of the receiver, and partly in the addition of carbonate of calcium to the mixture, which addition appears to facilitate the reduction of the sodium in a most remarkable manner.

_Prop., &c._ Sodium is a soft silver-white metal, scarcely solid at common temperatures, fuses at 194° Fahr., and volatilises at a red heat; it oxidises very rapidly in the air; when placed on the surface of cold water, it decomposes that liquid with great violence, but generally without flame, in which it differs from potassium; on hot water it burns with a bright yellow flame——in both cases a solution of pure soda being formed. Sp. gr. ·972; it is more malleable than any other metal, and may be easily reduced into very thin leaves (Ure); its other properties resemble those of potassium, but are of a feebler character. With oxygen it forms two oxides; with chlorine, a chloride (common salt); and——with bromine, iodine, fluorine, &c., bromide, iodide, fluoride, &c., all of which may be obtained by similar processes to the respective compounds of potassium, which, for the most part they resemble.

_Uses._ Until recently sodium has been regarded as a mere mechanical or philosophical curiosity; it has now, however, become of great practical importance, from being employed in the manufacture of the metals aluminium, magnesium, &c.

_Tests._ Sodium salts are recognised by their solubility in water, and by their giving a precipitate with none of the ordinary reagents. They give a rich yellow colour to the colourless Bunsen or the pale blue blowpipe flame. They can, to a certain extent, be also distinguished from potassium salts by the carbonate being an easily crystallisable salt, effervescing in dry air; the carbonate of potassium being crystallised with difficulty, and deliquescent. Platinum chloride does not give a precipitate with sodium chloride; neither does picric acid, perchlorate of ammonium, nor tartaric acid.

=Sodium, Acetate of.= NaC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ ACETATE OF SODA; SODÆ ACETAS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prepared from carbonate of sodium as the corresponding potassium salt; but the resulting solution is evaporated to a pellicle, and set aside to crystallise. Its crystals are striated oblique rhombic prisms; it effloresces slightly in the air, and is soluble in 4 parts of water at 60° Fahr. Diuretic.——_Dose_, 20 to 40 gr.

=Sodium, Aluminate.= This salt has of late been in extensive demand by the calico printer and dyer. In France it is obtained from banxite, a native hydrate of aluminate, by treatment with caustic or carbonate of soda. If caustic soda be employed, the powdered banxite is boiled with a solution of the alkali, whereas if carbonate of soda be used, it is fused with the banxite in a reverbatory furnace. By the first process the resulting aluminate of soda is dissolved in water, and evaporated to dryness, forms the commercial article. If prepared by ignition, the semifused mass is lixiviated with water, and then evaporated to dryness. Aluminate of soda prepared as above occurs as a white powder, of a greenish-yellow hue, and dry to the touch.

It is equally soluble in both hot and cold water, and readily decomposed by carbonic and acetic acids, bicarbonate and acetate of soda, chloride of ammonia, &c. Dr Wagner states that it is used for the preparation of lake colours, the induration of stone, in the manufacture of artificial stone, and for the saponification of fats in the manufacture of stearin candle manufacture, also in the preparation of an opaque, milky-looking glass, or semi-porcelain.

Aluminate of soda may likewise be procured from cryolite, as described under ALUM.

=Sodium Arseniates.= _Syn._ SODÆ ARSENIAS (B. P.). Arsenious acid, 10 oz.; nitrate of soda, 8-1/2 oz.; dried carbonate of soda, 5-1/2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 35 fl. oz. Reduce the dry ingredients separately to fine powder, and mix them thoroughly in a porcelain mortar. Put the mixture into a large clay crucible and cover it with the lid. Expose it to a full red heat till all effervescence has ceased, and complete fusion has taken place. Pour out the fused salt on a clean flagstone, and as soon as it has solidified and while it is still warm put it into the boiling distilled water, stirring diligently. When the salt has dissolved filter the solution through paper, and set it aside to crystallise. Drain the crystals, and having dried them rapidly on filtering paper, enclose them in a stoppered bottle.

=Sodium, Benzoate.= _Syn._ SODÆ BENZOAS. (B. Cod.) _Prep._ Heat gently benzoic acid and water, and add caustic soda, q. s. to neutralise the acid. Filter, evaporate, and crystallise over sulphuric acid under a bell-glass.

=Sodium, Bisulphate.= _Syn._ ACID SULPHATE, SODÆ BISULPHIS. _Prep._ Dissolve crystallised carbonate of soda in twice its weight of water, and pass sulphurous acid in excess through the solution. Set it aside to crystallise. Its solution is used to preserve subjects.

=Sodium, Bromide of.= _Syn._ SODII BROMIDUM. Prepared as bromide of potassium.

=Sodium, Carbonate of.= Na_{2}CO_{3}. 10Aq. _Syn._ CARBONATE OF SODA, MONO-CARBONATE OF SODA, SUBCARBONATE OF S.†, Salt of barilla†; SODÆ CARBONAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The carbonate of sodium of commerce (WASHING SODA) was formerly prepared from the ashes of seaweed, and other marine vegetables, in a somewhat similar manner to that by which carbonate of potassium is obtained; but it is now usually obtained from chloride of sodium by the action of heat, sulphuric acid, and carbonaceous matter.

_Prep._ 1. (From common salt or sulphate of sodium.) The latter is generally obtained by decomposing the former with sulphuric acid, the evolved gas being passed into water, or through flues filled with coke, over which a very small stream of cold water constantly flows, by which it is condensed, and forms ‘LIQUID HYDROCHLORIC ACID,’ a substance afterwards consumed, in large quantities, in the manufacture of chloride of lime, and for other purposes. The sulphate of sodium, obtained from this or any other source, is well mixed with an equal weight of chalk or limestone, and about half its weight of small coal, each being previously ground to powder, and the mixture is exposed to a strong heat in a ‘reverbatory furnace’ (see _engr._) until the decomposition of the sulphate is complete, the mass during the calcination being frequently stirred about with a long iron rod; the semi-liquid is now raked into an iron trough, where it is allowed to cool, whilst the furnace is recharged with fresh materials. The crude dark-grey product, thus obtained, is known as ‘ball alkali,’ or ‘British barilla,’ and usually contains about 22 or 23% of pure hydrate of sodium. This is now lixiviated with tepid water, and the solution, after defecation, evaporated to dryness; the residuum is mixed with a certain quantity of sawdust, coal-dust, or charcoal, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace, at a heat not exceeding 700° Fahr., until all the sulphur is expelled. The product is the ‘soda-ash,’ ‘soda salt,’ or ‘British alkali,’ of commerce, and contains about 50% of pure sodium, partly in the state of carbonate, and partly as hydrate, the remainder being chiefly sulphate of sodium and common salt. When this is purified by solution in water, defecation, evaporation, and crystallisation, it furnishes commercial crystallised carbonate of soda. When this last is redissolved, and the filtered solution is carefully crystallised, it constitutes the ordinary carbonate of sodium used in pharmacy and medicine.

Another process for the preparation of commercial carbonate of sodium, known as the ‘ammonia process,’ has of late years met with considerable adoption. The history of this process, together with the process itself, are thus described by Dr R. Wagner:[175] “Six years ago (he was writing in 1873), when the international jury at the Paris Exhibition expressed their opinion upon the state of the soda industry at that time, all the judges, whether practical or theoretical men, believed that Leblanc’s process (that previously described) would hold the field for a long time yet. This seemed still more probable, since a process had just been introduced for recovering the sulphur from the soda residues. At that time all the soda in use was prepared by this process, excepting a comparatively small amount obtained from Chili saltpetre and cryolite, although there were already tangible indications that soda could be made on a larger scale by another method, which would be cheaper than Leblanc’s process.

[Footnote 175: ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry.’]

“The chemical section of the international jury at the Vienna Exposition, under the presidency of Professor A. W. Hofmann, constituted a congress of chemical technology. By its labours during the course of the summer this congress of scientific men was able to authenticate the very important fact that although Leblanc’s process might in the future possess some importance for certain branches of the industry, yet in most places another soda process would be introduced in the immediate future, and entirely supersede that of Leblanc. Since the time of the Paris Exhibition this new process has grown from a small germ to a strong tree.

“The process in question, and which is called by Professor Hofmann ‘the ammonia process,’ is not new, from either a chemical or scientific point of view. It belongs to the same methods as those in which oxide of lead, bicarbonate of magnesia, quicklime, alumina, silicate of alumina, oxide of chromium, or fluosilicic acid are employed to decompose chloride of sodium, and convert it directly into soda or its carbonate. None of these attempts met with a success deserving of notice; although for a century past efforts have been made to render them practically operative. The new process is founded upon a reaction noticed over thirty years ago——that of bicarbonate of ammonia upon a strong solution of common salt. The greater part of the sodium is precipitated as bicarbonate, while chloride of ammonium remains in solution, from which the ammonia for a second operation is expelled by quicklime. The carbonic acid necessary to convert the ammonia into bicarbonate of ammonia, and thus make the process a continuous one, is obtained by heating the bicarbonate of soda to convert it into the simple carbonate.

“The sensation which the ammonia process has created in industrial circles will render a brief history of its development not uninteresting.

“So far as I know, Harrison, Dyer, Grey, and Hemming were the first to patent the ammonia process in Great Britain in 1838. Great expectations were excited by it, but it soon sank into oblivion.

“Thirty or forty years ago the manufacture of soda was by no means at the head of the great branches of industry; at that time, too, ammonia was not to be had cheaply and in immense quantities, and that branch of machine building which has furnished the necessary apparatus for chemical industries did not exist. Besides this, Anton, of Prague, in 1840, claimed to have proved that in the ammonia process a very considerable portion of the common salt still remained undecomposed.

“After a sleep of sixteen years the ammonia process again entered the field. On the 26th of May, 1854, Turck took out a patent in France, and on the 21st June, the same year, Schlœsing, chemist of the Imperial Tobacco Factory at Paris, took out a patent for France and Great Britain. The mechanical portion and machinery for Schlœsing’s process were designed by Engineer E. Rolland, director of the tobacco factory. In 1855 a company was organised to work this process. An experimental manufactory was started at Puteaux, near Paris, but, owing to its situation and arrangements, as well as the salt monopoly, it could not produce soda cheap enough to compete with the other process, and hence, in 1858, the experiment was abandoned. Schlœsing and Rolland were of the opinion that sooner or later the new process must come into use in making soda.

“It must here be noticed that in 1858 Professor Heeren, of Hanover, subjected the ammonia process to a very careful test in his laboratory.

“From his experiments and calculations it was ascertained that this process was better adapted to the manufacture of the bicarbonate than of the simple protocarbonate of soda.

“To render this sketch more complete and historically true, it must be mentioned that T. Bell, of England, took out a patent, Oct. 13th, 1857, for a new soda process, which in principle and practice was almost literally the same as that of Dyer.

“It was known when the jury was working at Paris in 1867 that essential improvements had been introduced into the ammonia process by the efforts of Marguerite and De Sourdeval, of Paris, and James Young, of Glasgow. A more important fact, however, is that Solvay and Co., of Conillet, in Belgium, actually exhibited at the Paris Exhibition carbonate of soda prepared by this new process.

“Since that time the ammonia process has been developed and perfected to such an extent, especially by Solvay, Honigmann, and Prof. Gerstenhœfer, that as early as February, 1873, A. W. Hofmann, in his introduction to the third group of the catalogue of the Exhibition of the German Empire, was able to make this remark:——‘At all events the ammonia process is the only one which threatens to become an important competitor of the now also most exclusively employed process of Leblanc.’ The Vienna Exposition has since proved the truth of this assertion.

“There are now large works in England, Hungary, Switzerland, Westphalia, Thueringia, and Baden, which employ the improved ammonia process, and some of them make fifteen tons of soda per day.

“The advantages of the new process over that of Leblanc are very evident, although the details of the process have not yet been made public.

“The chief advantage consists in the direct conversion of salt into carbonate of soda, and next from the fact, that from a saturated brine only the sodium is precipitated, with none of the other metals of the mother liquor. Besides this, the product is absolutely free from all sulphur compounds, the soda is of a high grade, the apparatus and utensils are very simple, there is a great saving of labour and fuel, and no noxious gases and waste products are produced, which is of importance from a sanitary point of view. The only weak point of the ammonia process is the loss of chlorine, which is converted into worthless chloride of calcium.

“The effect which the general introduction of the new soda process will exert upon large chemical industries in general, and especially upon the consumption of sulphur, the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and chloride of lime, cannot be overlooked.”

3. Another method for the direct preparation of soda and potash from their chlorides is described in the ‘Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbe Blatt.’[176] The process is thus described by its author, Herr E. Bohlig:

[Footnote 176: ‘New Remedies,’ 1878, 4.]

1. Magnesium oxalate (freshly prepared when newly starting, but, after the first operation, obtained as a dry product in the next step) is allowed to drain, and then mixed in a large vat with the proper quantities of sodium chloride, or concentrated brine and hydrochloric acid, after which it is allowed to stand a few hours. Decomposition takes place almost instantaneously; all the magnesium goes into solution in form of syrupy magnesium chloride, while all the sodium and oxalic acid are deposited as a crystalline acid salt (acid sodium oxalate, or binoxalate of sodium).

Since the magnesium oxalate is always obtained of the same composition and in the same quantity, it is sufficient to determine its weight once for all, and to take each time the previously common amounts of common salt. The acid need not be weighed either; it must be added in just sufficient quantity to destroy the milky appearance which the mixture first assumes.

The reaction is as follows:

MgC_{2}O_{4} + HCl + NaCl = NaHC_{2}O_{4} + MgCl_{2}

Magnesium + Hydrochloric + Sodium = Sodium Magnesium oxalate. acid. chloride. binoxalate. chloride.

The crystalline powder of sodium binoxalate is transferred to large draining filters, washed with water until the acid solution of magnesium chloride is removed, and worked up, as below described, while still moist.

The acid solution of magnesium chloride is made use of several times in succession as so much hydrochloric acid, together with a quantity of fresh acid sufficient for the reaction. Finally, when the magnesium chloride has inconveniently accumulated, it is worked up by itself into magnesia and hydrochloric acid.

2. In order to obtain the soda, the sodium binoxalate is brought together with an equivalent quantity of magnesium carbonate and water in a tight cask. As soon as the remaining air has been nearly expelled by the generated carbonic acid gas, the cask is closed, and a stirring mechanism set in motion.

A pressure gauge attached to the cask indicates a gradual rise of the pressure to two atmospheres, but, on continual stirring, this diminishes, until, finally, the gauge stands again at 0°. The cask now contains a concentrated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and a precipitate of magnesium oxalate, which latter, being coarsely granular, is easily separated from the liquid, and is used over again, after washing, for a new operation.

The solution of sodium bicarbonate is boiled for a short time with magnesia, obtained in distilling magnesium chloride, and both are thereby converted into simple carbonates. Both reactions are shown in the following scheme:

1. NaHC_{2}O_{4} + MgCO_{3} = NaHCO_{3} + MgC_{2}O_{4}

Sodium + Magnesium = Sodium Magnesium binoxalate. carbonate. bicarbonate. oxalate.

2. 2NaHCO_{3} + MgO = Na_{2}CO_{3} + MgCO_{3} + H_{2}O

Sodium + Magnesia. = Sodium + Magnesium + Water bicarbonate. carbonate. carbonate.

As the solution of sodium carbonate, after concentration to 40°B., is incapable of dissolving or retaining in solution any sodium oxalate, it follows that the whole of the oxalic acid is recovered. The magnesia which is required for the purpose is obtained by distilling magnesium chloride, which thereby splits up into hydrochloric acid and magnesia. One half of the latter receives, as we have seen, its carbonic acid by boiling with sodium bicarbonate; the other half is placed, whilst still moist, upon trays in great wooden closets, through which the gases of the furnace pass, and is thereby carbonated. The process may also be so modified that the sodium binoxalate is first decomposed by caustic magnesia, and that magnesium carbonate is afterwards added.

The whole mixture is then transferred to a stirring cask, provided with openings for the passage of cooled furnace gases, whereby the caustic soda present is very soon carbonated.

3. As soon as a large quantity of magnesium chloride solution has accumulated, it is tested as follows:——A small sample is mixed, while boiling, with magnesium oxalate, as long as the latter is dissolved, and then allowed to cool. There should be no crystalline deposit of sodium binoxalate formed, a proof that the solution does not contain any sodium chloride in excess, and is fit for distillation. It is first neutralised by adding some more magnesia, and evaporated over a naked fire in large kettles to a doughy consistence, short of driving off the hydrochloric acid. It is then transferred into the ordinary soda furnace, where it is distilled with a moderate fire. The eliminated hydrochloric acid is condensed in the usual manner.

The residuary mass should not be heated red hot, so as not to impair its porosity or its ready affinity for carbonic acid. If, however, the first-mentioned test shows the magnesium chloride to contain sodium chloride the whole mass must be mixed with magnesium oxalate, and after removal of the precipitated sodium oxalate, saturated with magnesia and distilled. The same process, in all its details, may also be employed for the manufacture of potassa and its carbonate.

4. Another method of manufacture of commercial soda is by treating the mineral cryolite (a double fluoride of sodium and aluminium) with either caustic, or hydrate of lime. The results of the reaction are caustic soda, sodium aluminate, and calcium fluoride.

The aluminate and caustic soda being both soluble in water, a stream of carbonic acid is passed through the solution containing them, whereby all the soda becomes converted into carbonate, whilst the alumina is thrown down as an insoluble precipitate. In the wet way, if enough hydrate of lime be employed, all the soda may be obtained in the caustic condition.

This process is largely used in Germany. Various other processes for the manufacture of commercial soda have been devised, some of which are still followed, whilst others, being impracticable, have collapsed.

Mr Kingzett, in his work on the alkali trade, has described most of them.

When anhydrous carbonate of sodium is required (SODÆ CARBONAS EXSICCATA, B. P., Ph. L.; SODÆ CARBONAS SICCATUM, Ph. E. & D.), the crystallised carbonate is heated to redness, and, when cold, powdered.

_Prop., &c._ Carbonate of sodium forms large, transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, which, as ordinarily met with, and of the formulæ Na_{2}CO_{3}.10Aq; but by particular management may be had with fifteen, nine, seven, or sometimes with only one molecule of water of crystallisation (Fownes); it is soluble in twice its weight of water at 60°, and less than an equal weight at 212° Fahr. As a medicine it is deobstruent and antacid, and is given in doses of 10 to 30 gr. It is also, occasionally, used to make effervescing draughts. When taken in an overdose it is poisonous. The antidotes are the same as for carbonate of potassium. The crude carbonate is largely employed in the manufacture of soap, glass, &c.

Fifty three gr. of the dried carbonate are equal to 143 of the crystallised salt. The medicinal properties of both are similar. It has, however, the disadvantage of being difficultly soluble in water.

The ordinary carbonate of sodium generally contains either sulphates or chlorides, or both; and these may be detected as under CARBONATE OF POTASSIUM. “When supersaturated with nitric acid, it precipitates only slightly, or not at all, chloride of barium or nitrate of silver; and 143 gr. require at least 960 grain-measures of solution of oxalic acid” (B. P.). At a high temperature 100 gr. lose 62·5 gr. of water.

=Sodium, Bicarbonate of.= NaHCO_{3}. _Syn._ SESQUICARBONATE OF SODA, SODÆ BICARBONAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). This salt can be prepared in exactly the same manner as the corresponding salt of potassium. Another method is as follows:——Take of crystallised carbonate of sodium, 1 part; dried carbonate of sodium, 2 parts (both in powder); triturate them well together, and surround them with an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas, under pressure; let the action go on until no more gas is absorbed, which will generally occupy 10 to 14 hours, according to the pressure employed, then remove the salt, and dry it at a heat not above 120° Fahr.

_Prop., &c._ A crystalline white powder; it is soluble in 10 parts of water at 60° Fahr., but it cannot be dissolved in even warm water without partial decomposition; it is more pleasant tasted and more feebly alkaline than the carbonate of the same base. When absolutely pure it does not darken turmeric paper, or only very slightly. The dose is from 10 to 40 gr., as an antacid and absorbent. It is much employed in the preparation of effervescing powders and draughts, for which purpose

20 gr. of commercial bicarbonate of sodium \------------------\/--------------------/ are taken with /------------------/\---------------\ 18 gr. of crystallised tartaric acid;

17 gr. of crystallised citric acid; or

1/2 fl. oz. of lemon juice.

The quantity of bicarbonate any given sample contains may be approximately determined by well washing 100 gr. of the salt with an equal weight of water, and filtering the solution. The residuum left upon the filter, dried at a heat of 120° Fahr., and weighed, gives the per-centage of pure bicarbonate of sodium present (very nearly). The solution of this in water will give only a very trifling white precipitate with corrosive sublimate; whilst the filtered portion, which was used to wash the salt, will give a red one, if it contains the simple carbonate of sodium.

=Sodium, Chloride of.= NaCl. _Syn._ SODII CHLORIDUM (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), SODÆ MURIAS (Ph. E.), L. This important and wholesome compound appears to have been known in the earliest ages of which we have any record. It is mentioned by Moses (Gen. xix, 26), and by Homer in the Iliad (lib. ix, 214). In ancient Rome it was subjected to a duty (_vectigal salinarium_); and even at the present day a similar tax furnishes no inconsiderable portion of the revenue of certain nations. Common salt forms no small portion of the mineral wealth of England, and has become an important article of commerce in every part of the known world. The principal portion of the salt consumed in this country is procured by the evaporation of the water of brine springs. It is also prepared by the evaporation of sea-water (hence the term ‘sea-salt’), but this process has been almost abandoned in England, being more suited to hot dry climates or to very cold ones.

_Var._ BAY SALT; SAL MARINUS, SAL NIGER; imported from France, Portugal, and Spain, and obtained from sea-water evaporated in shallow ponds by the sun; large-grained and dark-coloured.——BRITISH BAY SALT, CHESHIRE LARGE-GRAINED S.; by evaporating native brine at a heat of 130° to 140° Fahr.; hard cubical crystals. Both of the above are used to salt provisions for hot climates, as they dissolve very slowly in the brine as it grows weaker. CHESHIRE STOVED SALT, LUMP S., BASKET S.; obtained by evaporating the brine of salt springs; small flaky crystals.——LONDON’S PATENT SOLID SALT; Cheshire rock salt, melted and ladled into moulds.——ROCK SALT, FOSSIL S.; SAL GEMMÆ, SAL FOSSILIS; found in mineral beds in Cheshire; has commonly a reddish colour; chiefly exported for purification.

_Prop._ Pure chloride of sodium is fixed in the air; crystallises in anhydrous cubes, which are often grouped into pyramids or steps; dissolves in about 2-1/2 parts of water at 60° Fahr.; its solubility is not increased by heat; it is slightly soluble in proof spirit; insoluble in alcohol; decrepitates when heated; fuses at a red heat, and volatilises at a much higher temperature.

_Pur., &c._ The common salt of commerce contains small portions of chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of calcium; and hence has commonly a slightly bitter taste, and deliquesces in the air. To separate these, dissolve the salt in 4 times its weight of pure water, and drop into the filtered solution, first, chloride of barium, and then carbonate of sodium, as long as any precipitate falls; filter, and evaporate the clear fluid very slowly, until the last crystallises, which is pure chloride of sodium. (‘Thomson’s Chem.,’ ii, 377.) For medical purposes the Ph. E. orders the salt to be dissolved in boiling water, and the solution to be filtered and evaporated over the fire, skimming off the crystals as they form, which must then be quickly washed in cold water, and dried. A solution of pure salt is not precipitated by a solution of carbonate of ammonium, followed by a solution of phosphate of sodium; a solution of 9 gr. in distilled water is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 26 gr. of nitrate of silver. (Ph. E.)

_Uses._ Common salt is stimulant, antiseptic, and vermifuge, and is hence employed as a condiment, and for preserving animal and vegetable substances. It is also occasionally used in medicine, in clysters and lotions.

=Sodium, Dried Sulphate of.= _Syn._ SODÆ SULPHAS EXSICCATA, EFFLORESCED GLAUBER SALT. Expose the crystals to a warm dry air till they fall into powder. They lose half their weight. The dose is reduced in like proportion.

=Sodium, Effervescing Citro-tartrate of.= _Syn._ SODÆ CITRO-TARTRAS EFFERVESCENS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Mix thoroughly, powdered bicarbonate of soda, 17 oz.; tartaric acid, 8 oz.; and citric acid, 6 oz.; place in a dish or pan of suitable form, heated to between 200° and 220° Fahr., and when the particles begin to aggregate, stir assiduously till they assume a granular form. By means of suitable sieves separate the granules of uniform and most convenient size. Preserve in well-closed bottles.

=Sodium, Ethylate.= Prepared as POTASSIUM ETHYLATE, substituting sodium for potassium. Properties similar to ethylate of potassium.

=Sodium, Hydrate of.= NaHO. _Syn._ HYDRATE OF SODA, SODIUM HYDRATE, CAUSTIC SODA; SODÆ HYDRAS. _Prep._ Exactly in the same manner from carbonate of sodium as potassium hydrate is prepared from carbonate of potassium.

The ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’[177] states that a pure hydrate of sodium is now manufactured from metallic sodium by the following method:——A deep silver vessel, of a hemispherical form, and capable of holding about four gallons of water, is employed. Into this vessel, which is cooled externally with a current of cold water, is placed a very little water, and upon the water is placed a cube of metallic sodium, of about half an inch in diameter.

[Footnote 177: 3rd series, i, 65.]

The vessel is made to revolve, so as continually to bring fresh portions of liquid into contact with the metal, and by this means explosion is avoided. When the first cube of metal has dissolved, and yielded a thick syrupy liquid, a little more water and a second cube of metal are added, and the reaction allowed to take place, as before, the vessel being kept in motion all the time. In this manner several pounds of sodium may be worked up into soda.

The thick syrup so resulting is next evaporated down, heated to redness, fused, and poured into a mould.

Inasmuch as the price of sodium is five shillings a pound, the yield of soda from 1 lb. of metal being about 1-3/4 lb., it is plain that the alkali so prepared must be cheap.

The danger of explosions (which, however, are not likely to occur if proper care is taken) necessitates the employment of skilled labour in this manufacture, and constitutes a very serious drawback to the commercial success of the process.

Greyish, semitranslucent, deliquescent masses, very soluble in water, and bearing a very great resemblance to the corresponding potassium compound.

=Sodium, Hypochlo′′rite of.= _Syn._ CHLORINATED SODA, CHLORIDE OF SODA‡; SODA CHLORINATA, L. _Prep._ (Dr Christison.) Dried carbonate of sodium, 19 parts, are triturated with water, 1 part, and the mixture placed in a proper vessel, and exposed to the prolonged action of chlorine gas, generated from a mixture of chloride of sodium, 10 parts; binoxide of manganese, 8 parts; sulphuric acid, 14 parts; (diluted with) water, 10 parts.

=Sodium Hypophosphate.= See PHOSPHORUS.

=Sodium, Hyposul′phite of.= Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ SODÆ HYPOSULPHIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Dried carbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; flower of sulphur, 10 oz.; mix, and slowly heat the powder in a porcelain dish until the sulphur melts; stir the fused mass freely to expose it to the atmosphere until the incandescence flags, then dissolve the mass in water, and immediately boil the filtered liquid with some flowers of sulphur; lastly, carefully concentrate the solution for crystals.

2. A stream of well-washed sulphurous anhydride gas is passed into a strong solution of carbonate of sodium, which is then digested with sulphur at a gentle heat during several days; by evaporating the solution at a moderate temperature, the salt is obtained in large and regular crystals.

3. (Capaun’s process.) Boil a dilute solution of caustic soda with sulphur to saturation, then pass sulphurous acid gas into the solution until a small portion, when filtered, is found to have a very pale yellow colour; when this is the case, it must be filtered and evaporated, as before.

4. (P. Cod.) Dissolve carbonate of sodium, 8 parts, in water, 16 parts; add of sublimed sulphur, 1 part, and pass sulphurous acid gas, in excess, into the solution; next boil the liquid in a glass matrass for a few minutes, filter, gently evaporate the filtrate to 1-3rd its volume, and set it aside in a cool place to crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ Hyposulphite of sodium crystallises in four-sided prisms, which, in the dry state, are unalterable in the air; it is freely soluble in water. It may be perfectly freed from sulphide of sodium by agitating it with about half its weight of alcohol; the alcohol dissolves out the sulphide, which may then be easily separated. This salt is now very extensively used in the practice of photography, also as an ‘antichlore,’ to extract the last traces from paper pulp.

=Sodium, Iodide of.= NaI. _Syn._ SODII IODIDUM. _Prep._ As IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. This, as well as the bromide, crystallises in clear or whitish cubes, deliquescent, and soluble in water. Used in medicine in the same manner as the corresponding potassium salts.

=Sodium and Iron, Pyrophosphate of.= _Syn._ SODÆ ET FERRI PYROPHOSPHAS, NATRUM PYROPHOSPHORICUM FERRATUM. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Dissolve 20 oz. of pyrophosphate of soda in 40 oz. of cold distilled water, and add, gradually, to the solution, and with constant stirring, 8 oz. (by weight) of solution of perchloride of iron (Ph. G.), previously diluted with 22 oz. of distilled water, as long as the precipitate is redissolved. Filter, and to the clear, bright green liquid thus obtained pour in 100 oz. (by weight) of rectified spirit, wash the precipitate with more spirit, press it between blotting paper, and dry by a gentle heat.

=Sodium Lactate.= _Syn._ SODII LACTAS. _Prep._ Let lactate acid be diluted with three parts of water; saturate whilst boiling with sodium bicarbonate; then evaporate, and run into flakes.

Sodium lactate is a very deliquescent salt. The solution evaporated to the consistence of a syrup deposits flattened prismatic crystals, and stellar groups of needles.

=Sodium, Ni′trate of.= NaNO_{3}. _Syn._ CHILI SALTPETRE, CUBIC NITRE; SODÆ NITRAS, L. This salt occurs native like ordinary nitre, and is chiefly imported into England from South America. It is largely employed as a manure, in the preparation of nitric acid, and, recently, in the manufacture of fireworks, on account of the comparative slowness with which it burns. It is deliquescent and very soluble in water.

=Sodium, Nitrite of.= _Syn._ SODÆ NITRIS. (B. P., 1864.) Mix nitrate of soda, 1 lb., and charcoal, recently burned, and in fine powder, 1-1/4 oz., thoroughly in a mortar, and drop the mixture in successive portions into a clay crucible, heated to a dull redness. When the salt has become quite white, raise the heat so as to liquefy it, pour on to a clean flagstone, and when it has solidified break into fragments, and keep in a stoppered bottle.

=Sodium, Oxide of.= Na_{2}O. _Syn._ ANHYDROUS SODA. _Prep._ By burning dry metallic sodium in air. White powder, very deliquescent, and soluble in water, forming pure sodium hydrate.

=Sodium, Phos′phate of.= Na_{2}PO_{4}.12Aq. _Syn._ COMMON TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF SODA, RHOMBIC P. OF S.; SODÆ PHOSPHAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Take of powdered bone ashes, 10 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 44 fl. oz.; mix, add gradually of water 6 pints, and digest for 3 days, replacing the water which evaporates; then add 6 pints of boiling water, strain through linen, and wash the residue on the filter with boiling water; mix the liquors, and, after defecation, decant and evaporate to 6 pints; let the impurities again settle, and neutralise the clear fluid, heated to boiling, with a solution of carbonate of sodium in slight excess; crystals will be deposited as the solution cools, and by successively evaporating, adding a little more carbonate of sodium to the mother liquor till it is feebly alkaline, and cooling, more crystals may be obtained; these must be kept in close vessels. The formula of the Ph. D. is nearly similar. It is placed in the Materia Medica of the B. P. and Ph. L.

2. (Funcke.) To ground calcined bones, diffused through water, add a little dilute sulphuric acid to saturate any carbonate of calcium present; when effervescence ceases, dissolve the whole in nitric acid, q. s.; to this solution add as much sulphate of sodium as the bone ash used, and distil the whole to recover the nitric acid; the residuum is treated with water, and the resulting solution filtered, evaporated, and crystallised.

_Prop., &c._ It forms very beautiful oblique rhombic prisms, of the formula Na_{2}H,PO_{4},12H_{2}O, which effloresce in the air, dissolve in about 4 parts of cold water and in 2 parts at 212° Fahr., and fuse when heated. As a medicine it is mildly aperient, in doses of 1/2 to 1 oz., or even more; and antacid in doses of 20 to 30 gr., frequently repeated. It has a purely saline taste, resembling that of culinary salt, and is commonly taken in broth or soup.

=Sodium Pyrophosphate (Crystallised).= _Syn._ SODÆ PYROPHOSPHAS CRYSTALLISATA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ This salt may be obtained by heating, gently at first, and afterwards to a red heat, crystallised phosphate of sodium in a platinum crucible until all the water is driven off, and the salt has become fused. Dissolve the fused mass in water, filter, and concentrate until it has a density of 1·20, and crystallise in the cold.

=Sodium, Salicylate of.= _Syn._ SODÆ SALICYLUS. _Prep._ Made by neutralising a solution of pure salicylic acid with caustic soda, and evaporating to dryness. It must be purified by crystallisation from alcohol. Antipyretic; given in acute rheumatism.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 grams.

=Sodium Santonate.= _Syn._ SODÆ SANTONAS. This salt is made by digesting an alcoholic solution of santonic acid with carbonate of soda, evaporating, redissolving in strong alcohol, and crystallising.

=Sodium, Sesquicarbonate of.= Na_{4}H_{2}(CO_{3})_{3}. A salt found native on the banks of the soda lakes of Sotrena, in Africa, whence it is exported as ‘Trona.’

=Sodium Silicate.= See GLASS, SOLUBLE.

=Sodium, Stan′nate of.= Na_{2}SnO_{3}. _Prep._ (Greenwood & Co.) Caustic soda, 22 lbs., is heated to low redness in an iron crucible, when nitrate of sodium, 8 lbs., and common salt, 4 lbs., are added; when the mixture is at a ‘fluxing heat,’ 10 lbs. of feathered block tin is stirred in with an iron rod, both the stirring and heat being continued until the mass becomes red hot and ‘pasty,’ and ammoniacal fumes are given off. The product may be purified by solution and crystallisation. Patented. (See _below_.)

=Sodium, Stan′nite of.= _Prep._ (Greenwood & Co.) From caustic soda, 13-1/2 lbs.; feathered block tin and common salt, of each 4 lbs.; as the last. Patented. Both the above are used to prepare tin mordants (about 12 oz. to water, 1 gall.). The stannate and stannite of potassium are prepared in a similar manner.

=Sodium Sulphate.= _Syn._ SODÆ SULPHIS. _Prep._ Pass sulphurous acid to saturation through a solution of carbonate of soda. Used internally for sarcina ventriculi, and externally as an application in skin diseases of fungous origin. Hyposulphate of soda is employed in the same cases.

=Sodium, Sul′phate of.= Na_{2}SO_{4}.10Aq. _Syn._ GLAUBER’S SALT; SODÆ SULPHAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), SAL CATHARTICUS GLAUBERI†, L. This is obtained as a secondary product in various chemical processes; but it may be easily formed directly from its constituents.

_Prop., &c._ It forms transparent, six-sided, irregular, channelled prisms, with dihedral summits, of the formulae Na_{2}SO_{4}10H_{2}O, which effloresce in the air, and fall to an opaque white powder; soluble in about 3 parts of water at 60°, and in considerably less at 100° Fahr., but at a higher temperature its solubility rapidly lessens; insoluble in alcohol; fuses when heated. It is seldom wilfully adulterated. When pure the solution is neutral to test paper; nitrate of silver throws down scarcely anything from a dilute solution; nitrate of baryta more, which is not dissolved by nitric acid. It loses 55·5% of its weight by a strong heat.

_Uses._ It is purgative, but being extremely bitter-tasted, is now less frequently used than formerly. Its nauseous flavour is said to be covered by lemon juice.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 oz. The dried salts (SODÆ SULPHAS EXSICCATA) is twice as strong. LYMINGTON GLAUBER’S SALT is a mixture of the sulphates of soda and potassa obtained from the mother liquor of sea salt.

=Sodium, Sul′phide of.= _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Saturate a solution of caustic soda (sp. gr. 1·200) with sulphuretted hydrogen, closely cover up the vessel, and set it aside that crystals may form; drain, press them in bibulous paper, and at once preserve them in a well-closed bottle. Used to make mineral waters, and in certain skin diseases.

Of this salt Dr Ringer says——“it possesses the property of preventing and arresting suppuration, and stopping the formation of pus. Given for boils and carbuncles; it also produces excellent results.——_Dose._ For adults, 1/10th of a grain, mixed with sugar of milk every hour or two on the tongue.

The anhydrous sulphides resemble closely and are prepared in the same manner as the potassium sulphides.

=Sodium, Sulpho-Carbolate.= _Syn._ SODÆ SULPHO-CARBOLAS. (Pareira.) _Prep._ Mix two volumes of pure carbolic acid with one volume of sulphuric acid in a flask, and heat the mixture to 280° or 290° F. for five minutes. Let cool, dilute, and saturate with carbonate of soda, evaporate, and crystallise. The other sulpho-carbolates may be prepared in the same manner.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., in phthisis and zymotic diseases; externally, as a lotion in ozæna and fetid ulcers.

=Sodium, Sulpho-Salicylate of.= _Syn._ SODÆ SULPHO-SALICYLAS. Mr J. Williams obtains this salt by treating very pure salicylic acid with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid, then adding carbonate of barium, and decomposing the sulpho-salicylate of barium by sulphate of soda (see ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ Sept. 30th, 1876).

=Sodium Sulphovinate.= _Syn._ SODII SULPHOVINAS. _Prep._ Sulphovinic acid is first prepared by pouring gradually, with great care, and increasingly stirring with a glass rod, 1000 grams of 60° sulphuric acid into 1000 grams of rectified 96° alcohol. The mixture is left for some hours in contact, then diluted with 4 litres of distilled water, and afterwards saturated with pure barium carbonate.

When the saturation is complete the barium sulphate is allowed to deposit on a filter. The solution of barium sulphovinate is then decomposed with pure carbonate of soda until it ceases to give a precipitate.

The liquid, evaporated in a water bath, is left to crystallise. If necessary the crystals are purified by recrystallisation. They should be kept in well-closed flasks.

Sodium sulphovinate crystallises in hexagonal tables, which are slightly unctuous to the touch, and very soluble in water and in alcohol. If heated in a capsule they give off, at 120°, the alcohol which they contain in combination. They become gradually deprived of bitterness. Sodium sulphovinate ought not to contain sulphuric acid, nor have an acid taste. It should not be precipitated by barium chloride, and especially by soluble sulphates. The possession of either of these properties is a proof of faulty preparation, and that a portion of the sulphovinic acid has been decomposed. In such a case it should be rejected.

Sulphovinate of soda is said to be a very effective, and by no means unpleasant, saline aperient, and to be unattended with subsequent constipation. The dose is from 5 to 6 dr.

=Sodium, Tartrate of, and Potassium.= KNaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}.4Aq. _Syn._ TARTRATE OF POTASSA AND SODA, ROCHELLE SALT, SEIGNETTE’S S., TARTARISED SODA†; SODÆ TARTARATA (B. P.), SODÆ, POTASSIO-TARTRAS (Ph. L.), SODÆ ET POTASSÆ TARTRAS (Ph. E. & D.), SODA TARTARIZATA,†, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of carbonate of sodium, 12 oz.; boiling water, 2 quarts; dissolve, and add, gradually, of powdered bitartrate of potassium, 16 oz. (or q. s.); strain, evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside to crystallise; dry the resulting crystals, and evaporate the mother liquor that it may yield more of them. The formulæ of the other colleges are nearly similar.

_Prop., &c._ Large, transparent, hard, right rhombic prisms, often occurring in halves; slightly efflorescent; soluble in 5 parts of water at 60° Fahr. Its “solution neither changes the colour of litmus nor of turmeric. On the addition of sulphuric acid, bitartrate of potassium is thrown down; on adding either nitrate of silver or chloride of barium nothing is thrown down, or only what is redissolved by the addition of water.” (Ph. L.) By heat it yields a mixture of the pure carbonates of potassium and sodium.

Potassio-tartrate of sodium is a mild and cooling laxative.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 oz., largely diluted with water. It forms the basis of the popular aperient called SEIDLITZ POWDERS.

=Sodium, Vale′′rianate of.= NaC_{5}H_{6}O_{2}. _Syn._ SODÆ VALERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._(Ph. D.) Dilute oil of vitriol, 6-1/2 fl. oz., with water, 1/2 pint; then dissolve of powdered bichromate of potassium, 9 oz., with the aid of heat, in water, 3-1/3 pints; when both solutions have cooled, put them into a matrass, and having added of fusel oil (alcohol amylicum——Ph. D.) 4 fl. oz., shake them together repeatedly until the temperature, which first rises to 150°, has fallen to 80° or 90° Fahr.; a condenser being connected, next apply heat so as to distil over about 4 pints of liquid; saturate this exactly with a pint, or q. s., of solution of caustic soda, separate the liquid from the oil which floats upon the surface, and evaporate it until the residual salt is partially liquefied; the heat being now withdrawn, and the salt concreted, this last, whilst still warm, is to be divided into fragments, and preserved in well-stopped bottles.

_Obs._ This salt is intended to be used in the preparation of the VALERIANATES OF IRON, QUININE, and ZINC.

=SOILS.= These are classified by agriculturists according to their chief ingredients, as loamy, clayey, sandy, chalky, and peaty soils. Of these the first is the best for most purposes, but the others may be improved by the addition of the mineral constituents of which they are deficient. Sand and lime or chalk are the proper additions to clayey soils, and clay gypsum, or loam, to sandy and gravelly ones. Clayey soils are expensive to bring into a fertile state; but when this is once effected, and they are well manured, they yield immense crops of wheat, oats, beans, clover, and most fruits and flowers of the rosaceous kinds.

The fertilisation of soils is suggested partly by chemical analysis, practical experience, and geological observations. In cases where a barren soil is examined with a view to its improvement it is, when possible, compared with an extremely fertile soil in the same neighbourhood, and in a similar situation; the difference given by their analyses indicates the nature of the manure required, and the most judicious methods of cultivation; and thus a plan of improvement is suggested, founded upon scientific principles.

The analysis of soils may be briefly and generally described as follows:——

1. The general character of the soil, as loamy, sandy, stony, rather stony, &c., being noted, 3 or 4 lbs. of it, fairly selected as an average specimen, may be taken during a period of ordinary dry weather. From this, after crushing or bruising the lumps with a piece of wood, all stones of a larger size than that of a filbert may be picked out, and their proportion to the whole quantity duly registered.

2. 1000 grains of the remainder may be next dried by the heat of boiling water, until the mass ceases to lose weight; and, afterwards, exposed to a moist atmosphere for some time. The loss of weight in the first case, and the increase of weight in the second, indicate the absorbent powers of the soil.

3. The matter from No. 2, freed from siliceous stones by garbling, may be gradually heated to dull redness in a shallow open vessel, avoiding waste from decrepitation, &c. The loss of weight, divided by 10, gives the percentage quantity of vegetable or organic matter present (nearly).

4. Another 1000 grains (see No. 1) may be next washed with successive portions of cold water as long as anything is removed. The residuum, after being dried, indicates the proportion of sand and gravel (nearly).

5. Another portion of the soil (100, 200, or more gr., according to its character) is tested in the manner described under CARBONATE and ALKALIMETRY. The loss of weight in carbonic acid indicates the quantity of CARBONATE of lime present in the sample examined; 22 gr. of the former being equal to 50 gr. of the latter.

6. Another like portion of the soil may be gently boiled for 4 or 5 hours, along with dilute hydrochloric acid, in a flask furnished with a long glass tube passing through the cork, to prevent loss (see ETHER); after that time the whole must be thrown upon a filter, and what refuses to pass through (silica) washed with distilled water, dried, ignited, and weighed.

7. The filtrate and washings from No. 6 are next successively treated for alumina (pure clay), lime, phosphate of lime, phosphoric acid, oxide of iron, alkalies (potassa or soda), ammonia (both ready formed and latent), &c. &c., in the manner noticed under GLASS, GUANO, and the names of the respective substances referred to. See AGRICULTURE, MANURES, &c.

=SOL′ANINE.= _Syn._ SOLANI, SOLANINA, L. A peculiar basic substance, obtained from the leaves and stem of _Solanum Dulcamara_ or _bitter-sweet_, and other species of the _Solanaceæ_.

=SOL′DERING.= The union of metallic surfaces by means of a more fusible metal fluxed between them. The method of autogenous soldering, invented by M. De. Richmont, is an exception to this definition. In all the cases surfaces must be perfectly clean, and in absolute contact, and the air must be excluded, to prevent oxidation. For this last purpose the brazier and silversmith use powdered borax made into a paste with water; the coppersmith, powdered sal ammoniac; and the tinman, powdered resin. Tin-foil applied between the joints of fine brass work, first wetted with a strong solution of sal ammoniac, makes an excellent juncture, care being taken to avoid too much heat. See SOLUTION (Soldering), and _below_.

=SOL′DERS.= _Prep._ 1. (For copper, iron, and dark brass.) From copper and zinc, equal parts; melted together. For pale brass more zinc must be used.

2. (Fine solder.) From tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. Melts at 350° Fahr. Used to tin and solder copper, tin plates, &c.

3. (For German silver.) From German silver, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; melted together, run into thin flakes, and then powdered. Also as No. 7.

4. (Glazier’s.) From lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. Melts at 500° Fahr.

5. (For gold.) Gold, 12 pennyweights; copper, 4 do.; silver, 2 do.

6. (For lead and zinc.) From lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

7. (For pewter, Britannia metal, &c.) From tin, 10 parts; lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 to 3 parts.

8. (For silver.) From fine brass, 6 parts; silver, 5 parts; zinc, 2 parts.

9. (For tin plate.) From tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. The addition of bismuth, 1 part, renders it fit for pewter.

=SOLE.= The _Solea vulgaris_, a well-known fish. It is perhaps more frequently eaten than any other flat fish, and, when skilfully cooked, exceeds them all in delicacy, nutritiousness, and flavour.

=SOLU′TION.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO, L. Under the head of solutions (SOLUTIONES), in pharmacy, are properly included only those liquids which consist of water, or an aqueous menstruum, in which has been dissolved an appropriate quantity of any soluble substance to impart to the liquor its peculiar properties. When spirit is the menstruum, the liquid receives the name of alcoholic solution, spirit, or tincture. In the B. P. and the Ph. L. & D. aqueous solutions are named LIQUORS (LIQUORES), whilst in the Ph. E., and in the old pharmacopœias generally, they are termed WATERS (AQUÆ).

The following list embraces all the solutions of the British pharmacopœias, with a few others likely to be useful to the reader. Some other preparations to which the name has been given will be found under LIQUORS, TINCTURES, &c.

=Solution of Ac′etate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA, WATER OF A. OF A., MINDERERUS’ SPIRIT; AMMONIÆ ACETATIS LIQUOR (B. P.), LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ACETATIS (Ph. L. & D.), AMMONIÆ ACETATIS AQUA (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) From dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; exactly neutralised by sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in coarse powder), 9 dr., or q. s. Sp. gr. 1·022.

2. (Ph. E.) Distilled vinegar (preferably from French vinegar), sp. gr, 1·005, 24 fl. oz.; carbonate (sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 oz., or q. s. Sp. gr. 1·011.

3. (Ph. D.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 2-1/2 oz.; dilute acetic acid, 3 pints. Sp. gr. 1·012.

4. (B. P.) Carbonate of ammonia, 3-1/4, or sufficient; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 10; distilled water, 50. Dissolve the carbonate in the acid, and add the water.

_Prop., &c._ Free from colour and odour. It changes the colour neither of litmus nor turmeric. Sulphuretted hydrogen being dropped in, it is not discoloured, neither is anything thrown down on the addition of chloride of barium. What is precipitated by nitrate of silver is soluble in water, but especially so in nitric acid. Potassa being added, it emits ammonia; and sulphuric acid being added, it gives off acetic vapours. The fluid being evaporated, what remains is completely destroyed by heat.

_Uses, &c._ Solution of acetate of ammonia is a very common and excellent febrifuge and diaphoretic, and, in large doses, aperient saline liquor. Taken warm, in bed, it generally proves a powerful sudorific; and as it operates without heat, it is much used in febrile and inflammatory disorders. Its action may likewise be determined to the kidneys, by walking about in the cold air.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 dr., twice or thrice daily, either by itself or along with other medicines. _Externally_, as a discutient and refrigerant lotion; and diluted (1 oz. to 9 oz. of water), as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. For this last purpose it must be free from excess of ammonia.

5. (Concentrated.) Saturate acetic acid, sp. gr. 1·038, 1/2 gall., with carbonate of ammonia (in powder), 2-1/2 lbs., or q. s.; carefully avoiding excess.

_Obs._ This article is in great demand in the wholesale drug trade, under the name of ‘concentrated liquor of acetate of ammonia’ (LIQ. AMMON. ACET. CONC.). It is very convenient for dispensing. One fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of water forms the LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ACETATIS of the Ph. L.

=Solution of Acetate of Lead.= See SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.

=Solution of Acetate of Morphia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR MORPHIÆ ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Acetate of morphia, 4 dr.; acetic acid, 15 drops; distilled water, 1 pint; proof spirit, 1/2 pint; mix, and dissolve. Sixty drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of acetate of morphia.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 or 20 drops.

2. (B. P.) Acetate of morphia, 4 gr.; diluted acetic acid, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; distilled water, 6 dr.; dissolve in the mixed liquids.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 minims.

3. (Ph. D.) Acetate of morphia, 82 gr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.; distilled water, 15 fl. oz. 120 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the acetate.——_Dose_, 10 to 45 or 50 drops, or similar to that of tincture of opium.

4. (Magendie.) Each fl. dr. contains 1-1/2 gr. of acetate (nearly).——_Dose_, 5 to 15 drops. Anodyne, hypnotic, and narcotic; in those cases in which opium is inadmissible. See MORPHIA.

=Solution of Aconitia.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO ACONITIÆ (Dr Turnbull). _Prep._ Aconitia, 1 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr. To be applied externally by means of a sponge in neuralgic and rheumatic affections.

=Solution of Al′um (Compound).= _Syn._ BATE’S ALUM WATER; LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), AQUA ALUMINOSA COMPOSITA †, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Alum and sulphate of zinc, of each 1 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; dissolve, and filter (if necessary). Detergent and astringent. Used as a lotion for old ulcers, chilblains, excoriations, &c.; and, largely diluted with water, as an eye-wash and injection.

=Solution of Ammo′′nia.= See LIQUOR OF AMMONIA.

=Solution of Ammo′′nio-ni′trate of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ HUME’S TEST; SOLUTIO ARGENTI AMMONIATI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Nitrate of silver (pure crystallised), 44 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve and add ammonia water, gradually, until the precipitate, at first thrown down, is very nearly, but not entirely, redissolved. Used as a test for arsenic.

=Solution of Ammo′′nio-sul′phate of Cop′per.= _Syn._ LIQUOR CUPRI AMMONIO-SULPHATIS (Ph. L.), CUPRI AMMONIATI SOLUTIO (Ph. E.), C. A. AQUA, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Ammonio-sulphate of copper, 1 dr.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, and filter. Stimulant and detergent. Applied to indolent ulcers, and, when largely diluted, to remove specks on the cornea; also used as a test for arsenic.

=Solution for Anatom′ical Preparations, &c.= _Syn._ ANTISEPTIC SOLUTION. _Prep._ 1. Nearly saturate water with sulphurous acid, and add a little creasote.

2. Dissolve chloride of tin, 4 parts, in water, 100 parts, to which 3% of hydrochloric acid has been added.

3. Dissolve corrosive sublimate, 1 part, and chloride of sodium, 3 parts, in water, 100 parts, to which 2% of hydrochloric acid has been added.

4. Mix liquor of ammonia (strong) with 3 times its weight (each) of water and rectified spirit.

5. Sal ammoniac, 1 part; water, 10 or 11 parts. For muscular parts of animals.

6. Sulphate of zinc, 1 part; water, 15 to 25 parts. For muscles, integuments, and cerebral masses.

7. (Dr Babington.) Wood naphtha, 1 part; water, 7 parts; or wood naphtha undiluted, as an injection.

8. (Sir W. Burnett.) Concentrated solution of chloride of zinc, 1 lb.; water, 1 gall. The substances are immersed in the solution for 2 to 4 days, and then dried in the air.

9. (Gannal.) Alum and culinary salt, of each 1/2 lb.; nitre, 1/4 lb.; water, 1 gall.

10. (Goadsby.)——_a._ From bay salt, 2 oz.; alum, 1 oz.; bichloride of mercury, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For ordinary purposes.

_b._ To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For very tender tissues, and where there is a tendency to mouldiness.

_c._ From bay salt, 1/4 lb.; bichloride of mercury, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For subjects containing carbonate of lime.

_d._ From bay salt, 1/4 lb.; arsenious acid, 10 gr.; water, 1 pint; dissolve by heat. For old preparations.

_e._ To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 1 gr. As the last, when there is a tendency to the softening of parts; and, diluted, for mollusca. These solutions are approved of by Prof. Owen.

11. (M. Réboulet.) Nitre, 1 part; alum, 2 parts; chloride of lime, 4 parts; water, 16 or 20 parts; to be afterwards diluted according to circumstances. For pathological specimens. 12. (Dr Stapleton.) Alum, 2-1/4 oz.; nitre, 1 dr.; water, 1 quart. For pathological specimens.

13. (For FEATHERS——Beasley.) Strychnia, 16 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

_Obs._ These fluids are used for preserving ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY, &c., by immersing them therein, in close vessels; or, for temporary purposes, applying them by means of a brush or piece of rag. The presence of corrosive sublimate is apt to render animal substances very hard. See PUTREFACTION.

=Solution, Antiseptic.= (See _above_.)

=Solution of Arseniate of Ammonia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ARSENIATIS AMMONIÆ. (Hosp. Of St Louis.) _Prep._ Arseniate of ammonia, 4 gr.; distilled water, 4 oz.; spirit of angelica, 2 dr.——_Dose_, 12 to 30 minims. There are other formulæ for the solution, differing in strength from the above.

Dr Neligan gives us Biett’s:——Arseniate of ammonia, 1-1/2 gr.; distilled water, 3 oz.; spirit of angelica, 6 dr.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr.

Bouchardat says 6 gr. to 8 oz. of distilled water.——_Dose._ From 12 drops to 1 dr.

=Solution of Arseniate of Soda.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ARSENIATIS SODÆ. PEARSON’S ARSENICAL SOLUTION. _Prep._ Arseniate of soda, 4 gr.; distilled water, 4 oz.——_Dose_, 12 minims to 30.

=Solution of Arseniate of Soda.= (B. P.) _Syn._ LIQUOR SODÆ ARSENIATIS. _Prep._ Dissolve arseniate of soda (rendered anhydrous by a heat not exceeding 300° Fahr.) 4 gr. in distilled water, 1 oz.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 minims.

=Solution, Arsenical.= _Syn._ MINERAL SOLUTION; SOLUTIO ARSENICALIS, SOLUTIO MINERALIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Devergie.) As SOLUTION OF ARSENITE OF POTASSA, Ph. L., but of only 1-50th the strength, and flavoured with compound spirit of balm, and coloured to a deep rose with cochineal.

2. (Pearson.) Arseniate of soda, 4 gr.; water, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops during the day. (See _below_.)

=Solution of Arse′′nious Acid.= See DROPS, AGUE, and ARSENIOUS ACID.

=Solution of Ar′senite of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ FOWLER’S MINERAL SOLUTION; LIQUOR POTASSÆ ARSENITIS. (Ph. L.), LIQUOR ARSENICALIS (B. P., Ph. E., D., & U. S.), L. _Prep._ (B. P., Ph. L., & E.) Arsenious acid, coarsely powdered, and carbonate of potassa, of each 80 gr.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil until dissolved, and add, to the cold solution, compound tincture of lavender, 5 fl. dr.; water, q. s. to make the whole exactly measure a pint. Tonic, antiperiodic, and alterative.——_Dose_, 4 or 5 drops, gradually and cautiously increased; in agues and various scaly skin diseases. It is preferably taken soon after a meal. See ARSENIOUS ACID, &c.

=Solution of Atropia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ATROPIÆ (B. P.). _Prep._ Atropia, 4 gr.: rectified spirit, 1 dr.; dissolve, and add water, 7 dr.; mix.——_Dose_, 1 minim.

=Solution of Auro-Chloride of Gold.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO AURI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI. (Furnari.) _Prep._ Ammonio-chloride of gold, 8 gr.; distilled water and rectified spirit, of each 10 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful morning and evening in sugared water for dysmenorrhœa and amenorrhœa.

=Solution of Bimeconate of Morphiæ.= SOLUTIO MORPHIÆ BIMECONATIS. There is no standard formula for this preparation. It is made about the same strength as tincture of opium. The following contains 1 gr. in 84 minims:——Bimeconate of morphia, 10 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.; distilled water, 13 dr.

=Solution of Bismuth and Citrate of Ammonia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR BISMUTHI ET AMMONIÆ CITRATIS (B. P.). Purified bismuth, 1; nitric acid, 2; citric acid, 2; solution of ammonia, a sufficiency; mix the nitric acid with an ounce of distilled water, and add the bismuth in successive portions. When effervescence has ceased, apply for ten minutes a heat approaching that of ebullition, and decant the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate the solution until it is reduced to 2, then add the citric acid previously dissolved in 4 of distilled water, and afterwards the solution of ammonia in small quantities at a time, until the precipitate formed is redissolved, and the solution is neutral or slightly alkaline to test paper; dilute with distilled water to the volume of 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

=Solution of Bromine.= _Syn._ LIQUOR BROMINII. (Pourche.) _Prep._ Bromine, 1 part; distilled water, 40 parts.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 drops, 3 times a day. A stronger solution (1 part to 10) is sometimes used externally.

=Solution of Carbon (Detergent).= _Syn._ LIQUOR CARBONIS DETERGENS. This name is applied to an alcoholic solution of coal tar. Properly diluted it is used externally in skin diseases.

=Solution, Brandish’s.= See SOLUTION OF POTASSA.

=Solution, Burnett’s.= A solution of chloride of zinc. See SOLUTION FOR ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS (_above_), also DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS.

=Solution of Camphor, Carbonated.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO CAMPHORÆ CARBONICA. (Swediaur.) _Prep._ Water saturated with carbonic acid gas, 2 lbs.; powdered camphor, 3 dr.

=Solution of Camphor and Chloroform.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO CAMPHORÆ ET CHLOROFORMI. (Messrs Smith.) _Prep._ Camphor, 3 dr.; chloroform, 1 fl. dr. Dissolve. For exhibiting camphor with yolk of egg in emulsions.

=Solution of Carbolic Acid.= FOR THE TOILETTE. _Prep._ Crystallised carbolic acid, 10 parts; essence of millefleur, 1 part; tincture of Quillai Saponaria, 50; water, 1000 parts. Mix. The saponine replaces soap with advantage. The above should be employed diluted with 10 times its bulk of water, for disinfecting the skin, for washing the hands, after any risk of contagion, inoculation, &c.

=Solution of Car′bonate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA, CARBONATE OF AMMONIA WATER; LIQUOR AMMONIÆ SESQUICARBONATIS (Ph. L.), AQUA AMMONIÆ CARBONATIS (Ph. E.). _Prep._ (Ph. L. & E.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Stimulant and antacid.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., in water.

=Solution of Carbonate of Magnesia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ CARBONATIS (B. P.) _Prep._ Dissolve separately, each in 1/2 a pint of distilled water, sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; and carbonate of soda, 2-1/2 oz. Heat the solution of sulphate of magnesia to the boiling point, add the solution of carbonate of soda, and boil together until carbonic acid ceases to be evolved. Collect the precipitated carbonate of magnesia, and wash until what passes ceases to give a precipitate with chloride of barium. Mix the precipitate with a pint of distilled water, and in a suitable apparatus, charge with pure washed carbonic acid gas. Retain excess of carbonic acid under pressure for 24 hours. Filter to remove undissolved carbonate, and again pass carbonic acid into the solution. Keep in a bottle securely closed. (This contains about 13 gr. of carbonate of magnesia in each fluid ounce.)

=Solution of Carbonate of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ OIL OF TARTAR†, WATER OF SUBCARBONATE OF POTASH†; LIQUOR POTASSÆ CARBONATIS (Ph. L. & D.), L. P. SUBCARBONATIS†, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 oz. (10 oz.——Ph. D.); water, 1 pint; dissolve and filter (or decant). Sp. gr.——Ph. L., 1·473; Ph. D., 1·310.——_Dose_, 10 drops to 1 dr., as an antacid, &c.

=Solution of Carbonate of So′da.= _Syn._ SUBCARBONATE OF SODA WATER†; SODÆ CARBONATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Carbonate of soda (in crystals), 1-1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint. Sp. gr. 1·026.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1-1/2 fl. oz., as an antacid; in heartburn, dyspepsia, &c.

=Solution of Chloride of Antimony.= _Syn._ ANTIMONII CHLORIDI LIQUOR (B. P.). _Prep._ Dissolve black sulphide of antimony in boiling hydrochloric acid. Used as an escharotic, and in the preparation of oxide of antimony.

=Solution of Chlo′′ride of Ar′senic.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ARSENICI HYDROCHLORICUS (B. P.), LIQUOR ARSENICI CHLORIDI (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Arsenious acid (in coarse powder), 1/2 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; boil until the solution of the arsenious acid is complete, and, when cold, add enough distilled water to make the whole exactly measure a pint.——_Dose_, 4 to 5 drops.

2. (B. P.) Arsenious acid, 80 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr.; distilled water, 20 oz.; boil the two acids with 4 oz. of the water until a solution is effected, then add sufficient distilled water to make up 20 oz.——_Dose_, 2 to 8 minims.

=Solution of Chloride of Ba′′rium.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF BARYTA†; LIQUOR BARII CHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), SOLUTIO BARYTÆ MURIATIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. & E.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 1 dr. (1 oz.——Ph. D.), in water, 1 fl. oz. (8 oz. Ph. D.), and filter the solution. Sp. gr. (Ph. D.) 1·088.——_Dose_, 5 drops, gradually increased to 10 or 12, twice or thrice daily; in scrofula, scirrhous affections, and worms; _externally_, largely diluted, as a lotion in scrofulous ophthalmia.

=Solution of Chloride of Cal′cium.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF LIME†; CALCII CHLORIDI LIQUOR (Ph. D.), CALCIS MURIATIS SOLUTIO (Ph. E.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Fused chloride of calcium, 4 oz. (crystals, 8 oz.——Ph. E.); water, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve, and filter.

2. (Ph. D.) Fused chloride of calcium, 3 oz.; water, 12 oz. Sp. gr. 1·225.——_Dose_, 10 drops to 1 dr., or more; in scrofulous and glandular diseases, &c.

=Solution of Chloride of Zinc.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ZINCI CHLORIDI (B. P.). _Prep._ Granulated zinc, 8; hydrochloric acid, 22; solution of chlorine, q. s.; carbonate of zinc, 1/4; distilled water, 10. Mix the acid and water in a porcelain dish, add the zinc, and apply a gentle heat to promote the action until gas is no longer evolved; boil for half an hour, supplying the water lost by evaporation, and allow the product to cool. Filter it into a bottle, and add solution of chlorine by degrees, with frequent agitation until a brown sediment appears. Filter the liquid into a porcelain basin, and evaporate until it is reduced to the bulk of 20.

=Solution of Chlo′′rinated Lime.= _Syn._ BLEACHING LIQUID, SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF LIME‡, S. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME; SOLUTIO CALCIS HYPOCHLORIS, S. CALCIS CHLORIDI, CALCIS CHLORINATÆ LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime (‘chloride of lime’), 1/2 lb.; water, 1/2 gall.; triturate them together, then transfer the mixture to a stoppered bottle, and shake it repeatedly for the space of 3 hours; lastly, filter through calico, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

2. Chloride of lime (dry and good, and rubbed to fine powder), 9 lbs.; tepid water, 6 galls.; mix in a stoneware bottle capable of holding 8 galls., agitate frequently for a day or two, and, after 2 or 3 days’ repose, decant the clear portion, and keep it in well-corked bottles, in a cool situation. If filtered, it should be done as rapidly as possible, and only through coarsely powdered glass in a covered vessel.

3. LIQUOR CALCIS CHLORATÆ (B. P.). _Prep._ Blend well together, by trituration in a large mortar, 1 lb. of chlorinated lime with 1 gall. of water, transfer the mixture to a stoppered bottle, and shake it frequently for the space of 3 hours; pour it on a calico filter, and let the solution which passes through be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. 1·035.

_Obs._ The last is the usual strength sold in trade, under various attractive names, to give it importance. It is used as a disinfectant, bleacher, and fumigation; and, diluted with water, as a lotion, injection, or collyrium, in several diseases. See HYPOCHLORITE OF CALCIUM.

=Solution of Chlorinated lime, Spirituous.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO CALCIS CHLORIDI, SPIRITUOSA. (Chevallier). _Prep._ Chloride of lime, 3 dr.; distilled water, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 oz. Mix and filter.

=Solution of Chlorinated Potas′sa.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF POTASH‡, S. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF POTASSA, JAVELLE’S BLEACHING LIQUID; SOLUTIO POTASSÆ HYPOCHLORIS, LIQUOR POTASSÆ CHLORIDI, L. POTASSÆ CHLORINATÆ, L.; EAU DE JAVELLE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 1 part, in water, 10 parts, and pass chlorine gas through the solution to saturation.

2. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 part; water, 15 parts: agitate them together for an hour; next dissolve of carbonate of potassa, 2 oz., in water, 1/4 pint; mix the two solutions, and after a time either decant or filter.——_Uses, &c._ As the last.

=Solution of Chlorinated Soda.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF SODA‡, S. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF SODA, LABARRAQUE’S DISINFECTING LIQUID; SOLUTIO SODÆ HYPOCHLORIS, HYPOCHLORIS SODICUS AQUA SOLUTUS (P. Cod.), LIQUOR SODÆ CHLORINATÆ (Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.), Carbonate of soda (in crystals), 1 lb.; water, 1 quart; dissolve, and pass through the solution the chlorine evolved from a mixture of common salt, 4 oz.; binoxide of manganese, 3 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2-1/2 fl. oz. (4 oz.——Ph. L. 1836); diluted with water, 3 fl. oz.; placed in a retort, heat being applied to promote the action, and the gas being purified by passing through 5 fl. oz. of water before it enters the alkaline solution.

2. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime, 1/2 lb., and water, 3 pints, are triturated together in a marble mortar, after which the mixture is transferred to a stoppered bottle, agitated frequently during three hours, and then filtered through calico; in the mean time carbonate of soda (cryst.), 7 oz., is dissolved in water, 1 pint; the two solutions are next mixed, and, after agitation for about 10 minutes, the whole is filtered as before. The filtrate is to be preserved in a well-stopped bottle.

3. (B. P.) Dissolve 12 oz. of carbonate of soda in 36 oz. of distilled water, and put the solution into a glass vessel. Mix black oxide of manganese, 4 oz., and hydrochloric acid, 15 fl. oz., in a glass flask, with a bent tube attached by means of a cork to its mouth, apply a gentle heat, and with a suitable arrangement cause the gas evolved to pass first through a wash-bottle containing 4 oz. of water, and then into the solution of carbonate of soda, regulating heat so that the gas shall be slowly but constantly introduced. When the disengagement of chlorine has ceased, transfer the solution which has absorbed it to a stoppered bottle, and keep in a cool and dark place. Sp. gr. 1·103.

_Obs._ This solution is used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, and bleaching liquid.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 drops, in any bland fluid, in scarlet fever, sore throat, &c.; it is also made into a lotion, gargle, injection, and eye-water. Meat in a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is immediately restored by washing or immersion in this liquid.

=Solution of Chlo′′rine.= _Syn._ CHLORINE WATER; SOLUTIO CHLORINII, LIQUOR CHLORINI (Ph. L. & D.), CHLORINEI AQUA (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) On binoxide of manganese (in powder), 2 dr., placed in a retort, pour hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz., and pass the chlorine in distilled water, 1/2 pint, until it ceases to be evolved.

2. (Ph. E.) Muriate of soda (common salt), 60 gr.; red oxide of lead, 350 gr.; triturate them together, and put them into 8 fl. oz. of distilled water, contained in a stoppered bottle; then add of sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr.; and having replaced the stopper, agitate the whole, occasionally, until the oxide of lead turns white; lastly, after subsidence, pour off the clear liquid into another stoppered bottle.

3. (Ph. D.) Introduce into a gas bottle peroxide of manganese (in fine powder), 1/2 oz.; add of hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., (diluted with) water, 2 fl. oz.; apply a gentle heat, and cause the evolved gas to pass through water, 2 fl. oz., and then into a 3-pint bottle containing distilled water, 20 fl. oz., and whose mouth is loosely plugged with tow; when the air has been entirely displaced by the chlorine, cork the bottle loosely, and shake it until the chlorine is absorbed; it should now be transferred to a pint stoppered bottle, and preserved in a dark and cool place.

(B. P.) LIQUOR CHLORI. _Prep._ Put 1 oz. of black oxide of manganese, in fine powder, into a gas bottle, and having poured upon it 6 fl. oz. of hydrochloric acid, diluted with 2 oz. of distilled water, apply a gentle heat, and by suitable tubes cause the gas, as it is developed, to pass through 2 oz. of distilled water placed in an intermediate small phial, and thence to the bottom of a 3-pint bottle containing 30 oz. of distilled water, the mouth of which is loosely plugged with tow. As soon as the chlorine ceases to be developed, let the bottle be disconnected from the apparatus in which the gas has been generated, corked loosely, and shaken until the chlorine is absorbed. Lastly, introduce the solution into a green bottle furnished with a well-fitting stopper, and keep it in a cool and dark place. Sp. gr. 1·003. One fluid ounce contains 2·66 grains of chlorine.

_Prop., &c._ Irritant and acrid, but, when largely diluted, stimulant and antiseptic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr., in 1/2 pint of water, sweetened with a little sugar, in divided doses, during the day; in scarlatina, malignant sore throat, &c. On the large scale, liquid chlorine may be procured by passing the gas obtained by any of the methods named under CHLORINE into water, until it will absorb no more.

=Solution of Cit′rate of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR AMMONIÆ CITRATIS (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Dissolve citric acid, 3 oz., in distilled water, 1 pint; and to the solution add of sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in powder), 2-1/2 oz., or q. s. to exactly neutralise the liquor.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 fl. dr.

=Solution of Citrate of Magne′sia.= _Syn._ SOLUTION MAGNESIÆ CITRATIS. See MAGNESIUM, CITRATE OF.

(B. P.) Carbonate of magnesia, 100 gr.; citric acid, 200 gr.; syrup of lemons, 1/2 fl. oz.; bicarbonate of potash in crystals, 40 gr.; water, q. s. Dissolve the citric acid in 2 oz. of the water, and having added the carbonate of magnesia, stir until it is dissolved. Filter the solution into a strong half-pint bottle, add the syrup and water sufficient to nearly fill the bottle, then introduce the bicarbonate of potash, and immediately close the bottle with a cork, which should be secured with string or wire, afterwards shake till the bicarbonate has dissolved.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 fl. oz.

=Solution of Citrate of Morphia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR MORPHIÆ CITRATIS, SOLUTIO M. C., L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Pure morphia, 13 gr.; citric acid, 8 or 10 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of cochineal, 2 fl. dr.——_Dose_, 3 to 12 drops.

=Solution of Citrate of Potash.= _Syn._ LIQUOR POTASSÆ CITRATIS. NEUTRAL MIXTURE. (Ph. U. S.) _Prep._ Citric acid, 1/2 troy oz.; bicarbonate of potash, 330 gr.; water, 8 oz.

=Solution of Copai′ba.= See SOLUTION, SPECIFIC.

=Solution of Cor′rosive Sub′limate.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY; LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI† (Ph. L.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Corrosive sublimate and sal ammoniac, of each 10 gr.; water, 1 pint, dissolve.——_Dose._ As an alterative, 10 to 30 drops; as an antisyphilitic, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr., in simple or sweetened water. It must not be allowed to touch anything metallic. It also forms a most useful lotion in various skin diseases.

2. See LOTION, MERCURIAL.

=Solution of Cyanide of Potassium.= _Syn._ LIQUOR POTASSII CYANIDI. (Laming.) _Prep._ Cyanide of potassium, 22 gr.; proof spirit, 9 fl. dr. This is the strength of his hydrocyanic acid, which contains 1 gr. of real acid in 1 fl. dr. Magendie’s medicinal hydrocyanate of potash consists of cyanide of potassium dissolved in 8 times its weight of distilled water.

=Solution of Delphinia.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO DELPHINIÆ. (Dr Turnbull.) Delphinia, 1 scruple; rectified spirit, 2 oz. For outward use.

=Solution of Diac′etate of Lead.= See SOLUTION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.

=Solution, Donovan’s.= See SOLUTION OF HYDRIODATE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY (_below_).

=Solution, Escharotic (Freyburg’s).= _Syn._ SOLUTIO ESCHAROTICA, L. _Prep._ From camphor, 30 gr.; corrosive sublimate, 60 to 100 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve. In syphilitic vegetations, and specially condylomes. It is spread over the diseased surface, either at once or after the application of a ligature.

=Solution of Flints.= _Syn._ LIQUOR OF FLINTS; LIQUAMEN SILICUM, LIQUOR POTASSÆ SILICATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Soluble glass dissolved in water.

2. (Bate.) Powdered quartz, 1 part; dry carbonate of potash, 2 parts (3 parts——Turner); triturate them together, fuse the mixture in a Hessian crucible, and allow the resulting glass to deliquesce by exposure in a damp situation.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 30 drops; in gouty concretions, stone, &c. “It resolves the stone, and opens obstructions.” See SOLUBLE GLASS.

=Solution, Gannal’s.= { See SOLUTION FOR =Solution, Goadsby’s.= { ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.

=Solution, Goulard’s.= See SOLUTION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.

=Solution, Hahnemann’s Prophylac′tic.= _Syn._ LIQUOR BELLADONNÆ, SOLUTIO PROPHYLACTICA, L. _Prep._ From extract of belladonna (alcoholic), 3 gr.; distilled water, 6 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; dissolve. Used against scarlet fever.——_Dose_, 2 or 3 drops for a child under 12 months; and an additional drop for every year above that age to maturity.

=Solution of Hartshorn, Succinated.= _Syn._ LIQUOR CORNU CERVI SUCCINATUS. (P. Cod.) Neutralise true spirits of hartshorn (or a solution of 1 oz. of salt of hartshorn in 1 oz. of water) with acid of amber.

=Solution of Hydri′odate of Ar′senic and Mer′cury.= _Syn._ DONOVAN’S SOLUTION; SOLUTIO ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI HYDRIODATIS LIQUOR. (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Donovan.) Triturate metallic arsenic, 6·08 gr., mercury, 15·38 gr., and iodine, 50 gr., with alcohol, 1 fl. dr., until dry; to this add, gradually, of distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and again well triturate; next put the whole into a flask, add of hydriodic acid, 1/2 fl. dr., and boil for a few minutes; lastly, when cold, add distilled water, q. s. to make the whole measure exactly 8 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. D.) Pure arsenic (in fine powder), 6 gr.; pure mercury, 16 gr.; pure incline, 50-1/2 gr.; alcohol, 1/2 fl. dr.; triturate as before, add, gradually, of water, 8 fl. oz., heat the mixture until it begins to boil, and, afterwards, make up the cold and filtered solution to exactly 8 fl. oz. 6 fl. dr.

3. (Wholesale.) From metallic arsenic, 61 gr.; iodine, 500 gr.; mercury, 154 gr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; hydriodic acid, 5 fl. dr.; as No. 1; the product being made up with distilled water so as to measure exactly 4 pints, or 80 fl. oz., or to weigh 5 lbs. 1-1/4 oz. (av.), when cold.

_Obs._ Great care must be taken that the whole of the arsenic be dissolved, which can only be effected by the most careful trituration. Soubeiran recommends the employment of 1 part, each, of the respective iodides, with 98 parts of water, as furnishing a simpler and equally effective product, proportions which are almost exactly those employed by Mr Donovan.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops, twice or thrice a day, preferable soon after a meal; in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and several other scaly skin diseases. It is a most valuable medicine in these affections.

=Solution of Hydrochlo′′rate of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF MORPHIA; LIQUOR MORPHIÆ HYDROCHLORATIS (Ph. L.), SOLUTIO MORPHIÆ MURIATIS (Ph. E.), MORPHIÆ MURIATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 4 dr.; proof spirit, 1/2 pint; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. 60 drops (minims) of this solution contain 1 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 or 20 drops.

2. (Ph. E. & D.) Muriate of morphia, 90 gr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.; distilled water, 15 fl. oz. 107 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the hydrochlorate.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 or 40 drops, or nearly as laudanum.

3. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) Muriate of morphia, 16 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; 30 drops (minims) contain 1 gr.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 drops. See SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF MORPHIA, &c.

=Solution of Hypochlo′′rite of Lime.= Solution of chlorinated lime.

=Solution of I′odide of Ar′senic.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ARSENICI PERIODIDI, L. _Prep._ (Wackenroder.) Each drachm contains 1/8 gr. of teriodide of arsenic; equivalent to 1/48 gr. of metallic arsenic, and 1/10 gr. (nearly) of iodine.

=Solution of Iodide of Mer′cury and Potas′sium.= _Syn._ LIQUOR IODOHYDRARGYRATIS POTASSII IODIDI, L. _Prep._ (Dr Channing.) Iodide of potassium, 3-1/2 gr.; binoxide of mercury, 41/2 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 or 6 drops, three times a day, much diluted; in dyspepsia, indurations, enlargement of the spleen, dropsy, &c.

=Solution of Iodide of Potas′sium (Compound).= _Syn._ IODURETTED WATER, COMPOUND SOLUTION OF IODINE; LIQUOR POTASSII IODIDI COMPOSITUS (Ph. L. & D.), LIQUOR IODINEI COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodide of potassium, 10 gr.; iodine, 5 gr.; water, 1 pint; dissolve.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 dr.; in the usual cases where iodine is employed.

2. (Ph. E.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; iodine, 2 dr.; water, 16 fl. oz. This is 30 times as strong as the preceding.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 drops.

=Solutions of Iodine.= _Syn._ LIQUOR IODI (B. P.). _Prep._ Dissolve 20 gr. of iodine and 30 gr. of iodide of potassium in 1 oz. of distilled water. (Lugol’s.) _Syn._ SOLUTIONES IODINII VEL IODURETÆ. _Prep._ Ioduretted waters, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; iodine, 1-1/2 gr., 2 gr., and 2-1/2 gr.; water, 1 pint. _Drops._——Iodine, 1 scruple; iodide of potassium, 2 scruples; water, 9 dr. _Lotions, &c._——Iodine, 1-1/2 gr. to 3 gr.; iodide of potassium, 3 gr. to 6 gr.; water, 1 pint. _Rubefacient._——Iodine, 1 pint; iodide of potassium, 2 parts; water, 12 parts. _Caustic._——Iodine, 1 part; iodide of potassium, 1 part; water, 2 parts.

=Solution of Iodide of Iron.= _Syn._ LIQUOR FERRI IODIDI. (Ph. U. S.). _Prep._ Mix 2 oz. (troy) of iodine with 5 oz. of water, and add 1 oz. (troy) of iron filings, stir frequently, and heat the mixture gently till it assumes a greenish colour; then filter into a glass bottle containing 12 oz. of powdered sugar, and after it has passed, pour distilled water on the filter, until the filtered liquor, including the sugar, measures 20 oz., last shake the bottle till the sugar is dissolved.——_Dose_, 15 minims to 1 dr.

=Solution of Iodine with Hemlock.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO IODINII CUM CONIO. Dr SCUDAMORE’S SOLUTION. For inhaling. Iodine, 6 gr.; iodide of potassium, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; water, 5 oz. 6 dr. From 1/2 dr. to 5 dr. of this solution, with 1/2 dr. of tincture of hemlock to be added to warm water at 120° F. in a glass inhaler, and used twice a day. Two thirds of the ingredients are first put into the inhaler, and the rest added when half the time for inhaling has elapsed.

=Solution of I′ron (Alkaline).= _Syn._ LIQUOR FERRI ALKALINI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1824.) Iron filings, 2-1/2 dr.; nitric acid, 2 fl. oz.; water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve, decant, gradually add of solution of carbonate of potash 6 fl. oz., and in 6 hours decant the clear portion. This was intended as an imitation of Stahl’s Tinctura Martis Alkalina. It is tonic, emmenagogue, &c.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 drops.

=Solution of Iron and Alum.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO FERRI ALUMINOSA. (Swediaur.) Calcined sulphate of iron, 10 scruples; alum, 5 scruples; water sufficient to dissolve them; sulphuric acid, 15 drops.——_Dose_, 10 to 15 drops. Once a celebrated nostrum in Germany, under the name of _Tinctura nervosa_.

=Solution, Javelle’s.= See SOLUTION OF CHLORINATED POTASH.

=Solution, Labarraque’s.= See SOLUTION OF CHLORINATED SODA.

=Solution of Lime.= _Syn._ LIME WATER; SOLUTIO CALCIS HYDRATIS, LIQUOR CALCIS (Ph. L. & D.), AQUA CALCIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Upon the lime, 1/2 lb., first slaked (by sprinkling it) with a little of the water, pour the remainder of water, 12 pints, and shake them well together (for 5 minutes——Ph. D.); immediately cover the vessel, and set it aside for three hours; then keep the solution with the remaining lime (equally divided) in stoppered glass vessels, and, when it is to be used, decant the required portion from the clear solution (replacing it with more water, and agitating briskly, as before——Ph. E.).

LIQUOR CALCIS (B. P.). _Syn._ Lime water. Put 2 oz. of slaked lime into a stoppered bottle containing 1 gall. of distilled water, and shake well for two or three minutes. After 12 hours the excess of lime will have subsided, and the clear solution may be drawn off with a siphon as it is required for use, or transferred to a green glass bottle furnished with a well-ground stopper.

_Obs._ Cold water dissolves more lime than hot water. 1 pint of water at 32° Fahr. dissolves 13-1/4 gr., at 60° it dissolves 11-1/2 gr., but at 212° only 6-1/2 gr. (Phillips.)

_Uses, &c._ Lime water is antacid, astringent, antilithic, tonic and vermifuge.——_Dose._ A wine-glassful, or more, 2 or 3 times a day, in milk or broth; in dyspepsia, diarrhœa, calculous affections, &c.; and, externally, as a detersive and discutient lotion.

=Solution of Lime (Saccharated).= (B. P.) _Syn._ LIQUOR CALCIS SACCHARATUS. _Prep._ Slaked lime, 1; refined sugar (in powder), 2; distilled water, 20; digest for some hours and strain.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 minims in milk.

=Solution of Lithia, Effervescing.= _Syn._ LIQUOR LITHIÆ EFFERVESCENS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Mix 10 gr. of carbonate of lithia and 1 pint of water in a suitable apparatus, and charge with carbonic acid gas under a pressure of 7 atmospheres. Keep in bottles securely corked.

=Solution, Mackenzie’s.= _Prep._ From nitrate of silver, 20 gr., dissolved in distilled water, 1 fl. oz. Used to wash the throat and fauces, and to sponge the trachea, in affections of those parts.

=Solution of Magne′sia.= _Syn._ AERATED MAGNESIA WATER, CARBONATED M. W., FLUID MAGNESIA, CONDENSED SOLUTION OF M., CONCENTRATED S. OF M.; LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ CARBONATIS, AQUA M. C., L.; EAU MAGNESIENNE, Fr. _Prep._ (Dinneford’s.) Water and Howard’s heavy carbonate of magnesia, in the proportion of 17-1/2 gr. of the latter to every fl. oz. of the former, are introduced into a cylindrical tinned copper vessel, and carbonic acid, generated by the action of sulphuric acid on whiting, is forced into it by steam power for 5-1/2 hours, during the whole of which time the cylinder is kept in motion. Sir J. Murray’s is similar. The Paris Codex orders recently precipitated carbonate of magnesia to be used while still moist. Antacid and laxative. See FLUID MAGNESIA.

=Solution, Min′eral.= See SOLUTION OF ARSENITE OF POTASSA.

=Solution of Mor′phia.= See SOLUTIONS OF ACETATE, HYDROCHLORATE, and SULPHATE.

=Solution of Myrrh, Alkaline.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO MYRRHÆ ALKALINA. (Swediaur.) _Prep._ Carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; myrrh, 2 oz.; boiling water, 8 oz. Digest in a water bath for 2 days, frequently stirring, and strain.

=Solution of Nitrate of Mercury (Acid).= _Syn._ LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS ACIDUS (B. P.). _Prep._ Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 5; distilled water, 1-1/2; mix the nitric acid with the water in a flask, and dissolve the mercury in the mixture without the application of heat. Boil gently for 15 minutes, cool, and preserve the solution in a stoppered bottle. Used alone, as a caustic; 1 to 2 minims to 1 oz. of water, as a gargle; and 1 minim to 2 oz. of water, as an injection in gonorrhœa.

=Solution of Nitrate of Mercury and Ammonia.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO HYDRARGYRI ET AMMONIÆ NITRATIS. WARD’S WHITE DROP. _Prep._ Nitrate of ammonia and mercury in crystals, 1 part; rose water, 3 parts; digest till dissolved.

=Solution of Nitrate of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ARGENTI NITRATIS (Ph. L.), SOLUTIO A. N. (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Nitrate of silver (cryst.), 1 dr. (40 gr.——Ph. E.); distilled water, 1 fl. oz. (1600 gr.——Ph. E.); dissolve. Used as an escharotic, &c. It should be kept from the light. See LOTION, NITRATE OF SILVER, &c.

=Solution of O′pium (Sed′ative).= See LIQUOR.

=Solution of Oxysulphate of Iron‡.= _Syn._ LIQUOR FERRI OXYSULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of iron (in powder) and nitric acid, of each 3 dr.; triturated together for 15 minutes, and then dissolved in distilled water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 12 drops.

=Solution of Perchloride of Iron.= _Syn._ LIQUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.). _Prep._ Stronger solution of perchloride of iron (see _below_), 1; distilled water, 3.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

=Solution of Perchloride of Iron (Stronger).= _Syn._ LIQUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI FORTIOR (B. P.). _Prep._ Iron wire, 2 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 12 oz.; nitric acid, 9 dr.; distilled water, 8 gr. Mix 8 of the hydrochloric acid with the water, and pour the mixture on the iron wire, applying a gentle heat, so that the whole of the metal may be dissolved; filter the solution, and add to it the remainder of the hydrochloric and nitric acids; heat the mixture briskly, until, on the sudden evolution of red fumes, the liquid becomes of an orange-brown colour, then evaporate by the heat of a water bath until it is reduced to 10 fl. oz. Used as an application to diphtheritic patches, for injecting nævi, as a powerful styptic, and in the preparation of SOLUTION OF PERCHLORIDE OF IRON. (See _above_.)

=Solution of Perchloride of Mercury.= _Syn._ LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.). _Prep._ Corrosive sublimate, 10 gr.; chloride of ammonium, 10 gr.; distilled water, 20 oz.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 30 to 120 minims.

=Solution of Perchloride of Mercury (Compound).= _Syn._ LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI, PERCHLORIDI COMPOSITUS, LIQUOR MERCURIELLE NORMALE (Mialhe). _Prep._ Distilled water, 16 oz,; chloride of sodium, 16 gr.; chloride of ammonium, 16 gr.; white of 1 egg, perchloride of mercury, 4 gr. Beat the white of egg with the water, filter, dissolve the salts in the liquid and filter again.

=Solution of Permanganate of Potassa.= _Syn._ LIQUOR POTASSÆ PERMANGANATIS (B. P.). _Prep._ Permanganate of potassa, 4 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; dissolve. Diluted with 40 parts of water, it is used as a gargle or as a cleansing wash for diseased surface.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 dr.

=Solution of Perni′trate of Iron.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF PERSESQUINITRATE OF IRON; FERRI PERNITRAS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), SOLUTIO PERSESQUINITRAS FERRI (Kerr), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.). Take of pure nitric acid, 3 fl. oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; mix, add fine iron wire, 1 oz.; dissolve, and to the clear solution add as much water as will make the whole measure 1-1/2 pint. Sp. gr. 1·107.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 to 30 drops, or more; in passive hæmorrhages, mucous discharges, chronic diarrhœa with prostration, &c.

=Solution of Persulphate of Iron.= _Syn._ LIQUOR FERRI PERSULPHATIS. _Prep._ Sulphate of iron, 8; sulphuric acid, 3/4; nitric acid, 3/4; distilled water, 12. Add the sulphuric acid to 10 of the water, and dissolve the sulphate of iron in the mixture with the aid of heat. Mix the nitric acid with the remaining 2 of the water, and add the dilute acid to the solution of sulphate of iron. Concentrate the whole by boiling until, by the sudden evolution of ruddy vapours, the liquid ceases to be black, and acquires a red colour. A drop of the solution is now to be tested with ferricyanide of potassium, and if a blue precipitate be formed, a few additional drops of nitric acid should be added, and the boiling renewed, in order that the whole may be converted into persulphate of iron. When the solution is cold, make up the quantity to 11 by the addition, if necessary, of distilled water. Used in making several preparations of iron; it is also a good styptic.

=Solution of Phosphoric Ether.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO PHOSPHORI ÆTHEREA. _Prep._ Sliced phosphorus, 5 gr.; rectified ether, 1 oz.; mix, set the bottle in a dark place for 3 or 4 days, shaking occasionally, and decant.

=Solution for Plate.= _Syn._ PLATE LIQUOR; SOLUTIO PRO ARGENTO, L. _Prep._ From alum, cream of tartar, and common salt, of each 1 oz.; water, 1/2 gall.; dissolve. Used to increase the lustre and whiteness of silver plate, the articles being boiled in it.

=Solution of Potas′sa.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF HYDRATE OF POTASSA, LIQUOR OF POTASSA, POTASH WATER, CAUSTIC P. W.; LIQUOR POTASSÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), AQUA POTASSÆ (Ph. E.), POTASSÆ CAUSTICÆ LIQUOR (Ph. D.), AQUA KALI PURI†, LIXIVIUM SAPONARUM†, AQUA KALI CAUSTICUM†, LIXIVIUM CAUSTICUM†, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Lime (recently burnt), 8 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 gall.; sprinkle a little of the water on the lime in an earthen vessel, and, when it is slaked and fallen to powder, add of carbonate of potassa 15 oz., dissolved in the remainder of the water; bung down, and shake frequently, until the mixture is cold, then allow the whole to settle, and decant the clear supernatant portion into perfectly clean and well-stoppered green-glass bottles. Sp. gr. 1·063. It contains 6·7% of pure potassa.

2. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of potassa (dry), 4 oz.; quicklime, 2 oz.; water, 45 fl. oz.; boiling briskly for a few minutes after each addition of the milk of lime; to yield at least 35 fl. oz., by decantation, after 24 hours’ repose in a deep, narrow, glass vessel. Sp. gr. 1·072.

3. (Ph. D.) Pure carbonate of potassa, 1 lb.; distilled water, 1 gall.; dissolve, heat the solution to the boiling point in a clean iron vessel, gradually add to it of fresh quicklime, 10 oz., previously slaked with water, 7 fl. oz., and continue the ebullition for 10 minutes, with constant stirring; next allow it to cool out of contact with the air, and, when perfectly clear, decant it by means of a syphon, and bottle it as before. Sp. gr. 1·068.

4. (B. P.) Carbonate of potash, 2; slaked lime, 1-1/2; distilled water, 20; dissolve the carbonate of potash in the water, and having heated the solution to the boiling point in a clean iron vessel, gradually mix the slaked lime, and continue the ebullition for 10 minutes with constant stirring; decant the clear liquid.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 minims 3 times a day in beer, milk, or _Mistura Amygdalæ_.

5. (Wöhler.) Nitrate of potassa, 1 part, is mixed, in alternate layers, with clippings of sheet copper, 2 or 3 parts, and then heated to moderate redness for about 1/2 an hour in a copper or iron crucible; when cold, the potassa is washed out with distilled water, and the solution, after repose in a closed vessel, decanted as before. Not a trace of copper can be detected in the liquid. The clippings may be again used if mixed with a little fresh metallic copper.

6. (Wholesale.) From carbonate of potash (kali), 1 lb., and quicklime, 1/2 lb., to each gall. of water.

7. (BRANDISH’S ALKALINE SOLUTION; LIQUOR POTASSÆ BRANDISHII.) From American pearlashes, 6 lbs.; quicklime and wood ashes (from the ash), of each 2 lbs.; boiling water, 6 galls. (old meas.); to each gall. of the clear product is added 12 or 15 drops of oil of juniper. This ‘solution’ is much asked for in trade. Ordinary liquor of potassa is generally sold for it.

_Pur._ “Nothing, or scarcely anything, is thrown down from this solution on the addition of lime water; and when it has been first saturated by nitric acid, no precipitate falls on the addition of carbonate of soda, chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver. What is thrown down by bichloride of platinum is yellowish.” (Ph. L.)

_Uses, &c._ Liquor of potassa is antacid, diuretic, resolvent, and lithontriptic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 or 40 drops, in any bland diluent (not acidulous); in heartburn, gout, calculi, indurations, scrofula, lepra, psoriasis, &c.

_Obs._ Quicklime fails to abstract the carbonic acid from the alkaline carbonates in solutions much stronger than those above referred to. Weaker solutions may, however, be easily concentrated by evaporation in iron vessels. See POTASSIUM, HYDRATE OF, and _below_.

=Solution of Potas′sa (Effervescing).= _Syn._ LIQUOR POTASSÆ EFFERVESCENS (B. P.); EFFERVESCING POTASH WATER, SUPERCARBONATE OF POTASSA W.; AQUA POTASSÆ EFFERVESCENS (Ph. E.), A. P. SUPERCARBONATIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. & E.) Bicarbonate of potash, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve, force in carbonic acid gas in excess, and keep it in a well-stoppered bottle. Resembles soda water, but sits better on the stomach. It is almost specific in the early stages of scurvy.

(B. P.) Dissolve 30 gr. of bicarbonate of potash in one pint of distilled water, filter, pass in washed carbonic acid (obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on chalk) up to a pressure of 7 atmospheres. Keep in bottles closely secured.

_Obs._ An excellent substitute for this preparation is to pour a bottle of soda water into a tumbler containing 20 gr. of powdered bicarbonate of potash, and to drink it immediately.

=Solution of Potas′sio-tar′trate of An′timony.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Strength, doses, and uses, similar to those of antimonial wine (which _see_), than which it keeps better.

=Solution, Prophylac′tic.= See HAHNEMANN’S SOLUTION.

=Solution of Protonitrate of Mercury.= _Syn._ LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI NITRICI (PROTO-NITRATIS) (G. Ph.). _Prep._ Protonitrate of mercury, 1 oz.; distilled water, 9 oz.; nitric acid (1·185), 46 gr. Filter.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 drops.

=Solution of Sesquicar′bonate of Ammonia.= See SOLUTION OF CARBONATE OF AMMONIA.

=Solution of Sil′icate of Potas′sa.= See SOLUTION OF FLINTS.

=Solution of So′da.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF HYDRATE OF SODA, LIQUOR OF SODA, CAUSTIC SODA WATER; LIQUOR SODÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), SODÆ CAUSTICÆ LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of soda, (cryst.), 32 oz.; lime, 9 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 gall.; proceed as for solution of potassa. “In 100 gr. are contained 1 gr. of (pure) soda.” (Ph. L.) Sp. gr. 1·061.

2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 2 lbs.; fresh-burned lime, 10 oz.; water, 1 gall. 7 fl. oz.; as liquor of potassa. Sp. gr. 1·056.

3. (B. P.) Carbonate of soda, 7; slaked lime, 3; distilled water, 40; dissolve the carbonate in the water, boil in a clean iron vessel, gradually mixing the lime, and stirring constantly for ten minutes; decant into a green-glass bottle, with air-tight stopper. Sp. gr. 1·047.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

=Solution of Soda (Effervescing).= _Syn._ SODA WATER; LIQUOR SODÆ EFFERVESCENS, AQUA S. E. (Ph. E.), A. S. SUPERCARBONATIS, SODÆ CARBONATIS AQUA ACIDULA, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve, and force carbonic acid gas into the solution under pressure. Used as an antacid and grateful stimulant, often proving gently laxative. The soda water of the shops cannot be substituted for this preparation, as, in opposition to its name, it is usually made without soda. (B. P.) Half the strength.

=Solution, Sol′dering.= _Prep._ Dissolve zinc in hydrochloric acid nearly to saturation, add 1-5th part of powdered sal ammoniac, and simmer for 5 minutes. Used to make solder flow easily and take well; applied with a feather. See SOLDERING.

=Solution, Speci′fic (Frank’s).= _Syn._ SPECIFIC SOLUTION OF COPAIBA; LIQUOR COPAIBÆ ALKALINA, L. _Prep._ Take of balsam of copaiba, 2 parts; liquor of potassa (Ph. L.), 3 parts; water, 7 parts; boil the mixture for 2 or 3 minutes, put it into a separator, and allow it to stand for 5 or 6 days; then draw it off from the bottom, avoiding the upper stratum of oil, and to the clear liquid add of sweet spirit of nitre (perfectly free from acid), 1 part; should it turn foul or milky, a very little liquor of potassa will usually brighten it; if not, place it in a clean separator, and let it stand, closely covered, for a few days, and then draw it off from the bottom as before, when it will be perfectly transparent, without filtering. Some persons add the sweet spirit of nitre whilst the solution is still warm, mix it in as rapidly as possible, and immediately cork or fasten up the vessel. This is a good way when the article is wanted in a hurry, but is objectionable from the loss of spirit thereby occasioned, and the danger, without care, of bursting the separator.

_Obs._ A receipt for this article, upon the authority of Battley, has been going the round of the pharmaceutical works for many years. It is as follows:——Take 12 oz. of balsam of copaiba, and 6 oz, of calcined magnesia; rub together, add a pint of proof spirit, filter, and then add 1/2 oz. of sweet spirits of nitre. (‘Gray’s Supplement.’) The product of this formula, utterly unlike ‘Frank’s Specific Solution,’ is a colourless tincture, scarcely flavoured with copaiba, and holding very little of the active matter of the balsam in solution, owing to the compound formed with the magnesia being insoluble in spirit. Such is the affinity of this earth for copaiba (copaibic acid), that it will even take it from caustic potassa. See COPAIBA, and its preparations.

=Solution of Strychnia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR STRYCHNIÆ (B. P.). _Prep._ Strychnia, in crystals, 4 gr.; dilute hydrochloric acid 6 minims; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; distilled water, 6 dr.; mix the hydrochloric acid with 4 dr. of the water, and dissolve the strychnia in it by means of heat; then add the spirit and the remainder of the water.——_Dose_, 4 to 10 minims.

=Solution of Subac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ LIQUOR OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD, L. OF DIACETATE OF L.†, GOULARD’S EXTRACT; LIQUOR PLUMBI, L. PLUMBI DIACETATIS (Ph. L.), PLUMBI DIACETATIS SOLUTIO (Ph. E.), PLUMBI SUBACETATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Acetate of lead, 27 oz.; litharge, in fine powder, 16 oz.; water, 3 quarts; boil for 1/2 an hour, constantly stirring, and then add enough distilled water to make the whole measure 3 quarts; lastly, filter, if required, and keep it in a closed vessel. The proportions, ordered in the Ph. E. are similar. Sp. gr. 1·260.

2. (Ph. D.) Acetate of lead, 6 oz.; litharge, 4 oz.; distilled water, 1 quart; boil, &c., as before; to produce 1 quart. Sp. gr. 1·066. (B. P.) the same.

3. (Wholesale.) From finely powdered litharge, 32 lbs.; distilled vinegar, 32 galls.; boil in a perfectly bright copper pan for 2 hours, cool, add water to make up 32 galls., again simmer for 1 minute, cover up the vessel, and in an hour decant the clear portion. Common trade strength. (See _below_.)

=Solution of Subacetate of Lead (Dilute).= _Syn._ GOULARD, GOULARD’S LOTION, GOULARD’S WATER; LIQUOR PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUS (Ph. L.), PLUMBI SUBACETATIS LIQUOR COMPOSITUS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Liquor of diacetate of lead, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; proof-spirit, 2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; mix.

2. (Ph. D.) Solution of subacetate of lead and proof spirit, of each 2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1/2 gall.; mix, filter, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.

3. (B. P.) Solution of subacetate of lead, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 19-1/2 oz. Filter through paper.

_Obs._ Both the above preparations were formerly made with common vinegar, and hence were coloured, but those of the Pharm. are white. If wanted coloured, a little spirit colouring may be added. The stronger liquor is only used diluted; and the dilute solution is now seldom prepared by the wholesale druggist. The last (diluted solution) is employed as a sedative, refrigerant, and astringent wash, in various affections. Both are poisonous. For the antidotes, see LEAD.

=Solution of Sulphate of Atropia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR ATROPIÆ SULPHATIS (B. P.). _Prep._ Sulphate of atropia, 4 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 minims.

=Solution of Sulphate of Copper.= _Syn._ LIQUOR CUPRI SULPHATIS COMPOSITUS, AQUA STYPTICA. (Ph. L. 1746). Sulphate of copper, 3 oz.; alum, 3 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2 oz.; (by wt.), water, 24 oz. For external use.

=Solution of Sulphate of Indigo.= _Syn._ LIQUOR INDIGO SULPHATIS. _Prep._ Digest 1 part of powdered indigo in 10 of sulphuric acid; when dissolved dilute it with water. Used as a test.

=Solution of Sulphate of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR MORPHIÆ SULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of morphia, as the solution of the acetate or hydrochlorate. The uses, doses, &c., are the same.

=Solution of Sulphate of Zinc (Compound).= See SOLUTION OF ALUM, COMPOUND.

=Solution of Sul′phuret of Potassium.= _Syn._ SOLUTION OF HYDROSULPHATE OF POTASSA; SOLUTIO POTASSII SULPHURETI, LIQUOR POTASSÆ HYDROSULPHATIS, AQUA POTASSÆ SULPHURETI (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ Take of washed sublimed sulphur, 1 part; water of caustic potassa, 11 parts: mix, boil for 10 minutes, filter, and keep the solution in well-closed bottles. Sp. gr. 1·117. The product is a mixed solution of hydrosulphate and hyposulphate of potassa.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops, diluted in water; and, externally, made into a lotion; in itch, and several other eruptive diseases.

=Solution of Tartrate of Magnesia.= _Syn._ LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ TARTRATIS. (Airat.) _Prep._ Tartaric acid, 15-1/4 oz. troy; distilled water, 20 pints; fresh calcined magnesia, diffused in 16 oz. of distilled water, 3 oz. troy and 1 dr.——_Dose._ As a purgative, 15 oz.

=Solution of Veratria.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO VERATRIÆ. _Prep._ Veratrine, 1 gr.; distilled water, 2-1/2 oz. Dr Turnbull’s solution, for external use, is——veratria, 1 scruple; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=Solution, Swan’s.= _Syn._ SOLUTIO SODÆ HYPOPHOSPHITIS. _Prep._ Mr. Squire says this contains 3 gr. of the salt in a drachm.

=SOL′VENT.= _Syn._ MENSTRUUM, L. The liquid in which any substance is dissolved. The substance dissolved is, occasionally, called the ‘solvend.’ (Kirwan.)

=Solvent, Glazier’s.= _Syn._ GLAZIER’S PICKLE. From soft soap dissolved in thrice its weight of strong soapers’ lye; or, from freshly slaked lime made into a thin paste or cream with twice its weight of pearlash dissolved in a little water. Very caustic. Used to soften old putty, and to remove old paint.

=SOMNAMBULISM.= Children are most subjected to sleep-walking. When adults are affected with it the cause may generally be traced to mental exhaustion, over-excitement, or emotional feeling. The most preferable method of awakening a somnambulist, if this be desirable, is by dashing cold water on the face. It is well to occasionally administer an aperient, and also to rectify any errors of diet, if necessary, and to remove by the exercise of judicious and kindly advice, and change of scene undue excitement or morbid feeling.

The other precautions, such as securing the feet, &c., during sleep, guarding the exits of the bed-chamber, are so obvious as to need no further allusion to.

=SOOT.= _Syn._ FULIGO. Wood soot was formerly officinal, and reputed vermifuge and antiseptic. The soot from pit-coal contains, besides empyreumatic matter, sulphate of ammonia; hence it is valuable as a manure, when not too freely applied. It is also employed by gardeners to kill insects.

=SOPORIF′ICS.= Hypnotics (which _see_).

=SORBITE.= A crystalline saccharine substance resembling mannite, obtained by Boussingault from the berries of the mountain ash. It was obtained from the liquid containing the undecomposed saccharine matter remaining after the juice of the berries had been subjected to fermentation.

=SOU′JEE.= _Syn._ SOOJEE. A species of semolina. Semoletta (_semola rarita_) is a still smaller variety of pearled wheat, separated from the others by means of a sieve. ‘Baster’s soojee’ is said to be a mixture of ordinary wheat flour and sugar.

=SOUR KROUT.= See SAUER-KROUT.

=SOUP.= A strong decoction of flesh, properly seasoned with salts, spices, &c., for the table. The different tastes of people require more or less of the flavour of spices, salt, garlic, butter, &c., which can, therefore, never be ordered by general rules. If the cook has not a good taste, and attention to that of his or her employers, not all the ingredients which nature and art can furnish will give an exquisite flavour to the dishes. The proper articles should be always at hand, and must be proportioned until the true zest be obtained. A variety of flavours may be given to different dishes served at the same time, or even to the same soup, by varying the condiments and spices. At a Parisian restaurant one cauldron is made to produce almost every imaginable variety of soup.

=Soup, Cabbage, Cheap.= Wash a large cabbage and cut it into narrow strips, throwing them into 1/2 a gallon of boiling water, containing 2 oz. of butter. Let it boil for an hour and a half; then add half a pint of milk and flavour with pepper and salt. Serve when hot.

=Soup, Carrot.= INGREDIENTS REQUIRED.——4 quarts of liquor in which a leg of mutton or beef has been boiled, a few beef bones, 6 large carrots, 2 large onions, 1 turnip, seasoning of salt and pepper to taste, 3 lumps of sugar, and cayenne.

_Mode._ Put the liquor, bones, onions, turnips, pepper and salt into a stewpan, and simmer for 3 hours. Scrape and cut the carrots thin, strain the soup on them, and stew them till soft enough to pulp through a hair sieve or coarse cloth; then boil the pulp with the soup, which should be of the consistency of pea soup. Add cayenne. Pulp only the red part of the carrot, and make this soup the day before it is wanted.

_Time._——4-1/2 hours. Seasonable from October to March. Sufficient for 8 persons.

=Soup, Celery.= INGREDIENTS.——9 heads of celery, 1 teaspoonful of salt, nutmeg to taste, 1 lump of sugar, 1/2 pint of strong stock, a pint of cream, and 2 quarts of boiling water.

_Mode._——Cut the celery into small pieces; throw it into the water, seasoned with the nutmeg, salt and sugar. Boil it till sufficiently tender; pass it through a sieve, add the stock and simmer it for half an hour. Now put in the cream, bring it to the boiling point, and serve immediately.

_Time._——1 hour.

=Soup, Giblet.= Scald and carefully clean 3 or 4 sets of goose or duck giblets; let them stew well, a pound or two of gravy beef, scrag of mutton, or the bone of a knuckle of veal, an ox-tail, or some shanks of mutton, with 3 onions, a large bunch of sweet herbs, a teaspoonful of white pepper, and a large spoonful of salt. Add 5 pints of water and simmer till the gizzards (which must be each in four pieces) are quite tender; skim nicely, and add a 1/4 pint of cream, 2 teaspoonfuls of mushroom powder, and 1 oz. of butter mixed with a dessert-spoonful of flour. Let it boil a few minutes, and serve with the giblets. Instead of cream, two glasses of sherry or Madeira, a large spoonful of ketchup, and some cayenne may be used for the seasoning. Add salt when the soup is in the tureen.

For the larger part of the above culinary preparations we are indebted to the excellent cooking manuals of Miss Acton and Mrs Beeton.

=Soup, a Good Family.= INGREDIENTS.——Remains of a cold tongue, 2 lbs. of shin of beef, any cold pieces of meat or beef bones, 2 turnips, 2 carrots, 2 onions, 1 parsnip, 1 head of celery, 4 quarts of water, 1/2 teacupful of rice, salt and pepper to taste.

_Mode._——Put all the ingredients in a stewpan, and simmer gently for 4 hours, or until all the goodness is drawn from the meat. Strain off the soup and let it stand till cold. The kernels and soft part of the tongue must be saved. When the soup is wanted for use, skim off all the fat, put in the kernels and soft parts of the tongue, slice in a small quantity of fresh carrot, turnip, and onion; stew till the vegetables are tender, and serve with toasted bread.

_Time._——5 hours. Seasonable at any time. Sufficient for 8 persons.

=Soup, Gravy.= INGREDIENTS.——4 lbs. of shin of beef, a piece of the knuckle of veal weighing 4 lbs., a few pieces of trimmings of meat or poultry, 3 slices of nicely flavoured lean ham, 1/4 lb. of butter, 2 onions, 4 carrots, 1 turnip, nearly a head of celery, 1 blade of mace, 6 cloves, a bunch of savoury herbs, seasoning of salt and pepper to taste, 3 lumps of sugar, 5 quarts of boiling soft water. It can be flavoured with ketchup, Leamington sauce, or Harvey’s sauce and a little soy.

_Mode._——Slightly brown the meat and ham in the butter, but do not let them burn. When this done, pour to it the water, put in the salt, and as the scum rises take it off; when no more appears, add all the other ingredients, and let the soup simmer slowly by the fire for 6 hours without stirring it any more from the bottom; take it off, and pass it through a sieve. When perfectly cold and settled all the fat should be removed, leaving the sediment untouched, which serves nicely for thick gravies, hashes, &c. The flavourings should be added when the soup is heated for table.

_Time._——7 hours. Seasonable all the year. Sufficient for 12 persons.

=Soup, Green Pea.= INGREDIENTS.——3 pints of green peas, 1/4 lb. of butter, 2 or 3 thin slices of ham, 4 onions sliced, 4 shredded lettuces, the crumb of 2 French rolls, 2 handfuls of spinach, 1 lump of sugar, 2 quarts of medium stock.

_Mode._——Put the butter, ham, 1 quart of the peas, onions and lettuces, to a pint of stock and simmer for an hour; then add the remainder of the stock, with the crumb of the French rolls, and boil for another hour. Now boil the spinach, squeeze it very dry, and rub it, with the soup, through a sieve, to give the preparation a good colour. Have ready a pint of young peas boiled; add them to the soup, put in the sugar, give one boil, and serve.

_Time._——2-1/2 hours. Seasonable from June to the end of August. Sufficient for six persons.

⁂ It will be well to add, if the peas are not quite young, a little more sugar; where economy is essential, water may be used instead of stock for this soup, boiling in it likewise the peashells, and using rather a larger quantity of vegetables.

=Soup, Hare.= Cut down a hare into joints, and put it into a soup-pot or large stewpan, with about a pound of lean ham, in thick slices, 3 moderately sized mild onions, 3 blades of mace, a faggot of thyme, sweet marjoram and parsley, with about 3 quarts of good beef stock. Let it stew very gently for full three hours from the time of its first beginning to boil, and more if the hare be old. Strain the soup, and pound together very fine, the slices of ham and all the flesh of the back, legs, and shoulders of the hare, and put this meat into a stewpan with the liquor, in which it was boiled, the crumb of two French rolls, and half a pint of port wine. Set it on the stove to simmer twenty minutes; then rub it through a sieve, place it again on the stove till very hot, but do not let it boil; season it with salt and cayenne, and send it to table directly.

INGREDIENTS.——Hare, 1; ham, 12 to 16 oz.; onions, 3 to 6; mace, 3 blades; faggot of savoury herbs; beef stock, 3 quarts; 2 hours. Crumb of 2 rolls; port wine, 1/2 pint; little salt and cayenne; 20 minutes.

=Soup, Hare, a less Expensive.= Pour on two pounds of neck or shin of beef, and a hare well washed and carved into joints, one gallon of cold water, and when it boils and has been thoroughly skimmed, add 1-1/2 oz. of salt, 2 onions, 1 large head of celery, 3 moderate-sized carrots, a tablespoonful black peppercorns, and 6 cloves.

Let these stew gently for 3 hours, or longer, should the hare not be perfectly tender. Then take up the principal joints, cut the meat from them, mince, and pound it to fine paste, with the crumb of 2 penny rolls (or 2 oz. of crumb of household bread), which has been soaked in a little of the boiling soup, and then pressed very dry in a cloth; strain, and mix smoothly with it the stock from the remainder of the hare; pass the soup through a strainer, season it with cayenne, and serve it when at the point of boiling; if not sufficiently thick, add to it a tablespoonful of arrow-root, moistened with a little broth, and let the soup simmer for an instant afterwards. Two or 3 glasses of port wine, and 2 dozen of small forcemeat balls may be added to this soup with good effect.

INGREDIENTS.——Beef, 2 lbs.; hare, 1; water, 1 gall.; salt, 1-1/2 oz.; onions, 2; celery, 1 head; carrots, 3; bunch of savoury herbs; peppercorns, 1 teaspoonful; cloves, 6; 3 hours or more. Bread, 2 oz.; cayenne, arrow-root (if needed) 1 tablespoonful.

=Soup, Haricot Bean.= Take a quart of haricot beans and let them soak all night in cold water. Then pour on them 2-1/2 pints of cold water, add 1 onion, and put on the fire, and when the liquid begins to boil, let them continue to boil for 3 hours. Then remove from the fire and strain through a wire sieve, after which return to the saucepan, and season with pepper and salt; next add 2 oz. of butter and a little milk. Then just boil up, and serve. An economical and nutritious soup for the poor.

=Soup, Julienne.= INGREDIENTS.——1/2 pint carrots, 1/2 pint of turnips, 1/2 pint of onions, 2 or 3 leeks, 1/2 head of celery, 1 lettuce, a little sorrel and chervil, if liked, 2 oz. butter, 2 quarts of medium stock.

_Mode._——Cut the vegetables into strips about 1-1/4 in. long, and be particular they are all the same size, or some will be hard, whilst the others will be done to a pulp. Cut the lettuce, sorrel, and chervil into larger pieces; fry the carrots in the butter, and pour the stock boiling to them. When this is done, add all the other vegetables thereto, and stew gently for nearly an hour. Skim off all the fat, pour the soup over thin slices of bread cut round, about the size of a shilling, and serve.

_Time._——1-1/2 hour. Seasonable all the year. Sufficient for 7 or 8 persons.

⁂ In summer, green peas, as asparagus tops, French beans, &c., can be added. When the vegetables are very strong, instead of frying them in butter at first, they should be blanched, and afterwards simmered in the stock.

=Soup, Macaroni.= Throw 4 oz. of fine, fresh, mellow Naples macaroni into a pan of fast-boiling water, with about 1 oz. of fresh butter, and a small onion stuck with 3 or 4 cloves (the onion must be omitted for white soups). When it has swelled to its full size, and become tender, drain it well, cut it into half-inch lengths, and slip it into a couple of quarts of clear gravy soup; let it simmer for a few minutes, when it will be ready for table. Observe that the macaroni should be boiled quite tender; but it should by no means be allowed to burst, nor to become pulpy. Serve grated Parmesan cheese with it.

INGREDIENTS.——Macaroni, 4 oz.; butter, 1 oz.; 1 small onion; 5 cloves; 3/4 hour, or more. In soup 5 to 10 minutes.

=Soup, Mock Turtle.= INGREDIENTS.——Half a calf’s head, 1/4 lb. butter, 1/4 lb. lean ham, 2 tablespoonfuls of minced parsley, a little minced lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, basil, 2 onions, a few chopped mushrooms (when obtainable), 2 shalots, 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, 2 glasses of madeira or sherry, forcemeat balls, cayenne, salt and mace to taste, the juice of one lemon and 1 Seville orange, 1 dessert-spoonful of pounded sugar, 3 quarts of best strong stock.

_Mode._——Scald the head with the skin on, remove the brain, tie the head up in a cloth, and let it boil for an hour. Then take the meat from the bones, cut it into small square pieces, and throw them into cold water. Now take the meat, put it into a stewpan, and cover it with stock; let it boil gently for an hour, or rather more, if not quite tender, and set it on one side. Melt the butter in another stewpan, and add the ham, cut small, with the herbs, parsley, onions, shalots, mushrooms, and nearly a pint of stock; let these simmer slowly, for 2 hours, and then dredge in as much flour as will dry up the butter. Fill up with the remainder of the stock, add the wine, let it stew gently for 10 minutes, rub it through a sieve, and put it to the calf’s head; season with cayenne, and, if required, a little salt; add the juice of the orange and lemon; and when liked, 1/4 teaspoonful of pounded mace, and the sugar. Put in the forcemeat balls, simmer 5 minutes, and serve very hot.

_Time._——4-1/2 hours. Seasonable in winter. Sufficient for 10 persons.

⁂ The bones of the head should be well stewed in the liquor it was first boiled in, and will make good white stock, flavoured with vegetables.

=Soup, Ox-tail.= A very inexpensive and nutritious soup may be made of ox-tails, but it will be insipid without the addition of a little ham, knuckle of bacon, or a pound or two of other meat.

Wash and soak 3 tails, pour on them a gallon of cold water, let them be brought gradually to boil, throw in 1-1/2 oz. of salt, and clear off the scum carefully as soon as it forms upon the surface; when it ceases to rise, add four moderate-sized carrots, from 2 to 4 onions, according to the taste, a large faggot of savoury herbs, a head of celery, a couple of turnips, 6 or 8 cloves, and 1/2 a teaspoonful of peppercorns. Stew these gently from 3 to 3-1/2 hours, if the tails be very large; lift them out, strain the liquor, and skim off all the fat; divide the tails into joints, and put them into a couple of quarts or rather more of the stock; stir in when these begin to boil, a thickening of arrow-root or rice flour, mixed with as much cayenne and salt as may be required to flavour the soup well, and serve it very hot.

INGREDIENTS.——Ox tails, 3; water, 1 gall.; salt 1-1/2 oz.; carrots, 4; onions, 2 to 4; turnips, 2; celery, 1 head; cloves, 8; peppercorns, 1/2 teaspoonful; faggot of savoury herbs; 3 to 3-1/2 hours. For a richer soup, 5 to 6 hours.

=Soup, Ordinary Pea.= Wash well a quart of good split peas, and float off such as remain on the surface of the water; soak them for one night, and boil them with a bit of soda the size of a filbert, in just sufficient water to allow them to break to a mash. Put them into from 3 to 4 quarts of good beef broth, and stew them in it gently for an hour; then work the whole through a sieve, heat afresh as much as may be required for table, season it with salt, or cayenne, or common pepper, clear it perfectly from scum, and send it to table with fried or toasted bread. Celery sliced and stewed in it will be found a great improvement.

INGREDIENTS.——Peas, 1 quart; soaked one night, boiled in 2 quarts or rather more of water, 2 to 2-1/2 hours. Beef broth, 3 to 4 quarts; 1 hour. Salt and cayenne or pepper, as needed; 3 minutes.

=Soup, Portable.= _Syn._ GLAZE. From skin of beef, or other like part; the soup being gently simmered until reduced to the consistence of a thin syrup, and then poured into small upright jelly-pots, with covers, or, upon flat dishes, to lie about 1/4 inch deep. The latter, when set, is divided into pieces, which are dried. Used to make extemporaneous soup and glazes. A similar article, prepared on the large scale, now generally forms part of every ship’s stores.

=Soup, Potato.= Mash to a smooth paste, 3 lbs. of good mealy potatoes, which have been steamed, or boiled very dry; mix with them, by degrees, 2 quarts of boiling broth, pass the soup through a strainer, set it again on the fire, add pepper and salt, and let it boil for five minutes. Take off entirely the black scum that will rise upon it, and serve it very hot, with fried or toasted bread. Where the flavour is approved, 2 oz. of onions minced and fried a light brown, may be added to the soup, and stewed in it for 10 minutes before it is sent to the table.

INGREDIENTS.——Potatoes, 3 lbs.; broth, 2 quarts; 5 minutes. (With onions, 2 oz.) 10 minutes.

=Soup, Spanish Onion.= Peel two large Spanish onions and cut them into rings; fry them with a little dripping in a stewpan. When the onions have browned, add 2-1/2 pints of boiling water, and let them boil for two hours and a half; add pepper and salt to flavour, and a little vinegar. Thicken with oatmeal or bread crumbs (oatmeal is the more nourishing); let the mixture boil for another half hour, and serve. A good cheap wholesome soup.

=Soup, Turnip, Cheap.= Wash and wipe the turnips, pare and weigh them; allow 1-1/2 lb. for every quart of soup, cut them in slices about 1/4 inch thick. Melt 4 oz. of butter in a clean stewpan, and put in the turnips before it begins to boil; stew them gently 3/4 hour, taking care that they shall not brown, then have the proper quantity of soup ready boiling, pour it on them and let them simmer in it for 3/4 hour. Pulp the whole through a coarse sieve or soup strainer, put it again on the fire, keep it stirred until it has boiled three or four minutes, take off the scum, add salt or pepper if required, and serve it very hot.

INGREDIENTS.——Turnips, 3 lbs.; butter, 4 oz.; 3/4 hour. Soup, 2 quarts; 3/4 hour. Last time, 3 minutes.

=Soup, Vermicelli.= Drop very lightly and by degrees 6 oz. of vermicelli, broken rather small, into 3 quarts of boiling bouillon, or clear gravy soup; let it simmer for half an hour over a gentle fire, and stir it often.

INGREDIENTS.——Bouillon or gravy soup, 3 quarts, vermicelli, 6 oz.; 30 minutes. Or soup, 3 quarts; vermicelli, 4 oz.; blanched in boiling water, 5 minutes; stewed in soup 10 to 15 minutes.

=SOUR′ING.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.

=SOY.= Genuine soy is a species of thick black sauce, imported from China. _Prep._ Take of the seeds of _Soja hispida_ (white haricots or kidney beans may be used for them), 1 gall.; boil them in water, q. s., until soft, add of bruised wheat, 1 gall., and keep the mixture in a warm place for 24 hours; then add of common salt, 1 gall.; water, 2 gall.; put the whole into a stone jar, and bung it up loosely for two or three months, shaking it very frequently during the whole time; lastly press out the liquor and bottle it; the residuum may be treated afresh with water and salt, for soy of an inferior quality.

_Obs._ The soy of the shops is, in nine cases out of ten, a spurious article made in this country, by simply saturating molasses or treacle with common salt. A better and a really wholesome imitation is made as follows:——Malt syrup, 1 gall. (or, 13-1/2 lbs.); treacle, 5 lbs.; salt, 4-1/4 lbs.; mushroom juice, 1 quart; mix, with a gentle heat, and stir until the union is complete; in a fortnight decant the clear portion.

=SPAN′ISH FLIES.= See CANTHARIDES.

=SPAR′ADRAP.= _Syn._ SPARADRAPUM, L. Originally a cerecloth; now applied to spread plasters; as SPARADRAPUM COMMUNE, common strapping or adhesive plaster; S. VESICATORIUM, blistering plaster or tissue, &c.

The following are in occasional demand by the pharmacist:——

=Sparadrap, Opium.= _Syn._ SPARADRAPUM OPII (M. Schœufelle.) _Prep._ On a piece of black sarcenet of a close and strong texture, properly stretched; spread with a brush, 3 layers of extract of opium, softened with water, to the consistence of treacle, and mixed with a sixth part of powdered gum. Keep the plaster dry.

=Sparadrap, Thapsian.= _Syn._ SPARADRAPUM THAPSIÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Yellow wax, 4-1/4 oz.; resin, 1-1/2 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 1-1/2 oz.; boiled turpentine, 1-1/2 oz.; Swiss turpentine, 1/2 oz.; glycerin, 1/2 oz.; honey, 1/2 oz.; resin of thapsia, 3/4 oz. Melt the first five substances together and strain through linen. Keep them liquefied and add the glycerin, the honey, and the resin. When well mixed, and of a proper consistence, spread on strips of linen cloth.

=Sparadrap, Wax.= SPARADRAPUM CUM CERA, TOILE DE MAI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ White wax, 8 oz.; (by wt.), oil of almonds, 4 oz.; (by wt.), Swiss turpentine, 1 oz. Melt together and dip into it strips of linen cloth, which are to be passed between wooden rollers, to remove the superfluous plaster. Spread on paper it forms waxed paper.

=SPARTE′INE.= _Syn._ SPARTEINA, L. A volatile oily liquid, possessing basic properties, obtained from _Spartium scoparium_, or broom. It is highly poisonous, and resembles conine and nicotine in its general properties.

=SPASMS.= _Syn._ CRAMP; SPASMUS, L. An involuntary contraction of the muscles, generally of the extremities, accompanied with pain more or less severe. Spasms are distinguished into clonic spasms or convulsions, in which the contractions and relaxations are alternate, as in epilepsy; and into tonic spasms, in which there is continued rigidity, as in locked-jaw. That form which commonly attacks the muscles of the legs and feet, especially after great exertion or exposure to cold, is commonly called cramp. The best treatment for this is immediately to stand upright, and to well rub the part with the hand. The application of strong stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been recommended. When spasm or cramp occurs in the stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water, or a teaspoonful of good brandy, may be swallowed immediately. When cramp comes or during cold bathing, the limb should be thrown out as suddenly and violently as possible, which will generally remove it, care being also taken not to become flurried or frightened, as presence of mind is very essential to personal safety on such an occasion. A common cause of spasm is indigestion, and the use of acescent liquors; these should, therefore, be avoided, and bitters and absorbents had recourse to. See ANTISPASMODICS, and the names of the principal spasmodic diseases.

=SPEAR′MINT.= See MINT.

=SPE′CIES.= (In pharmacy.) Mixtures of dried plants, or parts of plants, in a divided state, which, for convenience, are kept mixed for use. The dry ingredients of pills, conserves, electuaries, mixtures, &c., that do not keep well when made up, or which are in little demand, may be economically and conveniently preserved in this state. The word, thus applied, is obsolete out of the pharmaceutical laboratory.

=Species, Anthelmin′tic.= _Syn._ SPECIES ANTHELMINTICÆ, L. The dried flowering tops of tansy and wormwood, and the flowers of chamomile, equal parts; mix, and keep them in a close vessel. (P. Cod.)

=Species, Aperitive.= See SPECIES, DIURETIC (_below_).

=Species, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ AROMATIC POWDER; SPECIES AROMATICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Leaves of balm and curled-leaf mint (_Mentha crispa_), of each 4 oz.; lavender flowers, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; dry them by a gentle heat, and then powder them.

=Species, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ SPECIES ASTRINGENTES, L. The roots of bistort and tormentil, and bark of pomegranate, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

=Species, Bechicæ.= (P. Cod.) 1. Leaves of Canadian maidenhair, ground ivy, hartstongue, speedwell, hyssop tops and poppy capsules, (freed from seed), of each equal parts. Cut and mix. 2. Dried flowers of mallow, catsfoot, coltsfoot and petals of red poppy, of each 1 oz. Mix. The Fructûs Bechici are:——Dates (stored) 1 oz.; jujubes, 1 oz.; figs, 1 oz.; raisins, 1 oz.

=Species, Bitter.= _Syn._ THREE BITTER HERBS; SPECIES AMARÆ, HERBÆ AMARÆ, L. The leaves of germander, and dried tops of lesser centaury and wormwood, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

=Species, Carminative.= _Syn._ SPECIES CARMINATIVE. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Equal parts of aniseeds, caraway seeds, coriander seeds, and fennel seeds.

=Species, Capil′lary.= _Syn._ FIVE CAPILLARY HERBS; HERBÆ QUINQUE CAPILLARES, L. Hartstongue, black maiden hair, white do., golden do., and spleenwort, equal parts. (Ph. L. 1720.)

=Species, Cor′dial.= _Syn._ FOUR CORDIAL FLOWERS; SPECIES CORDIALES, L. The flowers of borage, bugloss, roses, and violets, equal parts. (Ph. L. 1720.)

=Species for Decoction Woods.= _Syn._ SPECIES AD DECOCTUM LIQUORUM. (G. Ph.) _Prep._ Rasped guaiacum wood, 4 oz.; cut burdock root, 2 oz.; ononis root, 2 oz.; cut liquorice, 1 oz; cut sassafras, 1 oz. Mix,

=Species, Diuret′ic.= _Syn._ APERIENT ROOTS, APERITIVE SPECIES; SPECIES DIURETICÆ, L. 1. (FIVE GREATER APERITIVE ROOTS——P. Cod., & Ph. E. 1744.) The dried roots of asparagus, butcher’s broom, parsley, smallage, and sweet fennel, equal parts.

2. (FIVE LESSER APERITIVE ROOTS.) Those of caper, dog-grass, eryngo, madder, and restharrow.

=Species, Emol′lient.= _Syn._ SPECIES EMOLLIENTES, L. 1. (THREE EMOLLIENT MEALS; FARINÆ EMOLLIENTES.) The meal of barley, linseed, and rye, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

2. (FIVE EMOLLIENT HERBS; HERBÆ QUINQUE EMOLLIENTES.)——_a._ The dried leaves of groundsel, common mallow, marshmallow, great mullein, and wall pellitory, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

_b._ The leaves of mallow, marshmallow, French mercury, pellitory of the wall, and violet. (Ph. E. 1744.)

=Species for Ene′mas.= _Syn._ HERBS FOR CLYSTERS; HERBÆ PRO ENEMATE, L. Mallow leaves, 2 parts; chamomile flowers, 1 part.

=Species of the five Herbs.= _Syn._ SPECIES DIETÆ; QUINQUE HERBÆ. FIVE CAPILLARY HERBS. (Ph. L. 1720.) _Prep._ Black and white maidenhair, spleenwort, hartstongue, and golden maidenhair.

=Species for Fomenta′tions.= _Syn._ SPECIES PRO FOTU, HERBÆ PRO FOTU, L. Leaves of southernwood, tops of sea-wormwood, and flowers of chamomile, of each 2 parts; bay leaves, 1 part.

=Species, Hot.= 1. (FOUR GREATER HOT SEEDS.) The seeds of anise, caraway, cumin, and fennel.

2. (FOUR LESSER HOT SEEDS.) The seeds of bishop’s weed, smallage, stone parsley, and wild carrot.

=Species, Lax′ative.= _Syn._ ST GERMAIN LAXATIVE POWDER; SPECIES LAXANTES ST GERMAIN, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Senna leaves (exhausted with spirit), 4 oz.; elder flowers, 2-1/2 oz.; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1-1/4 oz.; reduce them to coarse powder, and, when dispensing, add of powdered cream of tartar, 1 dr., to each 1-1/2 oz. of the mixture.

=Species, Narcotic.= _Syn._ FOUR NARCOTIC HERBS; SPECIES NARCOTICÆ, L. Dried leaves of belladonna, black nightshade, henbane, and thorn-apple, equal parts.

=Species, Purging.= _Syn._ SPECIES PURGANTES. THÉ DE SANTÉ. THÉ DE ST GERMAIN. (P. Cod.) Senna, 12 dr.; elder flowers, 5 dr.; fennel seeds, 3 dr.; aniseed, 5 dr.; cream of tartar, 3 dr. Eighty grains in a cup of boiling water for a dose, said to be very serviceable and largely used in France for habitual constipation.

=Species, Pec′toral.= _Syn._ SPECIES BECHICÆ, SPECIES AD INFUSUM PECTORALES, L, 1. Mallow root, 4 oz.; coltsfoot leaves, 2 oz.; liquorice root, 1-1/2 oz.; aniseed, great mullein flowers and red-poppy flowers, of each 1 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz. (Ph. Bor.)

=Species, Refri′′gerant.=——1. (FOUR COLD SEEDS.) The seeds of cucumber, gourd, melon, and water-melon.

2. (FOUR LESSER COLD SEEDS.) The seeds of endive, lettuce, purslane, and succory.

=Species, Resol′vent.= _Syn._ FARINÆ RESOLVENTES, L. The meal of the seeds of barley, bean, tare, and white lupin.

=Species, Vulnerary.= _Syn._ SPECIES VULNERARIÆ. THÉ SIUSSE. _Prep._ Leaves and tops of wormwood, betony, bugle, calamint, germander, hyssop, ground ivy, millefoil, origanum, periwinkle, rosemary, self-heat, sage, hartstongue, water-germander, thyme, speedwell, flower of Armea, flower of catsfoot, flower of coltsfoot, of each equal parts. Cut and mixed.

=SPECIF′IC GRAVITY= is the comparative weights of equal bulks of different substances, the assumed standard being 1 and sometimes 1000. This standard is pure distilled water for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for gaseous bodies and vapours.[178] In England the sp. gr., unless when otherwise expressed, is always taken at 60° Fahr.; but in France it is taken at 32° Fahr. (0° C), or the temperature of melting ice. In the ‘British Pharmacopœia,’ whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is supposed to be of the temperature of 60° Fahr. In most cases, however, it is sufficient merely to note the temperature, and to apply a correction, depending on the known density of water, or air, at the different degrees of the thermometric scale.

[Footnote 178: By many modern chemists _hydrogen_, the lightest substance in nature, is taken as the standard for the specific gravity of gases and vapours.]

To determine the specific gravity as a solid, we weigh it, first in the air, and then in water. In the latter case it loses, of its weight, a quantity precisely equal to the weight of its own bulk of water; and hence, by comparing this weight with its total weight, we find its specific gravity. The rule is——Divide the total weight by the loss of weight in water; the quotient is the specific gravity.

The specific gravity of a substance lighter than water may be determined by attaching it to some substance, as a piece of lead, the sp. gr., &c., of which is known. In this way, by deducting the loss in weight of the two substances, when weighed in water, from the loss sustained by the lead alone, when so weighed, we obtain a difference (_a_) which, added to the weight of the substance taken in air (_b_), gives the respective densities. From these the sp. gr. is found by the rule of three:——

(_a_ + _b_) : 1 :: _b_ : _sp. gr._

The specific gravities of substances soluble in water are taken in pure oil of turpentine, rectified spirit, olive oil, or some other liquid, the density of which is exactly known. Sometimes, for rough purposes, the article is covered with a coating of mastic varnish. This last method answers for mercurial pill.

The specific gravity of a substance in fragments, or in powder, may be found by putting a portion (say 100 gr.) into a sp. gr. bottle, filling the latter with distilled water, and then weighing it. The weight of water which it is found to contain, deducted from 1000 (the weight of the bottle when filled with distilled water), gives a difference (_a_) which bears the same relation to the sp. gr. of water (1·000) as the weight of the powder (_b_) put into the bottle does to the required sp. gr. Or——

_a_ : 1·000 :: _b_ : _sp. gr._

The specific gravity of alloys and mixtures, when no condensation has occurred, is equal to the sum of the weights divided by the sum of the volumes, compared to water reckoned as unity; and is not merely the arithmetical mean between the two numbers denoting the two sp. gr., as is frequently taught. See BEADS (Lovi’s), HYDROMETER, MIXTURES (Arithmetic of), &c. For the mode of determining the specific gravity of gases, the reader is referred to the works on chemistry of Miller and Fownes.

The specific gravity of a liquid is found by weighing it in a sp. gr. bottle, glass flask, or other vessel of known capacity, and dividing that weight by the weight of the same bulk of water; the quotient is, as before, the specific gravity. A bottle of the capacity of 1000 water-grains (specific gravity bottle) gives the density of a liquid at once, by simply filling it to the given mark, and then accurately weighing it.

We reprint from the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’[179] a new method of determining the specific gravity of liquids, which is said by Dr H. Sprengel, the chemist who devised it, to be both expeditious and accurate. Dr Sprengel says:

[Footnote 179: (2) xi, 577.]

“The form of my instrument, as shown in the accompanying fig. 1, is that of an elongated U-tube, the open ends of which terminate in two capillary tubes, which are bent at right angles in opposite directions. The size and weight of this instrument should be adapted to the size and capability of the balance in which it is to be weighed. As our usual balances indicate 1/10 milligram when loaded with 50 grams, the U-tube, when charged with the liquid, should not be heavier than 1000 gr.=(64·799 grams).

The instrument which served for my determinations, mentioned below, had a length of 17·7 cm. (7 inches), and was made of a glass tube, the outer diameter of which was 11 mm. (7/16 of an inch). It need hardly be mentioned that the U-shape is adopted for the sake of presenting a large surface, and so rendering the instrument sensitive to changes of temperature. The point, however, I wish to notice more particularly (for reasons explained below) is the different calibre of the two capillary tubes. The shorter one is a good deal narrower (at least towards the end) than the longer one, the inner diameter of which is about 1/2 mm. The horizontal part of this wider tube is marked near the bend with a delicate line (_b_). This line, and the extremity of the opposite capillary tube (_a_), are the marks which limit the volume of the liquid to be laid.

The filling of the instrument is easily effected by suction, provided that the little bulb apparatus (as represented in fig. 2) has previously been attached to the _narrow_ capillary tube by means of a perforated stopper, _i. e._ a bit of an india-rubber tube tightly fitting the conical tubules of the bulb. On dipping the wider and longer capillary tube into a liquid, suction applied to the open end of the india-rubber tube will produce a partial vacuum in the apparatus, causing the liquid to enter the U-tube. As the partial vacuum maintains itself for some time (on account of the bulb, which acts as an air-chamber), it is not necessary to continue the suction if the end of the india-rubber tube be timely closed by compression between the fingers. When bulb and U-tube have about equal capacity, it is hardly necessary during the filling to repeat the exhaustion more than once.

Without such a bulb the filling of the U-tube through these fine capillary tubes is found somewhat tiresome; the emptying the U-tube is effected by reversing the action, and so compressing the air. After the U-tube has been filled, it is detached from the bulb, placed in water of the standard temperature almost up to the bends of the capillary tubes, left there until it has assumed this temperature, and after a careful adjustment of the volume, is taken out, dried, and weighed.

Particular care must be taken to ensure the correctness of the standard temperature, for a mistake of 0·1° causes the weight of 10 c.c. of water to be estimated either too high or too low by 0·14 milligram, giving rise to an error in the fifth decimal, or making 100,000 parts 100001·4 parts. These determinations have been made in Dupré’s apparatus, which, when furnished with a sensitive thermometer, allows the fluctuations of temperature to be fixed within the limits of 0·01°. If many determinations had to be made, I should avail myself of Scheibler’s (‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ vol. vii, p. 88, 1868) electro-magnetic regulator for maintaining a constant temperature.

A peculiar feature of my instrument is the ease and precision with which the measurement of the liquid can be adjusted at the moment it has taken the standard temperature; for it will be found that the liquid expands and contracts only in the wider capillary tube, viz. in the direction of the least resistance. The narrow capillary tube remains always completely filled. Supposing the liquid reaches beyond the mark _b_, it may be reduced through capillary force by touching the point _a_ with a little roll of filtering paper. Supposing, however, that in so doing too much liquid is abstracted, capillary force will redress the fault if point _a_ be touched with a drop of the liquid under examination; for this gentle force acts instantly through the whole mass of the liquid, causing it to move forward again to or beyond the mark.

As the instrument itself possesses the properties of a delicate thermometer, the time when it has reached the standard temperature of the bath may be learned from the stability of the thread of liquid inside the wider tube. The length of this thread remains constant after the lapse of about _five minutes_.

In wiping the instrument (after its removal from the bath) care should be taken not to touch point _a_, as capillarity might extract some of the liquid; otherwise the handling of the liquid requires no especial precaution.

The capillary tubes need not be closed for the purpose of arresting evaporation, at least that of water. I have learned from the mean of several determinations that the error arising from this source amounts in one hour to 1/20 of a milligram.

In cases where the temperature of the balance-room is high, and the expansion coefficient of the liquid to be examined is considerable, it may be found necessary to put a small cap (bead-shaped and open at both ends) over the extremity of the _wider_ capillary tube, for the purpose of retaining the liquid, which during the time of weighing might otherwise be lost, owing to its expansion. When a cap is used the _wider_ capillary tube need not be longer than the narrow one.[180]

[Footnote 180: This instrument is manufactured by E. Cetti & Co., 11, Brooke Street, Holborn, London.]

The ‘Compte Rendus’[181] describes a new specific gravity apparatus, the invention of M. Pisani. The apparatus in question consists of a glass vessel about 5 c.c. capacity, closed with a perforated stopper like an ordinary specific gravity bottle. To the side of the vessel is joined a tube, coming off at an angle of about 45°, about 25 cm. long, and 4 mm. internal diameter, and graduated at 50ths of a c.c. The vessel is filled with water, the level of which is read off in the tube held vertically, the finger being held over the hole in the stopper; 2 or 3 grams of a mineral are then placed in the flask, the stopper is replaced, care being taken to lose no water, and the level is again read off in the graduated tube, held vertically as before. The difference in the two readings gives the volume of the mineral taken.

[Footnote 181: lxxxvi, 350-352 (‘Journ. Chem. Soc.’)]

=SPEC′TACLES.= See EYE, VISION, &c.

=SPEC′TROSCOPE.= An instrument devised for examining the spectra of flames. (See _below_.)

=SPEC′TRUM ANAL′YSIS.= See ANALYSIS, SPECTRUM.

=SPEC′ULUM MET′AL.= _Prep._ 1. Take of copper, 64 parts; pure tin, 69 parts; melt them separately under a little black flux; next incorporate them thoroughly by stirring with a wooden spatula, and run the metal into the moulds, so that the face of the intended mirror may be downwards; lastly, allow the whole to cool very slowly.

2. Pure copper, 2 parts; pure tin, 1 part. Used to make the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. The addition of a little metallic arsenic renders it whiter.

=SPEL′TER.= See ZINC.

=SPERMACE′TI.= _Syn._ CETACEUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A concretion prepared from the oily matter of the head of the _Physeter macrocephalus_, or spermaceti whale. It is demulcent and emollient; chiefly used in ointments and cerates.

=SPHEROID′AL STATE.= It is found that water, or any other volatile liquid, thrown on a metallic plate heated to dull redness, is not resolved into vapour, but, assuming a somewhat globular form, remains intact, until the temperature becomes sufficiently lowered to allow of contact between the liquid and the heated surface. It is then immediately volatilised. M. Boutigny, who fully investigated this subject, has also shown that the same thing happens when a solid body containing water is substituted for the liquid in the above and similar experiments. Thus, the finger or hand, under certain restrictions, may be thrust, with perfect impunity, into a stream of molten metal, and ice may be produced by throwing water into a red-hot crucible. This last experiment, as performed by MM. Boutigny and Prevostaye, is essentially as follows:——A thick platinum crucible, of the capacity of 1 fl. oz., is heated to redness over a powerful spirit lamp, and some liquid anhydrous sulphurous acid (a very volatile substance) poured into it by means of a pipette; the acid assumes a spheroidal form, and does not evaporate; a few drops of water are now introduced into the sulphurous acid in the same way; the diluted and slightly cooled acid instantly flashes off in vapour, and, robbing the water of its caloric, leaves the latter in a frozen state; and, if the operator seizes the right moment, a solid lump of ice may be thrown out of the red-hot crucible.

By substituting for anhydrous sulphurous acid a mixture of solid carbonic anhydride and ether, and for water a few grains of quicksilver, this latter may be reduced to the solid condition, and may be turned out of the red-hot crucible in the form of a small frozen mass.

The spheroidal condition of “liquids is a complicated result of at least four distinct causes. Of these the most influential is the repulsive force which heat exerts between objects which are closely approximated towards each other. When the temperature reaches a certain point actual repulsion between the particles ensues.

“Besides this repulsive action occasioned by heat, the other causes which may be mentioned as tending to produce the assumption of the spheroidal condition by the liquid are these:——

“1. The temperature of the plate is so high that it immediately converts any liquid that touches it into vapour, upon which the spheroid rests as on a cushion.

“2. This vapour is a bad conductor of heat, and prevents the rapid conduction of heat from the metal to the globule.

“3. The evaporation from the entire surface of the liquid carries off the heat as it arrives, and assists in keeping the temperature below the points of ebullition. The drop assumes the spheroidal form as a necessary consequence of the action of cohesion among the particles of the liquid, and the simultaneous action of gravity on the mass.”[182]

Boutigny found that, when a liquid in a state of ebullition was brought into contact with a surface heated to such a degree as to cause the liquid to assume the spheroidal state, its temperature immediately fell 3° or 4° C. below the boiling point.

All liquids are capable of assuming the spheroidal condition; but, as the temperature necessary for this purpose, varies with the boiling point of each liquid (the lower the boiling point the lower the temperature necessary, and _vice versâ_), it follows that the conducting surface requires to be differently heated for each liquid. The exact temperature to which the plate should be heated to produce the spheroidal condition in any liquid, depends partly upon the conducting power of the plate, and partly upon the latent heat of the vapour; the less this is, the more nearly the temperature of the plate approximates to the boiling point of the liquid.

Boutigny believed that the temperature of each liquid, when in the spheroid condition, was as invariable as that of its boiling point; but Boutan has demonstrated that this is a not quite accurate statement, since the temperature of the same liquids, when assuming the spheroidal form, is liable to slight divergence.

The following table, showing the lowest temperature of the plate and the temperature of the spheroid for certain liquids, is given by Boutigny:——

+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------------------------+ | | Temperature of Plate. | Temperature of Spheroid. | | +-----------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | Liquid employed. | °F. | °C. | °F. | °C. | +-----------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | Water | 340 | 171 | 205·7 | 96·4 | | Alcohol | 273 | 134 | 167·9 | 75·5 | | Ether | 142 | 61 | 93·6 | 34·2 | | Sulphurous anhydride | ... | ... | 13·1 | 10·5 | +-----------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+------------+

Solids may also be made to assume the spheroidal condition, as when, for instance, some crystals of iodine are thrown upon a red-hot platinum disc, or into a platinum crucible similarly heated.

[Footnote 182: Miller.]

The nature of the plate or crucible employed appears to be immaterial, provided it is a good conductor. Platinum, silver, copper, and iron answer equally well; indeed, Tomlinson has shown that one liquid may even be made to assume the spheroidal state, on the surface of another, as when water, alcohol, and ether are placed upon hot oil. If the experiment be conducted with water it must be carefully managed, since, if the water be allowed to sink in the oil, it soon becomes converted into steam, with the result of scattering about the hot oil to the danger of the operator.

Boutigny has advanced the opinion that the property of water to assume the spheroidal state under the conditions we have specified will account for certain cases of explosion in steam-boilers. Thus we can imagine a boiler, which has run dry of water, to have become intensely overheated. Under these circumstances, when fresh water was admitted it would at first assume the spheroidal state; and as more cold water flowed into it, the boiler would become thereby reduced in temperature until it reached the point at which its conversion into steam would take place; the sudden generation, large volume, and elastic force of which would lead to the rupture of the boiler, accompanied with explosive violence.

=SPICE.= A general name for vegetable substances possessing aromatic and pungent properties, and employed for seasoning or flavouring food.

=Spice, Horse.= _Syn._ COW SPICE; SPECIES EQUINUS, L. _Prep._ 1. Aniseed, allspice, cumin seed, ginger, liquorice, and turmeric, equal parts.

2. Turmeric and cumin seed, of each 5 lbs.; ginger, 2-1/2 lbs. Used by farriers.

=Spice, Kit′chen.= _Syn._ MIXED SPICE, KITCHEN PEPPER, &c. _Prep._ From black pepper, 2 lbs.; ginger, 1 lb.; cinnamon, allspice, and nutmegs, of each 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; dry salt, 6 lbs.; well ground together. Useful to flavour gravies, soup, &c.

=Spice, Mixed.= As the last, omitting half the salt.

=Spice, Pease.= See POWDER.

=Spice, Ragout.= _Prep._ From dry salt, 1 lb.; flour of mustard, black pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 1/2 lb.; cayenne pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, and ginger, of each 1 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.; all separately powdered.

=Spice, Sausage (French).= _Syn._ EPICE FINES, Fr. _Prep._ From black pepper, 5 lbs.; ginger, 2-1/2 lbs.; cloves and nutmegs, of each 1 lb.; aniseed and coriander seeds, of each 1/2 lb.; powder and mix them.

=Spice, Sa′′voury.= _Prep._ 1. (Kidder’s.) From cloves, mace, nutmegs, pepper, and salt, equal parts. Used by cooks.

2. (Dr Kitchener’s.) See SPICE, RAGOUT (_above_).

=Spice, Soup.= _Syn._ KITCHENER’S SOUP-HERB POWDER, KITCHENER’S VEGETABLE RELISH, &c. _Prep._ From parsley, lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, and winter savoury, of each, dried, 2 oz.; sweet bazil and yellow peel of lemon, of each, dried, 1 oz.; mix, and powder.

=Spice, Sweet (Kidder’s).= _Prep._ From cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and sugar, equal parts. Used in pastry.

=SPIGE′LIA.= _Syn._ CAROLINA PINK ROOT; SPIGELIA (Ph. E.), L. The root of _Spigelia Marilandica_, or worm grass. It is purgative, narcotic, and vermifuge.——_Dose_, 10 to 40 gr., in powder or infusion, night and morning, until the worms are expelled. Rhubarb or calomel is commonly added to it.

=SPIRIT.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS, L. Under this term are included all the inflammable and intoxicating liquors obtained by distillation, and used as beverages, as BRANDY, GIN, RUM, &c., each of which is noticed in its alphabetical order. Spirit may also be obtained by fermentation and distillation from all vegetable juices or solutions that contain sugar.

The spirit used in pharmacy and chemistry is distinguished by names which have reference to its richness in alcohol. (See TABLES.)

Spirituous liquors, like all other fluids at common temperatures, expand when they are heated, and diminish in volume when they are cooled. It is found that 1000 galls. of proof spirit, measured at the temperature of 50° Fahr., will, if re-measured at 59°, be found to have increased in bulk to full 1004-1/4 galls.; whilst 1000 galls. of the same spirit, measured at 77° Fahr., will be only equal to 991-1/4 galls. at 59°. These changes are still more marked at higher strengths, and at extreme temperatures, and, from not being recognisable by the hydrometer, often lead to serious losses in trade, and to serious fluctuations in ‘stock,’ which, to those unaware of the action of temperature, are perfectly unaccountable. A gallon of proof spirit only weighs 9-1/5 lbs. at 60° Fahr. At a higher temperature it will weigh less——at a lower one more; but as this weight constitutes the standard gallon at the temperature the proof is calculated for, it is manifest that any variations from it must result in loss either to the buyer or seller. Hence the equity of buying and selling liquors by weight instead of by measure. The stock-keeper in every wholesale house should be aware of this fact, and on ‘taking stock’ should as regularly enter the temperature of his liquors in his stock-book as he does the ‘dip’ or ‘wet inches.’ See ALCOHOL, ALCOHOLOMETRY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SPIRITS (Medicinal), SPIRITS (Perfumed), &c.

=Spirit of Acetic Ether.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS ACETICI. (Prus. Ph.) _Prep._ Acetic ether, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.

=Spirit, Alexiterius.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ALEXITERIUS, AQUA ALEXITERIA SPIRITUOSA. (Ph. L. 1746). _Prep._ Mint, 1/2 lb.; Angelica root, 4 oz.; tops of sea wormwood, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall. (old wine measure); water, a sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall.

=Spirit, Amy′lic.= See FUSEL OIL.

=Spirit of Angelica.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ANGELICÆ. _Prep._ Sliced angelica root, 2 oz.; sliced valerian, 1/2 oz.; bruised juniper berries, 1/2 oz. Put into a retort, and pour on 9 oz. of rectified spirit by weight, and 15-1/2 oz. of water, and macerate for 24 hours; then draw out 12-1/2 oz. (by weight), in which dissolve 1/4 oz. of camphor.

=Spirit of Ants.= SPIRITUS FORMICARUM. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Ants freshly collected, and bruised, 2 lbs.; spirit of wine (at ·830), 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Macerate for 2 days. Distil 4 lbs.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 drops, also used outwardly.

I. TABLE _of the Pharmacopœial Spirits_.

Sp. gr. _Alcohol_, Ph. B. (absolute) 0·795 { nearly ” Ph. E. 0·796 { pure { Alcohol. ” Ph. D. 1826 0·810 or 70% o. p. ” Ph. L. 1836 0·815 ” 68% ” _Stronger Spirit_ (Spiritus Fortior), } 0·818 ” 66% ” Ph. D. } [183]_Rectified Spirit_ (Spirit of Wine);} 0·838 ” 56% ” (Spiritus Rectificatus), B. P. } _Rectified Spirit_ Ph. D. 0·840 or 54-3/4% o. p. _Proof Spirit_ (Spiritus Tenuior), } 0·920 ” —— Ph. B. } _Alcohol_ (absolu), P. Cod. 0·797 ” —— ” (at 40°) ” 0·810 ” 70% ” ” (du commerce), P. Cod. 0·863 ” 41% ” ” (faible) ” 0·923 ” 2-1/2% u. p.

[Footnote 183: “This spirit can be reduced to the standard of the weaker (or proof) spirit, by adding, to every 5 pints of it, 3 pints of distilled water, at 62° Fahr.” (Ph. L.)]

II. TABLE _of the Principal Spirituous Liquors sold in England, with their usual Strengths, &c._

KEY:

Headings:

A. Denomination. B. Revenue Mark. C. Import Strength. D. Legal Limits of Strength. E. Usual Selling Strength. F. By _Permit_. G. Contains Alcohol of 0·825. H. Contains absolute Alcohol. I. Specific gravity at 60% Fahr.

A. Denominations:

1. Gin (_strongest_)[184] 2. Do. (_best ordinary_)[184] 3. Do. (_cordial_)[185] 4. Do.[185] 5. Peppermint[186] 6. Do.[186] 7. Cloves[186] 8. Bitters[186] 9. Raspberry[186] 10. Noyau[186] 11. Cinnamon[186] 12. Tent[186] 13. Aniseed[186] 14. Caraway[186] 15. Loveage[186] 16. Usquebaugh[186] 17. Orange Cordial[186] 18. Citron[186] 19. Rum 20. Rum Shrub[186] 21. Do.[186] 22. French Brandy 23. Spirit of Wine[187] 24. Malt, grain, or molasses spirit (_sent out by British distillers_) 25. Hollands 26. Whiskey (_Irish_) 27. Do. (_Scotch_)

[Footnote 184: Frequently retailed at 25 to 35 u. p.]

[Footnote 185: Though ‘permitted’ at 22 to 24, are generally from 25 to 35 u. p., or even weaker.]

[Footnote 186: These, though ‘permitted’ at 60 or 64 u. p., are generally 75 or 80 u. p.]

[Footnote 187: Usual strength 54 to 60 o. p.]

+------+----------+-----------+-------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | | E. | | | | | +--------+------+-----+------------+ | A. | B. | C. | D. | F. | G. | H. | I. | +------+----------+-----------+-------------+--------+------+-----+------------+ | | | | | | | | | | 1. |X(17 u.p.)| ..... |Not stronger |17 u.p. |..... | 40% | 0·9395 | | | | |than 25 o.p. | | | | | | 2. |X(22 u.p.)| ..... | do. |22 u. p.|..... |37·4%| 0·9445 | | 3. |X(22 u.p.)| ..... | do. |22 u. p.|..... | do. |[188]0· | | 4. |X(24 u.p.)| ..... | do. |24 u. p.|..... |36·5%|[188]0· | | 5. |X mint. | ..... | do. |60 u. p.|..... | 21% |[188]0· | | 6. | do. | ..... | do. |64 u. p.|..... | 18% |[188]0· | | 7. }| | | | | | | | | 8. }| | | | | | | | | 9. }| | | | | | | | | 10. }| | | | | | | | | 11. }| | | | | | | | | 12. }|X(64 u.p.)| ..... | do. |64 u. p.|..... | do. |[188]1·065 | | 13. }| | | | | | | to | | 14. }| | | | | | | 1·080 | | 15. }| | | | | | | | | 16. }| | | | | | | | | 17. }| | | | | | | | | 18. }| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 19. | R. | About | No limit. |11 u. p.|..... | 43% | 0·9329 | | | |10 o.p. to | | | | | to | | | | 43 o.p. | | | | | 0·8597 | | 20. | R. Sh. | ..... | do. |64 u. p.|..... | 18% |[188]0· | | 21. | do. | ..... | do. |60 u. p.|..... | 21% |[188]0· | | | | | | | | | | | 22. | F. | About | do. |10 u. p.|..... | 44% | 0·9318 | | | |5 o.p. to 8| | | | | | | | |or 10 u.p. | | | | | | | 23. | S. W. | ...... |Not less than|54 to 64|..... |.....| 0·8415 | | | | | 43 o.p. | o.p. | | | to | | | | | | | | | 0·8221 | | 24. | P. S. | ...... |Not stronger | ..... |..... |.....| 0·8669 to| | | | |than 25 o.p. | | | | 0·9318 | | | | | | | | | | | 25. | Geneva. | ...... | No limit. | ..... |51·60%|40·5%| 0·9358 | | | | | | | | | | | 26. | P. S. | ...... } |Not stronger |{..... | 54% | 50% | | | 27. | P. S. | ...... } |than 25 o.p. |{..... |54·3% |50·2%| | +------+----------+-----------+-------------+--------+------+-----+------------+

[Footnote 188: The specific gravity is no guide when sugar is present, as in compounds.]

=Spirit, Blue.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CŒRULEUS. (Ham. Ph.) _Prep._ Wormwood, scordium, savin, lavender flowers, of each 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 5 pints; distil 2-1/2 pints, and add 6 dr. of verdigris and water of ammonia, 9 oz. For outward use.

=Spirit of Bryony (Compound).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS BRYONÆ COMPOSITUS. (Ph. E. 1744.) _Prep._ Bryony, 1/2 lb.; valerian, 2 oz.; pennyroyal, 3 oz.; rue, 3 oz.; mugwort feverfew flowers, savin tops, of each 4 dr.; orange peel, 1 oz.; loveage seeds, 1 oz.; brandy, 1 gall. Distil. Without the bryony this preparation is known as _Aqua hysterica_.——_Dose_, 1 oz.

=Spirit of Cajeput.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CAJEPUTI. (B. P.) _Prep._ Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of oil of cajeput in 39 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

=Spirit of Cardamom.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CARDAMOMI. (Ph. L. 1746.) _Prep._ Cardamom seed, 5 troy oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water a sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall.

=Spirit of Chloroform.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CHLOROFORMI. (B. P.) _Prep._ Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of chloroform in 19 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. Sp. gr. ·871.

=Spirit of Cloves.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CARYOPHYLLI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Cloves, 10 oz.; spirit (·864), 80 oz., by weight; draw over all the spirituous part.

=Spirit of Coriander.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CORIANDRI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Coriander seed, 1 oz.; spirit (·0864), by weight, 8 oz. Distil to dryness.

=Spirit, Dyer’s.= See TIN MORDANTS.

=Spirit, Febrifuge, of Clutton.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS FEBRIFUGUS CLUTTONI. See SPIRIT OF HYDROCHLORIC ETHER. _Prep._ The original form is——oil of sulphur by the bell, oil of vitriol and sea salt, of each 1 oz.; spirit of wine, 6 oz. Let them digest for a month, then distil to dryness.

=Spirit, Fioravanti.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS FIORAVANTI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Swiss turpentine, 5 oz.; eleme, 1 oz.; resin of tacamahaca, 1 oz.; amber, 1 oz.; liquid styrax, 1 oz.; galbanum, 1 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; aloes, 1/2 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; galanga root, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; zedoary root, 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.; leaves of cretum marum, 1/2 oz. Macerate 6 days and distil over a water bath till 35 oz. come over.

=Spirit of Flower Sage.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS SALVIÆ. _Prep._ Flower sage, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs.

=Spirit of French Wine.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, BRANDY.

=Spirit of Lemon Peel.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CITRI CORTICIS. With lemon peel as spirit of orange peel.

=Spirit of Marjoram.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS MARJORAMÆ. _Prep._ Sweet marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lb.; water, 1 lb.; distil 3 lbs.

=Spirit of Mastic (Compound).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS MASTICHES COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Mastic, 1 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; olibanum, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Distil.

=Spirit, Meth′ylated.= Spirit of wine to which one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha (strength not less than 60° o. p.) has been added, the object of such addition being that of rendering the mixture unpotable through its offensive odour and taste. The purification of this mixed spirit, or the separation of the two alcohols, though often attempted, has always proved a failure. It might be supposed that, owing to the low boiling-point of methylic alcohol, simple distillation would effect this; but experience has shown that both spirits distil over simultaneously. This is, no doubt, due to the difference of their vapour densities. Methylated spirit, being sold duty free, can be employed by the chemical manufacturer as a solvent in many processes for which, from its greater cost, duty-paid spirit would be commercially inapplicable. But in the preparation of medicines, containing spirit, as the vehicle or menstruum by which more active substances are administered, the employment of methylated spirit is highly improper. The Council of the Pharmaceutical Society obtained from the Pharmacopœia Committee of the Medical Council, the decided opinion that “the substitution of ‘methylated’ for ‘rectified’ spirit in any of the processes of the Pharmacopœia should be strictly prohibited.”

The use of methylated spirit in the preparation of tinctures, sweet spirit of nitre, common ether, or any medicine to be used internally, is now prohibited by law.

=Spirit of Orange Peel.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS AURANTII. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ The yellow part of fresh orange peel, 1 lb.; spirit of wine (·864), 6 lbs.; macerate for 2 days, and distil by water bath to dryness.

=Spirit of Origanum.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ORIGANI. _Prep._ Wild marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs.

=Spirit of Para Cress.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS SPILANTHI. (Beral.) _Prep._ Bruised Para cress (_Spilanthes oleracea_), in flower, 1 part; spirit (·863), 2 parts. Macerate 2 or 3 days, and distil 2 parts.

=Spirit, Proof.= See ALCOHOL.

=Spirit, Pyroace′tic.= _Syn._ ACETONE; SPIRITUS PYROACETICUS, L.; ACÉTONE, ESPRIT PYROACETIQUE, Fr. An inflammable volatile liquid obtained with carbonic acid and other products when the metallic acetates in an anhydrous state are subjected to destructive distillation. The acetate of lead is the most eligible salt for this purpose.

_Prep._ 1. Dried acetate of lead is carefully distilled in a large earthen or coated-glass retort, by a heat gradually raised to redness, the volatile products being passed through a condenser well supplied with cold water. The distillation is continued until nothing but finely divided lead (lead pyrophorus) remains in the retort. The receiver contains crude acetone, which is to be saturated with carbonate of potassa, and afterwards rectified in a water bath from chloride of calcium.

2. By passing the vapour of strong acetic acid through an iron tube heated to dull redness, and condensing the acetone thus formed.

_Obs._ In both of the above processes carbonic acid and other permanent gases are produced, consequently the receiver must not fit too closely to the tube of the condenser.

_Prop._ Colourless, limpid, of peculiar odour, and very inflammable, giving a brilliant flame, without smoke; boiling point 132° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·792. It dissolves resins and essential oils. See MESITILOL, MESITYL, METACETONE, &c.

=Spirit, Pyroxyl′ic.= _Syn._ PYROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT, WOOD S., MEDICINAL NAPHTHA, WOOD N., HYDRATED OXIDE OF METHYL; SPIRITUS PYROXYLICUS (Ph. D.), L. A light volatile liquid, discovered by P. Taylor, in 1812, among the limpid products of the distillation of dry wood. It has been shown by Dumas and Peligot to be “really a second alcohol, forming an ether, and a series of compounds (MYTAYL-SERIES) exactly corresponding with those of vinous spirit, and, in some points, even more complete than the latter.”

_Prep._ Crude pyroligneous acid (which contains about 1% of the spirit) is subjected to distillation, and the first or more volatile portion which passes over is neutralised with hydrate of lime. After repose the clear liquid is separated from the oil which floats on the surface, and from the sediment at the bottom of the vessel; this, when redistilled, forms the wood spirit of commerce. It may be strengthened in the same manner as ordinary alcohol, by rectification, and ultimately rendered pure by careful distillation from quicklime by the heat of a water bath. Berzelius recommends the crude spirit to be agitated with a fatty oil, to remove empyreumatic matter, and then to rectify it, first, from recently burnt charcoal, and next with chloride of calcium.

_Prop., &c._ Pure pyroxylic spirit is a transparent colourless liquid, having a penetrating ethereal smell, and a hot disagreeable taste; it is very inflammable, burning with a pale blue flame. It is neutral to test paper; mixes with water, alcohol, and ether, in all proportion; and boils at 152° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·798 at 68° Fahr. (Regnault and Liebig.) Dr Ure states the sp. gr. to be ·824 at 60°; the Dublin College makes it ·846. That of the latter must therefore have contained a little water. It does not dissolve india rubber and gutta percha, like mineral or true naphtha.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from acetone or pyroacetic spirit by the character of its flame, and by freely dissolving chloride of calcium, which is quite insoluble in the latter. In a mixture of these two liquids two distinct strata are formed when this substance, either in powder or concentrated solution, is added.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from vinous spirit by Nessler’s test (which _see_), by its forming a solid crystalline salt (methylic oxalate) when distilled with an oxalate and sulphuric acid, and by its lower boiling point. The presence of alcohol, in a mixture of the two, is readily detected by distilling the suspected sample with sulphuric acid. The formation of common ether indicates ethylic alcohol, and from the amount formed the proportion of alcohol may be determined.

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly to dissolve resins and volatile oils, especially shell-lac, and as a substitute for alcohol in spirit lamps. As a medicine it is anodyne and sedative; and has been beneficially employed by Drs Christison, Hastings, and Neligan, to allay the harassing cough, troublesome vomiting, and excessive expectoration, in phthisis and some other affections.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 drops, thrice a day, in water.

=Spirit, Rai′sin.= _Prep._ From raisins fermented along with water, and the wash distilled by a quick fire. Used to give a brandy flavour to malt spirit. 1 gall. added to 150 gall. of plain spirit, along with some colouring, and a little catechu, either with or without a little acetic ether, makes a very decent “British brandy.”

=Spirit of Raspberries.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS RUBRI IDÆI. _Prep._ Raspberries, 3 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

=Spirit, Rec′tified.= See ALCOHOL, and Table I, under SPIRIT.

=Spirit of Salt†.= Hydrochloric acid.

=Spirit of Sassafras.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS SASSAFRAS. _Prep._ Sassafras, troy, 1 lb.; rectified spirit (·863), 8 lbs. Macerate 4 days, and distil nearly to dryness.

=Spirit of Scurvy Grass.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS COCHLEARIA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Fresh leaves of flowering scurvy grass, 8 lbs.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Distil 4 lbs.

=Spirit of Scurvy Grass (Compound).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS COCHLEARIÆ COMPOSITUS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Fresh scurvy grass, 5 lbs.; spirit (·0864), 6 lbs.; horseradish, 10-1/2 oz. Distil 5 lbs.

=Spirit of Soot.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS FULIGINIS. An empyreumatic spirit was formerly distilled from wood soot, in the same manner as hartshorn. An alcoholic spirit is also made from 1 part of wood-soot, 5 of proof spirit, 15 of water. Distil 4 parts.

=Spirit of Soup-herbs.= As essence of soup-herbs, but substituting 1 quart of brandy or proof spirit for the rectified spirit.

=Spirit of Sweet Flag Root.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CALAMUS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Calamus, 1 lb., troy, spirit of wine (·863), 8 lbs.; macerate 4 days, and distil nearly to dryness.

=Spirit of Thyme.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS THYME. From lime, as spirit of sage.

=Spirit of Turpentine, Ethereal.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ ÆTHEREUS. (Van Mons.) _Prep._ Spirit of nitric ether, with as much rectified oil of turpentine as it will dissolve. Rectified oil of turpentine is also termed “Ethereal Spirit of Turpentine.”

=Spirit of Wine.= See ALCOHOL, and Table I, under SPIRIT.

=Spirit of Wormwood (Compound).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ABSINTHII COMPOSITUS VEL AQUA. (Ph. L. 1720.) _Prep._ Dried wormwood, 1/2 lb.; cardamom seed, 1/2 oz.; coriander seed, 1-1/2 oz.; brandy, 1 gall. Distil.

=Spirit of Vanilla.= See ESSENCE OF VANILLA.

=SPIRITS (Medic′inal).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS MEDICINALES, L. The spirits of pharmacy are either prepared by macerating the bruised seeds, flowers, herbs, &c., in the spirit, for 2 or 3 days before distillation, and then drawing it off by a gentle heat; or extemporaneously, by adding a proper proportion of essential oil to pure spirit of the prescribed strength.[189] This latter plan is very generally adopted in the Ph. D. In the first method, when a naked fire is employed, a little water is put into the still along with the spirit, to prevent empyreuma. These spirits are principally employed as aromatics and stimulants, or as adjuvants in draughts and mixtures.

[Footnote 189: In the British Pharmacopœia, for most distilled spirits is substituted a solution of 1 part of volatile oil in 49 of rectified spirit.——ED.]

The following are the principal medicinal spirits:——

=Spirit of Ammo′′nia.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ (Ph. E.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Take of quicklime, 12 oz.; shake it with water, 6-1/2 fl. oz.; add of finely powdered chloride of ammonium, 3 oz.; and distil in a glass retort furnished with a tube reaching nearly to the bottom of a bottle containing rectified spirit, 2 pints, and kept well cooled. A sand heat is to be employed, and the distillation continued as long as anything passes over. The product has a sp. gr. about ·845, and should not effervesce with acids. The alkali is here in the caustic state, and in this respect it resembles the spirit of ammonia, Ph. U. S., and Dzond’s caustic spirit of ammonia, Ph. Bor.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Chloride of ammonium, 10 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 pints; mix, and let 3 pints distil.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve 3-1/2 oz. of carbonate of ammonia, in rectified spirit, 3 wine pints.

_Obs._ The ammonia in the last two preparations exist in the carbonated state. They are chiefly employed to make other preparations.

4. (ANISATED SPIRIT OF AMMONIA; LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ANISANUS, SPIRITUS A. A.——Ph. Bor.) Rectified spirit, 12 oz.; oil of aniseed, 3 dr.; dissolve, and add of caustic solution of ammonia (·960), 3 oz.

5. (AROMATIC SPIRIT OF AMMONIA, SPIRIT OF SAL VOLATILE; SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ AROMATICUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.)——_a._ (Ph. L.). Take of hydrochlorate of ammonia, 6 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 10 oz.; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; fresh lemon peel, 5 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 2 quarts; mix, and distil 3 quarts. Sp. gr. ·918.

_b._ (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 8 fl. oz.; oil of rosemary, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of lemon peel, 1 fl. dr.; mix.

_c._ (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit, 3 pints; oil of lemon, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of nutmeg, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cinnamon, 1/2 fl. dr.; dissolve and add of stronger solution of ammonia, 6 fl. oz. Sp. gr, ·852.

_d._ (B. P.). Carbonate of ammonia, 8 oz.; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz.; volatile oil of nutmeg, 4 dr.; oil of lemon, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 pints; water, 3 pints; distil 7 pints.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 minims in camphor water.

_Obs._ The ammonia exists in the state of neutral carbonate in the product of the _a_ formula, but in the caustic state in those of the others.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., in water or, any bland liquid; as a diffusible stimulant and antacid, in debility, low spirits, dyspepsia, heartburn, flatulent colic, hysteria, &c. The spirit of sal volatile of the shops is generally a spurious compound of little more than half the above strength.

6. (FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA; SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ FŒTIDUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L.——_a._ (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of ammonia, 10 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz.; assafœtida, 5 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 pints; mix well, then slowly distil 3 pints. Sp. gr. ·861.

_b._ (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 10-1/2 fl. oz.; assafœtida (broken small), 1/2 oz.; digest for 12 hours, then distil 10-1/2 fl. oz., by the heat of a vapour (water) bath.

_c._ (Ph. D.) Assafœtida, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; digest for 24 hours, then distil off the whole of the spirit, and mix the product with stronger solution of ammonia, 3 fl. oz. Sp. gr. ·849.

_d._ (B. P.) Strong solution of ammonia, 2; assafœtida, in small pieces, 1-1/2; rectified spirit, sufficient; macerate the assafœtida in 15 of the spirit for 24 hours, distil, add the distillate to the ammonia, and make up with spirit to 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

_Obs._ The dose, &c., are the same as those of the last, but it is preferred for hysterical and spasmodic affections.

=Spirit, Amyl′ic.= _Syn._ Alcohol amylicum (Ph. D.), L. See FUSEL OIL.

=Spirit of An′iseed.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ANISI (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of aniseed, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Carminative.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. dr. to 4 fl. dr.

2. (ESSENTIA ANISI——Ph. D.) Oil of aniseed, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz.; mix with agitation. Chiefly used to make aniseed water.

3. (COMPOUND SPIRIT OF ANISEED; SPIRITUS ANISI COMPOSITUS——Ph. D. 1826.) Aniseed and angelica seed, of each 1/2 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, q. s.; distil 1 gallon. When coloured with saffron, or sap green, it closely resembles the Irish usquebaugh. (Montgomery.)——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

=Spirit, Arquebusade′.= See VULNERARY SPIRIT (_below_).

=Spirit of Balm (Compound).= _Syn._ BALM WATER, CARMELITE W.; AQUA MELISSÆ COMPOSITA, SPIRITUS M. COMPOSITUS, L.; EAU DES CARMES, EAU DE MELISSE DES CARMES, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Fresh flowering tops of balm, 24 oz.; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz.; coriander seed and dried angelica root, of each 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 lbs.; macerate for 8 days and distil in a water bath to dryness. The spirit is much esteemed in France as a stomachic, a cosmetic, and a stimulant.

=Spirit, Bath′ing.= Soap liniment.

=Spirit of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ CAMPHORATED SPIRIT; SPIRITUS CAMPHORÆ; (B. P., Ph. L.), TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ, SPIRITUS CAMPHORATUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.

2. (B. P.) Camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 9; dissolve.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims, in milk or on sugar. Used as an application to chilblains, and in chronic rheumatism, cholera, &c. See ESSENCE and TINCTURE.

=Spirit of Car′away.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CARUI (Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of caraway, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Caraway seeds (bruised), 1/2 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate for 2 days in a covered vessel, then add of water, 1-1/2 pint, and distil 7 pints. Aromatic and carminative.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr. A similar spirit, “sweetened with sugar,” is drunk in Germany as a dram (KÜMELLIQUEUR; KÜMELBRANDTWEIN).

3. (ESSENTIA CARUI——Ph. D.) Oil of caraway, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make caraway water.

=Spirit of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ From coarsely powdered cassia, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; water, 1-1/2 pint, or q. s.; draw off 7 pints.——_Dose_, &c., as the last. It is almost universally substituted for spirit of cinnamon.

=Spirit of Cin′namon.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS CINNAMOMI (Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of cinnamon, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From cinnamon, as spirit of cassia.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

3. (ESSENTIA CINNAMOMI——Ph. D.) Oil of cinnamon, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make cinnamon water, &c.

=Spirit of E′ther.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER, SWEET SPIRIT OF VITRIOL†; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS (B. P.), SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS SULPHURICI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1.——_a._ (Ph. E.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; rectified spirit, 2 parts. Sp. gr. ·809. _Obs._ This preparation should be neutral to test paper, mix (clear) with water, and, when shaken with twice its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, 28% of ether should separate.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 or 3 fl. dr.; as a stimulant and anodyne.

_b._ (B. P.) Ether, 1; rectified spirit, 2; mix.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 minims.

2. COMPOUND SPIRIT OF ETHER, HOFFMANN’S ANODYNE LIQUOR; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), S. ÆTHERIS OLEOSUS (Ph. D.), L.——_a._ (Ph. L.) Ether, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; ethereal oil, 3 fl. dr.; mix.

_b._ (Ph. D.) Mix in a glass matrass, oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 pint, with rectified spirit, 1 pint; connect this with a Liebig’s condenser, apply heat, and distil until a black froth begins to rise; then separate the upper stratum of the distilled liquid, and, having exposed it to the air for 24 hours, let the oil be transferred to a moist paper filter, and washed with a little cold water; lastly, dissolve it in a mixture of rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.

_Obs._ This compound is anodyne and antispasmodic, and was once held in very great repute.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

3. AROMATIC SPIRIT OF ETHER, A. S. OF SULPHURIC E., SWEET ELIXIR OF VITRIOL†; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS AROMATICUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1824.) Bruised cinnamon, 3 dr.; cardamoms, 1-1/2 dr.; long pepper and ginger, of each 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 10 fl. oz.; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.; mix, and digest 14 days. The last two preparations are also frequently called ‘sweet elixir of vitriol.’

=Spirit of Harts′horn.= _Syn._ LIQUOR OF SPIRITUS VOLATILIS CORNU CERVI, L. Originally distilled from hartshorn. Dilute liquor ammonia is now generally sold for spirit of hartshorn.

=Spirit of Horserad′ish (Compound).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ARMORACIÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Sliced horseradish and dried orange peel, of each 20 oz.; bruised nutmegs, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gall. Stimulant and diuretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in dropsies, when there is much debility. It is usually combined with infusion of juniper berries or foxglove.

2. (B. P.) Fresh root, sliced, 20; dried orange peel, 20; nutmeg, bruised, 1/2; proof spirit, 160; water, 40; mix, and distil over 160.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr.

=Spirit of Hydrochlo′′ric Ether.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF MURIATIC ETHER, CLUTTON’S FEBRIFUGE SPIRIT; ÆTHER HYDROCHLORICUS ALCOHOLICUS, SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS MURIATICI, L. _Prep._ 1. From hydrochloric ether and rectified spirit, equal parts, mixed together.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; rectified spirit, 3 parts; digest some days, and distil in a sand bath.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, &c.

=Spirit of Juni′′per.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS JUNIPERI (B. P.). _Prep._ English oil of juniper, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 minims.

=Spirit of Juniper (Compound).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS JUNIPERI COMPOSITUS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of juniper, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oils of caraway and fennel, of each 12 drops; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Juniper berries, bruised, 15 oz.; caraway and fennel seed, of each, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon.

_Obs._ This spirit is stimulant and diuretic.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 fl. dr. Mixed with twice or thrice its w eight of proof spirit, and sweetened with a little sugar, it makes no bad substitute for Hollands gin.

=Spirit of Lav′ender.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS LAVANDULÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. From fresh lavender, 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon (7 pints——Ph. E.).

2. (Wholesale.) From Mitcham oil of lavender, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Cordial and fragrant.

3. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 minims. See SPIRITS (Perfumed), TINCTURE, &c.

=Spirit of Ni′tric Ether.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER, SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE, NITROUS ETHEREAL SPIRIT, NITRE DROPS; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITRICI (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITROSUS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Take of rectified spirit, 1 quart; nitric acid, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; add the acid, by degrees, to the spirit; then mix them, and let 28 fl. oz. distil over. An earthenware still and condensing worm should be employed. Sp. gr. ·834.

2. (Ph. E.) Pure hyponitrous ether (Ph. E.), 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts (both by volume); mix. Sp. gr. ·847.

3. (Ph. D.) Nitrous or hyponitrous ether (which has been washed with half of its volume of liquor of ammonia), 4 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, “in 42 fl. oz.; mix, and preserve the compound in small, strong, and accurately-stopped bottles.”

4. (B. P.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 3; sulphuric acid, 2; copper, in fine powder (No. 25), 2; rectified spirit, a sufficiency; to 20 of the spirit add gradually the sulphuric acid, stirring them together; then add to this, also gradually, 2-1/2 of the nitric acid. Put the mixture into a retort or other suitable apparatus, into which the copper has been introduced, and to which a thermometer is fitted. Attach now an efficient condenser, and, applying a gentle heat, let the spirit distil at a temperature commencing at 170° and rising to 175°, but not exceeding 180°, until 12 have passed over and been collected in a bottle kept cool, if necessary, with ice-cold water; then withdraw the heat, and, having allowed the contents of the retort to cool, introduce the remaining 1/2 of nitric acid, and resume the distillation as before, until the increased product has been increased to 15. Mix this with 40 of the rectified spirit, or as much as will make the product correspond to the tests of specific gravity and per-centage of ether separated by chloride of calcium. Preserve it in well-closed vessels.

_Char. and Tests._ Transparent, and nearly colourless, with a very light tinge of yellow, mobile, inflammable, of a peculiar penetrating apple-like odour, and sweetish, cooling, sharp taste. It effervesces feebly, or not at all, when shaken with a little bicarbonate of soda. When agitated with solution of sulphate of iron and a few drops of sulphuric acid, it becomes deep olive-brown or black. If it be agitated with twice its volume of a saturated solution of chloride of calcium in a closed tube, 2% of its original volume will separate in the form of nitrous ether, and rise to the surface of the mixture. Sp. gr. ·845.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

_Pur., &c._ Pure spirit of nitric ether boils at about 160° Fahr., scarcely reddens litmus paper, and “gives off no bubbles of carbonic acid gas on the addition of carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) “When agitated with twice its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, 12% of ether slowly separates.” (Ph. E.)——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3 fl. dr., as a febrifuge, a diaphoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic, &c.; in various affections.

_Obs._ The mass of the sweet spirits of nitre of the shops is of very inferior quality, and is scarcely, if ever, made directly from spirit that has paid the duty. One, and a very large portion, is obtained from Scotland; another, from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury; and a third, and, in fact, the principal part, from certain persons in the neighbourhood of the metropolis who employ contraband spirit for its preparation, as this article is not under the excise. Recently methylated spirit has been employed for the purpose.

Sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. ·850, is now commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at a price which is only about 2-3rds that of the spirit in it, if the latter had paid duty. The spirit obtained from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury frequently contains no inconsiderable quantity of hydrocyanic acid.

The mere admixture of nitric or hyponitrous ether with alcohol does not afford an officinal SPIR. ÆTHER. NITR., as this always contains aldehyde, which, according to Prof. Liebig, is an essential constituent of the officinal compound.

=Spirit of Nitrous Ether.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITROSI (B. P.). See SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER.

=Spirit of Nut′meg.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS MYRISTICÆ (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), S. NUCIS MOSCHATÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Bruised nutmegs, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 pint, or q. s.; distil a gallon. Cordial and carminative.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; chiefly used to flavour mixtures and draughts.

2. (ESSENTIA MYRISTICÆ MOSCHATE——Ph. D.) Oil of nutmegs, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used in dispensing.

3. (B. P.) Volatile oil of nutmeg, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 minims.

=Spirit of Pennyroy′al.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS PULEGII (Ph. L.), S. MENTHÆ PULEGII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pennyroyal, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

2. (ESSENTIA MENTHÆ PULEGII——Ph. D.) Oil of pennyroyal, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used chiefly in dispensing.

=Spirit of Pep′permint.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), S. MENTHÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of peppermint, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Green peppermint, 1-1/2 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate 2 days; add of water, q. s., and distil 7 pints.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

3. (ESSENTIA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ——Ph. D.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. See ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.

4. (B. P.) English oil of peppermint, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 minims, or, for children under five years, 1 to 3 minims.

=Spirit of Pimen′to.= _Syn._ (SPIRIT OF ALLSPICE; SPIRITUS PIMENTÆ——Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1 (Ph. L.) Oil of pimento, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From pimento, bruised, 1/2 lb.; and proof spirit, 7 pints; as spirit of caraway. Carminative and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c.

3. (ESSENTIÆ PIMENTÆ——Ph. D.) Oil of pimento, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make pimento water, and in dispensing.

=Spirit of Pine-tops.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS TURIONUM PINI, L. See BALSAM, RIGA.

=Spirit of Rose′mary.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ROSMARINI (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PIMENTO.

2. (Ph. E.) Rosemary tops, 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; as SPIRIT OF LAVENDER. Fragrant and stimulant.

3. (ESSENTIA ROSMARINI——Ph. D.) As ESSENCE OF PIMENTO.

4. (B. P.) Oil of rosemary, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

=Spirit of Spear′mint.= _Syn._ SPIRITUS MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (Ph. L.), S. MENTHÆ SATIVÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT——Ph. L.

2. (ESSENTIA MENTHÆ VIRIDIS——Ph. D.) As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT——Ph. D. The uses and doses are also the same.

=Spirit of Sulphu′ric E′ther.= See SPIRIT OF ETHER (_above_).

=Spirit of Vitriol (Sweet).= See AROMATIC SPIRIT OF ETHER (_above_).

=Spirit, Vul′nerary.= _Syn._ VULNERARY WATER, ARQUEBUSADE; SPIRITUS VULNERARIUS, L.; EAU D’ARQUEBUSADE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Dried tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint, balm, peppermint, and scordium, fresh leaves of angelica and basil, and lavender flowers, of each 4 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days, and distil over 1-1/2 gall.

2. Rosemary leaves, 1-1/2 lb.; leaves of thyme and summits of millefoil, of each 1/2 lb.; juniper berries, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls,; distil over 5 quarts.

_Obs._ This preparation is stimulant and vulnerary, and is in great repute on the Continent as a cosmetic and cordial.

=SPIRITS (Perfumed).= _Syn._ SPIRITUS ODORIFERI, ODORES SPIRITUOSI, L. The odoriferous spirits of the perfumer are, for the most part, prepared from various aromatic and odorous substances, by a similar process to that described under ESSENCES and SPIRITS (Medicinal); but in this case a perfectly pure, flavourless, and scentless spirit must be employed. The distillation should also be preferably conducted by steam, or the heat of a water bath, and the distilled spirit should be kept for some time in a cellar, or other cold situation, previously to being used. When simple solution of an essential oil in the spirit is adopted, cart should be taken that the oil is pale and new; or, at least, has not been much exposed to the air; as in that case it would contain resin, which would make the perfumed spirit, or essence, liable to stain delicate articles of clothing to which it may be applied. Most of the ‘eaux’ and ‘esprits’ of the perfumers are prepared by one or other of the above methods. It is found, however, that the perfumed spirits of some of the more delicate flowers cannot be well obtained by either infusion or distillation, or by the simple solution of their essential oils in spirit; or, at least, they are not usually so prepared by the foreign perfumers. The spirits of orange flowers, jasmin, tuberose, jonquille, roses, and of some other flowers, and of cassia, vanilla, &c., are commonly prepared by digesting pure rectified spirit for 3 or 4 days on half its weight of the respective pommades or oils, obtained by infusion or contact. The operation is performed in a closed vessel placed in a water bath, and frequent agitation is employed for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed spirit is decanted into a second digester, containing a like quantity of oil to the first. The whole process is repeated a second and a third time, after which the spirit is allowed to settle and is then decanted. It now forms the most fragrant and perfect odoriferous spirit (extrait) of the Continental perfumer. The product is called ‘esprit’ or ‘extrait of the first infusion.’ The three portions of oil are then treated again with fresh spirit in the same manner, and thus spirits or essences of inferior quality are obtained, which are distinguished by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4, &c., or ‘esprits’ or ‘extraits of the first, second, third,’ &c., operation or infusion. In some, though only a very few cases, the spirits are afterwards distilled.

The strength of the spirit for the concentrated essences should not be less than 56 o. p. (sp. gr. ·8376); that for eaux, esprits, and extraits, not less than 35 o. p. (sp. gr. ·8723). The strength of the second quality of the last three must be fully proof (sp. g. ·920). See ALCOHOL, DISTILLATION, ESSENCE, OILS, POMMADE, &c., and _below_.

=Eau d’Ambre Royale.= [Fr.] From essences of ambergris and musk, of each 1 fl. oz.; spirit of ambrette and orange-flower water, of each 1 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

=Eau d’Ange.= [Fr.] From flowering tops of myrtle (bruised), 1-1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 7 pints; water, 3 pints; digest a week, add of common salt, 2 lbs., and distil 1 gall.

=Eau d’Arquebusade.= [Fr.] See VULNERARY SPIRIT (_back_).

=Eau de Bouquet.= [Fr.] From spirits of rosemary and essence of violets, of each 1 fl. oz.; essences of bergamot and jasmin, of each 1 fl. dr.; oils of verbena and lavender, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz.; eau de rose, 1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

=Eau de Bouquet de Flore.= [Fr.] From spirits of rosemary and roses and essence of violets, of each 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of cedra and essence of ambergris, of each 1 fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 5 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

=Eau des Carmes.= [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF BALM (COMPOUND).

=Eau de Cologne.= [Fr.] _Syn._ COLOGNE WATER; AQUA COLONIENSIS, A. C. SPIRITUOSA, SPIRITUS COLONIENSIS, L. For the production of good eau de Cologne it is absolutely essential that the spirit be of the purest description, both tasteless and scentless, and that the oils be not only genuine, but recently distilled, as old oils are less odorous, and contain a considerable quantity of resin and camphor, which prove injurious. When flowers and the flowering tops of plants are ordered, it is also necessary that they be either fresh gathered or well preserved, without drying them. To produce an article of the finest quality, distillation should be had recourse to. A very excellent eau de Cologne may, however, be produced by simple solution of the oils or essences in the spirit, provided they be new, pale coloured, and pure. The mass of the eau de Cologne prepared in England, some of which possess the most delicate fragrance, and is nearly equal to the best imported, is made without distillation. In the shops two kinds of this article are generally kept——French and German. That prepared by Farina of Cologne is esteemed the best, and is preferred in the fashionable world.

_Prep._ 1. From essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 fl. dr.; oil of orange, 1/2 dr. oil of neroli, 20 drops; oil of rosemary, 10 drops; essence of ambergris and musk, of each 1 drop; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; mix.

2. Essence of bergamot, 3 fl. oz.; essence of lemon, 3 fl. dr.; essence of cedrat, 2 fl. dr.; oils of neroli and rosemary, of each 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of balm, 1/2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall.; mix.

3. (Cadet Gassincourt.) Take of pure neroli, essences (oils) of cedrat, orange, lemon, bergamot, and rosemary, of each 24 drops; lesser cardamom seeds, 1/4 oz.; spirit at 32° Baumé (sp. gr. ·869), 1 quart; digest a few days and then distil 1-1/2 pint.

4. (Farina.) Take of rectified spirit, 5 galls.; calamus aromaticus, sage, and thyme, of each 1/2 dr.; balm-mint and spearmint, of each 1 oz.; angelica root, 10 gr.; camphor, 15 gr.; petals of roses and violets, of each 3 dr.; lavender flowers, 1-1/2 dr.; orange flowers, 1 dr.; wormwood, nutmeg, cloves, cassia lignea, and mace, of each 20 gr.; oranges and lemons, sliced, of each 2 in no.; bruise or slice the solids, macerate, with agitation, for 48 hours, then distil off 2/3rds, and add to the product——essences of lemon, cedrat, balm-mint, and lavender, of each 1 fl. dr.; pure neroli and essence of the seeds of anthos, of each 20 drops; essences of jasmin and bergamot, of each 1 fl. oz.; mix well and filter, if necessary.

5. (P. Cod.) Oils of bergamot, lemon, and cedrat, of each 3 oz.; oils of rosemary, lavender, and neroli, of each 1-1/2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 3/4 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1 quart; compound spirit of balm (eau de melisse des Carmes), 3 pints; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; digest for 8 days, then distil 3 galls.

6. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Oils of bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each 1 fl. dr.; cardamom seeds, 1 dr.; rectified spirit and orange-flower water, of each 1 pint; mix, digest for a day, and then distil a pint.

7. (Trommsdorff.) Oils of neroli, citron, bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each 12 drops; Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; mix, and, after standing 2 or 3 days, distil a quart.

_Obs._ Eau de Cologne is principally used as a perfume, but a very large quantity is consumed by fashionable ladies as a cordial and stimulant. For this purpose it is dulcified with sugar. A piece of linen dipped in Cologne water, and laid across the forehead, is a fashionable remedy for headache.

=Eau d’Elegance.= [Fr.] From spirit of jessamine, 1 pint; rectified spirit and spirits of hyacinth and storax, of each 1/2 pint; tinctures of star-anise and tolu, of each 2 fl. oz.; tincture of vanilla, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, 1/2 dr.; mix, and in a week decant the clear portion.

=Eau de Framboises.= [Fr.] From strawberries, bruised, 16 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest, and distil to dryness in a salt-water or steam bath.

=Eau d’Heliotrope.= [Fr.] From essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. dr.; vanilla, 1/2 oz.; orange-flower water, 1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, and filter.

=Eau d’Hongrie.= [Fr.] _Syn._ HUNGARY WATER; AQUA HUNGARICA, SPIRITUS ROSMARINI COMPOSITUS, L.; EAU DE LA REINE D’HONGRIE, Fr. A fragrant stimulant and cosmetic. Sweetened with sugar it is also used as a liqueur.

_Prep._ 1. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs.; fresh sage, 1/2 lb.; bruised ginger, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall.; water, 1/2 gall.; macerate for 10 days, add of common salt, 3 lbs., and then distil 11 pints.

2. From oil of rosemary (genuine), 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 1/2 dr.; orange flower water, 1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; mix. SPIRIT OF ROSEMARY (see _above_) is now commonly sold for it.

=Eau d’Ispahan.= [Fr.] From oil of the bitter orange, 2 fl. oz.; oil of rosemary, 2 dr.; oils of cloves and neroli, of each 1 fl. dr.; oil of spearmint, 1/2 fl. dr.; eau de rose, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix. It is better for distillation. Used as Eau de Cologne.

=Eau de Jasmin.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT DE JASMIN ODORANTE (_below_).

=Eau de Lavande.= [Fr.] _Syn._ LAVENDER WATER, DOUBLE DISTILLED L. W.; AQUA LAVANDULÆ, A. L. ODORIFERA, SPIRITUS L., L. _Prep._ 1. From the flowering tops of lavender (freshly and carefully picked), 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 gall.; macerate for a week, add of water, 1/2 gall.; (holding in solution) common salt, 3 lbs.; and distil 2 gallons.

2. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 8 oz.; essence of musk, 4 oz.; essence of ambergris and oil of bergamot, of each 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 gall.; mix well. Very fine.

3. (Brande.) Oil of lavender, 20 oz.; oil of bergamot, 5 oz.; essence of ambergris (finest), 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 gall.; mix.

_Obs._ The products of the last two formulæ are better for distillation; but in that case the essences of ambergris and musk should be added to the distilled spirit. The oils should be of the best quality, and newly distilled, and the spirit should be perfectly scentless.

It may be useful to observe here, that the common lavender water, double distilled lavender water, or spirit of lavender of the shops, is made with spirit at proof, or even weaker; hence its inferior quality to that of the more celebrated perfumers. One ounce of true English oil of lavender is all that will properly combine with 1 gall. of proof spirit, without rendering it muddy or cloudy.

Eau de lavande is a most agreeable and fashionable perfume. The article produced by the second formula has received the commendation of Her Majesty and many of the nobility.

=Eau de Lavande de Millefleurs.= To each quart of the ordinary eau de lavande (No. 2 or 3), add of oil of cloves, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. dr.

=Eau de Lavange (Ammoniacal).= 1. To lavender water, 1 pint; add of liquor of ammonia, 1/2 fl. oz.

2. (P. Cod.) English oil of lavender, 1 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 2 lbs.; dissolve. Used as a stimulating scent in fainting. See PERFUMES (Ammoniated).

=Eau de Luce.= [Fr.] See TINCTURE OF AMMONIA, COMPOUND.

=Eau de Maréchale.= [Fr.] _Syn._ EXTRAIT DE MARÉCHALE, Fr. 1. From ambergris and grain musk, of each 20 gr.; oils of bergamot, lavender, and cloves, of each 1 oz.; oils of sassafras and origanum, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 quarts; macerate with agitation for a week.

2. Rectified spirit, 1 pint; essence of violets, 1 oz.; essences of bergamot and œillets, of each 1/4 oz.; orange-flower water, 1/2 pint; mix.

=Eau de Melisse.= [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF BALM, COMPOUND.

=Eau de Miel.= [Fr.] _Syn._ HONEY WATER, SWEET-SCENTED H. W.; AQUA MELLIS, A. M. ODORIFERA, L. _Prep._ 1. Take of spirit of roses (No. 3——see _above_), 2 quarts; spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 quart; essence of Portugal, 1 fl. oz.; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3) 4 fl. oz.; flowers of benzoin, 1-1/2 dr.; mix, agitate, and add of eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1 quart. Delightfully fragrant.

2. Honey (finest), 1/4 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 12 drops; musk, 12 gr.; ambergris, 6 gr.; orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 quart; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days, with frequent agitation, and filter.

_Obs._ The last is often coloured with 20 or 30 gr. of saffron, and made into a ratafia with sugar. HONEY WATER FOR THE HAIR is a different article to the above. It is obtained by the dry distillation of honey, mixed with an equal weight of clean sand, a gentle heat only being employed. The product is yellowish and acidulous, from the presence of acetic acid. This last is used to promote the growth of the hair.

=Eau de Millefleurs.= [Fr.] _Syn._ EXTRAIT DE MILLEFLEURS, Fr. _Prep._ 1. From grain musk, 12 gr.; ambergris, 20 gr.; essence of lemon, 1-1/2 oz.; oils of cloves and lavender (English), of each 1 oz.; neroli and oil of verbena, of each 1/2 dr.; rectified spirits, 2 quarts; macerate in a closed vessel, and a warm situation for a fortnight.

2. Balsam of Peru (genuine) and essence of cloves, of each 1 oz.; essences of bergamot and musk, of each 2 oz.; essences of neroli and thyme, of each 1/4 oz.; eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1 quart; rectified spirit, 9 pints; mix well. Very fine.

3. Essence of bergamot, 1/4 oz.; eau de lavande and essence of jasmin, of each 1 oz.; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; mix.

=Eau de Mousselline.= [Fr.] From eau de fleurs d’oranges and spirit of clove-gillyflower, of each 1 quart; spirit of roses (No. 3——see _above_), spirit of jasmin (No. 4), and spirit of orange flowers (No. 4), of each 2 quarts; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3), 2 fl. oz.; sanders wood, 1/2 oz. Very fine.

=Eau de Naphe.= [Fr.] See WATERS (Perfumed).

=Eau sans Pareille.= [Fr.] 1. From essence of bergamot, 5 dr.; essence of lemon, 8 dr.; essence of citron, 4 dr.; Hungary water, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 6 quarts; mix, and distil.

2. Grain musk, 20 gr.; ambergris, 25 gr.; oils of lavender and cloves, of each 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; oils of sassafras and origanum, of each 20 drops; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days.

=Eau, Romain.= [Fr.] From essence of ambergris, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of benzoin, 4 fl. oz.; spirit of tuberose, 1/2 pint; spirit of acacia flowers and tincture of vanilla, of each 1 pint; spirit of jasmin, 3 pints; mix.

=Eau de Rosières.= [Fr.] From spirit of roses, 1 pint; spirits of cucumber, angelica root, and celery seeds, of each 1/2 pint; spirits of jasmin and orange flowers, of each 1/4 pint; tincture of benzoin, 2 fl. oz.; mix.

=Eau de Violette.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT DE VIOLETTES (_below_).

=Esprit d’Ambrette.= [Fr.] See ESSENCE.

=Esprit de Bergamotte.= [Fr.] From essence (oil) of bergamot (best), 5 oz.; essence of ambergris (pale), 2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of verbena, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 gall,; mix.

=Esprit de Bouquet.= [Fr.] From Mitcham oil of lavender, 1 oz.; oils of cloves and bergamot, of each 3 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

=Esprit de Fleurs.= [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF THE FLOWERS OF ITALY (_below_).

=Esprit de Jasmin.= [Fr.] _Syn._ EAU DE JASMIN, Fr.

=Esprit de Jasmin Odorante.= [Fr.] From spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 pint; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. dr.

=Esprit de Jonquille.= [Fr.]

=Esprit de la Reine.= [Fr.] From oil of bergamot, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, 2 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

=Esprit de Rondeletia.= [Fr.] _Syn._ EXTRAIT DE RONDELETIA, Fr. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 3 oz.; oil of cloves, 1-1/4 oz.; oil of bergamot, 1 oz.; essences of musk and ambergris, of each 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 3 pints.

=Esprit de Rose.= [Fr.] 1. From spirit of roses (see general directions, page 1547), 1 pint; essence of ambergris and oil of rose-geranium, of each 1/2 fl. dr.

2. From otto of roses, 2 dr.; neroli, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve, add of chloride of calcium (well dried and in powder), 1-1/2 lb.; agitate well, and distil 7 pints. Very fine.

=Esprit de Suave.= [Fr.] From the essences of cloves and bergamot, of each 1-1/2 fl. dr.; neroli, 1 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. oz.; spirit of tuberose and rectified spirit, of each 1 pint; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each 1 quart; dissolve, then add of eau de rose, 1 pint, and mix well.

=Esprit de Tain.= [Fr.] _Syn._ SPIRIT OF LEMON THYME; SPIRITUS THYMI, L. From tops of lemon thyme, 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; distil 7 pints.

=Esprit de Violettes.= [Fr.] _Syn._ SPIRIT OF VIOLETS, ESSENCE OF V., E. OF ORRIS. From Florentine orris root, reduced to coarse powder, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; by simple maceration for a fortnight. A stronger and finer article (ESSENCE OF VIOLETS) is prepared from orris root, 5 lbs., to rectified spirit, 1 gall.; by percolation.

=Extrait de Bouquet.= [Fr.] Extract of nosegay.

=Extrait de Maréchale.= [Fr.] See EAU DE MARÉCHALE (_above_).

=Extrait de Millefleurs.= [Fr.] See EAU DE MILLEFLEURS (_above_).

=Extrait de Rondeletia.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT (_above_).

=Odeur, Délectable.= [Fr.] From oils of lavender, bergamot, rose-geranium, and cloves, of each 1 fl. dr.; eaux de rose and fleurs d’orange, of each 1/4 pint; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint.

=Odeur Suave.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT (_above_).

=Spirit of Cytherea.= From the spirits of violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower, jasmin (No. 2——see _above_), roses (No. 2), and Portugal, of each 1 pint; orange-flower water, 1 quart; mix.

=Spirit of the Flowers of Italy.= _Syn._ ESPRIT DE FLEURS, Fr. From the spirits of roses (No. 1——see _above_), jasmin (No. 2), oranges (No. 3), and cassia (No. 2), of each 4 pints; orange-flower water, 3 pints; mix.

=Victoria Perfume.= See ESPRIT DE LA REINE (_above_).

=SPIT′TING OF BLOOD.= See HÆMOPTYSIS.

=SPLINT.= This is the common name given to an enlargement of the bone in horses; which generally occurs below the knee, between the large and small splint bones, usually on the inside of the limb. It mostly results from fast driving or riding, or from the animal having been much worked while young, or made to unduly traverse hard or paved roads. The splint is a frequent cause of lameness if it develops just under the knee, since it interferes with and circumscribes the free movement of the joint. It is very essential to have recourse to prompt measures directly this affection shows itself.

The treatment usually prescribed is the constant application to the part of cold water, if the splint he accompanied by much tenderness or inflammation. This may be accomplished by bandages soaked in cold water, taking care to renew the cold water as soon as it becomes warm. Mr Finlay Dun advises the horse, where practicable, to stand for an hour several times a day up to the knees in a stream or pool of water. In addition he prescribes rest for ten days or a fortnight, and when the heat and tenderness have been subdued the application of a blister, or of biniodide of mercury ointment, or the hot iron.

=SPONGE.= _Syn._ SPONGIA, S. OFFICINALIS, L. Sponge is a cellular fibrous structure, produced by marine animals of the humblest type, belonging to the subkingdom Protozoa. The finest quality is imported from Smyrna, and is known as TURKEY SPONGE; another, called WEST INDIAN or BAHAMA SPONGE, is much less esteemed, being coarse, dark coloured, and very rotten.

Sponge, as collected, and also as generally imported, contains many impurities, more especially sand, most of which may be removed by beating it, and by washing it in water. Amusing disputes often arise between the smaller importers and the wholesale purchasers on this subject——the privilege of beating it before weighing it, the number of minutes so employed, and even the size of the stick, being often made important matters in the ‘haggling.’

1. BLEACHED SPONGE (WHITE SPONGE; SPONGIA DEALBATA) is prepared by soaking ordinary sponge in very dilute hydrochloric acid, to remove calcareous matter, then in cold water, changing it frequently, and squeezing the sponge out each time, and next, in water holding a little sulphuric or sulphurous acid, or, still better, a very little chlorine, in solution; the sponge is, lastly, repeatedly washed and soaked in clean water scented with rose or orange-flower water, and dried.

2. The sponges are first soaked in hydrochloric acid to remove the lime, they are then washed in water, and afterwards placed for ten minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of permanganate of potassium. When taken out they have a brown appearance; this is owing to the deposition of manganous oxide, and may be removed by steeping the sponge for about two minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of oxalic acid, to which a little sulphuric acid has been added. As soon as the sponges appear white they are well washed out in water to remove the acid. Strongly diluted sulphuric acid may be used instead of oxalic acid.

3. Sponges can be bleached by first soaking them in hydrochloric acid, diluted with 1-1/2 parts of water, until no more carbonic acid is given off; then wash in pure water, and afterwards leave in a bath composed of 2 lbs. of hyposulphite of soda, 12 lbs. of water, and 2 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. If the sponge be afterwards dipped in glycerin and well pressed, to remove excess of liquid, it remains elastic, and can be used for mattresses, cushions, and general upholstery. Sponge mattresses prepared in this way are now finding great favour. It is, of course, not necessary to bleach the sponge where it is intended to be used for such purposes.[190]

[Footnote 190: ‘Pharmacist.’]

BURNT SPONGE (SPONGIA USTA——Ph. D.) is prepared by heating the cuttings and unsaleable pieces in a closed iron crucible until they become black and friable, avoiding too much heat, and allowing the whole to cool before exposing it to the air. It was formerly in great repute in bronchocele and scrofulous complaints.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 dr., in water, or made into an electuary or lozenges. When good burnt sponge evolves violet fumes of iodine on being heated in a flask along with sulphuric acid.

COMPRESSED or WAXED SPONGE (SPONGIA CERATA, S. COMPRESSA) is sponge which has been dipped into melted wax and then compressed between two iron plates until cold. When cut into pieces it forms ‘SPONGE TENTS,’ which are used by surgeons to dilate wounds.

=Sponge, To Clean a.= There is nothing more pleasant for washing the skin than a fresh good sponge, or the reverse when not kept thoroughly clean. Without the greatest care, a sponge is apt to get slimy long before it is worn out. It may be made almost as good as, in fact often better than, new, by the following process:——Take about 2 or 3 oz. of carbonate of soda, or of potash; dissolve in 2-1/2 pints of water; soak the sponge in it for 24 hours, then wash and rinse it in pure water. Then put it for some hours in a mixture, 1 glassful of muriatic acid to 3 pints of water; finally, rinse in cold water, and dry thoroughly. A sponge should always be dried, if possible, in the sun every time it has been used.

=SPONGES Employed in Washing Wounds, Purification of.= M. Leriche advises the sponge to be first saturated with a solution of 4 parts of permanganate of potassium in 100 parts of water; then passed through a solution of sulphurous acid, and finally washed thoroughly with water. The sponges are said to become perfectly disinfected and deodorised, whilst the tissue is not affected by the treatment.

=SPOROKTON.= See SULPHUROUS ANHYDRIDE.

=SPOTS and STAINS.= 1. OIL and GREASE SPOTS on boards, marble, &c., when recent, may be removed by covering them with a paste made of fullers earth and hot water, and the next day, when the mixture has become perfectly dry, scouring it off with hot soap-and-water. For old spots, a mixture of fullers earth and soft soap, or a paste made of fresh-slaked lime and pearlash, will be better; observing not to touch the last with the fingers.

2. RECENT SPOTS of OIL, GREASE, or WAX, on woollen cloth or silk, may be removed with a little clean oil of turpentine or benzol; or with a little fullers earth or scraped French chalk, made into a paste with water, and allowed to dry on them. They may also be generally removed by means of a rather hot flat-iron and blotting-paper or spongy brown paper, more especially if the cloth, or one of the pieces of paper, be first slightly damped. OLD OIL and GREASE SPOTS require to be treated with ox-gall or yolk of egg, made into a paste with fullers earth or soap. PAINT SPOTS, when recent, generally yield to the last treatment. Old ones, however, are more obstinate, and require some fullers earth and soft soap made into a paste with either ox-gall or spirit of turpentine.

The ‘American Chemist’ gives the following method for extracting grease-spots from books or paper:——Gently warm the greased or spotted part of the book or paper, and then press upon it pieces of blotting paper one after another, so as to absorb as much of the grease as possible. Have ready some fine, clear, essential oil of turpentine heated almost to a boiling state;[191] warm the greased leaf a little, and then with a soft, clean brush, wet with the heated turpentine both sides of the spotted part. By repeating this application the grease will be extracted. Lastly, with another brush dipped in rectified spirits of wine go over the place, and the grease will no longer appear, neither will the paper be discoloured.

[Footnote 191: This operation ought to be very carefully accomplished, as the turpentine is a highly inflammable body.]

FRUIT and WINE STAINS, on linen, commonly yield easily to hot soap-and-water. If not, they must be treated as those below.

INK SPOTS and RECENT IRON MOULDS on washable fabrics may be removed by dropping on the part a little melted tallow from a common candle, before washing the articles; or, by the application of a little lemon juice, or of a little powdered cream of tartar made into a paste with hot water. Old ink spots and iron moulds will be found to yield almost immediately to a very little powdered oxalic acid, which must be well rubbed upon the spot previously moistened with boiling water, and kept hot over a basin filled with the same.

Boettger recommends the use of pyrophosphate of soda for the removal of ink stains from coloured woven tissues, to be applied in the form of a concentrated solution. The recent ink stains are readily removed, but older stains require washing and rubbing with the solution for a long time.

STAINS arising from ALKALIES and ALKALINE LIQUORS, when the colours are not destroyed, give way before the application of a little lemon juice; whilst those arising from the weaker acids and acidulous liquids yield to the fumes of ammonia, or the application of a little spirit of hartshorn or sal volatile.

STAINS OF MARKING INK may be removed by soaking the part in a solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards rinsing it in a little solution of ammonia or of hyposulphate of soda; or they may be rubbed with the tincture of iodine, and then rinsed as before.

NITRIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE. The yellow stain left by nitric acid can be removed either from the skin or from brown or black woollen garments by moistening the spots for awhile with permanganate of potash, and rinsing with water. A brownish stain of manganese remains, which may be removed from the skin by washing with aqueous solution of sulphurous acid. If the spots are old they cannot be entirely removed. See BALLS, CLOTHES, HANDS, SCOURING, STAINS, &c.

=SPRAIN.= _Syn._ SUBLUXATIO, L. An injury of a joint, in which it has been strained or twisted in an unnatural manner, without actual dislocation. Pain, swelling, and inflammation, are the common consequences, which must be combated by purgatives, repose, and a low diet, with refrigerant lotions, or warm fomentations, according to circumstances. In extreme cases, blood should be taken. Where there is simple stiffness and weakness, exercise is often serviceable.

_Treatment for the Horse and other Animals._ Foment. Apply lead lotion and refrigerants.

IF FOR CURB use counter-irritants, or red iodide of mercury ointment, or the firing iron; and if for a horse a high-heeled shoe.

=SPRAT.= The _Clupea Sprattus_ (Linn.), a small fish of the herring family, abounding on our coasts. Gutted, coloured, and pickled, it is sold for anchovies, or as British anchovies, and much used to make the sauce of that name. Sprats contain about 6 per cent. of fat.

=SPRENGEL’S PUMP.= See AIR PUMP.

=SPRINKLES.= See BOOKBINDING.

=SPRUCE.= See BEER, ESSENCE, and POWDERS.

=SPUNK.= See AMADOU.

=SQUILL.= _Syn._ SCILLA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The bulb of “_Urginea Scilla_,” sliced and dried. In small doses, squill acts as a stimulating expectorant and diuretic; in larger ones, as an emetic and purgative. With the first intention it is generally given in substance (powder), in doses of 1 to 3 or 4 gr.; with the latter, either made into vinegar or oxymel (which _see_). It is an excellent remedy in coughs, &c., after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided.

=STAGGERS.= There are two varieties of the disease known under this name by which horses are affected, viz. stomach staggers, and grass or sleepy staggers. The first, which occasionally kills the horse in twelve or fifteen hours after the attack, is generally induced by an overladen stomach and improper food. The animal has perhaps partaken largely and rapidly, and after too long a fast, of some diet to which it is unaccustomed, such as vetches, clover, or grass. These undergo decomposition within the stomach and intestines, and give rise to such an evolution of gas, as either to set up inflammation of the stomach and intestines, or to lead to their rupture, in which latter case the result is, of course, fatal. The symptoms are a quick and feeble pulse, attempts at vomiting, a staggering gait, whilst very frequently the animal sits on its haunches like a dog. Sleepy staggers, which is a more chronic manifestation of the disease, is most common during the summer and autumn months, and generally occurs amongst horses fed on tough and indigestible food, such as vetches or rye grass, from which circumstances the complaint has been called ‘grass staggers.’ Both kinds of the disease require the same treatment.

Mr Finlay Dun prescribes a brisk purge, consisting of 6 dr. of aloes in solution, with a dr. of calomel and 2 oz. of oil of turpentine; also the injection every hour of clysters, consisting of salt, soap, or tobacco smoke, the abdomen being at the same time diligently rubbed and fomented with water nearly boiling. To ward off stupor he recommends the frequent administration of 2 or 3 dr. of carbonate of ammonia, with an ounce or two of spirit of nitrous ether, or of strong whiskey toddy, combined with plenty of ginger. To guard against a return of the attack light and easily digestible food should be administered every four or five hours, and occasional mild purgatives should be given.

Horses are also subject to another form of staggers called ‘mad staggers.’ This disease originates, however, in causes wholly dissimilar from those just stated, being the result of phrenitis or inflammation of the brain. The animal is frequently very furious and excited, and seems wholly unable to control itself, throwing itself madly about, and attempting to run down anybody that comes in its way; it is also frequently unable to keep on its legs, and when it falls, plunges, and struggles violently.

The treatment recommended is prompt and copious bloodletting, combined with active purges and enemas, with refrigerant lotions to the head.

=STAINED GLASS.= The art of painting or staining glass resembles enamel painting, in the effect being produced by fluxing certain metallic substances, as oxides or chlorides, on its surface, by means of heat applied in a suitable furnace. The operations it embraces are difficult, and require great promptitude and experience to prove successful. The colours or compounds employed are, for the most part, similar to those noticed under ENAMEL and PASTE.

=STAINS.= Discolorations from foreign matters. Liquid dyes are also frequently termed ‘stains.’ See SPOTS, &c., and _below_.

=Stains, Blood.= Spots of dried blood on wood, linen, &c., however old, are easily recognised by the microscope; but simple stains or marks of blood of a slight character, especially those occurring on iron or steel, are recognised with greater difficulty. To obviate this, H. Zollikofer adopts the following plan:——The spot is removed, by scraping, from the surface of the metal, and the resulting powder is digested in tepid water, when a liquid is obtained which exhibits the following reactions:

1. The liquid is neutralised with acid, and heated to ebullition, when opalisation occurs, or a dirty red coagulum forms.

2. The coagulum is dissolved in hot liquor of potassa; the solution, if blood (hæmatin) be present, is diachromatic, or appears green by transmitted light and red by reflected light.

3. By the addition of concentrated chlorine water, in excess, to either solution, white flocks of albumen and chlorhæmatin separate, which are free from iron, as tested by sulphocyanide of potassium.

_Obs._ The last two reactions are said to be characteristic. Very old spots must be boiled in water containing a little liquor of potassa. See Dr Taylor’s ‘Medical Jurisprudence,’ and BLOOD.

=Stains, Bookbinder’s.= See LEATHER, MARBLING, &c.

=Stains, Confectioner’s.= These are similar to those noticed under LIQUEUR. Mineral colours, especially mineral blues, greens, and yellows, must on no account be used, as they are nearly all dangerous poisons; nor is there any inducement to use them, since the vegetable substances referred to afford, by proper management, every shade that can be possibly required. These stains are also used for cakes and pastry.

=Stains, Liqueur.= See LIQUEUR.

=Stains, Map.= See MAPS, VELVET COLOURS, &c.

=STAM′MERING.= _Syn._ BLÆSITAS, L. Occasionally this depends on some organic affection, or slight malformation of the parts of the mouth or throat immediately connected with the utterance of vocal sounds; but, much more frequently, it is a habit resulting from carelessness, or acquired from example or imitation. When the latter is the case, it may be generally removed by perseveringly adopting the plan of never speaking without having the chest moderately filled with air, and then only slowly and deliberately. Hasty and rapid speaking must not be attempted until the habit of stammering is completely subdued. Nervous excitement and confusion must be avoided as much as possible, and the general health attended to, as circumstances may direct. This variety of stammering is commonly distinguished by the person being able to sing without hesitation. Stammering depending on elongation of the uvula, and other like causes, may be generally removed by a simple surgical operation.

=STAN′NIC ACID.= Peroxide of tin.

=STARCH.= C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. _Syn._ AMYLACEOUS FECULA; AMYLUM, L. One of the most important and widely diffused of the proximate principles of vegetables being found, in greater or less quantity, in every plant. The mealy and farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, and the stem-pith of certain trees, consist chiefly of starch in a nearly pure state. Wheat contains about 75% and potatoes about 15% of this substance. From these sources the fecula is obtained by rasping or grinding to pulp the vegetable structure, and washing the mass upon a sieve, by which the torn cellular tissue is retained, whilst the starch passes through with the liquid, and eventually settles down from the latter as a soft, white, insoluble powder, which, after being thoroughly washed with cold water, is dried in the air, or with a very gentle heat.

WHEAT STARCH (AMYLUM, B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) is commonly prepared by steeping the flour in water for a week, or a fortnight, during which time the saccharine portion ferments and the starch granules become freed, for the most part, from the glutinous matter which envelops them, by the disintegrating and solvent action of the lactic acid generated by the fermentation. The sour liquor is then drawn off, and the feculous residue washed on a sieve; what passes through is allowed to settle, when the liquid is again drawn off, and the starch thoroughly washed from the slimy matter; it is then drained in perforated boxes, cut up into square lumps, placed on porous bricks to absorb the moisture, and, lastly, air- or stove-dried.

In the preparation of starch from potatoes (potato starch) and other like vegetable substances, the roots or tubers, after being washed and peeled, either by hand-labour or by machinery, are rasped by a revolving grater, and the pulp washed on hair sieves until freed from feculous matter. Successive portions of the pulp are thus treated until the vessel over which the sieves are placed, or into which the washings run, is sufficiently full. The starch held in suspension in the water having subsided to the bottom, the water is drawn off, and the starch stirred up with fresh water, and again allowed to subside. This operation is repeated several times, with fresh water, until the starch is rendered sufficiently pure for commercial purposes, when it is washed and dried as before. The waste fibres and the washing waters are used as manure.

The starch manufactory at Hohenziatz treated 1216 tons of potatoes for starch between the 4th October, 1874, and the 6th February, 1875. The waste water after passing through precipitating vats, &c., for the purpose of collecting all the particles of starch, was conducted into a reservoir and mixed with spring water. This water was conducted over a meadow of 18·5 acres, and then passed to a meadow of 4·95 acres, and from this to the third and last, which contained 6·19 acres. The 29·64 acres received the water from 1064 tons of potatoes, or for each acre 4·38 cwt. of potash, 1·26 cwt. of phosphoric acid and 1·27 of nitrogen.

The following table shows analysis (1) of potato water; (2) of the same diluted; (3) of water from the first meadow; (4) water from the second meadow; 1 litre contained——

1. 2. 3. 4.

mg. mg. mg. mg.

Whole solid matter 1857·8 323·8 322·8 262·0 Organic matter 1134·2 101·8 38·0 78·8 Inorganic matter 723·8 222·0 348·8 183·2 Potash 212·5 55·0 41·2 8·2 Phosphoric acid 56·6 5·5 trace trace Nitrogen 140·7 12·0 4·0 9·1 Ammonia 37·4 0 0 0 Nitric acid 3·8 trace trace trace

The disappearance of ammonia and phosphoric acid in 2 is accounted for by the precipitation of phosphate of magnesium and ammonium on the addition of the spring water.

The harvest in hay before the use of potato water was 19·13 cwt. per acre, and afterwards 31·88 cwt. The composition of the hay is better than before, as will be seen by the following comparative table:——

1 2

Moisture 15·00 15·00 Woody matter 22·66 22·88 Mineral matter 7·64 8·69 Sol. in ether 2·00 2·30 Albumen 10·89 15·85 Extractable matter } not containing } 41·81 35·34 nitrogen } —————— —————— 100·00 100·00[192]

[Footnote 192: ‘Dingl. Polyt. Jour.,’ ccxxv, 394-396 (‘Journ. Chem. Soc,’).]

In the manufacture of starch from rice and Indian corn (rice starch, maize starch), a very dilute solution of caustic soda, containing about 200 gr. of alkali to each gallon of liquid, is employed to facilitate the disintegration and separation of the gluten and other nitrogenised matters. A weak solution of ammonia, or sesquicarbonate of ammonia, is also similarly employed with advantage. The gluten may be recovered by saturating the alkali with dilute sulphuric acid. Such starch does not require boiling, and is less apt than wheat starch to attract moisture from the atmosphere. Most of the so-called ‘wheaten starch’ of commerce used by laundresses is now prepared from rice.

To whiten the starches made from damaged roots and grains, and the coarser portions of those from sound ones, a little solution of chloride of lime is occasionally added to the water, followed by another water containing a very little dilute sulphuric acid; every trace of the last being afterwards removed by the copious use of pure soft or spring water.

The bluish-white starch used by laundresses is coloured with a mixture of smalts and alum in water, and is regarded as unfit for medicinal purposes.

_Prop., &c._ Starch is insoluble in cold water, and in alcohol and most other liquids, but it readily forms a gelatinous compound (amidin) with water at about 175° Fahr.; alcohol and most of the astringent salts precipitate it from its solutions; infusion of galls throws down a copious yellowish precipitate, containing tannic acid, which is redissolved by heating the liquid; heat and dilute acids convert it into dextrin and grape sugar; strong alkaline lyes dissolve it, and ultimately decompose it. Sp. gr. 1·53.

To the naked eye it presents the appearance of a soft, white, and often glistening powder; under the microscope it is seen to be altogether destitute of crystalline structure, but to possess, on the contrary, a kind of organisation, being made of multitudes of little rounded transparent bodies, upon each of which a series of depressed parallel rings, surrounding a central spot or hilum, may be traced. The starch granules from different plants vary both in magnitude and form. Those of potato starch and canna starch (tous les mois) are the largest, and those of rice and millet starch the smallest, the dimensions ranging from 1/200 to the 1/10000 of an inch. The granules of arrow-root and tous les mois are ovoid, those of potato starch both oblong and circular those of tapioca muller-shaped, and those of wheat starch circular.

_Identif._ One of the commonest frauds practised upon the profession and the public is the admixture of the cheaper kinds of starch, chiefly potato farina, with arrow-root, and vending manufactured for genuine tapioca, sago, and other articles of diet, used for invalids and children. These sophistications are most easily detected with a good microscope.[193]

[Footnote 193: Drawings of the principal starches will be found under the substances from which they are obtained, as “arrow-root,” &c.]

=Starch, I′odide of.= _Syn._ AMYLI IODIDUM, AMYLI IODATUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Iodine, 24 gr.; rectified spirit, a few drops; rub them to a powder; then add of starch, 1 oz., and again triturate, until the mass assumes a uniform colour. Recommended by Dr A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, as producing the alterative effects of iodine, without the usual irritant action of that medicine.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful, or more, in water-gruel, or any bland liquid, twice or thrice a day.

=Starch, Soluble Iodide of.= (Petit.) _Prep._ Iodine, 12 grammes; starch, 100 grammes; ether, q. s. Dissolve the iodine in the ether, pour the resulting solution over the starch, and triturate until the ether has sufficiently evaporated. Put the product in a porcelain capsule and expose it to the heat of a boiling water bath for half an hour, with occasional stirring. This treatment is sufficient to render it entirely soluble in hot water.

Dr Bellini strongly recommends iodide of starch as a valuable antidote in cases of poisoning by caustic alkalies, alkaline, or earthy sulphides, and vegetable alkaloids. The advantages attending its employment, he says, are: that it may be administered in large doses; that it does not possess the irritating properties of free iodine; and that it readily forms harmless compounds with the substances named. To avoid the subsequent decomposition of the latter, he advises its administration to be followed by an emetic. As an antidote to alkaline and earthy sulphides, the author thinks it preferable to all others. In cases of poisoning by ammonia, caustic potash, or soda, it is applicable when acid drinks are not on hand.

=STARCHING (Clear).= Muslins, &c., are ‘clear-starched’ or ‘got-up’ by laundresses in the following manner:——Rinse the articles in three waters, dry them, and dip them into thick-made starch, which has been previously strained through a piece of muslin; squeeze them, shake them gently, and again hang them up to dry; when they are dry, dip them twice or thrice into clear water, squeeze them, spread them on a linen cloth, roll them up in it, and let them lie an hour before ironing them. Some persons put a morsel of sugar into the starch, to prevent its sticking whilst ironing, and others stir the starch with a candle to effect the same end; both these practices are as injurious as unnecessary. The best plan to prevent sticking is simply to use the best starch, and to make it well, and to have the irons quite clean and highly polished. Mr W. B. Tegetmeier recommends the addition of a small piece of paraffin (a piece of paraffin candle-end) to the starch, to increase the glossiness of the ironed fabric.

=STARS.= (In pyrotechny.) _Prop._ 1. (Brilliant——Marsh.) Nitrate, 52-1/2 parts; sulphur and black antimony, of each 13 parts; reduce them to powder, make them into a stiff paste with isinglass, 1-1/2 parts, dissolved in a mixture of vinegar, 6-1/2 parts; and spirits of wine, 13 parts; lastly, form this into small pieces, and whilst moist, roll them in meal gunpowder.

2. (WHITE——Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur, 7 parts; gunpowder, 4 parts; as the last.

3. (GOLDEN RAIN.)——_a._ (Ruggieri.) Nitre and gunpowder, of each 16 parts; sulphur, 10 parts; charcoal, 4 parts; lampblack, 2 parts; mix, and pack it into small paper tubes.

_b._ (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur and gunpowder, of each 8 parts; charcoal and lampblack, of each 2 parts; as the last.

_c._ (Marsh.) Mealed gunpowder, 66-3/4 parts; sulphur, 11 parts; charcoal, 22-1/4 parts; as before. Used for the ‘garniture’ of rockets, &c. See PYROTECHNY.

=STAVES′ACRE.= _Syn._ STAVESACRE SEEDS; STAPHISAGRIÆ SEMINA, STAPHISAGRIA (Ph. L. & D.), L. “The seed of _Delphinium Staphisagria_, Linn.” (Ph. L.) This article is powerfully emetic and cathartic, but is now scarcely ever used internally. Mixed with hair powder, it is used to kill lice. An infusion or ointment made with it is said to be infallible in itch, but its use requires some caution.

=STAYS.= _Syn._ CORSET. Stays, “before womanhood, are instruments of barbarity and torture, and then they are needed only to give beauty to the chest. It is the duty of every mother, and every guardian of children, to inquire the purpose for which stays were introduced into female attire. Was it for warmth? If so, they certainly fulfil the intention very badly, and are much inferior to an elastic woollen habit, or one of silk quilted with wool. Was it to force the ribs, while yet soft and pliable, into the place of the liver and stomach, and the two latter into the space allotted for other parts, to engender disease and deformity to the sufferer and her children for generations? Truly, if this were the object, the device is most successful, and the intention most ingeniously fulfilled.” (Eras. Wilson.)

“Only observe,” exclaimed Dr John Hunter——“only observe, if the statue of the Medicean Venus were to be dressed in stays, and her beautiful feet compressed into a pair of execrably tight shoes, it would extort a smile from an Heraclitus, and a horse-laugh from a Cynic.”

“The Turkish ladies express horror at seeing Englishwomen so tightly laced.” (Lady M. W. Montague.) See DISTORTIONS.

=STEAM.= The application of steam of the laboratory, as a source of heat, is commonly effected by means of double pans, to the space between which steam, at a moderate pressure, is introduced, the arrangements being such as to permit of the condensed steam, or distilled water, being removed, by means of a cock, nearly as soon as formed, or as may be desirable. Another plan is to place coils of metal pipe along the bottom of cisterns, vats, &c., formed either of wood or metal, and to keep them supplied with high-pressure steam.

“It is quite susceptible of positive proof that by no arrangement yet discovered, can more than two thirds of the heat generated by a given quantity of coal, during combustion, be fairly absorbed and utilised in any of our manufactories; and, moreover, there are undeniable facts, which demonstrate that seldom, in the burning of coal, are more than three fourths of the total heat, which might be eliminated, actually obtained; thus justifying the supposition that one half of all the coal now consumed is virtually wasted and lost to society.” To lessen, as much as possible, this loss various improvements have been made, “which, for the most part, have consisted in lengthening the flues, and exposing a larger surface of the boiler to the action of the heated air passing from the furnace to the chimney.” “Remembering that air is an extremely bad conductor of heat, and that water about to be converted into steam is also a bad conductor, it is evident that time must form an important element in the perfect transmission of heat from one of these to the other; and hence, with a great velocity of current existing in the flues, very little heat would pass from air, however high its temperature, to water contained in a boiler, and so circumstanced with respect to its all but gaseous condition.” The results of the experiments on fuel made at the Museum of Practical Geology by Sir H. de la Beche and Dr Lyon Playfair go clearly to show that “to open the damper of a steam-boiler furnace is pretty generally to diminish the effective power of the fuel.” “Great waste of coal now arises from this simple circumstance; and much of the heat of the fire, which ought to go to the boiler, is lost by its (too) hasty transmission up the chimney. If, however, there be thus far room for improvement in the direction just indicated, still wider is the vacant space, caused by imperfect combustion, or, in technical phrase, ‘bad stoking,’ merely because the stoker, to economise his labour, and to avoid trouble, throws on to the bars of his furnace a thick layer of fuel, by which loss is caused in two or three directions.” These are, principally, imperfect combustion, and the volatilisation of fuel, as smoke, &c., from an insufficient supply of air, and from a mass of mere red-hot coke or cinder, two or three inches thick, lying between the boiler and the hottest part of the furnace; which last, according to Dr Kennedy, is about one inch above the fire-bars. Besides which, “in passing over this red-hot coke, the carbonic acid would be converted into carbonic oxide, and thus not only remove a quantity of carbon equal to its own, without yielding any additional heat, but actually with the production of cold, or, in other words, the absorption of heat.” (‘Dict. Arts, Manuf., and Mines.’) This points to the evident policy of using a smoke-consuming furnace, as noticed elsewhere.

Another matter worthy of remark is the constant waste of heat, and, consequently, of fuel, in laboratories and manufactories in which steam is employed, owing to the exposed condition of the pipes, boilers, and pans. All of these should be well ‘clothed’ or covered by some non-conducting medium, to prevent loss of heat by radiation, and by contact with the atmosphere. Not only does economy dictate such a course, but the health and comfort of the workpeople demand that the atmosphere in which they labour should be as little heated and poisoned as possible.

TABLE _of corresponding Pressure and Temperatures of Steam_. By ARAGO and DULONG.

+------------------+------------++------------------+------------+ |Pressure |Temperature,||Pressure |Temperature,| |in | ||in | | |Atmospheres.[194] | Fahr. ||Atmospheres.[194] | Fahr. | |------------------+------------++------------------+------------+ | | _Degrees._ || | _Degrees._ | | 1 | 212· || 13 | 380·66 | | 1-1/2 | 234· || 14 | 386·94 | | 2 | 250·5 || 15 | 392·86 | | 2-1/2 | 263·8 || 16 | 398·48 | | 3 | 275·2 || 17 | 403·83 | | 3-1/2 | 285· || 18 | 408·92 | | 4 | 293·7 || 19 | 413·78 | | 4-1/2 | 300·3 || 20 | 418·46 | | 5 | 307·5 || 21 | 422·96 | | 5-1/2 | 314·24 || 22 | 427·28 | | 6 | 320·36 || 23 | 431·42 | | 6-1/2 | 326·26 || 24 | 435·56 | | 7 | 331·7 || 25 | 439·34 | | 7-1/2 | 336·86 || 30 | 457·16 | | 8 | 341·78 || 35 | 472·73 | | 9 | 350·78 || 40 | 486·59 | | 10 | 358·88 || 45 | 499·14 | | 11 | 366·85 || 50 | 510·6 | | 12 | 374· || | | +------------------+------------++------------------+------------+

[Footnote 194: Estimating 14·6 lbs. = 1 atmosphere.]

A cubic inch of water, during its conversion into steam, under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, expands into 1696 cubic inches, or nearly a cubic foot.

One part, by weight, of steam, at 212° Fahr., when condensed into cold water, is found to be capable of raising 5·6 parts of the latter from the freezing to the boiling point. See FUEL, PIT-COAL, SMOKE, &c.

=STEAR′IC ACID.= HC_{18}H_{35}O_{2}. _Syn._ STEARIN (Commercial). This is obtained from stearin (see _below_), by saponification.

_Prep._ 1. Repeatedly dissolve and crystallise commercial stearic acid in hot alcohol, until its melting point becomes constant at not less than 158° Fahr. Pure.

2. (Chevreul.) Saponify mutton suet with caustic potassa, and dissolve the newly formed soap in 6 times its weight of hot water; to the solution add 40 or 50 parts of cold water, and set the mixture aside in a temperature of about 52° Fahr.; after a time separate the pearly matter (stearate and margarate of potassa) which falls, drain and wash it on a filter, and dissolve it in 24 parts of hot alcohol of sp. gr. ·820; collect the stearate of potassa which falls as the liquid cools, recrystallise it in alcohol, and decompose it, in boiling water, with hydrochloric acid; lastly, wash the disengaged stearic acid in hot water, and dry it.

3. (Commercial.) Ordinary tallow is boiled in large wooden vessels, by means of high pressure steam, with about 16% of hydrate of lime (equiv. to 11% of pure lime), for 3 or 4 hours, or until the combination is complete, and an earthy soap is formed, when the whole is allowed to cool; the product (stearate of lime) is then transferred to another wooden vessel, and decomposed by adding to it 4 parts of oil of vitriol (diluted with water) for every 3 parts of slaked lime previously employed, the action being promoted by steam heat and brisk agitation; after repose, the liberated fat is decanted from the sediment (sulphate of lime) and water, and is then well washed with water, and by blowing steam into it; it is next allowed to cool, when it is reduced to shavings by means of a number of knives worked by machinery, and in this divided state is placed in canvas bags and submitted to the action of a powerful hydraulic press, by which a large portion of the oleic acid which it contains is expelled; the pressed cakes are then a second time exposed to the action of steam and water, again cooled, and coarsely powdered, and again submitted to the joint action of steam and pressure; they are, lastly, melted, and cast into blocks for sale.

_Obs._ This product is a more or less impure mixture of stearic acid and other fatty bodies, particularly the so-called margaric acid, now generally regarded as a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. The hard, fatty acids of vegetable origin (palmitic, cocinic, myristic, &c.), now so extensively used as candle materials, are obtained from the natural oils and butters by the process known as ‘sulphuric acid saponification,’ which consists in treating the fatty bodies with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid at a high temperature (about 350° Fahr., produced by superheated steam), and distilling the resulting mass by the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. Frequently the operations of hot and cold pressing are resorted to in order to free the product from the softer fats.

By a patent process employed at Price’s candle works the natural vegetable fats are decomposed into their constituents (fatty acids and glycerin) by the action of superheated steam alone, without previous ‘saponification’ with lime or sulphuric acid.

Another method for the preparation of commercial stearic acid is that of Messrs Moinier and Bontigny. This process is thus described in the ‘Chemical Technology’ of Messrs Ronalds and Richardson:——Two tons of tallow and 900 gall. of water are introduced into a large rectangular vat of about 270 feet capacity.

The tallow is melted by means of steam admitted through a pipe coiled round the bottom, and the whole kept at the boiling heat for an hour, during which a current of sulphurous acid is forced in. At the end of this period 6 cwt. of lime, made into milk with 350 gall. of water, are added. The mixture soon acquires consistence, and becomes frothy and viscid. The whole is now agitated in order to regulate the ebullitions, and prevent the sudden swelling up of the soapy materials. The pasty appearance of the lime soap succeeds, and it then agglomerates into small nodular masses.

The admission of sulphurous acid is now stopped; but the injection of the steam is continued until the small masses become hard and homogeneous. The whole period occupies eight hours, but the admission of the sulphurous acid is discontinued at the end of about three hours. The water containing the glycerin is run off through a tube into cisterns prepared to receive it.

The arrangements for preparing sulphurous acids are retorts, into which are put sulphuric acid and pieces of wood; upon the application of heat the sulphurous acid passes off, and is conveyed by leaden pipes into the vessels containing the tallow. The lime soap formed is then moistened with 12 cwt. of sulphuric acid, at 150° Fahr., diluted with 50 gall. of water. The whole is thoroughly agitated and the steam cautiously admitted, so as not to dilute the acid too much until the decomposition is general at all points. This occupies about 3 hours, and in 2 or 3 hours more the sulphate of lime has collected at the bottom, while the fatty acids are floating on the surface of the solution of the bisulphate of lime. Several processes of washing with steam and water are necessary to ensure the removal of the sulphate of lime, &c., and after settling for 4 hours the fatty acids are forced through a fixed siphon, into a vat, where they are again washed with water; they are then siphoned at last into a trough lined with lead, on the bottom of which are placed leaden gutters, pierced below by long pegs of wood. The fatty acids are then placed in clothes and subjected to pressure in the stearin cold press.

In 1871 Professor Boek of Copenhagen, after a careful microscopic and chemical investigation, discovered that the neutral fats were composed of a congeries of little globules enclosed in albuminous envelopes. To the presence of these latter substances in the fat he attributed the difficulty of eliminating the fatty acids from it by means either of sulphuric acid, except in excess, or of alkali, except under great pressure; conceiving that both these agents as employed under the usual methods were expended in rupturing and destroying the albuminous coverings.

The inconveniences arising from the above processes are, in the case of the excess of the sulphuric acid, a considerable destruction of the fatty acid, as well as the necessity of its distillation, and the consequent danger of conflagration; whilst in the case of the alkali, this must either be used in quantities much greater than theory requires, or else be heated under great pressure, at the risk of giving rise to an explosion.

In Professor Boek’s process these dangers, together with the waste of material, are avoided. By submitting the fat for a limited time and at a given temperature to the action of a small quantity of sulphuric acid, the albuminous envelopes are broken and partly destroyed. The neutral fat thus liberated is then placed in open tanks in water, by which, after the expiration of several hours, it becomes decomposed. When this is completely effected the glycerin, dissolved in the water used for the decomposition, is removed; the fatty acids which remain behind, and which amount to 94 per cent. of the original fat, being at this stage of the operation dark brown or blackish in colour.

In this condition they are placed in open tanks, and dilute solutions of certain agents are poured upon them, whereby the albuminous débris as well as the colouring matters with which they are associated become oxidised, whilst the specific gravity of these latter is in consequence so increased as to cause them to subside to the bottom of the tank, leaving the fatty acids, now greatly whitened, on the upper part of the liquid.

The acids after being washed 2 or 3 times with dilute acid and water are then cooled, and hot-pressed in the usual manner, and the stearic acid thus obtained is said to have a higher melting point, and to be larger in yield than that obtained by any other method, an oleic acid of excellent quality being at the same time produced.

In 1874 a French patent was taken out for an improvement in the manufacture of stearic acid. The patentee employs carbon disulphide to increase the fluidity of the oleic acid, so that the warm pressure of the crude stearic acid is avoided. The addition of the carbon disulphide may be made either before or after the cold pressing of the stearic acid. The crude fat acid is melted in a special apparatus, and 20 per cent. of the disulphide is mixed with it whilst in the fluid state. It is then left to cool and subjected to cold pressure. The stearic acid thus obtained should be free from oleic acid.

_Prop., &c._ Pure stearic acid crystallises in milk-white needles, which are soluble in ether and in cold alcohol, and forms salts with the bases, called stearates. The commercial acid is made into candles. See CANDLES, FAT, OILS (Fixed), and TALLOW.

=STE′ARIN.= C_{57}H_{110}O_{6}. The solid portion of fats which is insoluble in cold alcohol.

_Prep._ Pure strained mutton suet is melted in a glass flask along with 7 or 8 times its weight of ether, and the solution allowed to cool; the soft, pasty, semi-crystalline mass is then transferred to a cloth and is strongly pressed as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid unnecessary evaporation; the solid portion is then redissolved in ether, and the solution allowed to crystallise, as before. The product is nearly pure.

_Prop., &c._ White; semi-crystalline; insoluble in water and cold alcohol; soluble in 225 parts of cold ether, and freely so in boiling ether. It melts at 130° Fahr. The stearin of commerce is stearic acid.

=STEAROP′TEN.= The name given by Herberger to the concrete portion or camphor of volatile oils. Bizio calls it stereusin.

=STEEL.= This important material may be defined as iron chemically combined with sufficient carbon to give it extreme toughness and hardness without brittleness. According to one of our greatest authorities on metallurgy, steel should contain from ·833% to 1·67% of carbon, these numbers referring respectively to the softest and the hardest varieties.

By some authorities silicon in small quantities is supposed to be a useful ingredient in steel, and to increase its capacity for being hardened; an opinion dissented from by others, who hold that its presence has a tendency to interfere with the welding of the metal. Faraday and Stodart believed that the addition of small quantities of chromium and iridium to steel served to improve its quality, and the same has been asserted of tungsten and titanium; but on these points there is still a divergence of opinion, and no satisfactory decision has yet been arrived at concerning them.

Manganese has also been credited with the property of improving steel, but as it has been found that only a very minute quantity of the manganese is taken up by the steel, an indirect influence may possibly be exercised by it, viz. its power of uniting with the stage, and of carrying away any prejudicial excess of sulphur and phosphorus with it; and in this manner it may contribute to the increased purity of the metal. The addition of manganese to cast steel constitutes Mr Heath’s patent, the chief advantage of which is that blistered steel made from British bar iron can be substituted for the much more expensive Swedish and Russian iron, in certain branches of iron manufacture.

“Among the various substances which are frequently present in malleable iron and in cast iron, those which are more prejudicial to the quality of steel are sulphur, phosphorus, and copper. The amount of sulphur in steel of the best quality rarely exceeds ·012; within the limit of ·1 per cent. it is considered to render the metal more capable of being welded at a moderate heat, but to make it red short. Phosphorus also renders steel more capable of being welded, and at the same time makes its cold short when it amounts to ·1 per cent. The best steel rarely contains so much. Copper renders steel decidedly red short when present in very small amount, and for this reason iron smelted from ores containing copper pyrites is not suitable for making steel.”[195]

[Footnote 195: Payen.]

Within the last few years great attention has been paid to the investigation of the chemistry of steel. The researches of Despretz and Fremy tend to the conclusion that nitrogen exercises a very important influence over the phenomena of ‘steeling,’ and that carbon plays a less necessary part; while those of Caron and Deville still refer the formation of steel to the chemical combination of iron with carbon. There is no test of the value of steel beyond its elasticity and temper, and the fineness, equality, and smoothness of its grain.

Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel are all combinations of iron and carbon, differing in the amount they contain of the latter element. As cast iron contains a larger and wrought iron a smaller proportion of carbon than steel, it follows that to convert the cast iron into steel, its excess of carbon must be removed; whilst conversely, to make the wrought iron into steel, the requisite amount of carbon must be added to it.

Thus it is that the various processes for the manufacture of steel (with the exception of those which propose to obtain it direct from the ores) are directed to one or other of these ends, viz. the decarburation of cast or pig iron, and the carburation of wrought or malleable iron.

1. In the first, or decarburation method, the oxygen of the air plays an important part. Best carbon is heated with coal or charcoal, in some works on the refining hearth, in others upon the bed of the puddling furnace. The oxygen burnt off the excess of carbon from the iron and steel is left. Payen says that when the iron contains slag, the ferrous silicate present in this takes part in the reaction.

The steel obtained by this method is called natural steel. It is afterwards subjected to forging, and being of inferior quality is employed in the manufacture of springs for machinery, railway carriages, wheel tyres, ploughs, and other farming implements.

_The following Table, from ‘Payen’s Industrial Chemistry’ gives the Composition of several kinds of Steel._

+--------------+---------+------+------+------+---------------+ | | | | | | Carbon. | | | | | | +------+--------+ |Kind of Steel.|Locality.| Fe. | Mn. | Cu. |Comb- |Graphi- | | | | | | |ined. | tic. | +--------------+---------+------+------+------+------+--------+ |Natural Steel |Siegen | ... | ... |·379 |1·698 | ... | |Ditto |Solingen | ... | ... | ... |1·570 | ... | |Puddled Steel |Hartz | ... |0·12 | ... |1·380 | ... | |Cement Steel |English | ... | ... | ... |1·807 | ... | |Ditto |German | ... | ... | ... | ·416 | ·080 | |Cast Steel |Sheffield| ... | ... | ... | ·950 | ·220 | |Ditto |Ditto | ... | ... | ... | 1·758 | |Ditto |French | ... | ... | ... | ·65 | |Sword Steel |Damascus | ... | ·070 | ... | 1·089 | |Ditto |Ditto | ... |trace | ... | ·775 | |Wootz |Indian | ... | ... | ... | 1·500 | |Ditto |Ditto |98·092| ... | ... |1·333 ·312 | |Cast Steel |German | ... |trace |·300 | 1·180 | |Ditto |English | ... |·024 |·066 | 1·275 | |Bessemer Steel|Dowlais | ... |·576 |·025 | ·490 | |Ditto |Sweden | ... |trace | ... | ·085 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·179 | ... | ·300 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·256 | ... | ·700 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·468 | ... | ·950 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·355 | ... | 1·050 | |Wired |Barrow- | ... |·214 | ... | ·200 | | |in-Furness | | | | |Rail Heads |German | ... |·386 | ... | ·138 | |Rails | ... | ... |·264 | ... | ·150 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·638 | ... | ·046 | |Boiler Plates | ... | ... |·136 | ... | ·250 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·273 | ... | ·300 | +--------------+---------+------+------+------+---------------+

+--------------+-----+-------+-----+----------+ |Kind of Steel.| Si. | S. | P. |Authority.| +--------------+-----+-------+-----+----------+ |Natural Steel |·038 | ... | ... |Karsten. | |Ditto |·020 | ... | ... |Lampadius.| |Puddled Steel |·006 |(at·12)|trace|Brauns. | |Cement Steel |·100 | ... | ... |Berthier. | |Ditto | ... | ... | ... |Bromeis. | |Cast Steel | ... | ... | ... |Ditto. | |Ditto | ... | ... | ... |Karsten. | |Ditto |·040 | ... | ... | ... | |Sword Steel | ... |(Ni·07 Wo·01)| ... | |Ditto | ... |(Ni·21 | ... | | | |Co trace | | | | |Wo trace) | | |Wootz |·600 | ... | ... | ... | |Ditto |·045 |(as 037) ... |Henry. | |Cast Steel |·330 |(Ni ·12) ·020| ... | |Ditto |·213 |(as·007) ...| ... | |Bessemer Steel|·009 |·003 | ·036| ... | |Ditto |·008 |trace | ·025|Brusewitz.| |Ditto |·044 | do. | ·033| Ditto. | |Ditto |·032 | do. | ...| Ditto. | |Ditto |·047 | do. | ·032| Ditto. | |Ditto |·067 | do. | ...| Ditto. | |Wired |·179 |·030 | ·026| Ditto. | |Rail Heads |·306 |·040 | ·034| Ditto. | |Rails |·091 |·025 | ·032| Ditto. | |Ditto |·634 |·045 | ·093| Ditto. | |Boiler Plates |·016 |·010 | ... | Ditto. | |Ditto |·056 |·040 | ·041| Ditto. | +--------------+-----+-------+-----+----------+

Krupp’s cast steel, manufactured at Essen, near Cologne, is a natural steel, being made on the bed of a puddling furnace. It is obtained from hæmatite and spathic ore, coke being used for the smelting. The proportion of carbon in Krupp’s steel is about 1·2 per cent. When required for ordnance it is fused with a little bar iron in pots, each of which holds 30 lbs. It sometimes happens that in the manufacture of a huge gun or cannon the contents of as many as 1200 of these pots are required. When this is the case the pots are emptied of their molten contents simultaneously into a channel leading to the cast, 400 well-drilled men being required to carry out the operation.

It is very essential that castings of such magnitude should be allowed to cool very gradually. They are therefore enveloped in hot cinders for two or three months, after which they are ready for the forging.

2. _The carburation method._ This is generally effected by the process known as ‘cementation,’ which is carried out as follows:——Two chests, made of fire-brick or stone, one narrow end of each of which is shown in the accompanying plate, are so fixed in a dome-shaped furnace, so that the flames from the hearth beneath can effectually play around them.

The process renders it necessary that the temperature of the furnace should be steadily maintained for some days; and this is achieved by surrounding the furnace with a conical wall of brick-work, as shown in the cut. The chests are usually about 10 or 12 feet in length, 3 feet in height, and 3 feet in depth. A layer of charcoal of a fineness to pass through a sieve of a 1/4 inch mesh, or of soot, is placed on the bottom of each chest, and upon this the bars of wrought iron which are intended for conversion into steel. The bars inside must be of iron of the best quality, and generally about 3 inches broad and 3/4 of an inch thick. When arranged regularly a little distance apart, the interstices between them are filled up with charcoal, with which they are then covered to a depth of about an inch. Similar layers of bars, similarly arranged, succeed to this first one, until the chests are filled.

They are then covered in to a depth of 6 inches with a luting of damp clay or sand. Each chest when thus filled contains from 5 to 6 tons of iron. One of the bars projects through an opening at the end of the chest, to facilitate an inspection of it from time to time by a workman, so that he may be enabled to judge of the progress of the operation. The materials of which the chests are composed render it important that the temperature of the furnace should be carefully and gradually increased, as a too sudden accession of heat would lead to the splitting of the chests. The temperature necessary to effect the carburation of the iron has been found to be that required for the melting of copper, viz. 1996° Fahr. When this temperature is reached it is maintained for eight or ten days, or even longer, the period depending upon the thickness of the iron, and the degree of hardness it is desired it shall possess. Six or eight days are sufficient to yield steel of a moderate degree of hardness. At the end of the requisite time the fire is gradually put out, and the chests as gradually cooled, a process which occupies about another ten days.

The effect of the treatment to which the iron bars have been subjected has been, in the first place, to entirely alter their interior structure; for if they are broken asunder at any part, instead of showing the fibrous arrangement observable in bar iron, they present a closely granular one. In the second place, chemical analyses demonstrate that the iron has combined with about 1 per cent. of carbon, and that this combination has not only taken place on the surface of the bar, but has extended throughout its whole substance. It is because of this perfect impregnation of the iron by the solid carbon that the process by which it has thus been converted into steel is called ‘cementation.’

Two suggestions have been offered in explanation of the blistered surface presented by the steel. One of these, the theory of Mr T. H. Henry, is that part of the carbon in penetrating into the body of the bar iron had combined with the small quantity of sulphur present in the iron, and that the bisulphide of carbon thus formed becoming vaporised by the elevated temperature, in escaping through the soft surface of the metal, has caused its blistered condition. The second conjecture is that the blebs have arisen from the extrication of carbonic oxide, which had been formed in the bar by the union of the carbon with the small quantity of oxide of iron or slag accidentally remaining in it.

Graham has shown that soft iron has the power of absorbing or occluding at a low red heat 4·15 times its volume of carbolic oxide, which the metal, when it becomes cold, retains, but which it parts with when subjected to a temperature such as that which prevailed in the cementation box. This fact seems to offer a reasonable confirmation of the reaction it has been surmised takes place during the cementation process, and which is supposed to be as follows:

The small quantity of atmospheric oxygen remaining in the chest unites with the carbon to form carbonic oxide. This carbonic oxide gives up half its carbon to the iron (which thereby becomes converted into steel), and in doing so changes to carbonic acid, which becomes reduced to carbonic oxide by the absorption of more carbon from the charcoal, which carbon the carbonic oxide again transfers to the iron.

The above reaction may not improbably occur throughout the substance of the bar. By some chemists, cyanogen compounds are supposed to be present in the cementation powder, and the cyanogen contained in these is supposed to be the carrier of the carbon to the iron.

“The blistered steel obtained by this process is, as would be expected, far from uniform, either in composition or texture; some portions of the bar contain more carbon than others, and the interior contains numerous cavities. In order to improve its quality it is subjected to a process of fagotting similar to that employed in the case of bar iron; the bars of blistered steel, being cut into short lengths are made up into bundles, which are raised to a welding heat, and placed under a tilt hammer weighing about 2 cwt., which strikes 200 or 300 blows in a minute; in this way, the several bars are consolidated into one compound bar, which is then extended under the hammer till of the required dimensions.

“The bars, before being hammered, are sprinkled with sand, which combines with the oxide of iron upon the surface, and forms a vitreous layer which protects the bar from oxidation. The steel which has been thus hammered is much denser and more uniform in composition; its tenacity, malleability, and ductibility are greatly increased, and it is fitted for the manufacture of shears, files, and other tools. It is commonly known as shear steel. Double shear steel is obtained by breaking the tilted bars in two, and welding these into a compound bar. The best variety of steel, however, which is perfectly homogeneous in composition, is that known as cast steel, to obtain which about 30 lbs. of blistered steel are broken into fragments, and fused in a fire-clay or plumbago crucible, heated in a wind furnace, the surface of the metal being protected from oxidation by a little glass melted upon it. The fused steel is cast into ingots, several crucibles being emptied simultaneously into the same mould. Cast steel is far superior in density and hardness to shear steel, but, since it is exceedingly brittle at a red heat, great care is necessary in forging it. It has been found that, in addition to 100 parts of the cast steel, of one part of a mixture of charcoal and oxide of manganese, produces a very fine grained steel, which admits of being cast on to a bar of wrought iron in the ingot mould, so that the tenacity of the latter may compensate for the brittleness of the steel; when the compound bar is forged, the wrought iron forming the back of the implement, and the steel its cutting edge.”[196]

[Footnote 196: Bloxam’s ‘Chemistry Inorganic and Organic.’]

Another distinct method from the cementation one, by which the carburation of iron is affected, is that in which scrap or malleable iron is mixed with pig or cast iron, this latter being fused with the scrap iron in quantity sufficient to afford such an amount of carbon as is necessary to convert the mixture into steel. Steel made by this operation is entirely homogeneous, the tilting process which precedes the casting of the steel obtained by cementation is therefore unnecessary. The pig iron is placed on the bed (made of refractory sand) of one of Siemens’ regenerative furnaces, heated by gaseous fuel. The temperature in this furnace is so intense that the pig iron becomes perfectly liquid, and, when in this condition, the scrap iron, which has been previously heated to redness in an adjoining refractory furnace, is added, it becomes dissolved by it. Iron may also be carburetted by heating wrought iron bars in carburetted hydrogen. This process, however, is seldom had recourse to.

In the manufacture of Bessemer steel both the carburation and decarburation processes are practised. From 1 to 5 tons of pig or cast iron in a molten state are run from a contiguous blast, cupola, or reverberatory furnace, with an apparatus known as a converter, which is previously heated up to redness by means of coke. The converter is figured under two aspects in the annexed engraving.

This vessel, which is generally made of boiler plates of sheet iron, has an inside lining, consisting of a siliceous fireproof material, and is perforated at the bottom with a number of concentric little openings, which are the orifices of as many little tubes or tuyeres, that lead into an outside main tube, as shown in the plate. By means of these tubes condensed air is forced into the mass of melted metal, which is soon thrown into violent commotion, and sends out a shower of ignited sparks. The oxide of iron formed at the same time being set into active movement by the incoming blast of air, is brought into intimate contact with every particle of the carbon and silicon contained in the cast iron, and converts the former into carbonic oxide, which burns with its characteristic flame at the mouth of the converter, and the silica into silicic acid, which enters into the slag, and floats, in the form of foam, on the top of the heavier molten iron.

The removal of the carbon (which is known by the discontinuance of the carbonic oxide flame) being thus accomplished, the iron has next to be submitted to the carburetting operation. This is performed by running into the liquid iron in the converter such a quantity of molten pig or cast iron as contains the required proportion of carbon.

The pig iron used for this purpose generally contains, in addition to a large amount of carbon, a very perceptible quantity of manganese. The converter (as shown in the plate) is then by means of the trunnion tilted, so that its contents can be run into a ladle and transferred to the necessary moulds. The time of conversion occupies from ten to twenty minutes.

By Bessemer’s process the sulphur present in the pig iron is almost entirely eliminated; the greater part of the silicon is also separated, together with the carbon, and almost in the same proportion; but the phosphorus is not removed, and, owing to the oxidation of some iron, the amount is actually greater in the finished steel than in the pig iron.[197]

[Footnote 197: Payen’s ‘Industrial Chemistry,’ edited by B. H. Paul, Ph.D.]

Bessemer’s steel is in large demand, and is excellently suited for rails for railroads, cannon, boiler plates, armour plates, and similar heavy material, for the manufacture of which it has largely supplanted wrought iron, but not at all adapted for the manufacture of knives, razors, lancets, or similar instruments, in which a sharp or keen edge is desirable.

The Bessemer process, which is largely adopted by the manufacturers of steel throughout Europe and America, has proved a source of princely income to its inventor, who obtains a bounty of a shilling on every ton of steel made by it. In Europe alone in 1859 5-1/2 million cwts. Seventy per cent. of this quantity was the produce of British industry.

Latterly, attempts have been made to obtain steel direct from the ores. The efforts made in this direction have been greatly stimulated by the invention of the regenerating furnace of Siemens. In these furnaces, in which an intense temperature is obtained by means of the combustion of inflammable gases (chiefly consisting of carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and carburetted hydrogen), the ore after (in one process) being melted in hoppers by means of the burning gases, runs down, and is gradually dissolved in some melted pig iron placed on the hearth of the furnace. When this latter has been sufficiently diluted with the decarbonised iron the operation is complete.

_Properties of Steel._ The effects of temperature upon steel are remarkable, and a knowledge of them has proved of great practical utility in the manufacture of the various steel-ware articles that are so indispensable to our every-day wants and needs. If forged and soft steel is heated, and then suddenly cooled, it becomes hard, the hardness varying with the temperature and the rapidity with which this has been reduced. The higher the temperature and the more rapidly it is cooled, the greater will be its hardness. Steel, which has been heated until white-hot, and then suddenly plunged into a bath of cold mercury, acquires a hardness nearly equalling that of the diamond. That, however, which the steel gains in hardness, it loses in pliancy and elasticity, besides becoming so brittle as to be of no possible use.

Soft steel, which has been made hard by heating it to redness, and by subsequent sudden immersion in cold water, may be reconverted into soft steel by again heating it to redness and allowing it to cool suddenly. By stopping short, however, of heating it to redness, its hardness may be proportionally modified.

Hence steel articles, varying as much in the qualities of hardness and elasticity as a lancet and watch-spring, are made either by ‘heating down’ hard steel to requisite temperature and allowing it to cool, or by ‘heating up’ soft steel to the necessary point and also letting it gradually cool. When steel is so treated it is said to be _tempered_ or _annealed_. If polished steel be heated over a flame to a temperature of 430° F. its surface becomes of a very pale yellow colour; the colour passes through different shades of yellow and blue with each successive increase of temperature, until when raised to 600° F. it becomes blackish blue.

These effects are due to the formation on the surface of the steel of films of oxide of different degrees of thickness, and to the action of the light on these. They are precisely analogous to those which are caused when a ray of reflected light falls upon any other body, the surface of which is composed of thin layers, which are continually changing in thickness, such as a soap-bubble, or a thin coating of tar or oil swimming on water, and which are exemplified in Newton’s rings.

As each shade of colour is an index of the temperature of the steel, and as this determines its adaptability for various purposes, all that the workman has to do, when he requires it for any special object, is to heat it by the proper methods (such as a bath of oil, or tallow, or melted metal) until it acquires the desired colour, and then to allow it to gradually cool.

The following table, exhibiting the different melting points of steel when employed in the manufacture of different kinds of works, together with the corresponding colours, the composition of the metallic baths, &c., is from Dr Wagner’s ‘Handbook of Chemical Technology,’ edited by W. Crookes, Esq., F.R.S.

Composition of Metallic Mixture. _____¦_____ Melting Lead. Tin. Point. Temperature.

Lancets 7 4 220° C Hardly pale yellow. Razors 8 4 228° ” Pale yellow to straw yellow. Penknives 8-1/2 4 232° ” Straw yellow. Pairs of scissors 14 4 254° ” Brown. Clasp-knives, joiners’ and } 19 4 265° ” Purplish colour. carpenters’ tools } Swords, cutlasses, watch- } 48 4 288° ” Bright blue. springs } Stilettos, boring tools, and} 50 2 292° ” Deep blue. fine saws } Ordinary saws {in boiling linseed} {oil } 316° ” Blackish blue.

Steel is of a greyish-white colour, and has a sp. gr. varying from 7·66 to 7·93. During hardening the sp. gr. becomes reduced from 7·93 to 7·66, whilst it experiences a slight increase of volume. The property (already pointed out) that steel possesses of becoming hard after being heated to redness, and suddenly chilled, does not belong to pure iron, such as may be obtained by electrolysis. Unlike pure iron, too, steel presents a granular instead of a fibrous structure when broken; the best samples closely resembling silver in this respect. The chemical difference between hard and soft steel appears to consist in the much more intimate combination of the carbon with the iron in the hard variety than in the soft. In this latter kind the carbon seems to be only mechanically mixed, for if it be immersed in hydrochloric acid the iron is dissolved, and leaves the carbon behind. Steel is the most tenacious of all the metals, being greater than that of either cast or malleable iron.

What is termed _case-hardening_ (which _see_) is a process by which small articles of iron, such as keys, gun-locks, &c., are superficially converted into steel. It is performed by heating the articles in contact with iron filings or powdered charcoal. Another method is to make the iron substance red hot, and then to sprinkle powdered potassic ferrocyanide all over it.

=STEREOCHROMY.= This is a branch of the pictorial art confined to the embellishment of walls and monuments. In the operations by which it is accomplished it will be seen that the soluble silicates (water glass) play an important part.

The foundation for the future picture or coloured design must be of some durable stone or imperishable cement. Over this is first placed a layer of lime mortar, to which is applied when it is dry and has become sufficiently hard, a solution of water glass, by which all the interstices of the mortar are filled up. Another coating of mortar made of sharp sand and a lye of chalk is next laid on, and this, after it has been carefully smoothed, properly levelled on the surface, and become quite dry, is washed over and thoroughly impregnated with water-glass solution. When this last layer has become dry it is ready to receive the painting, which must be executed in water colours. After laying on these colours may be permanently fixed by covering them with water glass. The following are the colours used:——Zinc white, chrome green, chrome oxide, cobalt green, chrome red, zinc yellow, oxide of iron, sulphide of cadmium, ultramarine, ochre, &c. Vermillion is inadmissible, since, in fixing, it turns from red to brown. Cobalt ultramarine, on the contrary, increases greatly in brilliancy upon the application of the fixing solution. Stereochromatic paintings are found to be very durable, and impervious to damp, smoke, or variations of temperature.

=STE′REOTYPE METAL.= See TYPE METAL.

=STER′LING.= The truth of the old proverb, that “all is not gold which glitters,” is often painfully experienced by the purchaser of modern jewelry. The following table will, therefore, prove highly useful to the reader in determining the value of articles in gold, provided he ascertain the ‘fineness’ of the metal, either by examination or written warranty:——

_Sterling value of Gold of different degrees of ‘Fineness,’_

Carats. Value per Fine. oz. Troy. £ _s._ _d._ 24 _carats_ 4 4 11-1/2 23 ” 4 1 5 22 ” (_British standard_) 3 17 10-1/2 21 ” 3 14 4 20 ” 3 10 9-1/2 19 ” 3 7 3 18 ” (_lowest Hall-mark_) 3 3 8-1/2 17 ” 3 0 2 16 ” 2 16 7-1/2 15 ” 2 13 1 14 ” 2 9 6-1/2 13 ” 2 6 0 12 ” 2 2 5-1/2 11 ” 1 18 11 10 ” 1 15 4-1/2 9 ” 1 11 10 8 ” 1 8 3-1/2 7 ” 1 4 9 6 ” 1 1 2-1/2 5 ” 0 17 8 4 ” 0 14 2 3 ” 0 10 7-1/2 2 ” 0 7 1 1 ” 0 3 6

=STEREO-METAL.= A remarkable alloy recently invented by Baron de Rosthorn, of Vienna, and used in place of ordinary gun-metal. It consists of copper and spelter, with small proportions of iron and tin, and to these latter its peculiar hardness, tensile strength, and elasticity, are attributed.

=STETH′OSCOPE.= An instrument employed in auscultation. It consists of a tube (usually made of wood, sometimes of gutta percha) widening considerably at one end, and but slightly at the other. The wide end is applied to the chest or other part of the patient, the physician putting his ear at the other end; and from the sounds emitted by the heart, lungs, &c., the state of these parts is ascertained.

=STEW′ING.= A method of cooking food intermediate to frying and boiling, performed by simmering it in a saucepan or stewpan, with merely sufficient water to prevent burning, and to effect the object in view; the whole being served up to form the ‘dish.’ It is undoubtedly the most simple and economical, and, when skilfully conducted, one of those best calculated to develop the flavour and nutritious qualities of animal food. The following is one of the most popular stews:——

=Stew, Irish.= _Prep._ (Soyer.) Take about 2 lbs. of scrag or neck of mutton; divide it into ten or twelve pieces, and lay them in the pan; add 8 large potatoes and 4 onions cut into slices, season with 1-1/2 teaspoonful of pepper, and 3 do. of salt; cover all with water, put it into a slow oven, or on a stove, for two hours, then stir it all up well, and serve it up in deep dishes. If a little more water is added at the commencement, you can take out, when half done, a nice cup of broth.

=STILL.= A vessel or apparatus employed for the distillation of liquids on the large scale. The forms of stills, and the materials of which they are made, vary according to the purposes for which they are intended, some being exceedingly simple, whilst others are equally elaborate and complicated. The _engr._ represents the most common and useful apparatus of this kind, and the one almost exclusively employed in the laboratory. It is used as follows:——After the fluid and other matters (if any) are put into the still, the head is placed on and connected with the worm-tub or refrigerator, and the joints are all securely luted. For ordinary liquids, a stiff paste made with linseed meal and water, to which a little chalk may be added, answers well for this purpose. For corrosive liquids, nothing is better than elastic bands or rings interposed between the joints, which are then ‘brought home,’ as it is called, with screws or clamps. Heat is next applied, and the worm-tub is supplied with cold water in sufficient quantity to preserve its contents at a proper temperature; the application of the heat being so regulated that the liquid may drop from the end of the refrigerator quite cold and unaccompanied with vapour. For highly volatile liquids a closed receiver should be provided.

Of the various forms of distillatory apparatus that patented by Coffey in 1832 is the one almost universally employed in this country. It yields the strongest spirits obtainable on a large scale. Coffey’s still (of which a drawing is given on the next page) effects a great economy in the expenditure of heat, by causing the liquid to be exposed to a very extended heated service; whilst it effects the evaporation of the alcohol from the wash by passing a current of steam through it.

The wash is pumped from the ‘wash charger’ into the worm-tub, which passes from top to bottom of the rectifier. In circulating through this tube it experiences a slight elevation of temperature. Arrived at the last convolution of the tube in the rectifier, the wash passes by the tube M in at the top of the ‘analyser.’ It falls, and collects on the top shelf till this overflows, whence it falls on the second shelf, and so on to the bottom. All the time this operation is going on steam is passed up from the steam boiler through fine holes in the shelves, and through valves opening upwards. As the wash gradually descends in the analyser it becomes rapidly weaker in alcohol, partly from condensation of steam which is passed into it, and partly from loss of alcohol, either evaporated or expelled by the steam, till when it arrives at the bottom it has parted with the last traces of spirits.

At the same time the vapour, as it rises through each shelf of the analyser, becomes constantly richer in alcohol, and contains less and less water because of its condensation; it then passes from the top of the analyser in at the bottom of the lower compartment of the rectifier. Here it ascends in a similar way, bubbling through the descending wash, until it arrives at F, above which it merely circulates round the earlier windings of the wash pipe; the low temperature of which condenses the spirits; which, collecting on the shelf at F, flows off by the tube into the finished spirit condenser.

To still further effect a saving of heat, the water for supplying the boiler is made to pass through a long coil of pipe, immersed in boiling spent wash, by which means its temperature is raised before it enters the boiler.

Another variety of distillatory apparatus is that of Siemens’ (see page 1566), much employed in the distillation of brandy.

It consists of two mash stills set in a boiler, and capable of being alternately used by means of the three cocks (_a_, _b_, and _c_). L is the boiler; P one of the mash retorts; K is the low wine receiver; R the fore warmer, a reservoir in which the condensed water intended as feed water of the boiler is collected; C is the dephlegmator; B a reservoir for the vapours condensed in C.

From the dephlegmator the vapour passes to a condenser, not shown in the engraving.

The mash warmer consists of a cylindrical portion (_i i_), the lower part of which has an indentation (_c_). In the cylinder is placed a narrower portion (_o o_) of the real mash, containing a vessel, fitted with the heading tube (_f n_). The upper part of the fore warmer is fitted to the lower part by means of the flange (_h h_); _r_ is a stirring apparatus, which is frequently set in operation during the process of distillation. The vapours from the second still are carried into the depression (_c_) under the fore warmer, which, in order that the vapours may come into contact with the phlegma, is covered with a sieve.

The vapours surround the under part of the mash reservoir, and enter into the tube (_f_), through which they pass to the lower cylinder of the dephlegmator. The condensed water of the dephlegmator is conducted into the reservoir (A). The upper and under part of the fore warmer are made of cast iron, but the interior bottom and heating surfaces are made of copper. This kind of fore warmer has the advantage of uniformly distributing the heat, while it can be easily cleansed.

The dephlegmator (C) is so contrived that the rectified vapour can be conveyed to the condenser by two separate pipes placed in an opposite direction to each other, which are joined again in close proximity to the condenser.

The remainder of the details will be seen by studying the engraving.

Another distilling apparatus is that known as Derosne’s, which is an improvement upon one invented by Cellier-Blumenthal. This apparatus is only designed for the distillation of wine, and not, like the previous ones, of mash.

The engraving on page 1568 gives a representation of it.

It consists of two stills (A and A′); the first rectifier (B); the second rectificator (C); the wine warmer and dephlegmator (D); the condenser (F); the regulator (E); a contrivance for regulating the flow of the fluid wine from the cistern (G).

The still A′, which, as well as the still A, is filled with wine, acts as a steam boiler. The low wine vapours evolved come, when they have arrived in the rectifiers, in contact with an uninterrupted stream of wine, whereby dephlegmation is effected; the vapour, thus enriched in alcohol, becomes stronger in the vessel (D), and thus arrives at the cooling apparatus (F). In order that a real rectification should take place in the rectificators the stream of wine should be heated to a certain temperature, which is imparted to it by the heating of the condensed water. The steam from the still A′ is carried by means of the pipe (Z) to the bottom of the still A.

Both stills are heated by the fire of the same furnace. By means of the tube B′ the liquid contained in the still A can be run into the still A′. The first rectificator (B) containing a number of semicircular discs of unequal size, placed one above the other, and which are so fastened to a vertical centre rod that they can be easily removed and cleansed. The larger discs, perforated in the manner of sieves, are placed with their concave surfaces upwards.

In consequence of this arrangement the vapours ascending from the stills meet with large surfaces moistened with wine, which, moreover, trickles downward in the manner of a cascade from the discs, and comes, therefore, into very intimate contact with the vapours. The second rectificator (C) is fitted with six compartments; in the centre of each of the partition walls (iron or copper plates) a hole is cut, and over this hole, by means of a vertical bar, is fastened an inverted cup, which nearly reaches to the bottom of the compartment wherein it is placed. As a portion of the vapours are condensed in these compartments, the vapours are necessarily forced through a layer of low wine, and have to overcome a pressure of a column of liquid two centimètres high. The fore warmer and dephlegmator (D) is a horizontal cylinder made of copper fitted with a worm, the convolutions of which are placed vertically. The tube (M) communicates with this worm, the other end of which passes to O. A phlegma collects in the convolutions of this tube, which is richer in alcohol in the formost windings, and weaker in those more remote; this fluid, collecting in the lower part of the spirals, may be drawn off by means of small tubes, thence to be transferred, at the operator’s pleasure, either all or in part, by the aid of another tube and stopcocks, to the tube (O), or into the rectificator.

By means of the tube (L) the previously warmed wine of the dephlegmator can be run into the rectificator. The condensor (F) is a cylindrical vessel closed on all sides, and containing a worm communicating with the tube (O).

The other end of the condensing tube carries the distillate away. On the top of this portion of the apparatus the tube (K) is placed, by means of which wine is run into the dephlegmator. The cold wine flows into the cooling vessel by the tube (I).

Another variety of distillatory apparatus, invented by Langier, is that represented in the accompanying cut.

The fluid intended for distillation flows from the tube (_s_) into the funnel (_p_), thence into the vessel (A), entering its lower part, and serving to condense the alcoholic vapour. From this vessel the warmed fluid passes by means of the tube (_r_) into the lower part of the second vessel (B), where dephlegmation takes place by means of a condensing tube. From B the fluid flows through the tube (_c_) into the second still (C), which is heated by the hot gases evolved from the fire, kept burning under the first still (D); in the still (C) the fluid undergoes a rectification, and the vinasse flows by the tube (_e_) into the still (D); _m_ is the pipe for conveying the hot vapour from D into C; the tube (_b_) carries the alcoholic vapours into the dephlegmator. The tube (_d_) conveys the phlegma into the still (C); _g_ and _h_ are glass gauging-tubes for indicating the height of the fluid in the interior of the stills; the tube (_l_) conveys the uncondensed vapours from the dephlegmator into the condensing apparatus, while _i_ carries the vapours formed in the vessel (B) into the condensing apparatus.

The alcohol condensed in the cooling apparatus flows, as shown in the cut, into the vessel (_o_), provided with a hydrometer, which shows the strength of the liquid. The cooling apparatus of the vessel (B) consists of seven compartments or sections formed by wide spirals, to each of which, at its lower level, is attached a narrow tube, all of which tubes are connected to the tube (_d_), which latter conveys the condensed fluids back into the still.

A very simple form of apparatus in use is that figured below.

A is a cylinder made of cast iron or copper, in which the fluid to be distilled is heated by a spiral tube made of copper. The inlet of this tube is shown at _b_ and the outlet at _a._; c serves to carry off the vinasse; B is the dephlegmator, through which the fluid to be distilled continually flows in a downward direction, while the vapour of the low wine evolved in A ascends uninterruptedly.

The dephlegmator is so constructed as to have as large a surface and as many points of contact as possible. The vapour ascends to the reservoir (E), and passes into the rectifier (C) by the tube (F). The condensed portion returns through the tube (H) to the dephlegmator, whilst the uncondensed vapour passes on to the condenser of the vessel (D), where it becomes condensed, and is carried off through M. The liquid intended for distillation is kept in a tank (not shown in the engraving), placed above the apparatus, and is conveyed to the latter by the tube (L I), fitted with the stop-cock (K), so that the liquid arrives first in D, is next conveyed to C, thence through G into the dephlegmator, and finally into the cylinder.

Divers adaptations for heating by steam have been arranged, in a very convenient form, by Mr Coffey. His so-called ESCULAPIAN STILL affords the pharmaceutical chemist the means of conducting the processes of ebullition, distillation, evaporation, desiccation, &c., on the small scale. The following cut represents his apparatus.

For further information on the subject of stills consult ‘Ure’s Dictionary,’ ‘Illustrated Chemistry,’ and Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology.’

=STIM′ULANTS.= _Syn._ STIMULANTIA, L. Medicines or agents which possess the power of exciting vital action. They are divided in general stimulants, or those which affect the whole system, as mercury or bark; and local or topical stimulants, or those which affect a particular organ or part only, as mustard applied as a poultice. Diffusible stimulants are general stimulants the effects of which are rapid but fugacious, as ether or alcohol. “Much discrimination and caution are required in the administration of articles of this class, because, if given when inflammation is present, they are liable to create more mischief than benefit; but they are called for when, on the decline of that condition of an organ or organs, a state of relaxation or torpidity exists. In this state of things a gentle stimulation materially assists the functions, and is productive of much benefit.”

=STINGS.= See BITES.

=STIR-ABOUT.= Thick gruel formed of oatmeal and water boiled together. When eaten with cold milk, it forms the porridge of the Scotch; and when mixed with the liquor in which meat or vegetables have been boiled, it is called beef brose, kale brose, &c.

=STOCK.= Among cooks, is condensed soup or jelly, used to make extemporaneous soup, broth, &c.

=STOM′ACH AFFEC′TIONS.= Those of a character to admit of being usefully noticed in a popular work are referred to under the heads APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA, SICKNESS, &c.

Dr Budd recommends small doses of ipecacuanha as a remedy for those cases of indigestion in which digestion is slow, and the food lies heavily on the stomach, and there is an inability for mental or bodily exertion for some time after meals. He says it should be given in the morning, fasting, and in quantity barely sufficient to occasion a slight feeling of vermiculating motion in the stomach, but without causing any sensation of pain or nausea. The dose to produce this effect varies from 1/4 to 2 gr. He thinks there is no other medicine which appears so effectual in removing the affections in question. Small doses of rhubarb, ginger, and cayenne pepper, have a similar kind of action, and may be given singly or together for the same purpose. “I generally prescribe from 1/2 to 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, in a pill, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. With many, a favourite remedy for the discomfort resulting from slow digestion is a grain of cayenne pepper, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. The best time for giving these medicines is shortly” (say 1/2 an hour) “before any meal after which a sense of oppression is usually felt.”

=STOPP′ERS=, when obstinately immoveable in bottles, are the most safely treated by patiently hitting them upwards alternately on opposite sides with a piece of wood. When this fails the part may be dipped into hot water.

“Another method of removing a bottle-stopper is to insert its head into a chink, and then endeavouring to turn the bottle with both hands. If the neck of the stopper break, the hand is out of the way of danger. An upright board, such an one as supports the ends of a set of shelves, should be selected in a convenient situation in the laboratory, and a vertical slit cut through it about a foot in length, an inch in width above, but gradually decreasing in size, so as to be about one third of an inch at the bottom. The top of the hole may be about the height of the breast. This aperture will in one part or another receive and retain the head of almost any stopper, and prevent its turning with the bottle. Then by wrapping a cloth about the bottle and grasping it with both hands, the attempt to turn it round so as to move the stopper may be made with any degree of force which it may be thought safe to exert. The force employed should never be carried so far as to cause fracture anywhere, but the attempts, if unavailing with the application of a moderate degree, should be desisted. Another and very successful method of removing a stopper is to turn the bottle round when held horizontally over the small flame of a spirit lamp or candle applied to the neck. The heat should be applied only to the part round the plug of the stopper, and in a few moments, when that has become warm, the stopper should be tapped with the piece of wood as before stated. As soon as the stopper moves by tapping it is to be taken out, and must not be replaced till the glass is cold.

“The application of heat in this manner must be short and the operation altogether, to be successful, must be a quick one. If the contents of the bottle are fluid, it should be so inclined that they must not become heated; if they are volatile this method should be tried very carefully, lest the vapour formed within should burst the bottle.

“It is often advantageous to put a little olive oil round the edge of the stopper at its insertion, allowing it to soak in for a day or two. If this be done before the heat be applied, it frequently penetrates by increased facility; by oil, heat, and tapping very obstinate stoppers may be removed.

“When a stopper has been fixed by crystallisation from solution, water will sometimes set it free, and it is more efficacious in such cases than oil, because it dissolves the cement. When the cementing matter is a metallic oxide or sub-salt, a little muriatic acid may be useful if there be no objection to its application arising from the nature of the substance within.”[198]

[Footnote 198: Faraday.]

A writes in ‘New Remedies’ suggests that, in attempting to extricate the fixed stopper by means of knocking with a piece of wood, the motion given to it when putting it in should be reversed, that is, the stopper should be knocked from _right_ to _left_.

=STORM-GLASS.= A philosophical toy, consisting of a thin glass tube about 12 inches long and 3/4 inch in diameter, about three fourths filled with the following liquid, and covered with a brass car having an almost capillary hole through it, or else tied over with bladder.

The solution. Take of camphor, 2 dr.; nitre 1-1/2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; proof spirit 2-1/4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and place it in the tube above referred to. Used to foretell changes of the weather.

=STOVES.= In England the open grate or fireplace, because of its cheerful appearance and the sense of comfort it suggests when filled with glowing coal, is the favorite and general receptacle for the fuel with which we warm our apartments. The cozy appearance, however, of our old-fashioned English grate, constitutes its chief, if not its only merit; for it not only fails in uniformly warming and effectively ventilating our apartments, but it more or less sets into circulation a number of draughts of cold air, and besides occasionally filling our rooms with smoke and spoiling our furniture by the deposition of soot and dust, wastes our fuel, by allowing it to escape unconsumed in the shape of smoke, and thus pollutes the atmosphere of our cities and towns.

In France, Germany, Belgium, Russia, and other European countries, as well as in America and Canada, the stove or closed fireplace is used. The domestic stove of these countries is made either of sheet or cast-iron, or fire-clay. The iron stoves, being mostly composed of thin plates, soon absorb and radiate the heat; and although this property enables them to rapidly warm an apartment, it has the disadvantage, if the stove becomes red-hot, of allowing the escape through the heated metal into the surrounding air of the carbonic acid generated in the stove; and furthermore, in its immediate vicinity converts a portion of it into carbonic oxide. Such stoves must necessarily be unsafe unless used in well-ventilated apartments.[199] Another effect of the over heating of the stove is to desiccate or parch the air, and to render it irritating when breathed. The fire-clay stoves are free from these drawbacks, and continue to radiate from their surfaces a large amount of heat, even when the fuel with which they have been supplied is consumed. But although we exclude the close stove from our sitting rooms and dormitories, it is in frequent requisition in halls, picture-galleries, churches, theatres, lecture-rooms, and the like.

[Footnote 199: Dr Bond has suggested coating them with soluble glass, as a remedy for this.]

“Stove literature,” if such a term may be applied to the various treatises descriptive of the multitude of patterns in use, which have emanated alike from inventors and their critics, is so voluminous that it is impossible for us to attempt to give even a list of the numberless stoves in use, to say nothing of a commentary on their relative value. Of close stoves suitable for heating spaces other than dwelling or sleeping-rooms, mention may be made of Arnott’s stove, and one known as “The Belfast.” These stoves are serviceable when it is desirable to keep up a fire for some time, as in heating a lobby. They have the advantage of requiring little, if any, attention after the fuel has been placed in them and ignited.

Of late years, gas-stoves, both for heating and cooking purposes, have come largely into use. One of those for the former purpose is called the “Pyropneumatic.” The inner part of this apparatus is formed of lumps of fire-clay traversed by vertical air-passages which communicate with the external air by a special channel. The air becomes heated as it passes through the lumps of fire-clay, and rising to the top of the stove, escapes therefrom by an outlet into the room. Another so-called “ventilating” warming gas-stove is Mr George’s “Culirogen.” It consists of a stove made of thin-rolled iron, inside of which is a coil of wrought-iron tubing open at the top of the stove. The lower end of this tubing is in connection with an iron pipe which is carried through the wall of the apartment, and fed with air from without. Gas is the fuel generally used to heat the inside of the stove. The continuous current of air as it rushes into the iron pipe from without, thus becomes warmed as it ascends into the coil, which it leaves to become diffused into the surrounding apartment, whilst the products of combustion of the gas used as fuel are, by means of a pipe attached to the stove, carried into the chimney, as with coal fire.

A gas-cooking apparatus possesses many advantages over an ordinary coal fire. In the first place, it is more cleanly; in the second, it affords a much more uniform and equable temperature; in the third, it forms no smoke, and in the fourth it is more economical as well as expeditious.

Mr Eassie gives the following practical suggestions to intending purchasers of gas-stoves:——

“It is not necessary here to enter into a description of any of the numberless common patterns extant, but it might be well to record the opinion of the best engineers, that the simplest gas-stove is the best. They should not be surrounded by a non-conducting material, as that affords no advantage, but the contrary. An Argand or fish-tail burner should also be used instead of rings pierced for so many separate jets, and where practicable, the Bunsen-burner should be employed, as the mixture of common air with the gas not only prevents the formation of soot, but also intensifies the heat.”

=STRABIS′MUS.= _Syn._ SQUINTING. This need not be described. When one eye only is affected, an excellent plan is to blindfold the sound eye during several hours each day, until the affection be removed. When both eyes are affected, a projecting piece of pasteboard, in the line of the nose, may be worn as much as possible with the same object. In bad cases of squinting inwards, as it is called, the division of the internal rectus muscle of the eyeball by a skilful surgeon, is said to often relieve the deformity.

=STRANGULATION.= See HANGING.

=STRAP′PING.= Spread adhesive plaster. Used to dress wounds, &c.

=STRASS.= See ENAMEL.

=STRAW′BERRY.= _Syn._ FRAGARIA, L. The fruit of _Fragaria vesca_ (Linn.), or strawberry plant. Strawberries are, perhaps, the mildest of all the cultivated fruits; they are cooling, and slightly laxative and diuretic; rubbed on the teeth, they dissolve the tartar, and whiten them. They were formerly in repute in gout, stone, and consumption. The root of the plant is aperient.

=Strawberry essence, factitious.= Nitric ether, 1 part; acetate of ethyl, 5 parts; forminate of ethyl, 5 parts; butyrate of ethyl, 5 parts; salicylate of methyl, 1 part; acetate of amyl, 3 parts; butyrate of amyl, 2 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; alcohol, 100 parts.[200]

[Footnote 200: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

=STRAW PLAIT=, and the articles made of it, are bleached by exposing them to the fumes of burning sulphur in a close chest or box; or, by immersing them in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards well washing them in water. Water acidulated with oil of vitriol or oxalic acid is also used for the same purpose. Straw plait may be dyed with any of the simple liquid dyes.

=STRINGHALT.= The same as CHOREA, which _see_.

=STRON′TIUM.= Sr. The metallic base of the earth strontia. It was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It closely resembles barium, but is less lustrous. With chlorine it combines to form a chloride of strontium, a somewhat deliquescent salt, soluble in 2 parts of cold and in less of boiling water, and freely soluble in alcohol. With oxygen it forms an oxide.

_Test._ Strontium salts are precipitated by sulphuric acid and alkaline carbonates and sulphate. They are distinguished from barium by not giving such a decided precipitate with sulphates, and by not being precipitated by bichromate of potassium. From calcium, by sulphates of calcium solution giving a precipitate, and by concentrated solutions giving a precipitate with chromate of potassium. It is distinguished from magnesium by the insolubility of its sulphate.

=Strontium, Oxide of.= SrO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF STRONTIUM, STRONTIA. _Prep._ Quite pure crystalline nitrate of strontium. _Prop._ Greyish-white powder, uniting with water to form a white, somewhat soluble substance, the hydrate of strontium, Sr(HO)_{2}.

With acids it forms various salts, of which the carbonate is a white insoluble powder, and the nitrate a white crystalline salt, soluble in 5 parts of cold water, and in alcohol; communicating a brilliant red colour to flame.

=STROPH′ULUS.= A papular eruption peculiar to infants. There are several varieties:——In strophulus intertinctus, red gum, or red gown, the pimples rise sensibly above the level of the cuticle, possess a vivid red colour, and are usually distinct from each other; they commonly attack the cheeks, forearm, and back of the hand, and, occasionally, other parts of the body.——In strophulus albidus, or white gum, there are a number of minute whitish specks, which are, sometimes, surrounded by a slight redness. The two preceding varieties commonly occur during the first two or three months of lactation.——In strophulus confertus, rank red gum, or tooth rash, which usually appears about the fourth or fifth month, the pimples usually occur on the cheeks and sides of the nose, sometimes on the forehead and arms, and still less frequently on the loins. They are smaller, set closer together, and less vivid, but more permanent than in the common red gum.——In strophulus volaticus small circular patches or clusters of pimples, each containing from 6 to 12, appear successively on different parts of the body, accompanied with redness; and as one patch declines another springs up near it, by which the efflorescence often spreads gradually over the whole face and body.——In strophulus candidus the pimples are larger than in the preceding, and are pale, smooth and shining; it principally attacks the upper parts of the arms, the shoulders, and the loins. The last two varieties commonly appear between the third and ninth month.

The treatment of the above affections consists chiefly in removing acidity and indigestion and duly regulating the bowels by an occasional dose of magnesia or rhubarb, or both combined. Diarrhœa may be met by the warm bath and the daily use of arrowroot (genuine), to which a teaspoonful or two of pure port wine has been added; and itching and irritation may be alleviated by the use of a lotion consisting of water, to which a little milk, lemon juice, borax, or glycerin, has been added.

=STRYCH′NINE.= C_{21}H_{22}N_{2}O_{2}. _Syn._ STRYCHNINA, STRYCHNIA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. Dissolve hydrochlorate or sulphate of strychnine in distilled water, and throw down the alkaloid with ammonia, carefully avoiding excess; redissolve the precipitate in hot rectified spirit, and collect the crystals which form as the liquid cools.

2. (Ph. D.) Nux vomica (in powder), 1 lb., is digested for 24 hours in 1/2 gall. of water acidulated with 2 fl. dr. of sulphuric acid, after which it is boiled for half an hour, and the decoction decanted; the residuum is boiled a second and a third time with a fresh 1/2 gall. of water acidulated with 1 fl. dr. of the acid, and the undissolved matter is finally submitted to strong expression; the decoctions are next filtered and concentrated to the consistence of a syrup, which is boiled with rectified spirit, 3 pints, for about 20 minutes, hydrate of calcium, 1 oz., or q. s., being added in successive portions during the ebullition, until the solution becomes distinctly alkaline; the liquid is then filtered, the spirit distilled off, and the residuum dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid, q. s.; ammonia, in slight excess, is added to the filtered solution, and the precipitate which falls is collected upon a paper filter, and dried; it is next redissolved in a minimum of boiling rectified spirit, and digested with 1/2 oz. of animal charcoal for 20 minutes; the filtered liquid, as it cools, deposits strychnine, in crystals.

3. (Ph. B.) Nux vomica 1 lb., acetate of lead 180 gr., solution of ammonia q. s., rectified spirit q. s., distilled water q. s. Subject the nux vomica for two hours to steam in any convenient vessel; chop or slice it; dry it in a water bath or hot-air chamber, and immediately grind it in a coffee mill. Digest the powder at a gentle heat for 12 hours with two pints of the spirit and 1 pint of the water, strain through linen, express strongly, and repeat the process twice. Distil off the spirit from the mixed fluid, evaporate the watery residue to about 16 oz., and filter when cold. Add now the acetate of lead, previously dissolved in distilled water, so long as it occasions any precipitate; filter; wash the precipitate with 10 oz. of cold water, adding the washings to the filtrate; evaporate the clear fluid to 8 oz., and when it has cooled add the ammonia in slight excess, stirring thoroughly. Let the mixture stand at the ordinary temperature for 12 hours; collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it once with a few ounces of cold distilled water, dry it in a water-bath or hot-air chamber, and boil it with successive portions of rectified spirit, till the fluid scarcely tastes bitter. Distil off most of the spirit, evaporate the residue to the bulk of about 1/2 oz., and set it aside to cool. Cautiously pour off the yellowish mother-liquor (which contains the brucia of the seeds) from the white crust of strychnia which adheres to the vessel. Throw the crust on a paper filter, wash it with a mixture of two parts of rectified spirit and one of water, till the washings cease to become red on the addition of nitric acid; finally, dissolve it, by boiling it with 1 oz. of rectified spirit, and set it aside to crystallise. More crystals may be obtained by evaporating the mother-liquor. [Strychnine is more readily obtained, and in greater purity, from St Ignatius’s Bean.] The usual dose of strychnia and its salts to commence with is from 1/30th to 1/12th of a grain, to be very slowly increased, carefully watching its effects. Magendie says the salts are more active than their base.

_Prop._ A white, inodorous, infusible powder; or small, but exceedingly brilliant, transparent, colourless, octahedral crystals; soluble in about 7000 parts of water at 60°, and in 2500 parts at 212° Fahr.; freebly soluble in hot rectified spirit; insoluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and solutions of the caustic alkalies; imparts a distinctly bitter taste to 600,000 times its weight of water (1 part in 1,000,000 parts of water is still perceptible——Fownes); exhibits an alkaline reaction; and forms salts with the acids, which are easily prepared, are crystallisable, and well defined.

_Tests._——1. Potassium hydrate and the carbonate produce, in solutions of the salts of strychnia, white precipitates, which are insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and which, when viewed through a lens magnifying 100 times, appear as aggregates of small crystalline needles. In weak solutions the precipitate only separates after some time, in the form of crystalline needles, which are, however, in this case, perfectly visible to the naked eye.——2. Ammonia gives a similar precipitate, which is soluble in excess of the precipitant.——3. Bicarbonate of sodium produces, in neutral solutions, a like white precipitate, which is insoluble in excess, but which redissolves on the addition of a single drop of acid; in acid solutions no precipitate occurs for some time in the cold, but immediately on boiling the liquid.——4. Nitric acid dissolves pure strychnia and its salts to colourless fluids, which become yellow when heated. Commercial strychnine, from containing a little brucine, is reddened by this test.——5. A minute quantity of strychnine being mixed with a small drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, placed on a white capsule or slip of glass, forms a colourless solution, but yields, on the addition of a very small crystal of bichromate of potassium, or a very minute portion of chromic acid, a rich violet colour, which gradually changes to red and yellow, and disappears after some time. The 1/1000th of a grain yields very distinct indications.——6. Pure oxide or peroxide of lead produces a similar reaction to the last, provided the sulphuric acid contain about 1% of nitric acid.

_Pois._ The characteristic symptom is the special influence exerted upon the nervous system, which is manifested by a general contraction of all the muscles of the body, with rigidity of the spinal column. A profound calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a new tetanic seizure, longer than the first, during which the respiration is suspended. These symptoms then cease, the breathing becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by another general contraction. In fatal cases these attacks are renewed, at intervals, with increasing violence, until death ensues. One phenomenon which is only found in poisonings by substances containing strychnine is, that touching any part of the body, or even threatening to do so, instantly produces the tetanic spasm.

_Treat._ The stomach should be immediately cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the fauces, &c. To counteract the asphyxia from tetanus, &c., artificial respiration should be practised with diligence and care. “If the poison has been applied externally, we ought immediately to cauterise the part, and apply a ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison has been swallowed for some time, we should give a purgative clyster, and administer draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil of turpentine, which in most cases produce a salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine and decoction of tannin are of value.”

According to Ch. Gunther, the greatest reliance may be placed on full doses of opium, assisted by venesection, in cases of poisoning by strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to administer this drug in the form of solution or mixture, in combination with a saline aperient.

_Uses, &c._ It is a most frightful poison, producing tetanus and death in very small doses. Even 1/24 gr. will sometimes occasion tetanic twitchings in persons of delicate temperament. 1/4 gr. blown into the throat of a small dog produced death in 6 minutes. In very minute doses it acts as a useful tonic in various nervous diseases, chronic diarrhœa, leucorrhœa, &c.; in slightly larger ones, it has been advantageously employed in certain forms of paralysis, in tic douloureux, impotence, &c.——_Dose_, 1/24 to 1/16 gr. (dissolved in water by means of a drop of acetic or hydrochloric acid), gradually and cautiously increased until it slightly affects the muscular system. Externally, 1/8 to 1/4 gr. at a time.

The Edinburgh College ordered the nux vomica to be exposed for two hours to steam, to soften it, then to chop or slice it, next to dry it by the heat of a vapour bath or hot air, and, lastly, to grind it in a coffee-mill. In the process of the Ph. L. 1836 magnesia was employed to effect the precipitation. In the last Ph. L. strychnine appears in the Materia Medica. Most of that of commerce is now obtained from St Ignatius’s bean, which, according to Geiseler, yields 1-1/4% of it; whereas 3 lbs. of nux vomica produce little more than 1 dr. Commercial strychnine may be freed from brucine by digesting the powder in dilute alcohol.

The salts of strychnine, which are occasionally asked for in trade, are the acetate (strychniæ acetas), hydrochlorate or muriate (s. murias——Ph. D.), hydriodate (s. hydriodas), nitrate (s. nitras), phosphate (s. phosphas), and sulphate (s. sulphas). All of these may be easily formed by simply neutralising the acid previously diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water, with the alkaloid, assisting the solution with heat; crystals are deposited as the liquid cools, and more may be obtained by evaporating the mother-liquor.

=STRYCHNOS.= See NUX VOMICA and BEAN, ST IGNATIUS’S.

=STUC′CO.= The name of several calcareous cements or mortars. Fine stucco is the third or last coat of three-coat plaster, and consists of a mixture of fine lime and quartzose sand, which, in application, is “twice hand floated and well trowelled.” See CEMENTS.

=STUFFING.= Seasoning, placed in meat, poultry, game, &c., before dressing them, to give them an increased relish. The same materials formed into balls, are added to soups, gravies, &c., under the name of FORCEMEAT.

_Prep._ 1. (For fowls, &c.) Shred a little ham or gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some beef suet, a small quantity of onion, some parsley, a very little lemon peel, salt, nutmeg, or pounded mace, and either white pepper or cayenne, and bread crumbs, pound them in a mortar, and bind it with 1 or 2 eggs.

2. (For hare, or anything in imitation of it.——Mrs Rundell.) The scalded liver, an anchovy, some fat bacon, a little suet, some parsley, thyme, knotted marjoram, a little shalot, and either onion or chives, all chopped fine, with some crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg, beaten in a mortar with an egg.

3. (For goose.) From sage, onion, suet, and crumb of bread. Geese are now, however, more commonly stuffed with veal stuffing.

4. (For veal——Soyer.) Chop 1/2 lb. of suet, put it into a basin with 3/4 lb. of bread crumbs, a teaspoonful of salt, a 1/4 do. of pepper, a little thyme or lemon peel chopped, and 3 whole eggs; mix well.

_Obs._ 1 lb. of bread crumbs and one more egg may be used; they will make it cut firmer. This, as well as No. 1, is now commonly employed for poultry and meat. Ude, a great authority in these matters, observes that “it would not be amiss to add a piece of butter, and to pound the whole in a mortar.” “Grated ham or tongue may be added to this stuffing.” (Rundell.) This is also used for turkeys, and for ‘forcemeat patties.’

=STUFFING (Birds, &c.).= The skins are commonly dusted over with a mixture of camphor, alum, and sulphur, in about equal quantities; or, they are smeared with Bécœur’s arsenical soap, noticed under SOAP. According to Crace Calvert, carbolic acid, which is worth only about 2s. per gall., is superior to all other substances for preserving the skins of birds and animals, as well as corpses. See TAXIDERMY, PRACTICAL.

=STURDY.= This disease, known also by the name of GAD, which attacks cattle and sheep, but more particularly the latter, is caused by the presence in the brain of the animal, of a hydatid——a creature enclosed in a sac of serous fluid. This hydatid develops from the ova of the tape worm, in the animal’s body, whence it has gained an entrance, with the grass which constitutes the cattle or sheep’s food upon which it has been voided by dogs and other animals.

It is most common in sheep of from 6 to 8 months old, and, as might be expected, with those which feed in damp meadows. The animals attacked by it turn round and round in one position, lose their gregarious habits, seem dazed, and refuse their food; which latter circumstance frequently causes death by inducing starvation.

As regards the treatment of this disease Mr Finlay Dun writes: “A stout stocking wire thrust up the nostrils has long been used with occasional success, to get rid of the hydatid; but the use of the trocar and canula now sold by most surgical instrument makers is much safer and better. The sheep is placed with its feet tied upon a table or bench, and the head carefully examined, when a soft place may often be detected, indicating that the hydatid lies underneath. A portion of the skin is dissected back and the trocar and canula introduced, when the hydatid will often come away as the trocar is withdrawn.” Mr Dun says “that, should the trocar fail to extract it, it must be drawn to the surface by a small syringe made for the purpose. Furthermore, the wound, after the removal of the hydatid, must be treated with a cold water dressing.”

All cattle similarly affected should be treated as above.

=STUR′GEON.= Several species of _Acipenser_ pass under this name. The common sturgeon is the _Acipenser sturio_ (Linn.). The roe is made into ‘caviare,’ the swimming-bladder into ‘isinglass.’

=STY.= _Syn._ STYE, STIAN; HORDEOLUM, L. A small inflamed tumour, or boil, at the edge of the eyelid, somewhat resembling a barleycorn. It is usually recommended to promote its maturation by warm applications, since “the stye, like other furunculous inflammations, forms an exception to the general rule, that the best mode in which inflammatory swellings can end is resolution.”

=STYP′TICS.= _Syn._ STYPTICA, L. Substances which arrest local bleeding. Creasote, tannic acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts, belong to this class.

=Styptic, Brocchieri’s.= A nostrum consisting of the water distilled from pine tops.

=Styptic, Eaton’s.= A solution of sulphate disguised by the addition of some unimportant substances. “Helvetius’s styptic was for a long time employed under this title.” (Paris.)

=Styptic Helvetius’s.= _Syn._ STYPTICUM HELVETII, L. Iron filings (fine), and cream of tartar, mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy. See POWDER, HELVETIUS’S.

=STY′RAX.= _Syn._ STORAX, STORAX BALSAM; STYRAX (Ph. L., & E.), L. “The liquid balsam of an uncertain plant.” (Ph. L.) The “balsamic exudation of _Styrax officinale_, Linn.” (Ph. E.), or cane storax tree. Two or three varieties are known in commerce:——Liquid storax (_styrax liquida_), lump of red storax (_s. in massis_), which is generally very impure; storax in tears (_s. in lachrymis_), and storax in reeds (_s. calamita_). The last are now seldom met with in trade.

PREPARED STORAX (_styrax colata_; _s. præparata_, B. P., Ph. L.) is obtained by dissolving storax, 1 lb., in rectified spirit, 4 pints, by a gentle heat, straining the solution through linen, distilling off greater part of the spirit, and evaporating what is left to a proper consistence by the heat of a water bath. It is less fragrant than the raw drug.

Storax is stimulant, expectorant, and nervine. It was formerly much used in menstrual obstructions, phthisis, coughs, asthmas, and other breath diseases. It is now chiefly used as a perfume.——_Dose_, 6 to 20 or 30 gr. (10 to 20 gr. twice a day, B. P.).

=A factitious strained Storax= is made as follows:——1. Balsam of Peru, 1 lb.; balsam of tolu, 4 lbs.; mix.

2. Gum benzoin, 8 lbs.; liquid storax, 6 lbs.; balsam of tolu and Socotrine aloes, of each 3 lbs.; balsam of Peru, 2 lbs.; N.S.W. yellow gum, 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 gall.; digest, with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, strain and distil off the spirit (about 5-1/2 galls.) until the residuum has a proper consistence. _Prod._ 28 lbs.

3. Liquid storax, 1 oz.; Socotrine aloes, 1/4 lb.; balsam of tolu, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, q. s.

=SUB-.= See NOMENCLATURE and SALTS.

=SU′BERIC ACID.= Obtained by boiling rasped cork for some time in nitric acid.

=SUBLIMA′TION.= The process by which volatile substances are reduced to the state of vapour by heat, and again condensed in the solid form. It differs from ordinary distillation in being confined to dry solid substances, and in the heat employed being, in general, much greater.

=SUB′STANTIVE COLOURS=, in the art of dyeing, are such as impart their tints to cloth and yarns without the intervention of a mordant; in contradistinction to adjective colours, which require to be fixed by certain ‘intermedes,’ or substances which have a joint affinity for the colouring matter and the material to be dyed.

=SUCCIN′IC ACID.= C_{4}H_{4}O_{4}H_{2}. _Syn._ ACIDUM SUCCINICUM. _Prep._ From amber, in coarse powder, mixed with an equal weight of sand, and distilled by a gradually increased heat; or from the impure acid obtained during the distillation of oil of amber; the product in both cases being purified by wrapping it in bibulous paper, and submitting it to strong pressure, to remove the oil, and then resubliming it.

From malic acid, by fermentation, or by digestion with hydriodic acid in sealed tubes.

_Prop., &c._ Colourless; inodorous (when pure); crystallises in oblique rhombic prisms; soluble in 5 parts of cold and in 2-1/2 parts of boiling water; fusible and volatile, without decomposition. Its salts are called ‘succinates,’ most of which are soluble. Succinate of ammonium is used as a test for iron. Succinic acid is distinguished from benzoic acid by its greater solubility, and by giving a brownish or pale red bulky precipitate with ferric chloride in neutral solutions; whereas that with benzoic acid is paler and yellower.

_Uses, &c._ Succinic acid is antispasmodic, stimulant, and diuretic, but is now seldom used.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

=SUC′CORY.= Chicory, or wild endive. (See CHICORY.)

=SUDORIF′ICS.= See DIAPHORETICS.

=SU′ET.= _Syn._ SEVUM, SEBUM, L. This is prepared from the fat of the loins of the sheep or bullock by melting it by a gentle heat, and straining the liquid fat. In this state it forms the ADEPS OVILLUS (Ph. D.), SEVUM (Ph. L. & E.), SEVUM OVILLUM, or SEVUM PRÆPARATUM, employed in medicine and perfumery, as the basis of ointments, cerates, plasters, pommades, &c.

=Suet, Mel′ilot.= _Syn._ SEVUM MELILOTI, L. _Prep._ From suet, 8 lb.; melilot leaves, 2 lb.; boil until the leaves are crisp, strain, and allow it to cool very slowly, so that it may ‘grain well.’ Used by farriers, and to make melilot plaster.

=SUFFOCA′TION.= The treatment varies with the cause. See ASPHYXIA, CHARCOAL, DROWNING, HANGING, SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, &c.

=SUG′AR.= C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}. _Syn._ CANE SUGAR; SACCHARUM, L.; SUCRE, Fr. This well-known and most useful substance is found in the juice of many of the canes or grasses, in the sap of several forest trees, and in the roots of various plants. In tropical climates it is extracted from the sugar-cane (_Saccharum officinarum_), in China from the sweet sorgho (_Sorghum saccharatum_), in North America from the sugar-maple (_Acer saccharinum_), and in France, Germany, Russia, and Belgium, from white beet-root (_Beta vulgaris_, var. _alba_).

Until of late years the ordinary sugar consumed in this country was that chiefly sent from the West Indian Islands, South America, the Mauritius, &c., and was the produce of the sugar cane; recently, however, large and increasing quantities of beet-root sugar have found their way into the English markets from the Continental factories.

The _Saccharum officinarum_, of which there are several varieties, the sugar-cane ranges in height from 6 to 15 feet, and in diameter from 1 to 2 inches. In order to obtain the saccharine juice contained in it, the cane, stripped of its leaves, is cut just before the commencement of inflorescence, the period in which it is richest in juice. As this sap or juice is found to abound most in sugar, when taken from the lower part of the stem, the cane is cut off nearly close to the ground.

The stump which remains develops into a fresh plant, and one plant thus treated will last several years, not, however, without a gradual diminution in the size of the successive crops.

In South America and the West Indies a variety known as the Otaheita cane is extensively cultivated, since it is very productive and yields a large amount of juice.

The annual average produce in raw sugar for a hectare (about 2-1/4 English statute acres) of land is in

Martinique 2000 kilos.[201] Guadaloupe 3400 ” Mauritius 4000 ” Brazil 6000 ”

[Footnote 201: A kilo = 2·2046 lbs.]

Sugar-cane growing in the below-mentioned places has, according to the analysis of the three chemists whose names are appended, the following composition:——

(_a._) (_b._) (_c._) Péligot. Dupuy. Icery.

Sugar 18·0 17·8 20·0 Water 72·1 72·0 69·0 Cellulose 9·9 9·8 10·0 Salts —— 0·4 0·7-1·2

The cane, therefore, may be said to yield 90 per cent. of juice, which latter contains from 18 to 20 parts of pure sugar. However, the actual quantity obtained is rarely if ever more than 1 lb. of sugar to a gallon of juice, or 10 per cent.; and much more frequently only 8 per cent.

A large part of this loss is due to the prolonged exposure of the cane juice during its repeated boilings to heat, whereby a large proportion of its crystallisable sugar is converted into the uncrystallisable variety which passes away in the form of molasses and treacle. Another important cause of loss is the retention of a large amount of juice by the cane.

The following figures will convey an idea of the enormous quantities of cane sugar produced and consumed yearly throughout the globe. It is taken from ‘British Manufacturing Industries,’ one of a series of excellent industrial manuals published by Mr Sandford, of Charing Cross:——

Cuba 600,000 tons. The other West Indian colonies 250,000 ” Java and Sumatra 170,000 ” China 140,000 ” French colonies in America and Africa 120,000 ” Brazil 100,000 ” Mauritius 80,000 ” British Guiana 80,000 ” Porto Rico 90,000 ” Manilla 60,000 ” Mexico 35,000 ” Egypt Large and growing.

The late Dr Edward Smith found that 98 per cent. of indoor operatives partook of 7-1/2 oz. of sugar per adult weekly; that 96 per cent. of Scotch labourers use it; and 80 per cent. of Irish. He further states that in Wales sugar is commonly used to an average extent of 6 oz. per adult weekly; but that there is a marked difference in the rate of consumption in the northern and southern portions of the principality. In North Wales, for example, the average amount per head is 11-1/4 oz.; whereas in South Wales it is only 3 oz.

The manufacture of sugar is exclusively conducted on the large scale. The recent canes are crushed between rollers, and the expressed juice is suffered to flow into a suitable vessel, where it is slowly heated to nearly the boiling-point, to coagulate albuminous matter. The crushed canes generally supply the fuel needed for this purpose. The ashes left after the combustion of the canes are carefully collected and used as a manure for future crops of sugar cane.

The cut below represents a press for the extraction of the juice from the canes. By means of the screws (_i i_), the rollers are adjusted to the proper distance apart; the upper roller is half the size of the two lower ones, and all are moved by cogged wheels fitting on to the axes of the rollers. The sugar-canes are transferred from the slate gutter (_d d_) to the rollers (_a c_), which press them a little; and from thence they are carried over the arched plate (_n_) to the rollers (_c b_). The pressed sugar-canes fall over the gutter (_f_), the expressed juice collecting in _g g_, and running off through _h_. A small quantity of milk of lime is then added to the juice to remove mechanical impurities, and the skimmed and clarified juice, after being sufficiently concentrated by rapid evaporation in open pans, is transferred to coolers, and thence into upright casks perforated at the bottom, and so placed that the syrup, or uncrystallisable portion, may drain off into a tank or cistern from the newly formed sugar. During the period of crystallisation it is frequently agitated, in order to hasten the change, and to prevent the formation of large crystals. The solid portion of the product forms moist, raw, or muscovado sugar; the uncrystallisable syrup, molasses or treacle.[202]

[Footnote 202: The term ‘molasses’ is usually restricted to the drainings from raw sugar, and ‘treacle’ to the thicker syrup which has drained from refined sugar in the moulds.]

Raw sugar is refined by redissolving it in water, adding to the solution albumen, under the form of serum of blood or white of egg, and, sometimes, a little lime-water, and heating the whole to the boiling-point; the impurities are then removed by careful skimming, and the syrup is decoloured by filtration through recently burnt animal charcoal; the clear decolorised syrup is next evaporated to the crystallising-point in vacuo, and at once transferred into conical earthern moulds, where it solidifies, after some time, to a confusedly crystallised mass; this, when drained, washed with a little clean syrup, and dried in a stove, constitutes ordinary loaf, lump, or refined sugar. Sometimes in washing the crystallised mass for the purpose of removing the coloured syrup which is mingled with it, the process known as ‘claying’ is followed.

In this case, instead of white syrup being used, a layer of thin mud or a paste of thin pipe-clay is poured into the mould on to the base of the inverted sugar cone, through which the water escaping from the mud or pipe-clay permeates, and carries with it the coloured syrup. Neither the mud nor the pipe-clay mix with the sugar, but remaining on the top soon become hard, when they are removed. As the syrup running from the moulds still contains a large quantity of crystalline cane sugar, this is recovered as follows:

The syrup, after being sufficiently concentrated by boiling in the vacuum pan, is removed and allowed to cool, when it assumes the appearance of a crystalline magma known as ‘crushed sugar.’

Crushed sugar is a mixture of a large quantity of sugar crystals with uncrystallisable syrup. To get rid of this latter from the crystals, the mass is placed in quantities of 3 or 4 cwts. at a time in a ‘centrifugal machine.’ This, of which an engraving is given below, consists, as will be seen, of a drum fixed on a vertical axis. The walls of the drum are made of perforated metal, or are formed of meshed wire work, and the drum itself enclosed in an outer metal cylinder, which is fixed, and, of course, unperforated. When the drum is made to revolve on its axis at the rate of 1000 or 1200 revolutions in a minute, the syrup flying off by centrifugal action, and escaping through the perforation at the sides of the drum, is received into the outer cylinder, whence it escapes by a trough into a proper receptacle, leaving behind the crystals in the interior of the drum.

_a_ is an open drum of fine meshed wirework, caused to revolve in the cast-iron vessel (_b b_), by means of the bevel wheels (_c d_), gearing with a motive power. The motion of the drum can be stopped by means of the brake (_e_), and regulated by the weights placed at _o_.

When the crystallisation of sugar is allowed to take place quietly and slowly, the product is sugar candy. The evaporation at a low temperature in vacuum pans has the effect of diminishing the yield of treacle.

_Prop._ Sugar requires for its solution only 1/3rd of its weight of cold and still less of boiling water; it is slowly dissolved by cold rectified spirit; it dissolves in 4 parts of boiling rectified spirit and in 80 parts of boiling absolute alcohol; it melts by heat, and cools to a glassy amorphous mass (barley sugar); at about 400° Fahr. it suffers rapid decomposition, and fuses to a brown, uncrystallisable mass (caramel); long boiling with water increases its colour, and lessens its tendency to crystallise; its aqueous solution dissolves alkalies, earths, and many metallic oxides, with facility. The presence of cane sugar in solutions containing certain metallic salts prevents the precipitation of their oxides by alkalies. The oxides of copper and iron are amongst those thus kept in solution. Sugar also possesses the power of effecting the partial or complete reduction of many metallic oxides, if boiled with their salts; the first results is exemplified in the case of the chromates; for if a chromate be added to a solution of sugar, and to the mixture a few drops of free acid, the chromic acid suffers reduction to chromic oxide, which, dissolving in the excess of acid, imparts a green colour to the liquid. Mercuric salts become reduced to mercurous, whilst the salts of gold throw down a precipitate of the metal in fine powder. The action of strong oil of vitriol on cane sugar is very energetic. The sugar is instantly reduced to a black charred mass, whilst carbonic and formic acids are given off. The same effects are produced by exposing it to dry chlorine at a temperature of 212° F. By nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·25, cane sugar is converted into saccharic acid; if a stronger acid be employed, oxalic acid is produced. When a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids is poured on to cane sugar, an explosive compound, resembling gun cotton, is produced. This body is known as ‘nitro-sugar.’ Weak syrups take up about half as much hydrate of calcium as they contain sugar; when slowly crystallised, it assumes the form of oblique 4-sided prisms, terminated by 2-sided summits. Sp. gr. 1·60 (1·577——Ure).

_Pur._ Moist or muscovado sugar and crushed lump sugar are occasionally adulterated with chalk, plaster, sand, potato-flour, and other fecula; but frequently, and in certain neighbourhoods constantly, with starch sugar or potato-sugar.[203] These frauds may be detected as follows:

[Footnote 203: See further on.]

_Tests._——1. Pure cane sugar dissolves freely and entirely in both water and proof spirit, forming transparent colourless solutions, which are unaffected by either sulphuretted hydrogen or dilute sulphuric acid.——2. Its solution bends the luminous rays in circumpolarisation to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars bend it to the left.[204]——3. (Chevallier.) Boiled for a short time in water containing 2 or 3% of caustic potassa, the liquid remains colourless; but it turns brown, which is more or less intense, according to the quantity, if starch sugar is present. Even 2 or 3% of starch sugar may be thus detected.——4. (E. Krantz.) A filtered solution of 33 gr. of cane or beet sugar in 1 fl. oz. of water, mixed with 3 gr. of pure hydrate of potassium, and then agitated with 1-1/2 gr. of sulphate of copper in an air-tight bottle, remains clear, even after the lapse of several days; but if starch sugar be present, a red precipitate is formed after some time; and if it is present in considerable quantity, the copper will be wholly converted into oxide within 24 hours, the solution turning first blue or green, and then entirely losing its colour.——5. (Trommer’s test.) A solution of cane sugar is mixed with a solution of sulphate of copper, and hydrate of potassium added in excess; a blue liquid is obtained, which, on being heated, is at first but little altered; a small quantity of red powder falls after a time, but the liquid long retains its blue tint. When grape sugar or fecula sugar is thus treated, the first application of heat throws down a copious greenish precipitate, which rapidly changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark red, leaving a nearly colourless solution. This is an excellent test for distinguishing the two varieties of sugar, or discovering an admixture of grape sugar with cane sugar. The 1/1000th part of grape sugar may be thus detected. The proportion of oxide of copper produced affords a good criterion, not only of the purity of the sugar, but also of the extent of the adulteration.——6. (Ure.) Dissolve a little sulphate of copper (say 20 gr.) in a measured quantity of water, and add to it, in the cold, a solution of hydrate of potassium, until, by testing with turmeric paper, the liquid appears faintly alkaline, shown by the paper becoming slightly brown. If a small quantity of this test-liquor (previously well shaken) be added to an aqueous solution of the sugar, and the whole boiled, the solution becomes at first green, and then olive-green, if dextrin is present; but if it contain grape sugar, the salt of copper is immediately reduced into the state of orange and oxide; whilst a solution of pure sugar undergoes no change, or is scarcely altered.——7. M. Riffard,[205] taking advantage of the fact that sugar, like tartaric, malic, citric acid, and albumen, prevents the precipitation of iron by ammonia, employs iron as a means for estimating sugar. A solution containing sugar and iron in a certain proportion, when saturated with ammonia, will form a compound of a fine red colour, which remains clear if no alkaline earthy metals are present. M. Riffard has applied to sugar the method proposed by M. Juette for the estimation of tartaric acid. He observed that a neutral or acid solution of crystallised perchloride of iron, when heated for a considerable time to 100° C, requires 2·710 grams of sugar, if 100 milligrams of iron are to remain in solution in the presence of ammonia. If, on the other hand, the solution is prepared simply by dissolving crystallised perchloride of iron in pure water, without the addition of an acid, 100 milligrams of iron only require 2·587 grammes of sugar to remain dissolved. In this case the liquid is perfectly clear, and remains so; but if a smaller quantity of sugar be added, it is turbid, and deposits peroxide of iron. To estimate the sugar by this process, 25·870 grammes of the substance to be tested are dissolved, the solution mixed with a few drops of oxalate of ammonia to precipitate the lime, filtered and made up with water to 250 c.c., 25 c.c. of this mixture require the addition of as many milligrams of iron as there are per cents. of pure sugar in the sample under examination, and by two tests the following results will be arrived at:——With _n_ milligrams of iron the solution is clear. With _n_ + 1 milligrams of iron the solution is precipitated. _n_ representing the number of per cents. of sugar contained in the sample.——8. M. Perrot’s method for the determination of sugars by means of normal solutions is as follows:——He prepares a standard solution of copper by dissolving 39·275 grams of sulphate of copper, very pure, and dried between several folds of filtering paper, and makes it up with distilled water to 1000 c.c. Each c.c. of this solution contains 0·01 grams of copper. On the other hand, he dissolves about 25· grams of pure cyanide of potassium in 1 litre of distilled water. Of this solution 10 c.c. are taken and put in a flask, to which about 20 c.c. of ammonia are added, and the liquid is kept at a temperature of 60° or 70°. He pours in the copper solution drop by drop by means of a burette graduated into tenths of a c.c., until there appears the blue tint characteristic of salts of copper in an ammoniacal solution. The number of degrees of the burette are then read off, and indicate the quantity of copper which has been required to produce the reaction. The solution of the sugar in question (previously inverted if it is required to determine crystalline sugar) is then placed in contact with an excess of Fehling’s liquor, and reduced in the water-bath. The whole is filtered in order to collect the precipitate of suboxide, which is first well washed with hot water, and dissolved in nitric acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, and a few fragments of chlorate of potassa are added. This solution is effected on the filter, which is then carefully washed in acidulated water. The filtrate to which the washings are added is then mixed with water enough to make up 100 or 150 c.c., and is then poured by means of the burette into 10 c.c. of cyanide, mixed with 20 c.c. of ammonia as above, stopping when the blue colour appears, and reading off the quantity of copper employed. From the former experiment it is known how much copper 10 c.c. of the cyanide solution require. Hence it is easy to calculate the total amount of copper which has been present as suboxide. The amount of sugar is then found from the data that 9298 parts of copper equal 5000 of crystalline sugar, or 5263 of glucose.[206]——9. The specific gravities and crystalline forms offer other means of distinguishing the varieties of sugar.

[Footnote 204: Of late years, owing to the little difference in price between the two, this form of adulteration has been abandoned.——ED.]

[Footnote 205: ‘Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie,’ 1874, 49 (‘Pharm. Year Book,’ 1874).]

[Footnote 206: ‘Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaire des Sciences’ (‘Chem. News’), January 5th, 1877.]

_Concluding Remarks._ Refined sugar (SACCHARUM——Ph. L., S. PURUM——Ph. E., S. PURIFICATUM——Ph. D.), raw sugar (S. COMMUNE——Ph. E.), and molasses or treacle (SACCHARI FÆX——Ph. L. & E.), were officinal.

The relative sweetening power of cane sugar is estimated at 100; that of pure grape sugar, at 60; that of fecula or starch sugar, at 30 to 40.

According to Messrs Oxland’s method (patented 1849) of defecating and bleaching the juice of beet-root, cane, &c., acetate of aluminium, formed by dissolving 4 lbs. of that earth in acetic acid, is boiled with each ton of sugar, and as soon as the acetic acid is nearly all driven off, a solution of tannin, formed from 1 lb. of bruised valonia and 2 galls. of hot water, is added to the boiling syrup; the excess of aluminium is afterwards separated by lime, and the usual method of further procedure adopted. By their second patent (1851), superphosphate of aluminium or of calcium is substituted for acetate of aluminium, in the proportion of about 6 lbs. of aluminium, dissolved in phosphoric acid, for each ton of sugar.

The presence of certain saline bodies in a solution of cane sugar, exercises a very prejudicial effect upon it, since these, by combining with the sugar, give rise to compounds which contribute to the more or less reduction of the sugar to the uncrystallisable condition, and to a consequent increase of the molasses.

Of one of the chief constituents of the sugar-cane that possesses this objectionable property is potash in combination with acids, both organic and inorganic. Last year a patent for the removal of these potash salts was taken out by the Messrs Newlands. The patentees proceed upon the facts that the solubility of alum in water is very trifling, and that it contains only 1/10th part of its weight of potash. They add to a concentrated syrup a strong solution of sulphate of alumina (having by a previous examination of the syrup determined the quantity required). Sulphate of potash is thereby formed, and this, uniting with the sulphate of alumina, the resulting alum after a time deposits in a crystalline form at the bottom of the vessel containing the sugar solution. This being run off into another receptacle, the free acid, of which it now contains a large quantity, is neutralised with lime or chalk, boiled, filtered, and passed through charcoal.

The addition of the lime has also thrown down the alumina liberated by the reaction, which has carried with it and removed certain injurious nitrogenous principles previously present in the saccharine liquid.

Some few years back Messrs Dubrunfaut and Péligot being cognisant of the fact of the insolubility, in boiling water, of the compounds of sugar with lime, based upon it a method of separating crystallisable sugar from treacle. Péligot has obtained from common treacle one fourth of its weight of crystallised sugar, by dissolving the precipitated sugar lime in water, and separating the lime by passing into the mixture a stream of carbonic acid.

Sugar may be obtained from nearly all sweet vegetable substances, by a process essentially similar to that described above.

_Table showing the Specific Weight of Sugar Solutions with the corresponding percentage of Cane Sugar at 17·5° C._——GERLACH.

------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------- Percentage, Specific |Percentage, Specific |Percentage, Specific Cane Sugar. Weight |Cane Sugar. Weight |Cane Sugar. Weight of Sol. | of Sol. | of Sol. | | 75 1·383,342 | 49 1·227,241 | 24 1·101,377 74 1·376,822 | 48 1·221,771 | 23 1·096,792 73 1·370,345 | 47 1·216,339 | 22 1·092,240 72 1·363,910 | 46 1·210,945 | 21 1·087,721 71 1·357,518 | 45 1·205,589 | 20 1·083,234 70 1·351,168 | 44 1·200,269 | 19 1·078,779 69 1·344,860 | 43 1·194,986 | 18 1·074,356 68 1·338,594 | 42 1·189,740 | 17 1·069,965 67 1·332,370 | 41 1·184,531 | 16 1·065,606 66 1·326,188 | 40 1·179,358 | 15 1·061,278 65 1·320,046 | 39 1·174,221 | 14 1·056,982 64 1·313,946 | 38 1·169,121 | 13 1·052,716 63 1·307,887 | 37 1·164,056 | 12 1·048,482 62 1·301,868 | 36 1·159,026 | 11 1·044,278 61 1·295,890 | 35 1·154,032 | 10 1·040,104 60 1·289,952 | 34 1·149,073 | 9 1·035,961 59 1·284,054 | 33 1·144,150 | 8 1·031,848 58 1·278,197 | 32 1·139,261 | 7 1·027,764 57 1·272,379 | 31 1·134,406 | 6 1·023,710 56 1·266,600 | 30 1·129,586 | 5 1·019,686 55 1·260,861 | 29 1·124,800 | 4 1·015,691 54 1·255,161 | 28 1·120,048 | 3 1·011,725 53 1·249,500 | 27 1·115,330 | 2 1·007,788 52 1·243,877 | 26 1·110,646 | 1 1·003,880 51 1·238,293 | 25 1·105,995 | 0 1·000,000 50 1·232,748 | | ------------------------+-------------------------+----------------------

=Sugar, Al′um.= _Syn._ SACCHARUM ALUMINATUM, ALUMEN SACCHARINUM, L. From alum and white sugar, in fine powder, equal parts, formed into minute sugar-loaf shaped lumps with mucilage of gum Arabic made with rose water. Used to make astringent lotions and eye-waters.

=Sugar. Bar′ley.= _Syn._ SACCHARUM HORDEATUM, PENIDIUM, SACCHARUM PENIDIUM, L. _Prep._ Take of saffron, 12 gr.; hot water, q. s.; sugar, 1 lb.; boil to a full ‘candy height,’ or that state called ‘crack,’ or ‘crackled sugar,’ when 2 or 3 drops of clear lemon juice or white vinegar must be added, and the pan removed from the fire and set for a single minute in cold water, to prevent its burning; the sugar must be then at once poured out on an oiled marble slab, and either cut into pieces or rolled into cylinders and twisted in the usual manner. One drop of oil of citron, orange, or lemon, will flavour a considerable quantity. White barley sugar is made with a strained decoction of barley instead of water, or starch is added to whiten it.

=Sugar, Beet-root.= _Syn._ SACCHARUM BETÆ, L. Sugar obtained from the white beet.

In the following table the names of the countries in which this plant is cultivated are given, together with the amount of sugar annually produced in each:

France 280,000 tons.[207] Germany 260,000 ” Austria and Hungary 180,000 ” Russia and Poland 130,000 ” Belgium 50,000 ” Holland and other countries 17,000 ”

[Footnote 207: British Manufacturing Industries, Glanford.]

The white beet is used in preference to the red varieties, not only because of the colour of its juice, but also in consequence of its being richer in sugar. The roots vary in their yield of sugar according to quality and the season of the year. They are generally in best condition in October. The root is made up of a series of small cells, which are filled with the saccharine fluid. According to Wagner the constituents of the sugar-beet are as follows:

Water 82·7 Sugar 11·3 Cellulose 0·8 Albumen, casein, and other bodies 1·5 Fatty matter 0·1 Organic substances, citric acid, pectin, and pectic acid. Asparagin, } aspartic acid, and betain, a substance having, according to } Schiebler, the formula C_{15}H_{33}N_{3}O_{6} } Organic salts, oxalate and pectate of calcium, oxalate and pectate } of potassium and sodium } 3·7 Inorganic salts, nitrate and sulphate of potash, phosphate of lime } and magnesia } Twelve and a half hundred weight of beet yield on an average 1 cwt. of raw sugar, or 8 per cent.

The first operation in the manufacture of beet-root sugar after washing and cleansing the roots (an operation which sometimes reduces their weight 10 or 20 per cent.) is the extraction from them of the juice. This may be effected either by:

1. Pressure. 2. Centrifugal power. 3. Dialysis.

1. _Pressure._ The roots being put into a proper crushing machine are soon reduced to an uniform pulp, which in some manufactories is subjected to pressure wrapped in linen cloths under stone or iron rollers, and in others is placed in bags and placed under the Bramah or hydraulic press, the resulting juice being collected in proper receptacles.

2. _Centrifugal power._ This method is that generally employed for separating the juice from the pulp, which thus yields between 50 or 60 per cent. of juice. A weak saccharine solution, also used in sugar manufacture, is afterwards obtained by mixing the residue of the pulp with water, and subjecting it to the same process.

3. _Dialysis._ The application of the principle of diffusion for the extraction of the sugar from the beet-root originated with M. Robert. The fresh roots, cut into thin slices, are immersed in a little more than their own weight of water heated to about 120° F. The crystalloid sugar thus diffuses out through the cell membrane which encloses it into the surrounding water, leaving the pectous and colloid matters, such as albumen, gum, &c., behind. The operation which is so managed as to bring the same water into contact with successive quantities of root, yields a saccharine solution of nearly the same strength as the natural juice. The solution so obtained is, after concentration and the usual methods, converted into sugar. The same process is said to have been tried with cane sugar, and with equally satisfactory results.

The succeeding stages of the manufacture of beet sugar, such as refining, liming, decolorising, &c., are the same as those already described under cane sugar.

Beet sugar is in every respect identical with cane. It was discovered in 1747 by Marggraf, of Berlin, but it did not come into use until about the beginning of the present century, its manufacture at this period in France being necessitated by an edict of the first Napoleon’s, which prohibited the importation of cane sugar into that country.

The engraving represents a vacuum pan much used in the French sugar refineries.

Fig. 1 gives a perspective, and fig. 2 a sectional view of this evaporating pan.

The boiling-pan (B) consists of two air-tight hemispheres, surmounted by a funnel, connected by the tube (_l_) with the condenser (A). The apparatus is supplied by steam by (_r s_), the steam circulating in the boiling-pan by means of the pipes (_g_), fig. 2. By opening the lever valves (_f_) the juice can be run by means of the pipe (_o_) into the pan (_p_). When the pan, after continued boiling, requires to be refitted, the pipes (_l_ and _w_) are connected to an air-pump. The manometer (_h_) shows the state of the air pressure, which can be regulated by opening the pipes connected to the vacuum chamber. By means of the gauge cylinder (G) the quantity of syrup in the boiling-pan can be ascertained, the gauge cylinder being connected to the boiling-pan by the pipes (_a_ and _i_), and the height read off from the gauge tube (_n_). The syrup can be removed, for the purpose of ascertaining its consistency, from the gauge cylinder by means of either of the three pipes (_b_, _c_, _d_). By _u_ steam can be admitted to the boiling-pan and condenser. _e_ is generally of stout glass, and enables the state of the juice to be seen. _g_ is the grease cock, _f_ the manhole. The condenser consists of the jacket (B), arranged to prevent the mixing of the juice with the water used for condensation. _x_ is the gauge. The pipe (_m_) conveying water to the condenser terminates in a rose. _z_ is a thermometer showing the interior temperature of the boiling-pan.

The air-pump being set in operation the tube (_c_) is opened, and the gauge cylinder filled by the juice rising from _q_. By closing _m_ and opening _y_ the juice is admitted to the boiling-pan. When this is half full the steam pipe (_s_) is opened, the steam quickly heating the contents of the pan to the boiling point. The condenser is then placed in working; by opening the pipe (_l_) the steam of the juice passes into the condenser, where it is speedily condensed, passing with the water through β.

=Sugar, Diabet′ic.= Grape sugar found in the urine of persons labouring under diabetes. In _diabetes insipidus_, a substance having the general properties of a sugar, but destitute of a sweet taste, appears to be produced (Thénard.)

=Sugar, Gel′atin.= See GLYCOCINE.

=Sugar, Grape=, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}.H_{2}O. _Syn._ GLUCOSE, FRUIT SUGAR; SACCHARUM UVÆ, S. FRUCTUS, L. This substance is found in the juice of grapes and other fruit, in the urine of diabetic patients, and in the liquid formed by acting on starch and woody fibre with dilute sulphuric acid.

_Prep._ 1. From the juice of ripe grapes or an infusion of the ripe fruit (raisins), by saturating the acid with chalk, decanting the clear liquid, evaporating to a syrup, clarifying with white of egg or bullock’s blood, and then carefully evaporating to dryness; it may be purified for chemical purposes by solution and crystallisation in either water or boiling alcohol. Like other sugar, it may be decoloured by animal charcoal.

2. From honey, by washing with cold alcohol, which dissolves the fluid syrup and leaves the solid crystallisable portion.

_Prop._ It is less sweet and less soluble than cane sugar, requiring 1-1/2 part of cold water for its solution; instead of bold crystals, it forms granular warty masses, without distinct crystalline faces; it does not easily combine with either oxide of calcium or oxide of lead; with heat, caustic alkaline solutions turn it brown or black, but it dissolves in oil of vitriol without blackening, the reverse being the case with cane sugar; with chloride of sodium it forms a soluble salt, which yields large, regular, and beautiful crystals. Sp. gr. 1·400.

The various fruits contain grape sugar in the following proportions:

Per Cent. Peach 1·57 Apricot 1·80 Plum 2·12 Raspberry 4·00 Blackberry 4·44 Strawberry 5·73 Bilberry 5·78 Currant 6·10 Plum 6·26 Gooseberry 7·16 Cranberry 7·45 (according to Fresenius). Pear 8·02 to 10·8 (E. Wolff). Apple 8·37 (Fresenius). ” 7·28 to 8·04 (E. Wolff). Sour cherry 8·77 Mulberry 9·19 Sweet cherry 10·79 Grape 14·93

_Obs._ Cane sugar is converted into grape sugar during the process of fermentation, and by the action of acids. See SUGAR, and SUGAR, STARCH (_below_).

=Sugar, Maple.= _Syn._ SACCHARUM ACERINUM, L. From the juice of the sugar maple. It is identical with cane sugar.

In the United States and the British Colonies of North America considerable quantities of this sugar are made. The juice is obtained by boring through the bark of the tree to a depth of about a quarter or half an inch. Each tree has generally two perforations made in it, and they are always made on that side of the tree which faces towards the south, and at a distance of about 20 inches from the ground. The juice flows into suitable vessels, into which it is conducted by reeds placed under the perforations. The period chosen for tapping the trees is that during which it is known the sap is ascending, from March to May. Sometimes the tree undergoes a second tapping in the autumn, but this is not generally practised, inasmuch as it is injurious to the tree. A daily yield of 6 galls, of juice from each incision is looked upon as a ‘good run,’ and if this 6 gall. be the produce of an old tree or ‘old bush’ they will yield 1 lb. of sugar. In a young tree or ‘young bush’ the yield of sugar from the same quantity of sap is only half. By proper care the same tree may be tapped 20 or 30 years following. Unlike the sugar-cane the juice in the maple is the richest in sugar the higher it is found from the ground. The concentrated saccharine liquid is concentrated every 24 hours. The raw crystallised sugar undergoes no refining, and being made into blocks is then sent to market.

=Sugar, Milk.= C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}.H_{2}O. _Syn._ SUGAR OF MILK, LACTIN; SACCHARUM LACTIS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ Gently evaporate clarified whey until it crystallises on cooling, and purify the crystals by digestion with animal charcoal and repeated crystallisations.

_Prop., &c._ White, translucent, very hard cylindrical masses or four-sided prisms; soluble in about 6 parts of cold and in 2 parts of boiling water; nearly insoluble in alcohol and ether; ammoniacal plumbic acetate precipitates it from its solutions. When an alkaline solution of grape sugar is boiled with the salts of copper, silver, or mercury, it reduces them; it produces right-handed rotation of a ray of polarised light; by boiling with dilute acid it is converted into _galactose_ (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}); treated with nitric acid it yields mucic acid, with small quantities of saccharic, oxalic, and tartaric acid. Milk sugar is unsusceptible of the vinous fermentation, except under the action of dilute acids, which convert it into grape sugar; in solution, it is converted into lactic or butyric acid by the action of caseine and albuminous matter. Milk contains about 5% of it. (Boussingault.)

_Obs._ Sugar of milk is chiefly imported from Switzerland. In this country it is chiefly used as a vehicle for more active medicines, especially among the homœopathists.

=Sugar, Starch.= _Syn._ POTATO SUGAR, FÆCULA S. This is grape sugar obtained by the action of diastase on starch, in the manner noticed under GUM (British), or by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on starch, or of the strong acid on lignin, or on substances containing it.

_Prep._ 1. From corn. The corn is first steeped in soda lye; it is then ground wet and passed through revolving sieves to separate the husks and gluten. The starch is carried through long troughs, in which are placed transverse pieces of wood, against which the solid particles of starch lodge, and are thus separated from the washing waters. These wash waters run into a large cistern, where it undergoes fermentation into weak vinegar. The starch in the wet state is then put into a mash tub and treated for from 3 to 8 hours with 1 per cent. of sulphuric acid. The acid liquor is neutralised with chalk and evaporated in vacuum pans; and after being separated from the sulphate of lime it is run into barrels and allowed to crystallise. The grape sugar is sometimes manufactured in blocks 6 inches square, and dried on plaster plates in a current of dry air, as hot air would decolorise it. Large quantities of grape sugar manufactured as above are now produced in the United States, particularly in New Orleans, Buffalo, and Brooklyn. A considerable amount from the same source reaches this country from the Continent, and is employed in our breweries. When specially prepared for the use of the latter the blocks are crushed into small pieces about the size of malt grains. Our excise authorities prohibit the entrance of glucose into a brewer’s premises in the liquid state. In the brewing of pale sparkling ales grape is esteemed more than either cane sugar or malt, and is said to yield a more sound and wholesome liquor, and one free from the acidity, impurity, and treacly sweetness frequently found in beers brewed from raw or inferior sugars. Glucose may also be obtained from cellulose, but the process is too expensive to admit of being practically worked.

2. Potato starch, 100 parts; water, 00 parts; sulphuric acid, 6 parts; mix, boil for 35 or 40 hours, adding water, to make up for evaporation; then saturate the acid with lime or chalk, decant or filter, and evaporate the clear liquor. Under pressure the conversion is more rapid. _Prod._ 105%.

3. “The starch of potatoes can be converted into glucose by digestion for a few hours with parings of the potato. This operation is largely practised by German farmers in the preparation of food for fattening hogs. An excellent starch sugar can be prepared from Indian corn, which will yield alcohol one eighth cheaper, and quite as pure as that from cane sugar.”[208]

[Footnote 208: ‘Journ. of Applied Chemistry.’]

4. Shreds of linen or paper, 12 parts; strong sulphuric acid, 17 parts (Braconnot; 5 of acid, and 1 of water——Vogel); mix in the cold; in 24 hours dilute with water, and boil it for 10 hours; then neutralise with chalk, filter, evaporate to a syrup, and set the vessel aside to crystallise. _Prod._ 114%. Sawdust, glue, &c., also yield grape sugar by like treatment. See LIGNIN.

=Sugar from other Sources.= Considerable quantities of East Indian cane sugar are yielded by certain Indian palms, the principal of which are the _Arenga saccharifera_ and the _Phœnix sylvestris_ or wild date. Another source whence large quantities of cane sugar are procured is the _Sorghum saccharatum_ or sugar grass. This plant is exclusively grown in Ohio, and yields annually more than 15,000,000 gall. of juice, which is made into sugar.

_Melezitose_ (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}). From larch manna.

_Mycose_ or _trehalose_ (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}). From Turkish manna.

_Melitose_ (C_{12}H_{24}O_{12}). From the eucalyptus.

_Maltose_ (C_{12}H_{24}O_{12}). From malt.

_Eucalen_ (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}). By fermentation of melitose.

_Sorbin_ (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}). From the berries of the service tree.

_Effects of the varieties of Sugar on Polarised Light._ Both sucrose, or cane sugar, and dextrose produce rotation upon a ray of polarised light. The plane of rotation is rotated to the right by sucrose rather more powerfully than by dextrose. It is remarkable that the uncrystallisable sugar of fruits produces an opposite rotation, viz. to the left. Since the degree of rotation is proportionate in columns of equal length to the quantity of sugar present, it has been proposed to employ this property in order to determine the quantity of sugar present in syrups.[209] The following, according to Berthelot, are the rotatory powers of the different varieties of sugar, if equal weights of each are dissolved in an equal bulk of water; the quantities of each sugar are calculated for the formulæ annexed:

[Footnote 209: Miller.]

+----------------------+--------------------+-----------+-----------------+ | | | | Temperature. | | Variety. | Formula. | Rotation. | | | | | |° Fahr. |° Cent. | +----------------------+--------------------+-----------+--------+--------+ | | | | | | |Sucrose (cane sugar) |(C_{12}H_{22}O_{11})|Right 73·8°| | | |Melezitose |(C_{12}H_{22}O_{11})| ” 94·1°| | | |Mycose |(C_{12}H_{22}O_{11})| ” 193° | | | |Melitose |(C_{12}H_{24}O_{12})| ” 102° | | | |Dextrose (grape sugar)|(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) | ” 57·4°| | | |Malt sugar |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) | ” 172° | | | |Lœvulose (fruit | | | | | | sugar) |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Left 106° | 56 | 13·3 | |Eucalin |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Right 50° | | | |Sorbin |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Left 46·9°| | | |Lactose (milk sugar) |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Right 56·4°| | | |Glucose of ditto | | | | | | (galactose) |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) | ” 83·3°| | | |Inverted cane sugar |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Left 28° | 57 | 13·9 | | | | | | | +----------------------+--------------------+-----------+--------+--------+

=SUGAR-BOILING.= The art or business of the confectioner or sugar-baker; the candying of sugar. The stages are as follow:——Well clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is boiled until a ‘skimmer’ dipped into it, and a portion ‘touched’ between the forefinger and thumb, on opening them, is drawn into a small thread, which crystallises and breaks. This is called a ‘weak candy height.’ If boiled again, it will draw into a larger string, and if bladders may be blown through the ‘drippings’ from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired the second degree, and is now called ‘bloom sugar.’ After still further boiling, it arrives at the state called ‘feathered sugar.’ To determine this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it over the pan, then give it a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers. The next degree is that of ‘crackled sugar,’ in which state the sugar that hangs to a stick dipped into it, and put directly into a pan of cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard and snaps. The last stage of refining this article reduces it to what is called ‘carmel sugar,’ proved by dipping a stick first into the sugar, and then into cold water, when, on the moment it touches the latter, it will, if matured, snap like glass. It has now arrived at a ‘full candy height.’ Care must be taken throughout that the fire is not too fierce, as, by flaming up against the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolour the sugar; hence the boiling is best conducted by steam heat.

Any flavour or colour may be given to the candy by adding the colouring matter to the syrup before boiling it, or the flavouring essences when the process is nearly complete. See STAINS, &c.

=SUGAR CAN′DY.= _Syn._ SACCHARUM CANDIDUM, S. CRYSTALLINUM, S. CRYSTALLIZATUM, L. Sugar crystallised by leaving the saturated syrup in a warm place (90 to 100° Fahr.), the shooting being promoted by placing sticks, or threads, at small distances from each other in the liquor; it is also deposited from compound syrups, and does not seem to retain much of the foreign substances with which they are loaded. Brown sugar candy is prepared in this way from raw sugar; white do., from refined sugar; and red do., from a syrup of refined sugar which has been coloured red by means of cochineal.

Sugar candy is chiefly used as a sweetmeat; and, being longer in dissolving than sugar, in coughs, to keep the throat moist; reduced to powder, it is also blown into the eye, as a mild escharotic in films or dimness of that organ.

=SUGAR OF LEAD.= Acetate of lead.

=SUGAR PLUMS.= _Syn._ BON-BONS, DRAGÉES, Fr. These are made by various methods, among which are those noticed under DROPS (Confectionery), LOZENGES, and PASTILS, to which may be added the following:——Take a quantity of sugar syrup, in the proportion to their size, in that state called a ‘blow’ (which may be known by dipping the skimmer into the sugar, shaking it, and blowing through the holes, when parts of light may be seen), and add a drop or two of any esteemed flavouring essence. If the ‘bon-bons’ are preferred white, when the sugar has cooled a little, stir it round the pan till it grains and shines on the surface. When all is ready, pour it through a funnel into little clean, bright, leaden moulds, which must be of various shapes, and be previously slightly moistened with oil of sweet almonds; it will then take a proper form and harden. As soon as the plums are cold, take them from the moulds; dry them for two or three days in the air, and put them upon paper. If the bon-bons are required to be coloured, add the colour just as the sugar is ready to be taken off the fire.

CRYSTALLISED BON-BONS are prepared by dusting them with powdered double-refined lump sugar before drying them.

LIQUEUR BON-BONS, now so beautifully got up by the Parisian confectioners, are obtained by pressing pieces of polished bone or metal into finely powdered sugar, filling the hollow spaces so formed with saturated solutions of sugar in the respective liqueurs, and then spreading over the whole an ample layer of powdered sugar. In the course of three or four days the bon-bons may be removed, and tinted by the artist at will. Instead of white powdered sugar ordered above, coloured sugar may be used. These bon-bons are found to be hollow spheres, containing a small quantity of the spirit or liqueur employed, and will bear keeping for many months. See SWEETMEATS, &c.

=SUGARS (Medicated).= _Syn._ SACCHARIDES; SACCHARA MEDICATA, L.; SACCHAROLÉS, SACCHARURES, Fr. Some of these are prepared by moistening white sugar with the medicinal substance, then gently drying it, and rubbing it to powder; in other cases they are obtained in the manner noticed under PULVERULENT EXTRACTS, or OLEOSACCHARUM. The most valuable preparation of this class in British pharmacy is the saccharated carbonate of iron (FERRI CARBONAS CUM SACCHARO——Ph. L.).

=SUINT, Gas from.= By this is understood a gas prepared from the fatty materials present in the soap-suds used in washing raw wool and spun yarns. The water containing the suint and soap-suds is run into cisterns, and is there mixed with milk of lime, and left to stand for twelve hours. A thin precipitate is formed, which, after the supernatant clear liquor has been run off, is put upon coarse canvas for the purpose of draining off any impurities, sand, hair, &c., while the mass which runs through the filter is put into a tank, in which it forms, after six or eight days, a pasty mass, which, having been dug out and moulded into bricks, is dried in open air. At Rheims the first wash-water of the wool is used for making both gas and potash, because the water contains no soap and only suintate of potash. Havrez, at Verviers, has recently proposed to employ suint——which, by-the-bye, is very rich in nitrogen——for the purpose of making ferrocyanide of potassium.

The dried brick-shaped lumps are submitted to distillation, yielding a gas which does not require purification, and which possesses an illuminating power three times that of good coal gas. The wash-water of a wool-spinning mill with 20,000 spindles yields daily, when treated as described, about 500 kilos of dried suinter, as the substance is technically called. One kilo of this substance yields 210 litres of gas. Annually about 150,000 kilos of suinter are obtained, and this quantity will yield 31,500,000 litres = 1,112,485 cubic feet of gas. Every burner consuming 35 litres of gas per hour, and taking the time of burning at 1200 hours, the quantity of gas will suffice for 750 burners, and as a spinning mill of 20,000 spindles only requires 500 burners, there is an excess of gas supply available for 250 other burners, or the owner may dispose of 5000 kilos of suinter, which is valued at Augsburgh at about 3s. per 50 kilos, and at about 4s. at Mulhouse.[210]

[Footnote 210: Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology.’]

=SUL′PHATE.= _Syn._ SULPHAS, L. A salt of sulphuric acid.

=SUL′PHIDE.= A salt consisting of sulphur and a metal or other basic radical. See SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.

=SULPHINDYL′IC ACID.= _Syn._ SULPHINDIGOTIC ACID. An intensely blue pasty mass, formed by dissolving 1 part of indigo in about 15 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. See SULPHATE OF INDIGO.

=SUL′PHITE.= A salt of sulphurous acid.

=SULPHOCARBOLIC ACID.= (SULPHOCARBOLATES.) Carbolic acid, when acted upon by bases, yields a class of salts termed carbolates. These compounds are very unstable; they readily absorb water from the air, which sets free carbolic acid; they usually have the powerful odour of the latter. When, however, equivalent weights of carbolic and sulphuric acids are mixed, union takes place, a definite double acid (sulphocarbolic) results, and the salts formed by this double acid with the various bases are entirely different from the simple salts of carbolic acid. They are very stable, very soluble, possess neither odour nor taste of carbolic acid, and are singularly beautiful in crystalline form.

=Sulphocarbolic Acid= (HC_{6}H_{3}SO_{4}) is obtained by the crystallisation in long colourless needles; unlike carbolic acid, it is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, in any proportions.

=Sulphocarbolate of Calcium= [Ca(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2} + Aq.] is obtained in very long, fine, densely interlacing crystals, which form in bulk, by their interlacement, a porous mass. Unlike the usual lime-salts, this is exceedingly soluble. This fact overcomes the great difficulty of treatment when in disease there is a deficiency of lime in the body, especially in rickets, in which disease the want of lime in the bones gives rise to distortions. The sulphocarbolate of magnesium crystallises in large, clear, rhombic prisms, easily soluble in water.

=Sulphocarbolate of Copper= [Cu(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2}] forms fine prismatic crystals of a blue colour. It is used as the zinc sulphocarbolate, chiefly as a lotion and dressing, in the proportion of 3 to 10 grains to the ounce of distilled water.

=Sulphocarbolate of Iron= [Fe(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2}] is in colourless or pale green rhombic plates. It is readily administered, and seems in some instances to be preferred to other salts of iron. It seems to have been of especial use in the skin diseases of children, wherein there is much formation of matter.

=Sulphocarbolate of Sodium= [Na(C_{6}H_{5})SO_{4}.Aq] is in brilliant, clear, rhombic prisms. The salt is very soluble in water. This salt can be administered as a medicine in doses of 20 to 60 gr.; it is slowly decomposed in the textures, carbolic acid being evolved. It thus becomes a very simple means of obtaining the beneficial effects of the administration of this antiseptic without the difficulties and dangers which attend it in its uncombined irritant and caustic form. It has proved of great service in the treatment of infectious diseases. Administered in the severest cases of diphtheria, malignant scarlet fever, typhoid, erysipelas, &c., the remedy has proved of extreme value.

=Sulphocarbolate of Zinc= [Zn(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2}] is chiefly employed in solution as a lotion. By high surgical authorities it is considered to answer all the purposes of the antiseptic dressing of carbolic acid. It is inodorous, and has very slight irritating action.

=The Sulphocarbolates of Potassium= [KC_{6}H_{5}SO_{4}] =and Ammonium= [NH_{4}C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4}] are also brilliant crystals; they are freely soluble, administered with the greatest ease, and have been used with success as remedial agents.

=SULPHOCYAN′OGEN.= A well-defined salt radical, containing sulphur united to the elements of cyanogen. Its compounds are the sulphocyanides, most of which may be formed by directly saturating hydrosulphocyanic acid with the oxide or hydrate of the base; or, from the sulphocyanide of potassium and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition.

=SULPHOFORM.= _Syn._ SULPOFORMUM. An oily liquid obtained by distilling one part of iodoform with three of sulphide of mercury.

=SULPHOPHE′NIC ACID.= A synonym of sulphocarbolic acid. See SULPHOCARBOLATES.

=SULPHOVIN′IC ACID.= C_{2}H_{5}HSO_{4}. _Syn._ SULPHETHYLIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHOVINICUM, L. This substance is formed by the action of heat on a mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid; it is the intermediate product which is developed in the preparation of ether. The salts are called sulphovinates or sulphothylates.

=SUL′PHUR.= [Eng., L.] _Syn._ BRIMSTONE; SOUFRE, Fr. An elementary substance. That of commerce is chiefly imported from Sicily and Italy, and is a volcanic production.

_Var._ The principal of these are:

AMORPHOUS SULPHUR, BROWN S.; SULPHUR AMORPHUM, S. FUSCUM, S. INFORME, S. RUBRUM, L. Prepared from sublimed sulphur, by melting it, increasing the heat to from 320° to 350° Fahr., and continuing it at that temperature for about half an hour, or until it becomes brown and viscid, and then pouring it into water. In this state it is ductile, like wax, may be easily moulded in any form, is much heavier than usual, and when it has cooled does not again become fluid until heated to above 600° Fahr. The same effect is produced more rapidly by at once raising the temperature of the melted mass to from 430° to 480° Fahr.

PRECIPITATED SULPHUR, HYDRATE OF SULPHUR, MILK OF S.; SULPHURIS HYDRAS, LAC SULPHURIS, SULPHUR PRÆCIPITATUM (Ph. L.). _Prep._ 1. From sublimed sulphur, 1 part; dry and recently slaked lime, 2 parts; water, 25 parts, or q. s.; boil for 2 or 3 hours, dilute with 25 parts more of water, filter, and precipitate with dilute hydrochloric acid; drain, and well wash the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat. Resembles sublimed sulphur in its general properties, but is much paler, and in a finer state of division.

2. (B. Ph.) Sublimed sulphur, 5 oz.; slaked lime, 3 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., or q. s.; distilled water, q. s. Heat the sulphur and lime, previously well mixed, in 1 pint of water, stirring diligently with a wooden spatula, boil for 15 minutes and filter. Boil the residue again in 1/2 pint of water and filter. Let the united filtrates cool, dilute with 2 pints of water, and in an open place, or under a chimney, add in successive quantities the hydrochloric acid previously diluted with 1 pint of water until effervescence ceases, and the mixture acquires an acid reaction. Allow the precipitate to settle, decant off the supernatant liquid, pour on fresh distilled water, and continue the purification by affusion of distilled water and subsidence, until the fluid ceases to have an acid reaction, and to precipitate with oxalate of ammonia. Collect the precipitated sulphur on a calico filter, wash it once with distilled water, and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 120° Fahr.

_Prop._ A greyish-yellow powder free from grittiness, and with no smell of sulphuretted hydrogen.

_Obs._ Many pharmacists regard LAC SULPHURIS and SULPHUR PRECIPITATUM as distinct substances, and assume that by milk of sulphur is intended a preparation made by an old pharmacopœial process, in which sulphuric acid being employed, the sulphur so precipitated contains from 50 to 75 per cent. of sulphate of lime. Pareira, Royle, Atfield, and some other authorities, hold that LAC SULPHURIS and SULPHUR PRECIPITATUM are synonymous; whilst others, including Professor Redwood (one of the compilers of the B. P.) entertain a contrary opinion.

ROLL SULPHUR, CANE S., STICK S.; SULPHUR IN BACCULIS, S. IN ROTULIS, S. ROTUNDUM, L. This is crude sulphur, purified by melting and skimming it, and then pouring it into moulds. That obtained during the roasting of copper pyrites, and which forms the common roll sulphur of England, frequently contains from 3 to 7% of yellow arsenic.

SUBLIMED SULPHUR, FLOWERS OF SULPHUR; FLORES SULPHURIS, SULPHUR (Ph. L.), SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prepared by subliming sulphur in iron vessels. For medical purposes, it is ordered to be well washed with water, and dried by a gentle heat. “A slightly gritty powder, of a fine greenish-yellow colour, without taste and without odour till heated.” (B. P.)

SULPHUR VIVUM, BLACK SULPHUR, CRUDE S., HORSE BRIMSTONE; SULPHUR NIGRUM, S. CABALLINUM, S. GRISEUM, L. This is crude native sulphur. It is a grey or mouse-coloured powder. The residuum in the subliming pots from the preparation of flowers of sulphur is now commonly substituted for it. It generally contains much arsenic, and is consequently very poisonous.

_Pur._ The sublimed sulphur of the shops is now, in general, of respectable quality, but the precipitated sulphur frequently contains about 2/3 of its weight of sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris), owing to the substitution of sulphuric acid for hydrochloric acid in its manufacture.[211] This is readily detected by strongly heating a little of the suspected sample in an iron spoon or shovel, when the sulphur is burnt or volatilised, and leaves behind the sulphate of lime as a white ash; this, when mixed with water, and gently dried, gives the amount of the adulteration. A still simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphur in the sample with a little hot oil of turpentine or liquor of potassa; the undissolved portion is foreign matter.

[Footnote 211: See PRECIPITATED SULPHUR, above.]

_Prop._ Sulphur melts to a clear thin fluid, and volatilises at about 232° Fahr., and in open vessels rapidly takes fire, burning with a bluish flame. It is insoluble in both water and alcohol; it is soluble in oil of turpentine and the fatty oils, and freely so in bisulphide of carbon and hot liquor of potassa. With oxygen it unites to form sulphurous anhydride, and with the metals to form sulphides. Sp. gr. 1·982 to 2·015.

_Estim._ The determination of the quantity of sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine, in a state of combination, especially in organic mixtures, is often rather troublesome. The proportion of sulphur is best determined by oxidising a known weight of the substances by strong nitric acid, or by fusing it in a silver vessel with 10 or 12 times its weight of pure hydrate of potassa and about half as much nitre. The sulphur is thus converted into sulphuric acid, the quantity of which can be determined by dissolving the fused mass in water, acidulating the solution with nitric acid, adding a salt of baryta, and weighing the resulting sulphate. Phosphorus is, in like manner, oxidised to phosphoric acid, the quantity of which is determined by precipitation in combination with sesquioxide of iron, or otherwise. The chlorine is correctly determined by placing a small weighed portion in a combustion-tube, which is afterwards filled with fragments of pure quicklime. The lime is then brought to a red heat, and the vapour of the liquid driven over it, when chloride of calcium is formed. The contents of the tube, when cold, are dissolved in dilute nitric acid, filtered, the chlorine precipitated by nitrate of silver, and the chlorine weighed under the form of chloride of silver. See ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

_Uses, &c._ Sulphur is extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowder, in bleaching, &c., &c. When swallowed, it acts as a mild laxative and stimulating diaphoretic; and has hence been long taken in various chronic skin diseases, in pulmonary, rheumatic, and gouty affections, and as a mild purgative in piles, prolapsus ani, &c. Externally, it is extensively used in skin diseases, especially the itch, for which it appears to be a specific.——_Dose_, 20 to 63 gr., in sugar, honey, treacle, or milk.

=Sulphur, Chlo′′rides of.= Several of these compounds exist but the following are the most important. 1. (DICHLORIDE, S_{2}Cl_{2}.) Prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over the surface of sulphur melted in a bulbed-tube or small retort connected with a well-cooled receiver. The product is a deep orange-yellow and very mobile liquid, which possesses a disagreeable odour, and boils at 280° Fahr. It is soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and in benzol, without decomposing. It dissolves sulphur in large quantities, especially when heated. A solution of the dichloride with excess of sulphur in crude benzol is used for vulcanising caoutchouc.

2. (CHLORIDE, HYPOCHLORIDE, or HYPOCHLORITE of the shops; SULPHURIS CHLORIDUM, S. HYPOCHLORIDUM, S. HYPOCHLORITIS, L.) This is prepared by spreading washed sulphur thinly on the bottom of a wooden box, or other chamber, and passing chlorine gas slowly over until it ceases to be absorbed.

_Obs._ This last compound is of variable and undetermined constitution. It has been recommended for internal use, by Derksengi, in old gouty affections, combined with pains in the stomach, and in severe nervous fever.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 gr.; dissolved in ether, and taken with old Hungary wine. It is also used externally in _psoriasis inveterata_, and other skin diseases.

=Sulphur, I′odide of.= S_{2}I_{2}. _Syn._ BINIODIDE OF SULPHUR; SULPHURIS IODIDUM (Ph. L.), SULPHUR IODATUM (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ Into a glass flask put 1 part of sublimed sulphur, and over it place 4 parts of iodine; insert the cork loosely, and place the flask in a water bath; as soon as its contents melt, stir them with a glass rod, replace the cork, remove the bath from the fire, and let the whole cool together. When cold, break the iodide into pieces, and place it in a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle. In this way a beautiful semi-crystalline, dark grey mass, resembling antimony, is obtained. The formulæ of the B. P., Ph. L., E., & D., Ph. U. S., & P. Cod., are essentially similar. The Ph. D. orders the two substances to be powdered and mixed before heating them.

_Uses, &c._ It is stimulant and alterative. An ointment made of it has been recommended by Biett and others in tuberculous affections of the skin, in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, porrigo, &c.

Iodide of sulphur stains the skin like iodine, and is readily decomposed by contact with organic substances.

=SULPHURA′TION.= The process by which silk, cotton, and woollen goods, straw plait, &c., are subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur, or sulphurous acid, for the purpose of bleaching or decolouring them. On the large scale, this is effected in closed apartments, called ‘sulphuring rooms,’ to which sufficient air only is admitted to keep up the slow combustion of the sulphur. On the small scale, as for straw hats, bonnets, &c., a large wooden chest is frequently employed in the same way.

=SUL′PHURET.= _Syn._ SULPHIDE; SULPHURETUM, SULPHIDUM, L. See SULPHIDE.

=SULPHURET′TED HY′DROGEN= (H_{2}S). _Syn._ HYDROGEN SULPHIDE, DIHYDRIC SULPHIDE, HYDRIC SULPHIDE; HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. Sulphuretted hydrogen occurs in nature amongst the gaseous products given off by volcanoes, as well as in many mineral waters, amongst which may be instanced those of Harrogate, in England, of Moffat, in Scotland, and of Barèges, Eaux Bonnes, St. Sauveur, &c., in the Pyrenees. It is also evolved from decaying animal matter containing albumen, such as white-of-egg, as well as from putrisable animal and vegetable substances, when in contact with a soluble sulphate, and is always one of the gases present in the air of drains and sewers. Sulphuretted hydrogen may be procured by the direct union of hydrogen and sulphur, as by passing hydrogen into boiling sulphur. But this method of procuring it is rarely, if ever, adopted. The much readier process of acting upon a metallic sulphide by an acid constitutes the means by which the chemist almost invariably obtains this gas.

The details of the process are as follows:

1. About an ounce of ferrous sulphide, previously reduced to small pieces, is placed in a bottle, and then there is poured on to it a fluid ounce of sulphuric acid diluted with 8 times its bulk of water, when the following reaction ensues:——FeS + H_{2}SO_{4} = H_{2}S + FeSO_{4}.

The gas which is immediately and copiously given off may be collected in an apparatus, a drawing and description of which are given below.

The diluted acid, having become cool, is poured through the bulb-shaped aperture down the glass tube upon the ferrous sulphide, and the evolved gas passing through the small intermediate wash-bottle into the bottle at the reader’s right hand, is absorbed by the water therein contained, the operation being continued until the water has become saturated with the gas. The glass tubes are connected with vulcanised india rubber, as shown in the above plate. Diluted hydrochloric acid is frequently substituted for sulphuric.

2. In the above process, the gas obtained, owing to the contamination of the iron sulphide, is more or less impure. When sulphuretted hydrogen is required in a state of purity, 1 oz. of antimonious sulphide must be employed instead of the iron sulphide, and instead of sulphuric 3 or 4 parts of hydrochloric acid. As heat must be applied to the mixture, it will be necessary to substitute a flask for the larger bottle, and to support it on a retort stand. In other respects the apparatus needs no alteration.

3. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also obtainable when paraffin is heated at a moderately elevated temperature with sulphur, the reaction being attended with an abundant evolution of the gas, and a simultaneous separation of carbon.

⁂ The solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, which is so indispensable to the chemist, and consequently in such constant requisition in the laboratory, unfortunately very quickly decomposes into water, and sulphur, which deposits at the bottom of the vessel containing it. To diminish as much as possible the tendency to deterioration, the solution should be made either with boiled water, or with the clear spoilt solution.

_Qualities, &c._ Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colourless inflammable gas, somewhat heavier than air, its specific gravity being 1·174. When ignited, it burns with a bluish flame, to water and sulphurous anhydride if the combustion take place in a sufficient quantity of air, but if the supply of air be too limited, sulphur is deposited. Under a pressure of 17 atmospheres it is condensed to a colourless and very mobile fluid, which boils at 79·6° F., and freezes at 72·8° F. to a transparent solid. Both the gas and its aqueous solution exercise a feebly acid reaction on litmus.

Sulphuretted hydrogen is highly poisonous; when inhaled in any quantity it causes fainting; and in smaller quantities, even when considerably diluted by air, if breathed for any length of time, it acts as a dangerous depressant and insiduous poison. Upon the lower animals it acts with fatal rapidity, even if diluted with 800 or 1000 parts of atmospheric air. Transmitted through tubes heated to redness, sulphuretted hydrogen becomes partially decomposed into its elements, hydrogen and sulphur. Water at 32° F. takes up 4·37 times its bulk of this gas, and at 59, 3·23 times its hulk, hence the importance of collecting it, over warm water, if required in the gaseous form.

In the presence of moisture, sulphurous anhydride and sulphuretted hydrogen, if equivalent quantities of each react upon each other, become decomposed into sulphur, water, and pentathronic acid; hence the value of sulphurous acid as a disinfectant. The deposited sulphur is found always to occur in the electro-positive condition. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, also decompose sulphuretted hydrogen with deposition of sulphur, and formation of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and hydriodic acids.

_Hydrosulphates or Sulphides._ Sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphuric acid, as it is sometimes called, when brought into contact with bases in solution, gives rise to compounds, which by some chemists are regarded as hydrosulphates, or combinations of the base with hydrosulphuric acid; and by others as sulphides or combinations of the metal with sulphur, the latter reaction being attended with the elimination of water, as when a base is acted upon by hydrochloric acid. By those who hold the former view the reaction would be as follows:

K_{2}O + H_{2}S = K_{2}O_{1}H_{2}S.

In the latter case it would be thus represented:

K_{2}O + H_{2}S = K_{2}S + H_{2}O.

The latter is the more general opinion, and it receives support from the fact that when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into the solution of a metallic salt, an insoluble precipitate of a sulphide of the metal is thrown down. Thus, when the gas is passed into a solution of cupric sulphate, the precipitate consists of hydrated cupric sulphide, the liberated sulphuric acid renders the liquid which was before neutral, acid. The larger number of sulphides so formed, combining with water at the instance of their precipitation, occur as hydrates.

There is also a class of sulphides known as hydrosulphides, sulphydrates, or double sulphides, in which an equivalent of the metal is replaced by an equivalent of hydrogen. Examples of these are the potassic hydrosulphide (KHS), sodic hydrosulphide (NaHS), and ammonic hydrosulphide (H_{4}NHS). No such combinations occur with hydrogen and the metals of the earth proper, and of the iron group.

_Tests._ Many of the hydrosulphates or sulphides may be detected, by dropping on them some hydrochloric acid, when the characteristic smell of sulphuretted hydrogen will be immediately evolved from them. Very small quantities of a sulphide may be detected as follows:——Place the suspected sulphide in a small test tube, on the upper part of which is inserted a piece of blotting paper moistened with a solution of plumbic acetate, then carefully pour some hydrochloric acid on to the substance, when, if it be a sulphide, the paper will become. immediately browned or blackened.

Many small quantities of the soluble sulphides are revealed in neutral or alkaline solutions by the rich purple colour which they form on the addition of a solution of sodic nitro-prusside. Most of them, when heated before the blow-pipe, give off the smell of sulphurous acid.

The quantitative determination of free sulphuretted hydrogen, or of a soluble sulphide in any solution, is conducted as follows:——The liquid to be tested is mixed with a small quantity of a cold solution of starch, made slightly acid with acetic acid. A solution of iodine of known strength, dissolved in potassic iodide is then added, until the liquid just begins to turn blue from the action of the excess of iodine on the starch. In this process the sulphuretted hydrogen converts the iodine into hydriodic acid, whilst sulphur is liberated.

Of course the quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen is calculated from the quantity of iodine employed. The reaction is——

2H_{2}S + 2I_{2} = 4HI + S_{2}.

The value of sulphuretted hydrogen as a reagent has already been alluded to. It throws down most of the metals from solutions of their salts in the form of insoluble sulphides; and each of the sulphides so produced in many cases being distinguished from the others by a special and characteristic colour. The sulphuretted hydrogen thus presents the metal in a form in which it can, in many instances, be easily and with certainty recognised. Thus sulphide of lead is black, of arsenic yellow, of antimony orange, of manganese salmon colour, and of zinc white. By means of sulphuretted hydrogen, also, the chemist is enabled to separate the metals into groups.

For instance, from solutions containing certain metallic salts, sulphuretted hydrogen throws down the metals as sulphides, provided the solution has been previously made slightly acid. Copper, arsenic, tin, and cadmium, are some of the metals thrown down under these conditions.

The salts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and certain others, although they do not yield precipitates under like circumstances, are found to do so if their solutions are made alkaline instead of acid. Again, there are other salts, those of the alkalies and alkaline earths, which, when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through these solutions, give no precipitates either in acid or alkaline solutions. The chemist, therefore, in the course of an analysis, frequently avails himself of a knowledge of these facts to separate certain metals from each other.

=Hydrogen, Persulphide of.= _Syn._ HYDRIC PERSULPHIDE, HYDROGEN DISULPHIDE. To procure this substance, calcium disulphide (CaS_{2}) in solution is poured into hydrochloric acid diluted with twice its bulk of water. The solution being gently warmed, the persulphide subsides at the bottom as an oily fluid. Hydric persulphide has a great resemblance to hydric peroxide in qualities. It bleaches, and is decomposed, with violence, when brought into contact with the oxides of manganese and silver. It easily decomposes into sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen.

=SULPHU′RIC ACID.= H_{2}SO_{4}. _Syn._ OIL OF VITRIOL, BRITISH O. OF V., VITRIOLIC ACID†; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), ACIDUM SULPHURICUM VENALE (Ph. D.), ACIDUM VITRIOLICUM†, L. This acid, in a concentrated form, was discovered by Basil Valentine towards the end of the 15th century. At first it was obtained by the distillation of green vitriol, but is now made by the oxidation of sulphurous anhydride, obtained by the combustion either of sulphur or of certain sulphides. In consequence of the growing demand for sulphur in the manufacture of gunpowder, ultramarine, and for the destruction of the vine parasites in the vineyards of France, Italy, and Spain, sulphuric acid is now seldom made by burning sulphur, but, with few exceptions, by roasting iron pyrites, or bisulphide of iron.

The following table will convey an idea of the enormous consumption of this mineral in vitriol making in England alone. The quantities given represent tons.

+-----+-----------------------------------------------------------+-------+ | | Pyrites from[212] | | |Date.+-------+--------+--------+---------+--------+------+-------+ Sum | | |Norway.|Germany.|Belgium.|Portugal.| Spain. |Italy.|Sundry |Total. | | | | | | | | |Places.| | +-----+-------+--------+--------+---------+--------+------+-------+-------+ |1862 | 4,975 | 6,817 | 9,860 | 53,296 | 33,717 | ... | 2,187 |110,852| |1863 | 6,736 | 15,409 | 12,059 | 109,180 | 33,213 | ... | 2,628 |179,225| |1864 |16,087 | 12,751 | 7,069 | 118,489 | 15,529 | ... | 1,065 |170,990| |1865 |22,229 | 14,727 | 2,121 | 137,787 | 16,393 | ... | 369 |193,626| |1866 |38,262 | 21,574 | 4,006 | 165,993 | 11,910 | ... | 1,625 |244,596| |1867 |77,895 | 34,592 | 2,299 | 105,556 | 50,222 | ... | 2,134 |272,698| |1868 |63,007 | 41,559 | ... | 75,883 | 47,458 | 794 | 1,019 |229,720| |1869 |63,091 | 13,983 | ... | 140,805 | 99,648 | ... | 2,420 |319,947| |1870 |67,464 | 14,914 | ... | 174,459 |150,990 | ... | 3,676 |411,512| |1871 |74,416 | 12,809 | ... | 120,573 |242,163 | ... | 4,581 |454,542| |1872 |71,665 | 5,682 | ... | 180,329 |257,429 | ... | 2,521 |517,626| +-----+-------+--------+--------+---------+--------+------+-------+-------+

[Footnote 212: “Development of the Chemical Arts during the last Ten Years,” by Dr A. W. Hofman (‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxv, 1879).]

Of the other sulphides employed in vitriol making may be mentioned galena, or native sulphide of lead, which, when roasted, is made to give up half its sulphur. The chief consumption of this mineral is in the Harz. Copper pyrites is also used in the Harz, as well as in Swansea and Glasgow. Blende, or native sulphide of zinc, is also occasionally had recourse to.

In addition to the above sulphides, the vitriol maker in England, France, and Germany has lately largely availed himself of a compound known as ‘Laming’s mixture,’ which is an impure oxide of iron that has been used in gas manufacture for the removal from the gas of the sulphur. Laming’s mixture is consequently rich in this last element.

Associated with the pyrites in small quantities are various substances, some of which, becoming volatilised when the ore is burnt, enter the chambers with the mixed gases, and thus find their entrance into the acid, whilst others remain behind in the iron residue of impure ferric oxide, left on the hearth of the furnace after roasting. The former of these foreign bodies, which are found in most commercial acids, are described below under the section “Purification.” Amongst the solid non-volatile matters, the extraction of which from the burnt iron has been found in many works to yield a profit, are zinc, copper, silver and thallium.

At Wolcrum, in Germany, the zinc which exists in the residue in the form of sulphate is extracted by lixiviation, and then treated with common salt, the reaction giving rise to the production of sulphate of soda and chloride of zinc. The soda obtained is sufficient to pay for the working of the operation, whilst a good profit is made by the sale of the large quantities of chloride of zinc which are thus yielded.[213]

[Footnote 213: Ibid.]

The copper, which in some residues is met with to the amount of 4 per cent., also pays for extraction, and is sold to the smelter. It is first converted into chloride, and then precipitated by iron. The silver is recovered by Claudet’s process, which consists in precipitating it from a saline solution in which it is in the state of a soluble chloride, by iodide of potassium.

In the Widnes Copper Works the silver so extracted yields an annual profit of £3000.[214]

[Footnote 214: Ibid.]

Thallium is found in the fine dust caused by the combustion of the pyrites, which dust deposits in the flues between the furnace and the chambers. The metal is extracted from the dust by treating this latter with dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting sulphate is converted into chloride, and again reconverted alternately into sulphate and chloride several times, the sulphate last obtained being reduced by metallic zinc.[215]

[Footnote 215: Ibid.]

Selenium is also a frequent constituent in the flue dust. Some ores, after being subjected to roasting, yield iron capable of being worked. This is more particularly the case with the Spanish and Portuguese pyrites.

The following is an outline of the process by which sulphuric acid is obtained, and of the chemical changes which occur during its manufacture:

The sulphur or sulphide being placed on the hearth of the furnace, shown at A in the accompanying cut, when heated from below, soon takes fire, and combining with the oxygen of the atmospheric air, the admission of which into the furnace is regulated by an experienced workman, by the door shown in the plate, forms sulphurous anhydride. An iron pot, standing on the hearth of the furnace, contains a mixture of nitrate of soda and oil of vitriol, and this becoming heated by the burning sulphur, decomposition of the salt ensues, and fumes of nitric acid are given off. The sulphurous anhydride and nitric acid gases thus formed together with air are carried into large leaden chambers, standing on, and supported by, massive frameworks of stout timber. Steam is admitted continuously by several jets (see plate) into these chambers, which are covered at the bottom with water to a depth of about three inches.

As soon as the mixed gases enter the chamber and come into contact with the steam, the sulphurous anhydride acts on the nitric acid, forming sulphuric acid, which falls into and is absorbed by the water on the floor of the chamber, and nitric oxide, which is liberated in the chamber.

The following equation will illustrate the reaction:

2HNO_{3} + 3SO_{2} + 2H_{2}O = 3H_{2}SO_{4} + 2NO.

170 parts by weight of nitrate of soda are required to oxidise to sulphuric acid 96 parts of sulphur, whereas rarely more, and frequently less, than 5 parts of soda are required by the vitriol maker. This saving of material is effected by the function performed in the chamber by the nitric oxide resulting from the decomposition of the nitric acid.

The nitric oxide reacting upon the air in the chamber abstracts oxygen from it and becomes converted into nitric peroxide, thus:

2NO + O_{2} = 2NO_{2}.

Nitric peroxide is a very unstable compound, and directly it comes into contact with the fresh sulphurous anhydride entering the chamber, it oxidises it in the presence of water to sulphuric acid, thus:

2NO_{2} + 2SO_{2} + 2H_{2}O = 2H_{2}SO_{4} + 2NO.

This deportment of the nitric oxide being continuous, it will be seen it acts the part of a carrier of oxygen from the atmospheric air contained in the chamber to the sulphurous acid, and by so doing (theoretically) renders any further supply of nitrate of soda than that required to start the process unnecessary.

As soon as the water, or rather liquid acid on the floor of the leaden chambers, has acquired the sp. gr. of 1·35 to 1·50, it is drawn off, and concentrated by boiling in shallow leaden pans to the density of about 1·72, after which it is further concentrated in green-glass or platinum retorts, until the sp. gr. reaches 1·842 to 1·846. When of sp. gr. from 1·35 to 1·50 it is called chamber acid, and when of the last strength, is used in the manufacture of salt-cake, sulphate of ammonia, some kinds of manure, and nitric acid. Sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1·720 is mostly employed in the preparation of superphosphate of lime. After concentration to 1·842 or 1·846, the clear acid is put into large globular bottles of green glass (carboys), surrounded with straw and basket-work, and is sent into the market under the name of ‘oil of vitriol.’

The leaden chambers in which the chemical changes take place, that result in the formation of the acid, vary greatly in dimensions in different works, being sometimes as much as 12 or 15 feet high, 15 or 20 wide, and from 150 to 300 feet long. They are mostly partially divided by incomplete leaden partitions, known as curtains, so arranged on the roof and the floor as to cause the currents of mixed gases to come into collision, and thus cause their admixture. Where there are a number of small separate chambers they are connected by means of leaden tubes. A chamber having a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet will yield 10 tons of acid weekly.

The sheets of lead used in the construction of the chambers are united by fusion, or melting together of their edges. If cement were used it would be speedily attacked and destroyed by the acid and gaseous products.

The process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid above described, was devised in 1774 by a calico printer of Rouen, and improved by Chaptal.

In 1776 the first vitriol factory was set up at Prestonpans, by Dr Roebuck, of Birmingham, with whom originated the idea of the leaden chambers.

Various attempts have been at different times unsuccessfully made to supersede the old process. Of these we may mention:

1. The proposal to oxidise sulphurous acid by means of chlorine in the presence of steam.

2. Persoz’s method to oxidise sulphurous acid by means of nitric acid, and to regenerate the nitric oxide resulting from the reduction of the acid by the oxygen of the air in the presence of steam.

3. _a_, by the decomposition of gypsum by superheated steam at a red heat; or _b_, by decomposing the gypsum by chloride of lead.

The failure of the above and other efforts has led to the chemist turning his attention to the elaboration and perfection of the old process, in the working of which considerable improvements have been introduced within the last ten or fifteen years; improvements resulting not only in a diminished cost of production, but in the manufacture of a purer, and therefore better acid.

The proper construction of the furnaces, ovens, and grates on which the firing of the sulphur or pyrites takes place, together with the flues, is an important condition in the manufacture of the acid; and to this end a great deal of scientific knowledge and experience have lately been applied with excellent effect. Of the many improvements in this direction for burning poor ores of pyrites is a contrivance much used in Germany, where the furnace on which it is carried out is known as Gerstenhöfer’s oven. It is shown in the accompanying drawing.

The furnace is fitted inside with a number of little fire-clay projections, arranged as shown in the plate, in banks or terraces, the function of which is to prolong the exposure of the pyrites to heat. The furnace having been previously raised to a red heat, by means of a coal or wood fire (which is then extinguished), the pyrites are admitted into it through the hoppers (_a_). At the base of the hoppers are grooved iron rollers, which crush the lumps of ore as they enter the chambers, and by thus reducing their size, expose a larger amount of surface to the action of heat. The greater part of the sulphur of the pyrites is thus burnt off, as the lumps pass from terrace to terrace, the heat at the same time generated by their combustion being sufficient to keep up that of the furnace. A moderate blast of air is admitted at _c_, whilst the sulphurous acid formed ascends through _d_ into the leaden chambers, the spent pyrites falling out through the apertures at _c_.

Another improved furnace is Perret’s, which is largely used in France. In this, small lumps of pyrites are placed on horizontal plates, and exposed to the hot gases generated in kilns below. The gases, on their way to the chambers, sweep over the pyrites and rob them of their sulphur.

The most important and noticeable improvement, however, of late years in sulphuric acid manufacture is that resulting from the addition to the plant of a contrivance of Gay-Lussac. Previous to this invention, the sulphuric acid of commerce, amongst other impurities, always contained appreciable quantities of certain oxides of nitrogen, the results of which were not only the contamination of the acid, but a waste of substances, which, properly utilised, are essential for the conversion of the sulphurous and sulphuric acid, and the loss of which leads to an increased consumption of nitrate of soda. Under the old method, these valuable oxides of nitrogen, which, with a large amount of nitrogen and a small quantity of oxygen, constituted the spent air of the last leaden chamber, were carried off into the air, and consequently lost. Now, instead of being allowed to diffuse into the atmosphere, they are made to pass through a tower or chamber (shown at C in the plate below) filled with coke, through which a thin stream of sulphuric acid is made to trickle. In passing through the coke, therefore, the expiring spent gases come into contact with the sulphuric acid, to which they give up their oxides of nitrogen. From the tower (C) the acid flows into a cistern (D), whence it is pumped up to the top of another tower (E), either filled with coke, or arranged with inclined shelves, as shown in the plate. In this tower the acid meets with a current of hot sulphurous acid and air coming up from the furnace, which deprive it of the oxides of nitrogen, and the gaseous mixture enters the chambers, whilst the denitrafied acid flows off into a suitable reservoir.

Since the introduction of the above, the consumption of nitrate of soda is sometimes lessened by more than half.

Another very recent improvement, the invention of a German chemist named Sprengel, is the substitution of water spray, blown in by steam, for steam jets, in the leaden chambers. By this method a saving of coal to the extent of one third is said to be effected.

In theory, 1 molecule of sulphur requires only 3 molecules of oxygen to convert it into sulphuric acid, viz. 2 to form sulphurous anhydride, and 1 to convert the latter into sulphuric anhydride, which combines with 1 molecule of water to form the acid. Thus, 1 kilogram of sulphur requires 1500 grams or 1055 litres of oxygen, which is equivalent to 5275 litres of air containing 4220 litres of nitrogen; when pyrites is used, a far larger quantity of air is required, for the obvious reason that the pyrites becomes converted into ferric peroxide. 1 kilogram of pyrites requires for its combustion nearly 6600 litres of air.

In well-regulated works the spent and escaping gases should not contain more than 2 per cent. of oxygen. If from 100 kilograms of sulphur 306 kilograms of strong acid of sp. gr. 1·84 be obtained, the result is regarded as very satisfactory; more frequently the product from 100 kilograms of sulphur does not exceed 280 or 290 kilograms.

_Purif._ Commercial sulphuric acid frequently contains nitrous acid and other oxides of nitrogen, arsenic, lead, and saline matter. The nitrous acid may be removed by adding a little sulphate of ammonia, and heating the acid to ebullition for a few minutes. Both nitric and nitrous acid are thus entirely decomposed into water and nitrogen gas. The arsenic may be got rid of by adding a little sulphide of barium to the acid, agitating the mixture well, and, after repose, decanting and distilling it. Lead, which exists as sulphate, may be separated as a white precipitate by simply diluting the acid with water. Saline matter may be removed by simple rectification. A good way of purifying oil of vitriol is to heat it nearly to the boiling point, and pass a current of hydrochloric acid through it; the arsenic is thus carried over as the volatile chloride of arsenic, while the nitrous and nitric acids are expelled almost completely. To obtain a perfectly pure acid, it should be distilled after the removal of the nitrous acid and arsenic by the methods indicated above. “The distillation is most conveniently conducted, on the small scale, in a glass retort, containing a few platinum chips, and heated by a sand bath or gas-flame, rejecting the first 1/2 fl. oz. that comes over.” (Ph. E.) In the Ph. D. the first tenth of the distillate is ordered to be rejected, and the process to be stopped when no more than about 1 fl. oz. is left in the retort.

According to Dr Ure, the capacity of the retort should be from 4 to 8 times as great as the volume of the acid, and connected with a large tubular receiver by a loosely fitting glass tube, 4 feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. “The receiver should not be surrounded with cold water.” We find that fragments of glass, or of rock crystals, may be advantageously substituted for platinum foil, to lessen the explosive violence of the ebullition. Sulphuric acid which has become brown by exposure may be decolorised by heating it gently, the carbon of the organic substances being thus converted into carbonic acid.

_Prop._ Commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is a colourless, odourless, and highly corrosive liquid, the general properties of which are well known. Its sp. gr. at 60° should never be greater than 1·848, or less than 1·840. (Miller and Odling give the sp. gr. of the pure and concentrated acid as 1·842; Abel and Bloxam, as 1·848; Apjohn gives it as 1·846, and Hardwich about 1·845.) It is immediately coloured by contact with organic matter. It attracts water so rapidly from the atmosphere when freely exposed to it, as to absorb 1-3rd of its weight in 24 hours, and 6 times its weight in a few months. When 3 volumes are suddenly mixed with 2 of water, the temperature of the mixture rises more than 180° Fahr. Its freezing point appears to be about 60° below that of water (Miller and Odling give that of the rectified acid as -30° Fahr.; Apjohn and Abel and Bloxam, -29°). It boils at about 620° Fahr. (620·6°, Odling; 620°, Hardwich and Fownes; 617°, Apjohn; 590·6°, Abel and Bloxam). It exhibits all the properties of the acids in an exalted degree. Its salts are called sulphates.

In the following table is given the quantity of anhydrous sulphuric acid contained in sulphuric acid at 60°F. (15·5°C.).

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ |Hydrated Sp. Gr. Anhydrous | Hydrated Sp. Gr. Anhydrous | |Sulphuric Acid. | Sulphuric Acid. | |Acid. | Acid. | | | | | 100 1·8485 81·54 | 76 1·6630 61·97 | | 99 1·8475 80·72 | 75 1·6520 61·15 | | 98 1·8460 79·90 | 74 1·6415 60·34 | | 97 1·8439 79·09 | 73 1·6321 59·55 | | 96 1·8410 78·28 | 72 1·6204 58·71 | | 95 1·8376 77·40 | 71 1·6090 57·89 | | 94 1·8336 76·65 | 70 1·5975 57·08 | | 93 1·8290 75·83 | 69 1·5868 56·26 | | 92 1·8233 75·02 | 68 1·5760 55·45 | | 91 1·8179 74·20 | 67 1·5648 54·63 | | 90 1·8115 73·39 | 66 1·5503 53·82 | | 89 1·8043 72·57 | 65 1·5390 53·00 | | 88 1·7962 71·75 | 64 1·5280 52·18 | | 87 1·7870 70·94 | 63 1·5170 51·37 | | 86 1·7774 70·12 | 62 1·5066 50·55 | | 85 1·7673 69·31 | 61 1·4960 49·74 | | 84 1·7570 68·49 | 60 1·4860 48·92 | | 83 1·7465 67·68 | 59 1·4760 48·11 | | 82 1·7360 66·86 | 58 1·4660 47·29 | | 81 1·7245 66·05 | 57 1·4560 46·58 | | 80 1·7120 65·23 | 56 1·4460 45·68 | | 79 1·6993 64·42 | 55 1·4360 44·85 | | 78 1·6870 63·60 | 54 1·4265 45·03 | | 77 1·6750 62·78 | 53 1·4170 43·22 | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

_Pur._ “Free from colour and odour. Sp. gr. 1·843. 100 gr. are saturated by 285 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) “What remains after the acid is distilled to dryness does not exceed 1/400th part of its weight. Diluted sulphuric acid is not discoloured by sulphuretted hydrogen.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “Diluted with its own volume of water, only a scanty muddiness arises, and no orange fumes escape. Sp. gr. 1·840.” (Ph. E.) “The rectified acid (ACIDUM SULPHURICUM PURUM——Ph. E. & D.) is colourless; dilution causes no muddiness; solution of sulphate of iron shows no reddening at the line of contact when poured over it. Sp. gr. 1·845.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1·846——Ph. D.; 1·843——B. P.; 1·842——Ure.

_Tests._——See SULPHATE.

_Uses, &c._ “The uses of sulphuric acid are so numerous that it would be impossible to mention all of them, sulphuric acid being to chemical industry what iron is to the mechanical. Sulphuric acid is employed in preparing a great many other acids——among them, nitric, hydrochloric, sulphurous, carbonic, tartaric, citric, phosphoric, stearic, oleic, and palmitic. Further, sulphuric acid is used in making superphosphates, soda, sulphate of ammonia, alum, sulphates of copper and iron, in paraffin and petroleum refining, silver refining, manufacture of garacine, garanceux, and other madder preparations, manufacture of glucose from starch, to dissolve indigo, &c.[216] In the diluted state it is used in medicine. When swallowed, it acts as a violent corrosive poison. The antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia, carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potash, mixed with water, or any bland diluent, and taken freely, an emetic being also administered.

[Footnote 216: Wagner.]

_Estim._ The strength of sulphuric acid is most correctly ascertained by its power of saturating bases. In commerce, it is usually determined from its sp. gr. The quantity of sulphuric acid present in a compound may be determined by weighing it under the form of sulphate, as explained in a former part of this volume. See ACIDIMETRY.

_Concluding Remarks._ According to most of our standard works on chemistry, British oil of vitriol, when purified and brought to its maximum strength by distillation, is a definite chemical compound, having the formula H_{2}SO_{4}, and designated normal sulphuric acid by Odling. Marignac, however, asserts that the distilled acid always contains an excess of water, and that the true monohydrate can only be obtained by submitting fuming sulphuric acid (‘Nordhausen s. a,’) to congelation. According to this chemist, the true monohydrate readily freezes in cold weather, and remains solid up to 51° Fahr. Two other definite hydrates of sulphuric acid are generally recognised by chemists, viz.——Bihydrated sulphuric acid (‘glacial s. a,’), having a sp. gr. of 1·78; freezing at about 40° Fahr. (47°, Miller); and boiling at about 435° (Apjohn; 401° to 410°, Odling): Terhydrated sulphuric acid, having a sp. gr. of 1·632, and the boiling-point 348° Fahr. See also SULPHURIC ACID, NORDHAUSEN (_below_).

=Sulphuric Acid, Al′coholised.= _Syn._ ACIDUM SULPHURICUM ALCOHOLISATUM, L.; EAU DE RABEL, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) To rectified spirit, 3 parts, add, very gradually, sulphuric acid, 1 part. It is generally coloured by letting it stand over a little cochineal. Refrigerent, and, externally, escharotic.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. dr. to water, 1 pint; as a cooling drink in fevers, &c.

=Sulphuric Acid, Anhy′drous.= SO_{3}. _Syn._ SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE, DRY SULPHURIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM SINE AQUÂ, L. _Prep._ 1. By heating Nordhausen acid to about 100° Fahr. in a glass retort connected with a well-cooled receiver.

2. By distilling anhydrous bisulphate of soda, which has previously been raised to a low red heat in an earthen retort, to which a receiver is fitted without the aid of corks.

3. (Barreswill.) 2 parts of the strongest oil of vitriol are gradually added to 3 parts of anhydrous phosphoric acid, contained in a retort surrounded by a freezing mixture; when the compound has assumed a brown colour, the retort is removed from the bath, and connected with a receiver which is set there in its place; a gentle heat is now applied to it, when white vapours pass over into the receiver, and condense there under the form of beautiful silky crystals. The product equals in weight that of the phosphorus originally employed. “If a few drops of water be added, a dangerous explosion ensues.”

_Prop._ White, silky, asbestos-like crystals, deliquescing rapidly, and fuming in the air; put into water, it hisses like a red-hot iron; it melts at 77°, and rapidly volatilises at 86° Fahr.; it does not redden dry litmus paper; sp. gr. 1·97 at 78° Fahr.

=Sulphuric Acid, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, ACID E. OF V.; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. & D.) Oil of vitriol, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; mix, add of powdered cinnamon, 1-1/2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1 oz.; digest for 6 days (7 days——Ph. D.), and filter. Sp. gr. ·974——Ph. D.

2. (Wholesale.) From compound tincture of cinnamon, 1 gall.; oil of vitriol, 1 lb.; mix, and in a week filter——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops, in the same case as the dilute acid.

3. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3; rectified spirit, 40; cinnamon, in powder, 2; ginger, in powder, 1-1/4; mix the acid gradually with the spirit, add the powders, macerate for 7 days, and filter.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 minims.

=Sulphuric Acid, Dilute′.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF VITRIOL; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sulphuric acid, 15 fl. dr., and dilute it gradually with distilled water, q. s. to make the whole exactly measure a pint. Sp. gr. 1·103. “1 fl. oz. of this acid is exactly saturated by 216 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.”

2. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 13 fl. oz. Sp. gr. 1·090.

3. (Ph. D.) Pure sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 13 oz. Sp. gr. 1·084.

4. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3; distilled water, q. s. to measure 35-3/4; mix by adding the acid gradually to the water.——_Dose_, 4 to 20 minims.

_Prop., &c._ Antiseptic, tonic, and refrigerant.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops, largely diluted with water, several times daily; in low typhoid fevers, passive hæmorrhages, profuse perspiration, in various skin diseases to relieve the itching, in dyspepsia, &c. It is also used externally.

=Sulphuric Acid, Nordhausen.= _Syn._ FUMING SULPHURIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM FUMANS, L. _Prep._ By distilling calcined ferrous sulphate (‘green vitriol’) in earthen retorts. The retorts, which are shown at A in the plate after the ‘green vitriol’ has been put into them, are placed in a galley-furnace, as shown below, the necks passing through the wall of the furnace, and being properly secured to the necks of the receivers (B B.). Into each of the flasks 2-1/2 lbs. of green vitriol are put; on the first application of heat only sulphurous acid and weak hydrated sulphuric acid come over, and are usually allowed to escape, the receivers not being securely luted until white vapours of anhydrous sulphuric acid are seen. Into each of the receiving flasks 30 grams of water are poured, and the distillation continued for 24 to 36 hours. The retort flasks are then again filled with raw material, and the operation repeated four times before the oil of vitriol is deemed strong enough. The residue in the retorts is red (peroxide) of iron, still retaining some sulphuric acid. The product is a brown oily liquid, which fumes in the air, is intensely corrosive, and has a sp. gr. about 1·900. When heated to about 100° Fahr. the anhydrous acid is given off, and ordinary oil of vitriol is left. According to Marignac, crystals of normal sulphuric acid (H_{2}SO_{4}) are formed in this acid when it is submitted to a low temperature. Nordhausen acid is so called from the place of its manufacture in Saxony. It may be regarded as a mixture or compound of H_{2}SO_{4} and SO_{2}. It is chiefly used for dissolving indigo.

=SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE.= See SULPHURIC ACID, ANHYDROUS.

=SULPHURIC E′THER.= See ETHER.

=SUL′PHUROUS ACID.= SO_{2}. _Syn._ SULPHURUS ANHYDRIDE; ACIDUM SULPHUROSUM, B. P. This compound is freely evolved in the gaseous form when sulphur is burnt in air or oxygen, and when the metals are digested in hot sulphuric acid; and, mixed with carbonic acid, when charcoal, chips of wood, cork, and sawdust, are treated in the same way.

_Prep._ 1. By heating together sulphur and strong sulphuric acid.

2. By the action of sulphuric acid on chippings of copper or mercury at a gentle heat. Pure.

3. (Berthier.) By heating, in a glass retort, a mixture of black oxide of manganese, 100 parts, and sulphur, 12 or 14 parts. Pure. The gas evolved should be collected over mercury, or received into water.

4. (Redwood.) Pounded charcoal, 1/2 oz.; oil of vitriol, 4 fl. oz.; mix in a retort, apply the heat of a spirit lamp, and conduct the evolved gases by means of a bent tube into a bottle containing water. The sulphurous acid is absorbed, whilst the carbonic acid gas passes off.

5. (B. P.) Distilled water, saturated with sulphurous anhydride. It is colourless and emits a pungent odour. Used as a deoxidiser, disinfectant, and antiseptic. Diluted with from 1 to 2 parts of water it is employed as a lotion for wounds, cuts, ulcers, bed-sores, scalds, and burns; with from 1 to 5 of water it is used as a gargle, also as a lotion in parasitic skin diseases; from 1/2 to 1 dr., in a wine-glassful of water, 3 times a day, relieves constant sickness.

_Prop., &c._ Water absorbs 30 times its volume of this gas. Pure liquid sulphurous acid can only be obtained by passing the pure dry gas through a glass tube surrounded by a powerful freezing mixture. Its sp. gr. is 1·45; boiling point, 14° Fahr.; it causes intense cold by its evaporation. Sulphurous acid forms salts called sulphites.

_Uses._ To bleach silks, woollens, straw, &c., and to remove vegetable stains and iron-moulds from linen. For these purposes it is prepared from sawdust or any other refuse carbonaceous matter.

Several preparations containing sulphurous acid have recently been invented by the Editor and introduced to the public as agents in sanitation under the name of _Sporokton_ (germ-killer). To understand the nature and merits of these preparations it is desirable to explain the true and individual meanings of ‘Deodoriser,’ ‘Antiseptic,’ and ‘Disinfectant,’——words which are too often improperly employed as if they had the same signification, and as if, in fact, they were convertible terms.

A deodoriser is a substance which will absorb or destroy bad smells; an antiseptic is an agent which will prevent or retard putrefaction; and a disinfectant is an agent which will render harmless the virus of smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, influenza, pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague, glanders, distemper in dogs, and other infectious or contagious diseases.

Now, medical authorities and sanitarians are of opinion that the most potent disinfectant with which we are acquainted is sulphurous acid, a gas which has been used for ages, as a fumigator. Sulphurous acid has not, however, been so generally employed for disinfecting purposes as one might from these circumstances have expected, on account of the difficulties and inconveniences which formerly attended its generation.

To remove these drawbacks, and to render sulphurous acid, both as a gas and in solution, easily and cheaply available for the above-named and many other applications, sporokton has been invented. Several varieties are made; they are as follows:

_Liquid No. 1._——This preparation consists of a colourless solution of a non-volatile antiseptic, usually a salt of zinc, impregnated with eighty times its bulk of sulphurous acid gas; in other words, one pint of the liquid contains ten gallons of gas. Liquid sporokton is, in fact, a combination of one of the most powerful antiseptics with the disinfectant; the former ingredient will effectually prevent the putrefaction of any solid or liquid animal or vegetable matter with which it may come in contact, while the sulphurous acid will rapidly pass off in the gaseous state into the surrounding air and act as an energetic destroyer of noxious atmospheric impurities.

Liquid sporokton absorbs ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, destroys bad smells, and prevents the spread of infectious diseases; it is, consequently, a valuable agent for the deodorisation and disinfection of wards of hospitals, sick rooms, dairies, larders, ship, stables, cow-houses, kennels, piggeries, slaughter-houses, urinals, water-closets, privies, cesspools, sewers, drains, and other similar buildings and places.

After it has parted with the whole of its sulphurous acid gas, liquid sporokton leaves an odourless, non-volatile antiseptic and absorber of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen.

Liquid sporokton evolves its sulphurous acid by simple exposure to air, without the aid of heat, so that no risk of fire attends its use, as is the case when rooms, buildings, holds of ships, &c., are fumigated with this gas by the old plan; it will not stain or in any other way injure undyed woollen, linen, or cotton goods. It is consequently well adapted for the disinfection of underclothing, sheets, blankets, bed-furniture, &c.

Liquid sporokton may be employed for the instantaneous preparation of a bath or lotion of sulphurous acid, to be used, under medical direction, in the treatment of itch, ringworm, chronic eczema, lepra, psoriasis, impetigo, pityriasis, &c., in man, as well as mange, scab, and other skin affections in the lower animals.

Liquid sporokton is clean, it requires no skill in using it, and its action is perfectly controllable.

_Liquid, No. 2._——This preparation is specially made for the disinfection and purification of old beer barrels, wine casks, and the like. It is similar in composition to, and may be used for the same purpose as No. 1; except, however, that as No. 2, unlike No. 1, is liable, from its containing iron instead of zinc, to stain linen, wood, &c., it should not be employed for disinfecting clothing or sprinkling over floors, decks of ships, and the like.

_Solid._——This is a powder, usually a mixture of calcium sulphite and ferric chloride, which, by simple expose to air, will slowly and steadily, or when sprinkled with water, rapidly give out 25 per cent. of its weight of sulphurous acid and leave no unpleasant smell behind it.

Sulphurous acid gas, unlike non-volatile disinfectants, quickly mingles with the air, and seeks out, as it were, the noxious atmospheric impurities it is capable of destroying.

Solid sporokton, in addition to evolving sulphurous acid, contains an excess of ferric chloride which, together with this gas, renders it a most useful and efficient antiseptic.

=Sulphurous Anhydride.= See SULPHUROUS ACID.

=SU′MACH.= This dye stuff is chiefly used as a substitute for galls. With a mordant of acetate of iron, it gives grey or black; with tin or acetate of alumina, yellow; and with sulphate of zinc, a yellowish-brown; alone, it gives a greenish-fawn colour.

=SUM′BUL.= _Syn._ MUSK ROOT, JATAMANSI, SUMBUL ROOT; SUMBUL RADIX (B. P.). A substance introduced to British medicine by Dr A. B. Granville, in 1850. It occurs in circular pieces, varying from 1 to 3 or 4 inches in diameter; has a musk-like odour, and a sweet balsamic taste. It acts as a powerful stimulant, especially of the nervous system. In India and Persia it has long been used as a medicine, a perfume, and as incense.——_Dose_, 15 gr. to 1 dr., either masticated, or made into an infusion, electuary, or tincture; in cholera, hysteria, neuralgia, epilepsy, low fevers, and various other spasmodic and nervous disorders.

=SUMMER DRINKS.= See LEMONADE, SHERBET, &c.

=SU′PER-.= See NOMENCLATURE.

=SUP′PER.= The evening meal; the last meal of the day. Supper is generally an unnecessary meal, and, when either heavy, or taken at a period not long before that of retiring to rest, proves nearly always injurious, preventing sound and refreshing sleep, and occasioning unpleasant dreams, nightmare, biliousness, and all the worst symptoms of imperfect digestion. The last meal of the day should be taken at least three hours before bedtime. Even when it consists of some ‘trifle,’ as a sandwich or biscuit, an interval of at least an hour should elapse before retiring to rest. In this way restlessness and unpleasant dreams will become rare.

=SUPPOS′ITORY.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM, L. A medicine placed in the rectum for the purpose of affecting the lower intestine, or, by absorption, the system generally. Suppositories are rounded, usually elongated masses, having the active medicine combined with some substance which will retain the proper shape, as soap, spermaceti cerate, or cacao-butter. The latter substance is, perhaps, the best vehicle for remedies prescribed in this form. It is, however, rather too soft to be used without admixture. According to Dorvault, the addition of one eighth part by weight of wax imparts the proper hardness.

All difficulty of removing suppositories from the mould may be obviated by having the moulds previously dusted with lycopodium.

The mode of proportioning the doses of active ingredients has been noticed in the article ENEMA.

=Suppository, Astringent.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM ASTRINGENS (Reuss). _Prep._ Powdered oak bark, 2 dr.; tormentil, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. For 8 suppositories.

=Suppository of Carbolic Acid.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM ACIDI CARBOLICI (Ph. U. S.). _Prep._ Carbolic acid, 12 gr.; oil of theobroma, 348 gr.; water, q. s. Dissolve the acid in a few drops of water, and mix it with 1 dr. of oil of theobroma; then add it to the remainder of the theobroma previously melted, and cooled to the temperature of 95° F., and pour the whole immediately into moulds of 30 gr. each, standing in iced water.

=Suppository of Copaiba.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM COPAIBA (Colombat). _Prep._ Solidified copaiba, 1 dr.; butter of cacao, 1 dr.; extract of opium, 1/2 gr.

=Suppository of Elaterium.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM ELATERII (St B. H.). _Prep._ Extract of elaterium, 2 gr.; hard soap, 10 gr.; water, q. s. Mix.

=Suppository, Emollient.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM EMOLLIENS. _Prep._ Butter of cacao and spermaceti in equal parts; melted together.

=Suppository of Iodide of Potassium.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM POTASSII IODIDII (Mr Stafford). _Prep._ Iodide of potassium, 1 gr. to 4 gr.; extract of henbane, 6 gr.; extract of hemlock, 6 gr. In enlarged prostate.

=Suppository, Irritant.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM IRRITANS (Richard). _Prep._ Butter of cacao, 2 dr.; aloes, 4 gr.; tartarised antimony, 1 gr. To restore the hæmorrhoidal flux.

=Suppository of Lead (Compound).= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM (B. P.). _Prep._ Acetate of lead, in powder, 36; opium, in powder, 12; benzoated lard, 42; white wax, 10; oil of theobroma, 80; melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add the other ingredients, previously rubbed together in a mortar, and, having mixed them thoroughly, pour the mixture while it is fluid into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

=Suppository of Mercury.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM HYDRARGYRI (B. P.). _Prep._ Ointment of mercury, 60 gr.; benzoated lard, 20 gr.; white wax, 20 gr.; oil of theobroma, 80 gr.; melt all but the mercurial ointment together, then add the ointment of mercury, stir till well mixed, and immediately pour into moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

=Suppository of Morphia.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM MORPHIÆ (B. P.). _Prep._ Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; benzoated lard, 64 gr.; white wax, 20 gr.; melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add the hydrochlorate of morphia and benzoated lard, previously rubbed together in a mortar, and mix all the ingredients thoroughly; pour the mixture, while it is fluid, into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr., or the fluid mixture may be allowed to cool, and then be divided into 12 equal parts, each of which should be made into a conical form.

=Suppository of Opium.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM OPII (Ph. U. S.). _Prep._ Extract of opium, 12 gr.; oil of theobroma, 348 gr.; water, q. s. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppository.

=Suppository for Piles.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM HÆMORRHOIDALE, S. SEDATIVUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Powdered opium, 2 gr.; finely powdered galls, 10 gr.; spermaceti cerate, 1 dr.

2. (Ellis.) Powdered opium, 2 gr.; soap, 10 gr.; mix.

3. (Richard.) Extracts of opium and stramonium, of each 1 gr.; cacao-butter, 2 dr. Used when the piles are very painful.

=Suppository, Pur′gative.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM CATHARTICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Soap, 1 dr.; elaterium, 1 to 2 gr.; mix. As a strong purge.

2. (Niemann.) Soap, 2 dr.; common salt, 1 dr.; honey, q. s.; mix. As a mild cathartic.

=Suppository of Quinine.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM QUINÆ (Boudin). _Prep._ Sulphate of quinine, 15 gr.; butter of cacao, 1-1/2 dr. Mix.

=Suppository, Resol′vent.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM RESOLVENS, L. _Prep._ (Stafford.) Iodide of potassium, 3 to 4 gr.; extracts of henbane and hemlock, of each 6 gr. In enlargement or induration of the prostate gland.

=Suppository of Rhatany.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM RHATANIÆ (P. Cod). _Prep._ Butter of cacao, 1 dr.; extract of rhatany, 15 gr., for 1 suppository.

=Suppository, Sed′ative.= See _above_.

=Suppository of Sulphate of Soda.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM SODÆ SULPHATIS (Phœbus). _Prep._ Dried sulphate of soda, 2 dr.; powdered soap, 4 dr.; honey, q. s. For 4 suppositories. To be smeared over with oil when applied.

=Suppository of Tannic Acid.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM ACIDI TANNICI (B. P.). _Prep._ Tannic acid, 36 gr.; benzoated lard, 44 gr.; white wax, 10 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; melt the wax and oil with a gentle heat, then add the tannic acid and benzoated lard, previously rubbed together, and mix thoroughly. Pour the mixture while it is fluid into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

=Suppository, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, S. VERMIFUGUM, L. _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Aloes, 4 dr.; common salt, 3 dr.; flour, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to make a stiff mass; divide into proper-shaped pieces, weighing about 15 gr. each. One to be used after each motion.

=Suppositories of Aloes.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA ALOES (B. P.). _Prep._ Aloes in fine powder. 1 dr.; oil of theobroma, 300 gr. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppository, omitting the water.

=Suppositories of Assafœtida.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA ASSAFŒTIDÆ (Ph. U. S.). _Prep._ Tincture of assafœtida, 1 oz.; oil of theobroma, 320 gr. Let the tincture evaporate by exposure to the air until of the consistence of a thick syrup, and proceed as for suppositories of carbolic acid.

=Suppositories of Belladonna.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA BELLADONNÆ (Ph. U. S.). _Prep._ Alcoholic extract of belladonna, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 354 gr. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppositories.

=Suppositories of Carbolic Acid with Soap.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA ACIDI CARBOLICI CUM SAPONE (B. P.). _Prep._ Carbolic acid, 12 gr.; curd soap, in powder, 180 gr.; starch, q. s.; mix the carbolic acid with the soap, and add starch, q. s., to make of a suitable consistency; divide into 12 equal parts, and make each suppository into a conical or other convenient form.

=Suppositories of Colocynth.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA COLOCYNTHIDIS (Sp. Ph.). _Prep._ Colocynth, 30 gr.; salt, 1 dr. Evaporate to a due consistence.

=Suppositories of Morphia with Soap.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA MORPHIÆ CUM SAPONE (B. P.). _Prep._ Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in powder, 100 gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the hydrochlorate with the glycerin of starch and soap, and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence. Divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be made into a conical or other convenient form of suppository.

=Suppositories of Tannic Acid with Soap.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA ACIDI TANNICI CUM SAPONE (B. P.). _Prep._ Tannic acid, 36 gr.; glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in powder, 100 gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the tannic acid with the glycerin of starch and soap, and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence, divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be made into a conical or other convenient form of suppository.

=Suppositories, Vaginal.= _Syn._ SUPPOSITORIA VAGINALE (Guadrist). _Prep._ Liquid chloride of zinc, 5 minims; sulphate of morphia, 1/2 gr.; mix with 2 dr. of the following paste:——Thick mucilage of tragacanth, 6 parts; white sugar, 3 parts; starch, 9 parts. Mr Druitt prescribes in leucorrhœa:——Tannin, 10 gr., with mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.

=SURGERY.= “This word,” says Brande, “in its modern acceptation, may be defined as the practical application of science, in the use of all mechanical and instrumental means, for the removal of diseases and the relief of human suffering.”

One of the earliest professors of the ancient art of surgery, of whom history affords a reliable record, was Hippocrates, a Greek, who lived in the fifth century of our era, and who seems to have been a man of considerable skill for the period in which he flourished, since he could set fractures, reduce dislocations, and perform other important operations. About two centuries after Hippocrates the studies of surgery, anatomy, and medicine were prosecuted with evident success at Alexandria. The Alexandrian school produced some able surgeons, one of whom, Ammianus, invented an instrument for crushing the stone in the bladder, and was thus the first to practise the now important surgical operation known as lithotrity. At the beginning of the Christian era Celsus practised the art of surgery in Rome; he appears to have been the first to operate for cataract, and to apply ligatures to arteries after operations. It is curious to note that so practical a people as the Romans held the art of surgery in comparative contempt, and banished its professors, whose services they discarded, for the practice of spells, incantations, and charms.

In the sixth century lived Œtius, who conceived the idea of dissolving urinary calculi by the administration of internal remedies; and in the tenth, Avicenna, who, it has been conjectured, invented the flexible catheter, and was the inventor of the instrument now known as Hey’s saw. In 1271 the Paris College of Surgeons was founded, and the College of Surgeons of London in 1460, and the Edinburgh College in 1505.

The most prominent figure in the annals of surgery of the 16th century was Paré, a man of great originality of thought, whose works exercised a considerable influence over his own contemporaries, and for many years subsequently. Towards the end of the 17th century lived Wiseman, serjeant surgeon to Charles II. Wiseman was a man of considerable ability, and was the first to demonstrate that gun-shot wounds were not of a poisonous nature; and that therefore the old practice of applying painful and caustic dressings to them might most advantageously be abandoned. A contemporary of Wiseman was Young, of Plymouth, who merits notice as being the first who performed the flap-operation in amputation.

In the 17th century also lived Frère St Cosme, a French monk, who obtained considerable fame as an operator for lithotomy, for the performance of which he regarded himself as especially chosen by Heaven. In the 18th century lived in England Cheselden and Douglas, two eminent lithotomists; John Hunter, Pott and Ley; in Scotland, Benjamin and John Bell and Monro; and in Ireland, O’Halloran and Deases; whilst in France flourished Petit, celebrated for his treatise on diseases of the bones; from Germany, Rechter and Haller.

In this century (1784) was founded the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. In the present century there are few branches of science in which greater progress has been made than that of surgery. From amongst the most eminent of the English surgeons of the present century we may select the following names:——Abernethy, Blizard, Astley Cooper, Brodie, Dalrymple, Guthrie, Aston Key, Liston, Stanley, Travers, Arnott, Bowman, Erichsen, Fergusson, Prescott Hewett, Hilton, Lane, Lawrence, Paget, Spencer Wells, Marshall, Christopher Heath, Durham, Bryant, Nunn, Lee, H. Smith, Mason, and Pollock.

=SUSPENDED ANIMATION.= See ASPHYXIA.

=SWAL′LOW.= Three or four species of _hirundo_ (Linn.) pass under this name. It was once held in great repute in medicine. Even the excrement was included among the simples of the Ph. L. 1618. The swallow is an insectivorous bird, but, like the sparrow and rook, is much persecuted for its good services. It has been calculated that, directly and indirectly, a single swallow is the humble means of lessening the race of one kind of insect alone to the extent of 560,970,489,000,000,000 of its race in one year.

=SWEEPING.= Before commencing to sweep, the floor should be strewed with a good amount of damp tea-leaves, saved for the purpose; these collect the dust and thereby save the furniture, which as far as practicable should be covered up during the process. Tea-leaves may also be advantageously used upon druggets and short-piled carpets. Light sweeping and soft brooms are desirable if these latter are to be operated upon. Many a carpet is prematurely worn out by over-violent sweeping.

In sweeping thick-piled carpets, such as Axminster and Turkey carpets, the servant should always be instructed to brush the way of the pile; by following this advice the carpets may be kept clean for years; but if the broom is used in a contrary direction, all the dust will be forced into the carpet, and soon spoil it.

=SWEET BALLS.= _Prep._ Take of Florentine orris root, 3 oz.; cassia, 1 oz.; cloves, rhodium wood, and lavender flowers, of each 1/2 oz.; ambergris and musk, of each 6 gr.; oil of verbena, 10 or 12 drops; beat them to a paste, form this into balls with mucilage of gum tragacanth made with rose water, pierce them, whilst soft, with a needle, and, when they are quite dry and hard, polish them. Worn in the pocket as a perfume. Some persons varnish them, but that keeps in the smell.

=SWEET BAY.= _Syn._ LAUREL; LAURUS NOBILIS (Linn.), L. The fruit (LAURI BACCÆ; LAURUS——Ph. L.), as well as the leaves (LAURI FOLIA), are reputed aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic. They were formerly very popular in coughs, colic, hysteria, suppressions, &c.; and externally, in sprains, bruises, &c.

=SWEET′BREAD.= The thymus gland of the calf. When boiled, it is light and digestible; but when highly dressed and seasoned it is improper both for dyspeptics and invalids. (Pereira.)

=SWEET FLAG.= _Syn._ ACORUS CALAMUS, L. A plant of the natural order _Orontiaceæ_. The rhizome (‘root’) is an aromatic stimulant, and is regarded by some as a valuable medicine in agues, and as a useful adjunct to other stimulants and bitter tonics. It is sometimes employed by the rectifiers of gin. The volatile oil obtained from it by distillation is employed for scenting snuff and in the preparation of aromatic vinegar.

=SWEET′MEATS.= Under this head are properly included confections, candies, and preserves, in sugar; but, as generally employed, the word embraces all the sweet compounds of the confectioner.

Sweetmeats, as well as cakes, blancmange, and jellies, are not unfrequently coloured with deleterious substances, the consequences of which are always pernicious, and in many instances have proved fatal. Gamboge, a drastic cathartic; chrome yellow, red lead, orpiment, emerald green, and various other pigments containing lead, arsenic, copper, or other poisons, have been thus employed. The whole of these may be readily detected by the tests and characteristics appended to their respective names.

The colours and stains which may be safely employed to increase the beauty of these articles are noticed under STAINS and LIQUEUR.

=SWEETS.= Home-made wines: British wines.

=SWINE-POX.= See POX.

=SYDENHAM’S LEN′ITIVE.= _Prep._ Take of rhubarb (recently grated or powdered), 3 dr.; tamarinds, 2 oz.; senna, 1/2 oz.; coriander seeds (bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 3 hours in a covered vessel, and strain. An excellent stomachic and laxative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful.

=SYL′VIC ACID.= _Syn._ SILVIC ACID. The portion of common resin or colophony which is the least soluble in cold and somewhat dilute alcohol.

=SYMBOLS.= In chemistry are representations of one atom of each of the elementary bodies, by the capital initial letter with or without the addition of a small letter of their Latin names. As C, for _carbon_; Fe (_ferrum_), iron; O, _oxygen_, &c.

Symbols, Alchemical[217]——

[Footnote 217: This list of alchemical and botanical symbols and abbreviations is a reprint of that contained in the ‘Lexicon of Terms used in Medicine and the Allied Sciences,’ now being published by the New Sydenham Society, under the Editorship of Henry Power, M.B., and Leonard W. Sedgwick, M.D.]

Acetum [symbol] Acetum destillatum [symbol] Acidum [symbol] Aër [symbol] Aerugo [symbol] Alumen [symbol] Alembic [symbol] Æther [symbol] Amalgama [symbol] Ammonium [symbol] Aqua [symbol] Aqua fortis [symbol] Aqua pluvialis [symbol] Aqua regia [symbol] Arena [symbol] Argentum [symbol] Arsenicum [symbol] Auripigmentum [symbol] Aurum [symbol] Aurantium [symbol] Baln. arenæ [symbol] Baln. mariæ [symbol] Baln. vaporis [symbol] Baryta [symbol] Bismuth [symbol] Borax [symbol] Calcaria [symbol] Calcaria usta [symbol] Camphora [symbol] Cancer [symbol] Caput mortuum [symbol] Carbo [symbol] Carbonicum [symbol] Carduus benedictus [symbol] Card. marianus [symbol] Cera [symbol] Cinis clavelatum [symbol] Cinis [symbol] Cinnabar [symbol] Cornu cervi [symbol] Cristalli [symbol] Crucibulum [symbol] Cuprum [symbol] Distillare [symbol] Ferrum [symbol] Fictile [symbol] Fixum [symbol] Flores [symbol] Gummi [symbol] Hora [symbol] Hydrargyrum [symbol] Hydr. chloridum [symbol] Hydr. corrosivum [symbol] Ignis [symbol] Kali [symbol] Lapis [symbol] Lithargyrum [symbol] Magnet [symbol] Magnesia [symbol] Menstruum [symbol] Natrum [symbol] Nitrum [symbol] Oleum [symbol] Oxidatum [symbol] Oxidulatum [symbol] Per deliquium [symbol] Plumbum [symbol] Precipitare [symbol] Preparare [symbol] Pulvis [symbol] Regulus [symbol] Resina [symbol] Retorta [symbol] Saccharum [symbol] Sal [symbol] Sal kali [symbol] Sal ammoniac [symbol] Sal medius [symbol] Sapo [symbol] Spiritus [symbol] Spiritus vini [symbol] Spiritus rectificatissimus [symbol] Spiritus rectificatus [symbol] Stannum [symbol] Stibium [symbol] Stratum super stratum [symbol] Sublimare [symbol] Succinum [symbol] Sulphur [symbol] Tartarus [symbol] Terra [symbol] Terra foliata [symbol] Tinctura [symbol] Vitriolum [symbol] Vitrum [symbol] Volatile [symbol] Urina [symbol] Ustare [symbol] Zincum [symbol]

=Symbols and Abbreviations, Botanical.=

[symbol] _Monocarp._ A plant which produces seed only once during its life. The symbol representing the sun.

=A=, [symbol] _Annual._ A monocarp which dies in the same year that it germinated, e.g. _Mustard_.

=B=, [symbol] _Biennial._ A monocarp which produces leaves _only_ the first year and perfects its seed the next, e.g. _Mullein_.

=P= _Perennial._ A plant which produces seed for an indefinite number of years, e.g. _Apple_.

[symbol] _Rhizocarp._ A perennial the stems of which die down to the ground every year, e.g. _Rhubarb_, _Mint_. The symbol representing Jupiter, which has a period of revolution round the sun of 12 years.

[symbol] _Caulocarp._ A perennial, the stems of which are persistent throughout the whole of its life, e.g. _Apple_. The symbol representing Saturn, the period of revolution of which round the sun is 30 years.

=H= _Herb._ A plant, the stems of which remain soft or succulent, e.g. _Mint_ or _Rhubarb_.

=S=, [symbol] _Shrub._ A plant in which the stems are woody, and which usually divide near the ground into numerous branches and twigs, e.g. _Lilac_.

[symbol] _Under shrub._ A small shrub; one that does not grow more than 3 feet in height, e.g. _Gooseberry_.

=T=, [symbol] _Tree._ A plant which grows to 20 feet or more in height, having a woody stem forming a distinct trunk, e.g. _Oak_.

[symbol] A climbing plant which follows the sun, e.g. _Hop_.

[symbol] A climbing plant which moves against the sun, e.g. _Scarlet-runner_.

[symbol] Flowers having stamens only (unisexual, staminiferous, or male), e.g. male flowers of _Box_. The symbol representing Mars, the period of revolution of which is 2 years.

[symbol] Flowers having pistils only (unisexual, pistillate, or female), e.g. female flowers of _Box_. The symbol representing Venus.

[symbol] Flowers having both stamens and pistils (bisexual or hermaphrodite), e.g. _Buttercup_.

[symbol] Abortive staminiferous flowers (neuter).

[symbol] Abortive pistillate flowers (neuter), e.g. the florets of the ray in _Daisy_.

[symbol] Monœcious plants, producing male and female flowers upon the same individual, e.g. _Box_.

[symbol] Diœcious plants, producing male and female flowers, but upon separate individuals, e.g. _Willow_.

[symbol] Polygamous plants, which produce hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers upon the same or different individuals, e.g. _Atriplex_.

[symbol] Indefinite in number; applied to stamens and other parts of flowers.

[symbol] Cotyledons accumbent, radicle lateral.

[symbol] Cotyledons incumbent, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Cotyledons conduplicate, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Cotyledons twice folded, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Cotyledons thrice folded, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Trimerous, applied to flowers when the whorls of the flower are multiples of three, as in most endogens.

[symbol] Pentamerous, applied to flowers when the whorls of the flower are multiples of five, as in exogens generally.

Bab., Babington. Berk., Berkeley. Br., Brown. Cal., calyx. Caul, caulis, stem. Cl., Classis, class. Cor., corolla. Cuv., Cuvier. D. C., or De Cand., De Candolle. Endl., Endlicher. Fam., family. Fr., fructus, fruit. Gen., genus, genus. Hook., Hooker. Juss., Jussieu. D. or Linn., Linnæus. Lindl., Lindley. Nat. Ord., Natural order. O. or Ord., ordo, order. Per., perianthus, perianth. Rad., radix, root. Rich., Richard. Sp. or Spec, species, species. Subord., Suborder. Subk., Subkingdom. Var., varietas, variety, V. s. c., vidi siccam cultam, a dry cultivated plant seen. V. s. s., vidi siccam spontaneam, a dried specimen seen. V. v. c, vidi vivam cultam, a living cultivated plant seen. V. v. s., vidi vivam spontaneam, a living wild plant seen. Willd., Willdenow. With., Withering.

=SYMPATHET′IC INK.= See INK.

=SYN′APTASE.= _Syn._ EMULSIN. The name given by Robiquet to the EMULSIN, a nitrogenised or albuminoid principle existing in both the bitter and sweet almond. It possesses the remarkable property of converting amygdalin, in the presence of water, into hydrocyanic acid and the essential oil of bitter almonds. 100 gr. of amygdalin yield, under the influence of synaptase and water, 47 gr. of raw oil, and 5·9 gr. of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid. (Liebig.)

=SYN′COPE.= See FAINTING.

=SYR′UP.= _Syn._ SIRUP, SIROP; SYRUPUS, L. A saturated, or nearly saturated, solution of sugar in water, either simple, flavoured, or medicated.

In the preparation of syrups care should be taken to employ the best refined sugar, and either distilled water or filtered rain water; by which they will be rendered much less liable to spontaneous decomposition, and will be perfectly transparent, without the trouble of clarification. When inferior sugar is employed, clarification is always necessary. This is best done by dissolving the sugar in the water, or other aqueous menstruum, in the cold, and then beating up a little of the cold syrup with some white of egg, and an ounce or two of cold water, until the mixture froths well; this must be added to the syrup in the boiler, and the whole ‘whisked up’ to a good froth; heat should now be applied, and the scum which forms removed from time to time with a clean ‘skimmer.’ As soon as the syrup begins to slightly simmer it must be removed from the fire, and allowed to stand until it has cooled a little, when it should be again skimmed, if necessary, and then passed through clean flannel. When vegetable infusions or solutions enter into the composition of syrups, they should be rendered perfectly transparent by filtration or clarification, before being added to the sugar.

M. Magnes-Lahens[218] describes below a process for the clarification of syrups, the originator of which was M. Demarest, a pharmacien. The process is as follows:——White unsized paper is beaten up into a pulp with a portion of the syrup, and then mixed with the bulk. The proportion of paper should be one gram to every litre of syrup; and the latter should be maintained at a temperature of 35° to 40° C.

[Footnote 218: ‘Germ. Pharm. Chem.,’ 4th Series, xv, 140 (‘Year Book, Phar.,’ 1872).]

A filter of moleskin capable of holding about one third of the volume of the syrup, and having the form of an inverted sugar-loaf, is supported over a suitable receptacle; the syrup with the pulp is poured rapidly into it, so as to fill it as quickly as possible; and the filter is kept full so long as any of the syrup remains. When the greater part has run through, and but little remains in the filter, and consequently the ‘felting’ of the paper pulp is complete, the syrup which has already run through, is again poured into the filter. The liquid which now passes is perfectly bright, and may be collected. In pouring the syrup into the filter, the stream should be directed into the middle, and not upon the sides, so as to avoid disarranging the felt, which would interfere with the success of the operation.

The author very strongly recommends this method for the clarification of all kinds of syrups; its advantages being that it results in a perfectly limpid liquid, and that it involves neither trouble nor loss of time or material. He states that in 4 or 5 hours, with a filter of 8 litres in capacity, 24 litres of syrup may be clarified.

The small quantity of syrup retained in the filter and pulp, may be recovered by pouring on a sufficient quantity of warm water, pressing strongly, evaporating the liquid to a syrupy consistence, beating up with a little paper pulp, and passing, it again through a small filter.

The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will, in general, be found to be 2 lbs. (avoir.) to every imperial pint of water or thin aqueous fluid. These proportions, allowing for the water that is lost by evaporation during the process, are those best calculated to produce a syrup of the proper consistence, and possessing good ‘keeping qualities.’ They closely correspond to those recommended by Guibourt for the production of a perfect syrup, which, he says, consists of 30 parts of sugar to 16 parts of water.

In the preparation of syrups it is of great importance to employ as little heat as possible, as a solution of sugar, even when kept at the temperature of boiling water, undergoes slow decomposition. The plan which we adopt is to pour the water (cold) over the sugar, and to allow the two to lie together for a few hours, in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and then to apply a gentle heat (preferably that of steam or water bath) to finish the solution. Some persons (falsely) deem a syrup ill prepared unless it has been allowed to boil well; but if this method be adopted, the ebullition should be only of the gentlest kind (‘simmering’), and should be checked after the lapse of 1 or 2 minutes.

Mr Orynski recommends the preparation of all syrups without the application of heat, as follows:

Introduce 30 or 32 oz. of sugar (according to the temperature) into a percolator, in which has been previously introduced a piece of lint or sponge, well adjusted, and gradually pour on 16 ounces of liquid, so as to make the percolate (syrup) pass drop by drop. If the first liquid is turbid pour it back into the percolator till the syrup passes clear.

The advantages claimed for this process are: First, the syrups are clear; and there is no necessity for purifying them.

Secondly, they possess their medicinal properties unaltered; since many drugs may be injured by heat, more especially aromatics, and those containing readily volatile substances; and——

Thirdly, the syrups will neither crystallise nor ferment; and may be prepared in large quantity, provided the vessels or bottles are clean before filling them with syrup.

When it is necessary to thicken a syrup by boiling, a few fragments of glass should be introduced, in order to lower the boiling point.

To make highly transparent syrups, the sugar should be in a single lump, and, by preference, taken from the bottom or broad end of the loaf, as, when taken from the smaller end, or if it be powdered or bruised, the syrup will be more or less cloudy.

Syrups are judged, by the laboratory man, to be sufficiently boiled when some taken up in a spoon, pours out like oil, or a drop cooled on the thumb-nail gives a proper ‘thread’ when touched. When a thin skin appears on blowing upon the syrup, it is judged, by the same party, to be completely saturated. These rude tests often lead to errors, which might be easily prevented by employing the proper proportions, or determining the sp. gr.

A fluid ounce of SATURATED SYRUP weighs 577-1/2 gr.; a gallon weighs 13-1/5 lbs. (avoir.); its sp. gr. is 1·319 to 1·321, or 35° of Baumé’s aërometer; its boiling-point is 221° Fahr., and its density at the temperature of 212° is 1·260 to 1·261, or 30° Baumé. The syrups prepared with the juices of fruits, or which contain much extractive matter, as those of sarsaparilla, poppies, &c., mark about 2° or 3° more on Baumé’s scale than the other syrups.

In most pharmaceutical works directions are given to completely saturate the water with sugar. Our own experience, which is extensive, leads us to disapprove of such a practice, since we find that, under all ordinary circumstances, a syrup with a very slight excess of water keeps better than one fully saturated. In the latter case a portion of sugar generally crystallises out on standing, and thus, by abstracting sugar from the remainder of the syrup, so weakens it, that it rapidly ferments and spoils. This change proceeds at a rapidity proportionate to the temperature. Saturated syrup kept in a vessel that is frequently uncorked or exposed to the air soon loses sufficient water, by evaporation from its surface, to cause the formation of minute crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom of the vessel, continue to increase in size at the expense of the sugar in the solution. We have seen a single 6-gallon stone bottle, in which syrup has been kept for some time, the inside of which, when broken, has been found to be entirely cased with sugar candy, amounting in weight to 16 or 18 lbs. On the other hand, syrups containing too much water also rapidly ferment, and become acescent; but of the two this is the less evil, and may be more easily prevented. The proportions of sugar and water given above will form an excellent syrup, provided care be taken that an undue quantity be not lost by evaporation.

The decimal part of the number denoting the sp. gr. of a syrup, multiplied by 26, gives the number of pounds of sugar it contains per gallon, very nearly. (Ure.)

In boiling syrups, if they appear likely to boil over, a little oil, or rubbing the edges of the pan with soap, will prevent it.

Syrups may be decoloured by agitation with, or filtration through, recently burnt animal charcoal. Medicated syrups should not, however, be treated in this way.

The preservation of syrups, as well as of all other saccharine solutions, is best promoted by keeping them in a moderately cool, but not a very cold, place. “Let syrups be kept in vessels well closed, and in a situation where the temperature never rises above 55° Fahr.” (Ph. L.) They are better kept in smaller rather than in large bottles, as the longer a bottle lasts the more frequently it will be opened, and, consequently, the more it will be exposed to the air. By bottling syrups whilst boiling hot, and immediately corking down and tying the bottles over with bladder perfectly air-tight, they may be preserved, even at a summer heat, for years, without fermenting or losing their transparency.

The ‘candying,’ or crystallisation, of syrup, unless it be oversaturated with sugar, may be prevented by the addition of a little acetic or citric acid (2 or 3 dr. per gall.).

The fermentation of syrups may be effectually prevented by the addition of a little sulphite of potassa or of limes. Chlorate of potassa has been proposed for this purpose by Dr Macculloch, on theoretical grounds. M. Chereau recommends the addition of some (about 3 to 4%) sugar of milk, with the same intention. Dr Durand asserts that by adding about 1 fl. dr. of ‘Hofmann’s anodyne’ to each pint of syrup, the accession of fermentation may not only be prevented, but arrested when it occurs, fermenting syrups may be immediately restored by exposing the vessel containing them to the temperature of boiling water. The addition of a little spirit is ordered in the new ‘London Pharmacopœia.’

In making the above additions to syrup, care must be had not to mix incompatible substances. Thus, in general the two methods referred to cannot be practised together.

Syrup is, perhaps, the worst possible form of medicine, owing to the difficulty of accurately saturating it with active medicinals, and its liability to change. Few persons think that “sweetness renders a nauseous drug more palatable.” See also Squire’s ‘Companion to the British Pharmacopœia.’

=Syrup of Ac′etate of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MORPHIÆ ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Solution of acetate of morphia, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 15 fl. oz.; mix. Each fl. oz. contains 1/4 gr. of acetate.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

=Syrup of Al′mond.= _Syn._ BARLEY SYRUP, ORGEAT; SYRUPUS AMYGDALÆ, L.; SIROP D’ORGEAT, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Sweet almonds, 1 lb.; bitter almonds, 1 oz.; blanch, beat them to a smooth paste, and make an emulsion with barley water, 1 quart; strain, to each pint add of sugar, 2 lbs., and a table-spoonful or two of orange-flower water; put the mixture into small bottles, and preserve it in a cool place. Some persons add a little brandy.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Sweet almonds, 8 oz.; bitter almonds, 2 oz.; blanch them, after cold maceration, then beat them in a marble mortar, with a wooden pestle, to a paste, adding, gradually, of water, 16 fl. oz.; orange-flower water, 3 fl. oz.; after straining through flannel, dissolve 3 lbs. of sugar in each pint of the emulsion. An agreeable pectoral and demulcent.

=Syrup of Aniseed.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ANISI. _Prep._ Infuse 1/2 oz. of bruised aniseed in 4 oz. of hot water, strain, and add 2 dr. of sugar.

=Syrup, Antiscorbutic.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ANTISCORBUTICUS (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Scurvy-grass, watercresses, horseradish, all fresh, of each 10 oz.; buckbean, 1 oz.; bitter orange peel, 2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; white wine, 40 oz. (by weight); macerate 2 days and distil off 10 oz. (by weight); then add to the distillate, sugar, 25 oz.; strain the residue left in the retort, decant and make into a syrup with another 25 oz. of sugar; clarify with white of egg, and when cold, add to it the former syrup.——_Dose_, 4 dr.

=Syrup of Balsam of Peru.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS BALSAMI PERUVIANI. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Balsam of Peru, 1 oz.; boiling water, 11 oz.; digest with frequent agitation till cold, and form 10 oz. of the filtered liquid into a syrup, with 18 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Bark.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CINCHONÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Calisaya bark, 1 oz.; percolate, with 10 oz. of proof spirits (·996), and then with water, so as to yield 10 oz. of liquid; distil off spirit, filter, and add 10 oz. of sugar; reduce by a gentle heat, so as to obtain 15-1/4 oz. (by weight) of product.

=Syrup of Bark, Vinous.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CINCHONÆ VINOSUS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Soft extract of bark, 1 oz.; white wine, 2 pints 3 oz.; dissolve, filter, add 3-1/2 lbs. of white sugar, and dissolve by a water bath.

=Syrup of Belladonna.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS BELLADONNÆ. (P. Cod.) Tincture of belladonna (P. Cod), 3/4 oz. (by weight); syrup, 10 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup, Boyle’s.= See SYRUP, SYMPHYTIC.

=Syrup of Buck′thorn.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS RHAMNI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. RHAMNNI CATHARTICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of Buckthorn, defecated by 3 days’ repose, 2 quarts; ginger and allspice, of each (bruised) 6 dr.; macerate the spice in 1 pint of the juice, at a gentle heat, for 4 hours, and filter; boil the remainder of the juice to 1-1/2 pint, mix the liquors, dissolve therein of white sugar, 6 lbs.; and add to the (nearly cold) syrup 6 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. In the Ph. E. the spirit is omitted.

2. (B. P.) Buckthorn juice, 97; ginger, sliced, 1; pimento, bruised, 1; refined sugar, 97; rectified spirit, 8 oz.; evaporate the juice to nearly half (5/8); add the ginger and pimento, digest at a gentle heat for four hours, and strain; when cold add the spirit, let the mixture stand for two days, then decant off the clear liquor, and in this dissolve the sugar at a gentle heat; sp. gr. 1·32.——_Dose_, 1 dr.

3. (Wholesale.)——_a._ Take of buckthorn juice, 3 gall.; bruised pimento and ginger (sifted from the dust), of each 1/2 lb.; simmer for 15 minutes, strain, and add of sugar, 44 lbs.

_b._ Take of buckthorn juice, 3 galls.; boil to 2 gall.; add of bruised pimento and ginger gruffs (free from dust), of each 3/4 lb.; boil to 1 gall., strain, add molasses, 72 lbs., and finish the boiling.

_Obs._ Syrup of buckthorn is a brisk but unpleasant cathartic. It is now chiefly used in veterinary practice.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz. Should the colour be dull, the addition of a few grains of citric or tartaric acid will brighten it.

=Syrup of Cabbage-tree Bark.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS GEOFFROYÆ. (Dr Wright.) _Prep._ Decoction of cabbage-tree bark made into a syrup with twice its weight of sugar. Vermifuge.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls.

=Syrup of Cahinca.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CAHINCÆ. (Soubeiran.) _Prep._ Alcoholic extract of cahinca, 64 gr.; syrup, 16 oz.; dissolve the extract in a little water, and add the solution to the boiling syrup.——_Dose_, 1 oz. daily.

=Syrup of Cap′illaire.= _Syn._ SYRUP OF MAIDENHAIR; SYRUPUS ADIANTHI, SYRUPUS CAPILLORUM VENERIS, L.; CAPILLAIRE, SIROP DE CAPILLAIRE, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Canadian maidenhair (_Adiantum pedatum_——Linn.), 4 oz.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; infuse, strain, add of white sugar, 5 lbs., and pour the boiling clarified syrup over 2 oz. more of maidenhair; re-infuse for 2 hours, and again strain.

_Obs._ Demulcent. Clarified syrup flavoured with orange-flower water or curaçoa is now commonly sold for CAPILLAIRE. It is usually ‘put up’ in small bottles of a peculiar shape, known in the trade as ‘capillaires.’ It is now chiefly used to sweeten and flavour grog. See CAPILLAIRE.

=Syrup of Car′rageen.= _Syn._ SYRUP OF ICELAND MOSS. _Prep._ Boil horehound, 1 oz., liverwort, 6 dr., in water, 4 pints, for 15 minutes; express and strain; then add carrageen (previously softened with cold water), 6 dr.; again boil for 15 minutes, strain through flannel, and add sugar, 1 lb., to each pint. An agreeable demulcent in coughs.

=Syrup of Castor, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CASTORII COMPOSITUS. (Lebron.) _Prep._ Valerian water, 5 oz.; cherry laurel water, 2-1/2 oz.; castor (dissolved in a sufficient quantity of spirit), 3 dr.; white sugar, 15 oz. In spasmodic asthma.

=Syrup of Catechu.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CATECHU. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Extract catechu, 2-1/2 oz.; syrup, 6 lbs.; dissolve the extract in double its weight of water, and add to the syrup.

=Syrup of Chamomile.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ANTHEMIDIS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Chamomile flowers, dried, 1 lb.; boiling water, 10 lbs.; macerate, strain with expression, and form the infusion into a syrup with twice its weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Chloral Hydrate.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CHLORALIS HYDRATIS. (B. Ph.) _Prep._ Hydrate of chloral, 80 gr.; distilled water, 4 fl. dr. Syrup to measure, 1 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. dr. to 2 fl. dr.

=Syrup of Chloride of Lime.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CHLORIDI CALCIS. (Dr Reid.) _Prep._ Liquid chloride of lime, 1 dr.; mucilage, 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel, 10 dr.

=Syrup of Cinchonine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CINCHONINÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Sulphate cinchonine, 20 gr.; syrup, 16 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Citrate of Caffeine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CAFFEINÆ CITRATIS. (Hannon.) _Prep._ Citrate of caffeine, 1 scruple; syrup, 1 oz.

=Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Ammonia.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI ET AMMONIÆ CITRATIS. (Beral.) _Prep._ Ammonio-citrate of iron, 1/4 oz.; syrup 9-1/2 oz. (by weight); cinnamon water, 1/4 oz.

=Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Quinine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI ET QUINIÆ CITRATIS. A syrup is prepared by Mr Bullock under this name, but its composition has not been made known. Another form is citrate of iron and quinine, 1 oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1 pint. (Beasley.)

=Syrup of Cit′ric Acid.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACIDI CITRICI (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (in powder) and distilled water, of each, 2-1/2 oz.; dissolve, add the solution, together with tincture of lemon peel, 5 fl. dr., to simple syrup, 3 pints, and mix with agitation. An agreeable refrigerant. Used for sweetening barley water, &c., and for flavouring water to be used as a beverage in fevers and other inflammatory diseases.

=Syrup of Cloves.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CARYOPHYLLI. (Ph. E.) _Prep._ Clove, July flowers, 1 troy oz.; boiling water, 4 oz.; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and add sugar, 7 oz.; make a syrup. Used for its colour and flavour.

=Syrup of Cochineal.= _Syn._ SRYUPUS COCCINELLÆ, SYRUPUS COCCI (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Take of cochineal (bruised), 80 gr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes in a closed vessel, strain, and add of sugar, 3 lbs., or twice that of the strained liquor; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., or 1/2 fl. dr. to each fl. oz. of syrup. Used as a colouring syrup, and often sold for SYRUP OF CLOVE-PINKS.

=Syrup of Cochineal, Alkaline.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS COCCI ALKALINUS. _Prep._ Cochineal in powder, 2 scruples; carbonate of potash in powder, 4 scruples; triturate, and add boiling distilled water, 16 oz.; strain, and add 4 oz. of sugar candy. A popular domestic remedy for hooping cough.——_Dose._ From a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful, according to the age of the child, 3 or 4 times a day.

=Syrup of Cod-liver Oil.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS OLEI MORRHUÆ. (Duclos.) _Prep._ Mix 5 parts of powdered gum with 4 of simple syrup; add 8 parts of cod-liver oil, triturate till perfectly mixed, gradually adding 12 parts of water; lastly, dissolve in the emulsion, 24 oz. of sugar by means of a gentle heat. In the same manner may be prepared syrups from the oil of skate, castor oil, &c.

=Syrup of Coffee.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CAFFEÆ. _Prep._ Concentrated infusion of fresh-roasted coffee, 4 oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; dissolved in a closed vessel by a gentle heat.

=Syrup of Colchicum.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS COLCHICI. (Ph. E., 1817.) _Prep._ Fresh colchicum, 1 oz.; vinegar, 16 oz.; macerate for 2 days, and strain with gentle expression; add to the clear liquor 26 oz. of sugar, and boil.

=Syrup of Colts′foot.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS TUSSILAGINIS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Flowers of coltsfoot, 1 lb. (or dried flowers, 2 oz.); boiling water, 2 lbs.; macerate for 12 hours; strain, press, filter, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. A popular remedy in coughs, colds, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, _ad libitum_.

=Syrup of Copaiba.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS COPAIBÆ. (Puche.) _Prep._ Triturate 2 oz. of copaiba with 1/2 oz. of powdered gum and 1-1/2 oz. of water; add 32 drops of essence of peppermint, and 12 oz. of simple syrup.

=Syrup of Corsican Moss.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HELMINTHOCORTI. (P. Cod.) Macerate 1 lb. of cleansed Corsican moss in 2-1/2 lbs. of boiling water; in six hours strain. Macerate the residue in sufficient boiling water, so as to obtain, including the product of the first maceration, 2-3/4 lbs., in which dissolve 5 lbs. of sugar.

=Syrup of Cream.= Finely powdered lump sugar mixed with an equal weight of fresh cream. It will keep for a long time if put into bottles, and closely corked and sealed over. It is commonly placed in 2-oz. wide-mouthed phials, and taken on long voyages, a fresh phial being opened at every meal.

=Syrup of Cyanide of Potassium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS POTASSII CYANIDI; SYROP DE HYDROCYANATE DE POTASSE. _Prep._ Clarified syrup, 16 oz.; medicinal hydrocyanate of potash (a solution of 1 part of cyanide of potassium in 8 of water), 1 dr.

=Syrup of Dittany.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS DIOTAMNI. From Dittany of Crete, as SYRUP OF HYSSOP.

=Syrup of Dulcamara.= _Syn._ SYRUP OF BITTER SWEET, SYRUPUS DULCAMARÆ. As SYRUP OF CORSICAN MOSS.

=Syrup, Easton’s.= This preparation is said to contain in each fluid drachm——1 gr. of phosphate of iron, 1 gr. of phosphate of quinia, and a 1/32 gr. of strychnia. The dose is 1 dr. A precipitate, which consists of phosphate of quinine, sometimes forms in this syrup. This may be obviated by avoiding as much as possible exposure of the syrup to the air, caused by filtration of the quinine solution into the syrup.

=Syrup of Eggs.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS OVORUM. (Fuller.) _Prep._ Beat the whites of 3 eggs with 6 oz. of plantain water, and work it in a mortar with 6 oz. of powdered sugar till they form a syrup.

=Syrup of Emetina.= SYRUPUS EMITINÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Coloured emetine, 12 gr.; syrup, 17-1/2 oz. (by weight); mix.

=Syrup, Empyreumat′ic.= Treacle.

=Syrup of Ergotine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ERGOTINÆ (Bonjean.) Ergotine (watery extract of ergot), 2 dr.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the solution to 16 oz. (by weight) of boiling syrup.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 spoonfuls in the day.

=Syrup of E′ther.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ÆTHERIS, S. Æ. SULPHURICI, L.; SIROP D’ÆTHER, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; white (simple) syrup, 16 parts; place them in a glass vessel having a tap at the bottom, shake them frequently for 5 or 6 days, and then draw off the clear syrup into small bottles.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3 fl. dr.

=Syrup of Eucalyptus.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. _Prep._ 1. 100 gr. of the chopped leaves are infused for 6 hours in 1 litre of boiling water, the liquid expressed, and after allowing it to deposit, it is made into a syrup by the addition of 190 grams of sugar, for 100 grams of the clear liquid.

2. (Dorvault.) Distilled water of eucalyptus, 50 parts; sugar, 95 parts; dissolve.

=Syrup, Euston’s.= See SYRUP OF PHOSPHATE OF IRON, WITH QUININE AND STRYCHNIA.

=Syrup of Fennel.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FŒNICULI. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Infuse bruised fennel seed, 2 oz., in 12 oz. of boiling water for three hours; strain off 10 oz., and dissolve it in 18 oz. sugar.

=Syrup of Foxglove.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS DIGITALIS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Tincture of foxglove (P. Cod), 1/2 oz. (by weight); syrup, 20 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Fumitory.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FUMARIÆ. (P. Cod.) Clarified juice of fumitory, 1 lb.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; boil to a syrup.

=Syrup of Garlic.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ALLII. (Ph. U. S.) _Prep._ Garlic, 6 oz. troy; distilled vinegar, 16 oz. (o. m.); macerate for 4 days; express, and form a syrup with the clear liquor and sugar, 2 troy lbs.

=Syrup of Garlic, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ALLII COMPOSITUS. Dr WILL’S SYRUP. _Prep._ Garlic, cut small, 1/2 oz.; bruised aniseed, 1/2 oz.; elecampane root, 3 dr.; liquorice root, 2 dr.; brandy, 24 oz.; digest for 2 or 3 days, strain, and form a syrup with 1-1/2 lb. of sugar.

=Syrup of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ZINGIBERIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Bruised ginger, 2-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 4 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs., or q. s.; and rectified spirit, as directed for syrup of cochineal. The Ph. E. omits the spirit.

2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 7 fl. oz.; mix. Stimulant and carminative. Chiefly used as an adjuvant, in mixtures.

3. (B. P.) Strong tincture of ginger, 1; syrup, 25; mix.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of Gold.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS AURI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Powdered gold, 20 gr.; syrup, 1 oz. As a local application.

=Syrup of Guaiacum Wood.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS GUAIACI LIGNI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Boil rasped guaiacum wood, 3 oz. twice, and for an hour each time, in 30 oz. of water; strain through a thick cloth; mix the two liquids, and concentrate until they are reduced to 6 oz. (by weight); let cool, filter through paper, and add 10 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Guarana.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS PAULLINIÆ, SYRUPUS GUARANÆ. _Prep._ Extract of guarana, 2-1/2 dr.; syrup, 32 oz.

=Syrup of Gum.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACACIÆ, L.; SIROP DE GOMME, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Dissolve pale and picked gum Arabic in an equal weight of water, by a gentle heat, add the solution to four times its weight of simple syrup, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, remove the scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent. The addition of 1 or 2 fl. oz. of orange-flower water to each pint greatly improves it.

=Syrup of Gum Ammoniacum.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS GUMMI AMMONIACI. (Wurt. Ph.) _Prep._ Dissolve 2 oz. of gum ammoniacum in 8 oz. of white wine, by the heat of a water-bath, and add sugar, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Gum Tragacanth.= SYRUPUS GUMMI TRAGACANTHÆ. (Mouchon.) _Prep._ Gum tragacanth, 1 oz.; water, 32 oz.; macerate for 48 hours, press through a linen cloth, and mix the mucilage with 8 lbs. of syrup, heated to 176° F., and strain through coarse cloth.

=Syrup of Hedge Mustard.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ERYSIMI. _Prep._ From the expressed juice of hedge mustard (clarified), 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs.; make into a syrup.

=Syrup of Hedge Mustard, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ERYSIMI COMPOSITUS, SIROP DE VELAR, SIROP DE CHANTRE. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Pearl barley, raisins, liquorice root, of each 3/4 oz.; cut and dried leaves of borage and chicory, of each 1 oz.; fresh hedge mustard, 15 oz.; dried elecampane root, 1 oz.; maidenhair, 1/4 oz.; dried lavender and rosemary tops, of each 1/4 oz.; green aniseeds, 1/4 oz.; sugar, 20 oz.; honey, 5 oz. Boil the pearl barley in the water until it bursts, add the raisins and the sliced liquorice, the borage and the chicory, and after just boiling strain and press. Then pour the strained liquid on to the other substances properly bruised and cut, and let the mixture digest for 24 hours over a water bath; then distil, drawing over 2-1/2 oz. liquid (by weight); on the other hand, press and strain the liquor that remains in the retort, clarify with white of egg, add the sugar and honey, and make into a syrup that, when boiling, shall have a sp. gr. of 1·29; when nearly cold add the 2-1/2 oz. of distilled liquid, and strain.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 oz.

=Syrup of Henbane.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HYOSCYAMI (P. Cod.). From the tincture (P. Cod.) as syrup of belladonna.

=Syrup, Hive.= Compound syrup of squills.

=Syrup of Horehound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MARUBII, L.; SIROP DE PRASSIO, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Dried horehound, 1 oz.; horehound water, 2 lbs.; digest in a water bath for 2 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs.

2. White horehound (fresh), 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gall.; infuse for 2 hours, press out the liquor, filter, and add of sugar, q. s.

_Obs._ A popular remedy in coughs and diseases of the lungs.——_Dose._ A table-spoonful, _ad libitum_. “It is sold for any syrup of herbs that is demanded, and which is not in the shop.” (Gray.)

=Syrup, Horseradish.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ARMORACIÆ. (Dr Cullen.) _Prep._ Scraped horseradish, 1 oz.; hot water, 8 oz.; digest, strain, and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of sugar.——_Dose_, 1 dr. frequently in hoarseness from relaxation.

=Syrup of Houndstongue.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CYNOGLOSSI. (Fuller.) _Prep._ Clarified juice of houndstongue boiled, with its weight of sugar, to a syrup. In catarrhous humours.

=Syrup of Hydrochlo′′rate of Mor′phine.= _Syn._ SYRUP OF MURIATE OF MORPHINE; SYRUPUS MORPHIÆ MURIATIS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Solution of muriate of morphia, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 17 fl. oz.; mix. Each fl. oz. contains 1/4 gr. of the muriate.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

=Syrup of Hydrocyanic Acid.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACIDI HYDROCYANICI. The Paris Codex orders a syrup, in which 200 parts (by weight) contain 1 part (by weight) of officinal medicinal hydrocyanic acid, containing 10 per cent. of anhydrous acid.

=Syrup of Hypophosphate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI HYPOPHOSPHITIS. (Wood.) _Prep._ Granulated sulphate of iron, 480 gr.; hypophosphite of lime, 326 gr.; diluted phosphoric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup, 3 dr. Dissolve without heat the iron in the acid, mixed with the water; rub the hypophosphite to fine powder, and pour on it the solution of sulphate of iron; rub together for two or three minutes; then pour the mixture on a piece of damp calico, and squeeze out the liquid; filter the solution so obtained, and add to it seven times its volume of syrup.

=Syrup of Hypophosphite of Lime.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CALCIS HYPOPHOSPHITIS. (Churchill.) _Prep._ Hypophosphite of lime, 1 part; syrup, 100 parts.

=Syrup of Hypophosphite of Potash.= See SYRUP OF THE HYPOPHOSPHITES.

=Syrup of Hypophosphite of Soda.= See SYRUP OF THE HYPOPHOSPHITES.

=Syrup of Hyposulphite of Soda.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SODÆ HYPOSULPHITIS. (Mouchon.) _Prep._ Hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz.; water, 12 oz.; sugar, 33 oz. Dissolve with a gentle heat, and filter.

=Syrup of the Hypophosphites.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HYPOPHOSPHITICUS. _Prep._ Hypophosphite of lime, potash, and soda, 1 part each, dissolved with heat in syrup, 100 parts.——_Dose_, 1 dr.

=Syrup of Hyssop.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HYSSOPI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ As syrup of coltsfoot.

=Syrup of Iceland Moss.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LICHENIS. Iceland moss deprived of its bitterness, 1 oz.; syrup, 32 oz. Make a concentrated decoction of the moss, strain and add the syrup, and boil to a proper consistence.

=Syrup of Indian Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HEMIDESMI (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Indian sarsaparilla (_Hemidesmus Indicus_——Brown), bruised, 4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for 4 hours, and to the strained and defecated infusion add twice its weight of sugar. Tonic, diuretic, &c.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 fl. dr.; in nephritic complaints, and in some others, instead of sarsaparilla.

2. (B. P.) Hemidesmus, bruised, 1; refined sugar, 7; boiling distilled water, 5; infuse 4 hours, strain, add the sugar, and dissolve. The product should weigh 10-1/2 oz., and measure 8. Sp. gr. 1·335.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of I′odide of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mix iodine, 1 oz., and iron wire 3 dr., with distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and heat the solution until it assumes a greenish colour; then strain it, evaporate it to about 4 fl. oz., and add to it of white sugar, 10 oz.; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add as much water as may be necessary, that it may measure exactly 15 fl. oz., and keep it in a well-stoppered black glass bottle. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar, a fl. dr. of each containing about 5 gr. of the pure dry iodide. This syrup is tonic and resolvent, and hæmatinic.——_Dose_, 15 or 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in anæmia, debility, scrofula, &c.

2. (B. P.) Iron wire, 1; iodine, 2; refined sugar, 28; distilled water, 13. Make a syrup with the sugar and 10 of the water, and keep it hot. Put into a strong soda-water bottle, covered with a cloth, the iron wire, the iodine, and 3 of the water, shake them together until the froth of the mixture becomes white, filter whilst still hot into the syrup. The product should be made up by water to weigh 43 or to measure 31-1/2. Sp. gr. 1385.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 minims.

=Syrup of Iodide of Iron, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI IODIDI COMPOSITUS. (Ricord.) _Prep._ This may be made by adding 1 oz. of the syrup to 9 oz. of compound syrup of sarsaparilla, both by weight.

=Syrup of Iodide of Iron and Quinine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI ET QUINIÆ IODIDI. (Bouchardat.) _Prep._ Digest 1 dr. of iodine with 1/2 dr. of iron filings and 4 dr. of water, with a gentle heat and frequent agitation, till the solution is colourless. Filter it rapidly into a vessel containing 28 oz. of simple syrup. Dissolve also 12 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 2 dr. of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and add to the former.

=Syrup of Iodide of Manganese.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MANGANESII IODIDI. (M. Hannon.) Pure hydrated carbonate of manganese, 1 dr.; concentrated hydriodic acid, q. s. to dissolve it. Mix this solution with 16-1/2 oz. of sudorific syrup.——_Dose._ From 2 to 6 tablespoonfuls daily.

=Syrup of Iodide of Potassium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS POTASSII IODIDI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Iodide of potassium, 1/4 oz.; water, 1/4 oz.; syrup, 9-1/4 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Iodine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS IODINII. (Foy.). _Prep._ Compound tincture of iodine, 4 dr.; mint water, 4 oz.; syrup, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Iodohydrargyrate of Potassium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS IODOHYDRARGYRATIS POTASSII (Puche). _Prep._ Iodohydrargyrate of potassium, 16 gr.; tincture of saffron, 2-1/2 dr.; syrup, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Ipecacuan′ha.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS IPECACUANHÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder), 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 15 fl. oz.; digest for 24 hours at a gentle heat, and strain; add of proof spirit, 14 fl. oz., and again digest and strain, and repeat the process with water, 14 fl. oz.; distil off the spirit from the mixed liquors, evaporate to 12 fl. oz., and filter; next add to the residuum rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz., and simple syrup, 7 pints, and mix well.——_Dose._ As an emetic for infants, 1/2 teaspoonful; for adults, 1 to 1-1/2 fl. oz.; as an expectorant, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls.

=Syrup of Iron and Iodide of Potassium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI ET POTASSII IODIDI. _Prep._ Dissolve 1 oz. of iodide of potassium in 6 oz. of hot water, add 12-1/4 oz. (fl.) of syrup of iodide of iron, and sufficient simple syrup to make up 1-1/2 pint.

=Syrup of Jalap.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS JALAPINUS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Jalap, 10 dr.; coriander, 1/2 dr.; fennel seed, 1/2 dr.; water, 12 oz.; heat to 212° F. for twenty minutes, let it stand 24 hours; strain, and make a syrup with 24 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Kermes.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS KERMETIS, SYRUPUS ANTIMONIATUS. _Prep._ Kermes mineral, 20 gr.; syrup of squills, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup of marshmallow, 1-1/2 oz. Mix.

=Syrup of Lactate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI LACTATIS. (Cap.) _Prep._ Lactate of iron, 1 dr.; boiling distilled water, 6 oz.; pure sugar, 12 oz.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of Lacto-phosphate of Lime.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CALCIS LACTO-PHOSPHATIS. (P. Vincent.[219]) _Prep._ Burnt bones, 155 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 310 gr.; liquid ammonia, 200 gr.; concentrated lactic acid, distilled water, of each q. s.; sugar, 18-1/2 oz.; leave together for some time the bone ash and the acid until effervescence ceases, then add distilled water, 500 gr.; precipitate with the ammonia, filter, and well wash the precipitate with distilled water, until the washings cease to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver. Leave to drain for 12 hours, after gently heating in a porcelain capsule, and add sufficient lactic acid to dissolve the precipitate; add sufficient distilled water to make the product weigh 9-1/2 oz.; filter, and add the sugar; make dissolve with a gentle heat.

[Footnote 219: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

=Syrup of Lactucarium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LACTUCARII. (U. S.) _Prep._ Lactucarium, 1 troy oz.; syrup, 14 oz. (o. m.); proof spirit, q. s.; rub the lactucarium with the proof spirit to a syrupy consistence, transfer to a percolator and percolate with proof spirit until 8 oz. (o. m.) of tincture have been obtained. Evaporate this portion in a water bath at 160°F. to 2 oz. (o. m.). Mix it with the syrup made hot, and strain immediately.

=Syrup of Le′mon.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LIMONIS (B. P.), SYRUPUS LIMONUM (Ph. L. & E.), SYRUPUS CITRI MEDICÆ. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Lemon juice (strained or defecated), 1 pint; white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set it aside; in 24 hours remove the scum, decant the clear portion, and add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz. The Edinburgh College omits the spirit. A pleasant refrigerant syrup in fevers, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr., in any diluent. With water it forms an excellent extemporaneous lemonade.

2. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, 2; lemon juice, strained, 20; refined sugar, 36. Heat the lemon juice to the boiling point, and having put it into a covered vessel with the lemon peel, let them stand until they are cold, then filter and dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid with a gentle heat. The product should weigh 56 and measure 41.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Lettuce.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LACTUCÆ. (P. Cod.) Dissolve 2 oz. of extract of lettuce in 8 times its weight of cold water, filter, and add 6 lbs. 2 oz. of syrup, which, when boiling, has a specific gravity of 1·26.

=Syrup of Lime.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CALCIS. (Trousseau.) _Prep._ Slake, 2-1/2 dr. of quicklime, with 3 oz. of water, and add it to 32 fl. oz. of simple syrup; boil 10 minutes and filter. This is usually diluted with 4 parts of syrup. Given in diarrhœa.

=Syrup of Liquorice.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS GLYCYRRHIZÆ. _Prep._ Liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling water, 16 oz.; digest, strain, and make a syrup with sugar.

=Syrup of Lobelia.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LOBELIÆ. (Mr Proctor.) _Prep._ Vinegar of lobelia, 6 oz.; sugar, 12 oz. Dissolve in a gentle heat.

=Syrup of Malate of Manganese.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MANGANESII MALATIS. (M. Hannon.) _Prep._ Malate of manganese, 1 oz.; simple syrup, 16 oz.; spirit of lemon peel, 2 dr.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Syrup of Manna.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MANNÆ. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Dissolve 3 oz. of manna in 12 oz. of water, strain and filter; then add 16 oz. of sugar, and make it into a syrup.

=Syrup of Mercury.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HYDRARGYRI. _Prep._ “There are several forms for mercurial syrups, but they all appear liable to serious objection. Plenk:——Quicksilver, 1 dr.; powdered gum Arabic, 3 dr.; syrup, 2 oz.; triturate and gradually add 1 oz. of water. Larrey:——Sudorific syrup, 1 pint; bichloride of mercury, 5 gr.; muriate of ammonia, 5 gr.; extract of opium, 5 gr.; Hofman’s anodyne liquor, 1/2 dr.——_Dose_, 1/2 oz. to 1 oz. Creron’s syrup consists of mercurial ether (4 gr. of sublimate to 2 dr. of ether), 2 dr.; syrup, 8 oz.” (Beasley.)

=Syrup of Marshmal′low.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ALTHÆÆ (Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Marshmallow root, fresh and sliced, 1-1/2 oz.; distilled water (cold), 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, strain it through linen, and add to the strained liquor twice its weight of white sugar (about 3 lbs.); dissolve by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., or q. s. See SYRUP OF COCHINEAL.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of fresh marshmallow root, bruised, 8 oz.; water, 4 pints; boil down to one half, and express the liquor when it is cold; set it aside for 24 hours, that the fæces may subside, then decant off the clear liquid, and, having added to it of sugar, 2-1/2 lbs., boil the whole to a proper consistence. The formula of the Ph. E. is similar.

_Obs._ This is a popular demulcent and pectoral.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in coughs, &c. either alone or added to mixtures.

=Syrup of Milk.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LACTIS. Reduce skimmed milk by gentle evaporation to one half, and add twice its weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Monosulphide of Sodium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SODII MONOSULPHIDI. (P. Cod.) Crystallised monosulphide of sodium, 44 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; syrup, 94 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Mugwort.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ARTEMISIÆ. As SYRUP OF WORMWOOD.

=Syrup of Mugwort, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ARTEMISIÆ COMPOSITUS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Take of fresh tops of mugwort, pennyroyal, catmint, and savine, of each 2 oz.; fresh roots of elecampane, lovage, and fennel, of each 88 gr.; fresh tops of wild marjoram, hyssop, feverfew, rue, and basil, of each 1 oz.; aniseed, 1/4 oz.; cinnamon, 1/4 oz.; all properly divided; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 oz. (by weight); water, 30 oz.; syrup of honey, 12-1/2 oz. (by weight). Put the plants in a vessel over a water bath, pour on the water mixed with the spirit, let it stand 24 hours, and then distil over 3-1/2 oz. (by weight). On the other hand, press the residue of the distillation, clarify with white of egg, and add sugar, 25 oz.; then make into a syrup, which, when boiling, has the sp. gr. 1·26. Take the weight and evaporate until it has lost weight, equal to that of the distilled liquid, then add the syrup of honey, and lastly, when nearly cold, the distilled liquid, and strain.——_Dose_, 2 to 12 dr.

=Syrup of Mul′berries.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MORI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of mulberries, strained, 1 pint; sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set the solution by for 24 hours; then remove the scum, decant the clear liquid, and add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz. Used as a colouring and flavouring, when alkalies and earths are not present. Syrup of red poppies (_rhœados_), slightly acidulated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is very generally sold for it.

2. (B. P.) Mulberry juice, 20; refined sugar, 32; rectified spirit, 2-1/2; heat the juice to the boiling point, and, when it has cooled, filter it; dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid by a gentle heat, and add the spirit. The product should weigh 54. Sp. gr. 1·33.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Mu′′riate of Morphia.= See SYRUP OF HYDROCHLORATE OF MORPHINE.

=Syrup of Opium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS OPII. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Extract of opium, 87-1/2 gr., dissolve in 6 dr. of cold water, and mix with sufficient syrup to make up 6-1/4 lbs. (1 in 500).

=Syrup of Orange Flowers.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS AURANTII FLORIS (B. P.) _Prep_. Orange-flower water, 8; refined sugar, 48; distilled water, 16, or a sufficiency; heat the sugar and water together, strain, and when nearly cold add the orange-flower water. When finished should weigh 72 and measure 54. Sp. gr. 1·33.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Orange Juice.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS E SUCCO AURANTIORUM. (Ph. E., 1744.) _Prep._ Orange juice, 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs. Dissolve by heat.

=Syrup of Or′ange Peel.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS AURANTII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), S. CITRI AURANTII, S. É CORTICIBUS AURANTIORUM, L. _Prep_. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 2-1/2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours in a covered vessel, press out the liquor, simmer it for 10 minutes, and then complete the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. In the Ph. E. & D., and Ph. L. 1836, no spirit is ordered.

2. (B. P.) Tincture of orange peel, 1; syrup, 7; mix.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

3. (Wholesale.)——_a._ From fresh orange peel, 18 oz. (or dried, 3/4 lb.); sugar, 18 lbs.; water, q. s.

_b._ From tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 19 fl. oz.; mix. An agreeable flavouring and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

=Syrup, Pectoral.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS PECTORALIS. (Ph. L. 1746.) Black maidenhair, 5 oz.; liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling water, 4 pints; macerate for some hours, strain, add to the infusion twice its weight of sugar, and make a syrup.

=Syrup of Pepsine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS PEPSINÆ. (Corvisart.) _Prep._ 6 parts of pepsin in 20 parts of cold water, and added to 70 parts of acidulated syrup of cherries.

=Syrup of Persulphuret of Iron.= SYRUPUS FERRI PERSULPHURETI. (Bouchardat.) _Prep._ Reduce 10 oz. of syrup by evaporation to 9 oz., and add 2 oz. hydrated persulphuret of iron in a gelatinous state; mix, and keep in a close bottle.——_Dose_. A teaspoonful two or three times a day in scrofulous and cutaneous affections. As an antidote for poisoning by the salts of lead, mercury and copper. Give a teaspoonful frequently.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI PHOSPHATIS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Granulated sulphate of iron, 224 gr.; phosphate of soda, 200 gr.; acetate of soda, 74 gr.; dilute phosphoric acid, 5-1/2 oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; distilled water, 8 oz. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in 4 oz. of the water, and the phosphate and acetate of soda in the remainder; mix the two solutions, and, after careful stirring, transfer the precipitate to a calico filter, and wash it with distilled water till the filtrate ceases to be affected with chloride of barium. Then press the precipitate strongly between folds of bibulous paper, and add to it the dilute phosphoric acid. As soon as the precipitate has dissolved, filter the solution, add the sugar, and dissolve without heat. The product should measure exactly 12 fluid ounces. One fluid drachm contains 1 grain of phosphate of iron.

In the preparation of this syrup as much expedition as possible should be used in washing and pressing the precipitate of phosphate of iron formed. It is best washed by decantation. The water employed should be just previously boiled to expel oxygen; the protosulphate of iron should be entirely free from persulphate, and clear crystals of phosphate of soda should be chosen. Mr Howie (whose suggestions the previous ones are in substance) proposes the use of bicarbonate of soda instead of acetate, the phosphate of iron being soluble to a considerable extent in the acetic acid liberated, if acetate of soda be employed. Mr W. H. Jones[220] gives a process for the preparation of this syrup, which consists in dissolving metallic iron in phosphoric acid and water, and then adding the solution to syrup.

[Footnote 220: ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, vol. v, p. 541.]

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI PHOSPHATIS COMPOSITUS; PARRISH’S CHEMICAL FOOD; SYRUP OF THE COMPOUND PHOSPHATES; SYRUPUS PHOSPHATICUS. (Mr E. Parrish, U. S.) Dissolve sulphate of iron, 10 dr., in boiling water, 2 oz.; and phosphate of soda, 12 dr., in boiling water, 4 oz. Mix, and wash the precipitated phosphate of iron. Dissolve phosphate of lime, 12 dr., in 4 oz. of boiling water, with enough hydrochloric acid to make a clear solution; precipitate with liquid ammonia, and wash precipitate. Add to the fresh precipitates glacial phosphoric acid, 20 dr., dissolved in 4 dr. of water; when clear, add carbonate of soda, 2 scruples, and carbonate of potassa, 1 dr., and then sufficient hydrochloric acid to dissolve the precipitate. Now add water to make the solution measure 22 oz. old measure, and add powdered cochineal, 2 dr.; mixed sugar, 32 troy oz.; apply heat, and, when the syrup is formed, strain it and add orange-flower water, 1 oz.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful. In addition to phosphate of iron and phosphate of lime this syrup contains smaller quantities of the alkaline phosphates. Mr Howie points out that Parrish is incorrect in stating that this syrup contains 1 gr. of phosphate of iron and 2-1/2 gr. phosphate of lime in the fluid drachm, if this statement be compared with his formula, which by calculation will be found to give ·715 gr. of phosphate of iron and 2 gr. of phosphate of lime for the fluid drachm, even if none of the former were wasted in the process. Mr Howie deprecates the use of hydrochloric acid sometimes had recourse to in preparing the syrup, and he adds that the purest sugar only should be used, and that made from beet-root should be carefully avoided. See a valuable paper by Mr Howie on this subject, ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, vol. vi, p. 804.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron and Manganese.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRIPHOSPHATIS ET MANGANESII. _Prep._ Dissolve 6 dr. of glacial phosphoric acid in a small quantity of water, add 72 gr. of phosphate of iron, and 48 gr. of phosphate of manganese; apply heat to dissolve, then add sugar, 10 oz., and water up to measure of 12 oz.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, with Quinine and Strychnia.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI PHOSPHATIS, CUM QUINIA ET STRYCHNIA.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Manganese.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MANGANESII PHOSPHATIS. (M. Hannon.) _Prep._ Phosphate of manganese, 1/2 dr.; spirit of tolu, 3 oz. 3 dr; syrup of bark, 5 oz.; spirit of lemon peel, 1-1/2 dr.; powder of tragacanth, 10 gr. Mix quickly and preserve in a well-stoppered bottle.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Quinine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS QUININIÆ PHOSPHATIS. _Prep._ Phosphate of quinine, 96 gr.; water, 13-1/2 fl. dr.; syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 2-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup, 10 fl. dr. Mix the acid with the water, add the quinine, and filter into the syrup.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Zinc.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ZINCI PHOSPHATIS. _Prep._ Phosphate of zinc, 192 gr.; water, 11 fl. dr.; syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 5 fl. dr.; syrup, 10 fl. oz. Rub the phosphate with the water, add the acid and filter into the syrup.

=Syrup of Phosphoric Acid.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACIDI PHOSPHORICI. _Prep._ Phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·454), 1/2 oz.; syrup, 32-1/2 oz. (both by weight). Syrup of raspberries may be substituted for simple syrup.

=Syrup of Pomegranate-root Bark.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CORTICIS RADICIS GRANATI. (Guibort.) _Prep._ Obtain from 1 lb. of powdered bark of pomegranate root 4 lbs. of infusion by percolation. Boil this with 28-1/2 oz. of syrup till reduced to 2 lbs.

=Syrup of Pop′pies.= _Syn._ SYRUP OF WHITE POPPIES; SYRUPUS PAPAVERIS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. P. SOMNIFERI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Poppy capsules, coarsely powdered, free from seeds, 36; rectified spirit, 16; refined sugar, 64; boiling distilled water, a sufficiency; macerate the poppy capsules in 80 of the water. Infuse for 24 hours, then pack in a percolator, and, adding more of the water, allow the liquor slowly to pass until 320 have been collected or the poppies are exhausted; evaporate the liquor by a water bath until it is reduced to 60; when quite cold add the spirit; let the mixture stand for 12 hours and filter. Distil off the spirit, evaporate the remaining liquor to 40, and then add the sugar. The product should weigh 104 and measure 78-3/4. Sp. gr. 1·32.——_Dose_, 1 dr.; 10 to 20 minims for children, increasing cautiously.

2. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads, dried, bruised, and without the seed, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 5 galls.; boil down to 2 galls., press out the liquor, evaporate the expressed liquid to 2 quarts, strain it whilst hot, and set it aside for 12 hours; next decant the clear portion from the fæces, boil this down to 1 quart, and dissolve in it sugar, 5 lbs.; lastly, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. “Each fl. oz. is equivalent to 1 gr. of dry extract.” In the Ph. E. & Ph. D. 1826 no spirit is ordered.

3. (Wholesale.) Extract of poppies, 1-1/2 lb.; boiling water, 2-1/2 galls.; dissolve, clarify, or filter, so that it may be perfectly transparent when cold, then add of white sugar, 44 lbs., and dissolve.

_Obs._ Syrup of poppies is anodyne and soporific.——_Dose._ For an infant, 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoonful; for an adult, 2 to 4 fl. dr. According to M. Chereau, its tendency to fermentation is prevented by the addition of 32 parts of sugar of milk to every 1000 parts of the syrup.

=Syrup of Potassio-tartrate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI POTASSIO-TARTRATIS. _Prep._ Dissolve 4 dr. of potassio-tartrate of iron in 4 dr. of cinnamon water, and mix the solution with 16 oz. of syrup.

=Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI PYROPHOSPHATIS. (Parrish.) _Prep._ Pyrophosphate of iron in scales, 16 gr.; syrup, 1 fl. oz.

=Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron and Ammonia.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI PYROPHOSPHATIS ET AMMONIÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Pyrophosphate of iron with citrate of ammonia, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; syrup, 12 oz.

=Syrup of Quinine with Coffee.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS QUINIÆ CUM CAFFEA. _Prep._ Prepare 1-1/2 pint of clear infusion from 4 oz. of roasted coffee; dissolve it in 5 lbs. of refined sugar, and add to the syrup 1-1/2 dr. of sulphate of quinine dissolved in a little water, with the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid.

=Syrup of Raspberry.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACETI RUBI IDŒA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Raspberry vinegar, 10 oz. (by weight); sugar, 17-1/2 oz.; boil them together.

=Syrup of Red Pop′pies.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS RHŒADOS (Ph. L. & E.), S. PAPAVERIS RHŒADOS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Petals of the red poppy, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 pint; mix in a water bath, remove the vessel, macerate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, and, after defecation or filtering, complete the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHINEAL.

2. (Wholesale.) From dried red-poppy petals, 3 lbs,; boiling water, q. s.; white sugar, 44 lbs.; as the last.

_Obs._ Syrup of red poppies is chiefly employed for its fine red colour. A little acid brightens it. The colour is injured by contact with iron, copper, and all the common metals.

=Syrup of Red Roses.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ROSÆ (B. P.), SYRUPUS ROSÆ GALLICÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Dried petals of the red rose, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; pure sugar, 20 oz.; as the last.

2. (Ph. D.) Dried petals of the gallic rose, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; boil in a glass or porcelain vessel until the colour is extracted, strain with expression, and, after defecation, add to the clear decanted liquor twice its weight of white sugar. Astringent and stomachic; chiefly used as an adjunct in mixtures, &c.

3. (B. P.) Dried rose petals, 1; refined sugar, 15; boiling distilled water, 10; infuse the petals in the water 2 hours, squeeze through calico, heat the liquor to the boiling point, and filter; add the sugar and dissolve with heat. The product should weigh 23 and measure 17-1/4. Sp. gr. 1·335.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Rhatany.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS KRAMERIÆ. (P. Cod.) As syrup of catechu.

=Syrup of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS RHEI (B. P.). _Prep._ 1. (B. P.). Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 2; coriander fruit, in powder, 2; refined sugar, 24; rectified spirit, 8; distilled water, 24; mix the rhubarb and coriander, pack them in a percolator, pass the spirit and water, previously mixed, slowly through them, evaporate the liquid that has passed until it is reduced to 13, and in this, after it has been filtered, dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

2. (P. Cod.) Bruised rhubarb, 3 oz.; cold water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 12 hours, filter, and add of white sugar, 32 oz.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Take of rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; water, 24 fl. oz.; rhubarb (coarsely powdered), 2 oz.; (mixed with) sand, an equal bulk, or q. s.; make a tincture by percolation, evaporate this, over a water bath, to 13 fl. oz., and dissolve it in 2 lbs. of white sugar. An excellent formula.

4. (Wholesale.) Rhubarb (bruised), 1-3/4 lb.; cold water, q. s.; sugar, 20 lbs.; as No. 1. Stomachic and purgative.——_Dose._ For an infant, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, 1/2 to 3/4 fl. oz., or more.

=Syrup of Rhubarb and Senna.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS RHEI ET SENNÆ. (Ph. E., 1745.) _Prep._ Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna, 2 oz.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and boil with 3 lbs. of sugar to a syrup.

=Syrup of Rhubarb (Spliced).= _Syn._ SYRUPUS RHEI AROMATICUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 2-1/2 oz.; cloves and cinnamon, of each 1/2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/4 oz. (all bruised); proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days (or percolate), strain, gently evaporate to 16 fl. oz., filter whilst hot, and mix the liquid with simple syrup (gently warmed), 4-3/4 pints. A cordial laxative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; in infantile constipation, diarrhœa, &c.

=Syrup of Ros′′es.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ROSÆ (Ph. L.), SYRUPUS ROSÆ CENTIFOLIÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of damask roses (_Rosa centifolia_), 7 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; macerate for 12 hours, filter, evaporate in a water bath to 1 quart, and add of white sugar, 6 lbs.; and, when cold, rectified spirit, 5-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Wholesale.) From rose leaves, 1 lb.; sugar, 19 lbs.; water, q. s.; as the last. Gently laxative.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 fl. oz. It is usual to add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, to brighten the colour. Alkalies turn it green.

=Syrup of Rue.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS RUTÆ, L. _Prep._ Take of oil of rue, 12 to 15 drops; rectified spirit, 1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add it to simple syrup, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; in the flatulent colic of children. An infusion of 1/2 oz. of the herb is sometimes substituted for the solution of the essential oil.

=Syrup of Saf′fron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS CROCI (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Hay saffron, 5 dr. (10 dr.——Ph. E; 1/2 oz.——Ph. D.); boiling water, 1 pint; macerate in a covered vessel for 12 hours, then strain the liquor, and add of white sugar, 3 lbs., q. s., and rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., or q. s. in the manner directed under SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. The Ph. E. & D. omit the spirit.

2. (Wholesale.) Hay saffron, 6 oz.; boiling water, 6 quarts; white sugar, 24 lbs.; as the last. Used for its colour and flavour; the first is very beautiful.

=Syrup of Salicin.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SALICINI. _Prep._ Salicin, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 oz.; sugar, 2 oz.

=Syrup of Santonate of Soda.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SODÆ SANTONATIS. This formula is recommended because of the adaptability of its administration to children; the syrup being of very pleasant taste. It is made as follows:——Powdered santonate of soda, 5 grams; simple syrup, 900 grams; syrup of orange flower, 100 grams. Suspend the santonate in 250 grams of the syrup, and heat it over a spirit-lamp until dissolved; add the remainder of the syrup, then the syrup of orange flower, and mix carefully. A tablespoonful or 20 grams of this syrup will contain 10 centigrams of santonate, or the equivalent of 5 centigrams of santonin. For adults the dose might be double, or a syrup made containing 20 centigrams to the tablespoonful.

=Syrup of Sarsaparil′la.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SARZÆ (Ph. L. & E.), SYRUPUS SARSAPARILLÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sarsaparilla (sliced), 3-1/2 lbs.; boil it in water, 2 galls., down to one half; pour off the liquor, and strain it whilst hot; again boil the sarsaparilla. in another gall. of water down to one half, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 1 quart, and in these dissolve of white sugar, 8 oz.; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add to it of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 15 oz.; boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate for 24 hours, boil to 2 quarts, strain, add of sugar, 15 oz., and boil to a syrup.

3. (Wholesale.) Take of extract of sarsaparilla, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 3 quarts; dissolve, strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs. Alterative and tonic.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 dr. See SARSAPARILLA.

=Syrup of Sarsaparil′la, Compound.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SARZÆ COMPOSITUS, L.; SYROP DE CUISINIER, Fr. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 2 lbs.; guaiacum wood, rasped, 3 oz; damask roses, senna, and liquorice root, bruised, of each 2 oz.; diluted alcohol (proof spirit), 10 wine pints (1 gall. imperial); macerate for 14 days, express, filter through paper, and evaporate in a water bath to 4 wine pints (3-1/4 pints, imperial); then add of white sugar, 8 lbs.; and, when cold, further add of oils of sassafras and aniseed, of each 5 drops, and oil of partridge berry (_Gaultheria procumbens_), 3 drops, previously triturated with a little of the syrup.

_Obs._ This is an excellent preparation; but the rose leaves might be well omitted.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. oz. 3 or 4 times a day, as an alterative, tonic, and restorative. The syrup of the P. Cod. is made with water instead of spirit, and is inferior as a remedy to the preceding.

=Syrup of Sarsaparilla, Ioduretted.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SARSÆ IODURETI. (Ricord.) _Prep._ Syrup of sarsaparilla, 31 parts; iodide of potassium, 1 part.

=Syrup of Senega.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SENEGÆ. (U. S.) _Prep._ Senega in moderately fine powder, 4 troy oz.; sugar, 15 troy oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints (o. m.) Introduce the senega into a percolator and pour on the proof spirit; when finished, evaporate the percolate by a water bath at 160° F. to 8 oz. (o. m.); filter, add the sugar, dissolve by a gentle heat, and strain whilst hot.

=Syrup of Sen′na.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SENNÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Take of senna, 3-1/2 oz.; fennel seed (bruised), 10 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 6 hours, with a gentle heat; then strongly press out the liquid through linen, and dissolve in it of manna, 3 oz.; next add this solution to treacle, 3 lbs., previously evaporated over a water bath until a little of it, on being cooled, almost concretes, and stir them well together.

2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 4 oz.; boiling water, 24 fl. oz.; infuse, strain, add of treacle, 48 oz., and evaporate to a proper consistence. Aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 dr.

3. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 8 oz.; oil of coriander, 4-1/2 minims; refined sugar, 12 oz.; distilled water, 50 oz.; or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; digest the senna in 3/4 of the water twenty-four hours at a temperature of 120°, press, and strain; digest the marc in the remainder of the water six hours, press, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 5 oz.; when cold add the rectified spirit containing the oil of coriander; filter, and wash the filter with water to make up to 8 oz.; add the sugar, and dissolve with gentle heat. The product should weigh 21 oz., and measure 16 oz. Sp. gr. 1·310.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Senna with Manna.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SENNÆ CUM MANNA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Infuse 10 oz. of senna leaves and 1 oz. of bruised fennel seeds for some hours in 205 pints of hot water; strain, and dissolve in the strained liquor 15 oz. of manna. Pour off 5-1/2 oz. (by weight) of liquid from the sediment, and dissolve it in 3 lbs. 2 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup, Simple.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS (B. P., Ph. L.), SYRUPUS SIMPLEX (Ph. E. & D.), L.

1. (Ph. L.) White sugar, 3 lbs.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Pure sugar, 10 lbs.; boiling water, 3 pints.

3. (Ph. D.) Refined sugar (in powder——crushed), 5 lbs.; distilled water, 1 quart.

4. (B. P.) Refined sugar, 6; distilled water, 3; dissolve the sugar in the water with the aid of heat, and when cool add water to make the product weigh 9 and measure very nearly 7. Sp. gr. 1·33.

5. (Wholesale.) Finest double refined sugar, 44 lbs.; distilled water, 2-3/4 gall.; make a syrup.

_Obs._ This preparation should be as white and transparent as water. Used as capillaire, &c., and to give cohesiveness and consistence to pulverulent substances in the preparation of electuaries, pills, &c.

=Syrup of Snails.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS LIMACIBUS (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Vine snails, deprived of their shells and of the black portions, and cut up, 2 oz.; wash in cold water and then boil with 10 oz. of water to 7 oz.; then add 10 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Soap Wort.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SAPONARIÆ. From the root, the same as syrup of coltsfoot.

=Syrup of Squills.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SCILLÆ (B. H., Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Vinegar of squills, 3 pints; white sugar (in powder), 7 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. D.) Vinegar of squills, 8 fl. oz.; refined sugar (in powder), 1 lb.; dissolve.

3. (B. P.) Vinegar of squills, 20; refined sugar, 40; dissolve with the aid of heat.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Take of vinegar of squills (perfectly transparent), 14 lbs.; double refined sugar, 28 lbs.; dissolve in a stoneware vessel, in the cold, or at most by a very gentle heat.

_Obs._ This syrup, like the last, should be as clear as water, and nearly colourless.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an expectorant; in chronic coughs and asthma. In large doses it proves emetic.

=Syrup of Squills, Compound.= =Syn.= HIVE SYRUP; SYRUPUS SCILLÆ COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Squills and senega, of each, bruised, 5 oz.; water, 1/2 gall.; boil to a quart; add of sugar, 4-1/2 lbs.; evaporate to 3 pints, or a proper consistence, and dissolve in it, whilst hot, of potassio-tartrate of antimony (in powder), 1 dr.

_Obs._ This syrup is a popular expectorant in the U. S., where it is known as hive syrup.——_Dose._ As an expectorant, 20 to 30 drops, for adults; for children, 5 to 10 drops; in croup, 10 drops to 1/2 fl. dr., repeated until it vomits.

=Syrup of Stinking Hellebore.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS HELLEBORI FŒTIDI. _Prep._ Sprinkle the fresh leaves of bear’s foot with vinegar, and express the juice. Boil this with twice its weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Stramonium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS STRAMONII. From the tincture as syrup of belladonna.

=Syrup of Strychnia.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS STRYCHNIÆ. (P. Cod.) The Paris Codex orders a syrup containing 1/4 gr. of sulphate of strychnia in 1000 gr. of syrup.

=Syrup, Sudorific.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SUDORIFICUS. (Foy.) Sarsaparilla, 6 oz.; guaiacum raspings, 6 oz.; water, 3 pints. Macerate for 24 hours, evaporate to 1-1/2 pint; strain, and make into a syrup with 2-1/2 lbs. of sugar.

=Syrup of Sulphate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI SULPHATIS. (Willis.) _Prep._ Sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; syrup, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Sulphate of Quinine.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS QUININÆ SULPHATIS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Dissolve 30 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 4 dr. of water, with 1/2 dr. of dilute sulphuric acid, and mix the solution with 13 oz. of white syrup.

=Syrup of Sulphuret of Potassium.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS POTASSII SULPHURETI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Liver of sulphur, 8 gr.; water, 16 gr.; syrup, 1 oz.

=Syrup of Superphosphate of Iron.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS FERRI-SUPERPHOSPHATIS. (Mr Greenish.) _Prep._ Superphosphate of iron, 2 scruples; simple syrup, 1 fl. oz.

=Syrup, Symphytic.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS SYMPHYTI; BOYLE’S SYRUP. (Ph. E. 1745.) _Prep._ Fresh comfrey root, 1/2 lb.; plantain leaves, 1/2 lb.; bruise, express the juice, boil to half, and make a syrup with an equal weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Tannin.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS TANNINI. (Foy.) _Prep._ Tannin, 2 oz.; water, 16 oz.; sugar, 32 oz.

=Syrup of Tar.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS PICIS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Tar water, 5-1/4 oz.; sugar, 10 oz. Dissolve by water bath, and filter through paper.

=Syrup of Tartaric Acid.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACIDI TARTARICI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Tartaric acid, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz,; sugar, 6 lbs. 1 oz. Dissolve in the cold.

=Syrup of Tartrate of Manganese.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS MANGANESII TARTRATIS. Made with tartrate of manganese, as syrup of malate of manganese.

=Syrup of Tolu′.= _Syn._ BALSAMIC SYRUP; SYRUPUS TOLUTANUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 10 dr. (1 oz.——Ph. D.); boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil in a covered vessel for 1/2 an hour, frequently stirring, then cool, strain, and dissolve in the liquor sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.

2. (Ph. E.) Simple syrup (warm), 2 lbs.; tincture of Tolu, 1 oz.; mix by degrees, and agitate them briskly together in a closed vessel.

3. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1-1/4; sugar, 32; water, 20; boil the balsam half an hour, adding water when required; when cold make up to 16, filter, add the sugar, and dissolve. The product weighs 48 and measures 36. Sp. gr. 1·33.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) To warm water, 23 lbs., add tincture of Tolu, gradually, until it will bear no more without becoming opaque; then cork down the bottle, and occasionally agitate until cold; when quite cold, filter it through paper, and add of the finest double-refined sugar, 44 lbs.; lastly, promote the solution, in a closed vessel, by a gentle heat, in a water bath.

_Obs._ This syrup should be clear and colourless as water; but, as met with in the shops, it is usually milky. It is strange that the London College should have omitted from their formula the usual addition of rectified spirit, although this syrup, perhaps more than any other, would be benefited by it.

Syrup of Tolu is pectoral and balsamic.

=Syrup of Valerian.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS VALERIANÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Infuse 1 lb. of bruised valerian in 4 lbs. of boiling water for six hours; strain, and press; then pour upon the marc 2 lbs. more of boiling water, or q. s. so as to obtain 4-1/2 lbs. of infusion, including the product of the first infusion; filter, and add 1 lb. of valerian water, and then dissolve in it, by the aid of a water bath, 10 lbs. of sugar.

=Syrup of Vanilla.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS VANILLÆ. _Prep._ Vanilla, 2 oz.; white sugar, 18 oz.; water, 9 oz. Beat the vanilla with a few drops of spirit, then with part of the sugar, and water, q. s. to form a soft paste; add the rest of the sugar and water, and digest for 18 or 20 hours in a glass vessel placed in a water bath. Strain and clarify with white of egg if required.

=Syrup, Velno’s Vegetable.= According to Dr Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this celebrated nostrum is prepared as follows:——Young and fresh burdock root, sliced, 2 oz.; dandelion root, 1 oz.; fresh spearmint, senna, coriander seed, and bruised liquorice root, of each 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil down gently to a pint, strain, add of lump sugar, 1 lb., boil to a syrup; and, lastly, add a small quantity of corrosive sublimate, previously dissolved in a little spirit. Used as an alterative and purifier of the blood.

=Syrup of Vin′egar.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ACETI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Take of vinegar (French, in preference), 11 fl oz.; white sugar, 14 oz.; and make a syrup.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 1 fl. oz.; as an expectorant, in coughs and colds, or diffused through any mild diluent, as a drink in fevers. A more agreeable preparation is that of the P. Cod., made by dissolving 30 parts of sugar in 16 parts of raspberry vinegar.

=Syrup of Vi′olets.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS VIOLARUM, SYRUPUS VIOLÆ (Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Macerate violet flowers, 9 oz., in boiling water, 1 pint, for twelve hours, then press, strain, and set aside the liquid, that the fæces may subside; afterwards complete the process with sugar, 3 lbs., and rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz. (or as much of each as may be necessary), in the way which has been ordered concerning syrup of cochineal.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh violets, 1 lb.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; infuse for 24 hours in a covered vessel of glass or earthenware, strain off the liquor (with gentle pressure), filter, and dissolve in the liquid white sugar, 7-1/2 lbs.

3. (Wholesale.) From double-refined white sugar, 66 lbs.; ‘anthokyan,’[221] 11 lbs.; water, 22 lbs., or q. s.; dissolve in earthenware.

[Footnote 221: The expressed juice of violets, defecated, gently heated in earthenware to 192° Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and filtered; a little spirit is next added, and the next day the compound is again filtered.]

_Uses._ Syrup of violets is gently laxative.——_Dose._ For an infant, a teaspoonful.

_Obs._ Genuine syrup of violet has a lively violet-blue colour, is reddened by acids, turned green by alkalies, and both smells and tastes of the flowers. It is frequently used as a test. A spurious sort is met with in the shops, which is coloured with litmus, and slightly scented with orris root. The purest sugar, perfectly free from either acid or alkaline contamination, should alone be used in the manufacture of this syrup. The Ph. E. orders the infusion to be strained without pressure; and the P. Cod., and some other Ph., direct the flowers to be first washed in cold water.

=Syrup of Wild Cherry Bark.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS PRIMI VIRGINIANÆ. (U. S.) _Prep._ Moisten 5 troy. oz. of coarsely powdered bark of wild cherry and water; let it stand 24 hours, then put it into a percolator, adding water till 16 oz. (o. m.) of liquid are obtained. To this add 2-1/4 troy lbs. of sugar in a bottle and agitate until it is dissolved.

=Syrup, Wilks’.= See SYRUP OF GARLIC, COMPOUND.

=Syrup of Worm′wood.= _Syn._ SYRUPUS ABSINTHII, L.; SIROP D’ABSINTHE, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Tops of wormwood (dried), 1 part; boiling water, 8 parts; infuse for 12 hours, strain, with expression, and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of sugar. Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

=Syrups for Aerated Waters.= 1. _a._ _Lemon Syrup._——Dissolve 1 oz. of citric acid in 4 oz. of water, and add to 9 pints of simple syrup; also add 4 fl. oz. of mucilage of acacia and half a fluid ounce of tincture of lemon.

_b._ Grate off the yellow rind of lemons and beat it up with a sufficient quantity of granulated sugar. Express the lemon-juice; add to each pint of juice 1 pint of water and 3-1/2 lbs. of granulated sugar, including that rubbed up by the rind. Warm until the sugar is dissolved, and strain.

_c._ Dissolve 6 dr. of tartaric acid and 1 oz. of gum Arabic in pieces in 1 gallon of simple syrup, then flavour with 1-1/2 fl. dr. of best oil of lemon. Or flavour with the saturated tincture of the peel in Cologne spirits.

2. _a._ _Orange Syrup._ To be prepared from the fruit in the same manner as _b_, Lemon Syrup.

_b._ Dissolve 6 dr. of citric acid in 1 gall. of simple syrup, and add 2 fl. dr. of fresh oil of orange in 2 oz. of alcohol, or, instead of the alcohol solution of the oil, use the saturated tincture, obtained by macerating the fresh peel for ten days in sufficient Cologne spirits to cover. The lemon and orange syrups made from the fruit, after being strained, may be diluted with an equal bulk of simple syrup. One dozen of the fruit is sufficient to make 1 gallon of finished syrup.

3. _Vanilla Syrup._ See SYRUP.

4. _Syrup of Coffee._ See SYRUP.

5. _Strawberry and Raspberry Syrups._ Mash the fresh fruit, express the juice, and to each quart add 3-1/2 lbs. of granulated sugar. The juice, heated to 180° Fahr. and strained or filtered previous to dissolving the sugar, will keep for an indefinite time. See also STRAWBERRY ESSENCE, FACTITIOUS.

6. _Pine-apple Syrup._ Expressed juice of pine-apple, 1 pint; sugar, 2 lbs. Boil gently, and when cold, filter.

7. _Nectar Syrup._ Mix 3 parts of vanilla syrup with 1 each of pine-apple and lemon syrup.

8. _Sherbet Syrup._ Mix equal parts of orange, pine-apple, and vanilla syrup.

9. _Grape Syrup._ Mix 1/2 pint of brandy, 1/4 oz. of tincture of lemon, and sufficient tincture of red sanders, with 1 gall. of syrup.

10. _Cream Syrup._ Condensed milk, 1 pint; water, 1 pint; sugar, 1-1/2 lb. Heat to boiling, and strain.

11. _Orgent Syrup._ Cream syrup and vanilla syrup, of each 1 pint; oil of bitter almonds, 4 minims.

12. _Ginger Syrup._ Syrup, 7-1/2 fl. oz.; essence of ginger (1 part of ginger to 4 of spirit), 1/2 oz.

13. _Syrup of Chocolate._ Chocolate, 8 oz.; syrup, sufficient; water, 1/2 pint; white of 1 egg. Grate the chocolate and rub it in a mortar with the egg. When thoroughly mixed, add the water gradually, and triturate till a uniform mixture is obtained. Finally, add syrup to 4 pints, and strain.

=TABASHEER.= A deposit chiefly composed of silica, found in the joints of the bamboo. When dry it is opaque, but possesses the property of becoming transparent when placed in water. Its deposition in the nodes and joints of the bamboo appears to be due to a diseased condition of these parts. Tabasheer is much and unduly prized by the natives of India as a tonic and constitutional restorative, and is chewed mixed with betel. It has the least refractive power on light of any body known.

=TABES DORSALIS.= A disease of the posterior column of the spinal cord, resulting in incoordination of the movements of the legs, sometimes spreading to the upper limbs, so that the patient in walking throws out the legs with a jerk, and brings them down violently upon the heels. Such patients are popularly called “Stampers.”

=TABLETTES.= [Fr.] See LOZENGES and SAVONETTES.

=TACAMAHACA.= The resinous substance known by this name, is believed to be obtained from the _Fagara octandra_ (of Linnæus), a large tree growing in the island of Curaçoa and in Venezuela. The juice, which exudes from the tree spontaneously, becomes hard upon exposure. The commercial article varies greatly in size, sometimes occurring in irregular-shaped pieces of one or two inches in diameter, whilst at others it is met with no larger than a mustard seed. The pieces are usually of a reddish-brown or light yellow colour. They have a resinous agreeable odour, with a balsamic, bitter, slightly acrid taste. Tacamahaca dissolves partially in alcohol, and entirely so in ether and fixed oils. It is composed of resin and a little volatile oil. There are several varieties of this substance. At one time Tacamahaca enjoyed a high reputation as an internal remedy for urinary and scorbutic affections. It is now only occasionally employed in medicine as an ingredient in ointments and plaster. Sometimes it enters into the composition of incense. In properties it is very similar to the turpentines.

=TAF′FETAS.= Plasters on silk are occasionally so called. For TAFFETAS ANGLICUM, see COURT PLASTER; for TAFFETAS VESICANS, see VESICANTS.

=TALC.= _Syn._ FOLIATED TALC; UBRUC. A transparent, foliated, siliceous magnesian mineral, flexible, but not elastic, found in Scotland, the Tyrol, and elsewhere. It is used as a cosmetic, to impart a silky whiteness to the skin; also in the composition of _rouge végétal_, and to give a flesh-like polish to alabaster figures. A second and harder species of this mineral (FRENCH CHALK, SOAPSTONE, STEATITE; CRETA GALLICA) is employed as a crayon by carpenters, glaziers, and tailors, and forms the boot-powder of the boot-makers. Writing executed with it on glass, even after being apparently removed by friction, becomes again visible when breathed upon.

=TAL′LOW= and other fats are commonly purified by melting them along with water, passing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and letting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of cleansed fat is obtained.——Another plan is to keep the tallow melted for some time, along with about 2% of oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water, employing constant agitation, and allowing the whole to cool slowly; then to remelt the cake with a large quantity of hot water, and to wash it well.——Another method is to blow steam for some time through the melted fat. By either this or the preceding process a white hard tallow may be obtained.——Some persons add a little nitre to the melted fat, and, afterwards, a little dilute nitric or sulphuric acid, or a solution of bisulphate of potash. Others boil the fat along with water and a little dilute nitric or chromic acid, or a mixture of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid; and afterwards wash it thoroughly with water. These methods answer well for the tallow or mixed fats of which ordinary candles are made.

Tallow converted into stearic acid by saponification is readily hardened and bleached, if moderately pure. A mixture composed of 1 part of oxalic acid and 2000 parts of water is sufficient to bleach 1000 parts of stearic acid. The mode of operating is as follows:——Throw the stearic acid, cut into small pieces, into a vessel of cold water, and turn on steam; as soon as it has melted and assumed a turbid appearance, add the solution of oxalic acid, and boil the mixture. After boiling for 3/4 hour, long threads appear in the liquid; the liquid itself, which previously was of a greyish colour, becomes black, and the threads unite together. The boiling must now be discontinued, and the contents of the vessel, having been allowed to settle for three or four hours, must be drawn off into the coolers.

As commercial stearic acid frequently contains undecomposed tallow, as well as various foreign matters, this process is occasionally unsuccessful. To obviate the inconveniences connected with the use of this impure material, the candle may be run at two operations, as follows:——“The stearic acid, treated as above, is exposed for a month to the sun, by which means the foreign matters are oxidised, and the bleached stearic acid acquires a dirty yellow colour; the oxidised blocks are then melted in water containing a little sulphuric acid, at about 150° Fahr.; an addition of about 10 per cent. of good white wax (or spermaceti) is next made, and the whole boiled for half an hour; the white of an egg, previously beaten up in a quart of water, is then added to each 1 cwt. of stearic acid, the temperature of the mass having been reduced to 100°, or at most 120° Fahr., after which the mixture is again well stirred and boiled, when the liquid soon becomes clear, which is seen by the dark colour it assumes.

“This mixture of stearic acid and wax or spermaceti is very suitable for forming the exterior coating of the candle; it is transparent, and of perfect whiteness, and, as it is devoid of oxalic acid, it does not injure the moulds; whilst at the same time, as it is less fusible than pure stearic acid, candles made with it do not run. The first coating may be run hot without crystallising; the interior of the candle, being protected from without against too sudden a cooling, may also be run somewhat hot; by this means the candle acquires a whiteness and a transparency which cannot be realised by other processes.” (‘Le Moniteur Industriel.’)

The sulphuric acid saponification of inferior tallow and other solid or semi-solid fatty bodies is now carried out on a very large scale for producing the cheaper varieties of ‘stearine candles.’ For this purpose, the tallow or fat is mixed with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid, and exposed to a steam heat of 350° to 360° Fahr. After cooling, the black mass thus obtained crystallises to a tolerably solid fat, which is well washed once or twice with water, or high-pressure steam, and is then submitted to distillation by the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. The product of the distillation is beautifully white, and may be at once used for making candles. It is better, however, to first submit it to the processes of cold and hot pressing, whereby a much more solid fat is obtained.

According to M. Pohl, palm oil or palm tallow is most easily purified by simple exposure to a high temperature, provided it has been first well defecated. When quickly heated to about 465° Fahr., and kept at that temperature for from 5 to 15 minutes, it is completely decoloured. The product has a slight empyreumatic odour, but this disappears by age, exposure, or saponification, and the natural violet odour of the oil returns. Cast-iron pans should be employed in the process, and should be only 2-3rds filled, and well covered during the operation.

By the distillation of sulphurated palm oil in closed vessels, at a heat ranging from 570° to 600° Fahr., from 68% to 75% of a mixture of palmitic and palm-oleic acid passes over, of which 25% to 30% is colourless, hard, and crystalline, and the rest darker and softer. (Pohl.) The residuum in the still is a fine hard pitch. See CANDLES, FAT, GLYCERIN, OILS (Fixed), STEARIC ACID, &c.

=TAMAR′A.= A mixed spice used in Italian cookery, consisting of cinnamon, cloves, and corianders, of each 2 parts; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1 part.

=TAM′ARIND.= _Syn._ TAMARINDUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The pulp or preserved fruit or pod of the _Tamarindus Indica_, or tamarind tree.

Tamarind pulp is refrigerant and gently laxative. Mixed with water, it forms a grateful acidulous drink in fevers.——_Dose_, 1/4 oz. and upwards.

_Composition of the Tamarind._——Vanquelin.

Citric acid 9·40 per cent. Tartaric ” 1·55 ” Malic ” 0·45 ” Bitartrate of potash 3·25 ” Sugar 12·50 ”

Besides gum, vegetable jelly, parenchyma, and water.

=TANKS.= The difference between water-tanks and cisterns is not very obvious. Perhaps the definition the most nearly representing the general idea respecting them would be, that whilst both were receptacles for water, in tanks water would be stored for a longer period than in cisterns, which supplying the constantly recurring needs of a house or a building of any kind would be more frequently filled and emptied; although in many instances there might be no such distinction between them, and they might be regarded as synonymous. In whatever sense the terms may be understood, the remarks that follow as to their construction and management have a common application.

The materials for tanks and cisterns for the reception of water consist of stone, cement, brick, slate, iron, zinc, and lead. Of these materials, the best, although the dearest, is slate. The slate cistern, however, is occasionally liable to leakage, a defect mostly arising from the employment of mortar instead of cement for joining the slabs.

Wrought-iron cisterns and tanks as well as the pipes in connection with them are in very general use. The tendency of both to corrosion by the action of the water is considerably reduced by coating the insides with Portland cement or a vitreous glaze.

Mr Burn advocates the employment of a compound of tar, which, he says, most effectually protects them. Zinc, although cheap, and little acted upon by water, is seldom employed for cisterns. Dr Osborne says he has seen several cases of zinc poisoning, caused by drinking water that had passed through zinc pipes, or had stood in zinc pails. Equal, if not greater risk is incurred when drinking-water is kept in lead cisterns, or is made to run through lead pipes. In setting up cisterns or tanks made of stone or cement, common mortar must not be used, as lime is taken up and the water is rendered hard in consequence.

In seasons of drought it is by no means an unusual occurrence for many rural districts to lack a sufficiency of water, the limited supply of which entails considerable suffering, sometimes terminating fatally upon farm stock, with frequent loss to the owners. Few persons, perhaps, can form a correct idea of the immense quantity of water that in the shape of rain falls even in the least humid portions of our islands. If this rain, which is now allowed to run waste, were properly collected and stored, it would form a valuable resource in times and at places where there was a dearth or scarcity of this necessary element.

Mr Bayley Denton, writing on this subject, says:——“Take an ordinary middle-class house in a village with stabling and outbuildings, the space of ground covered by the roofs will frequently reach 10 poles, while the space covered by a farm-labourer’s cottage and outbuildings will be 2-1/2 poles.

Assuming that the roof is slate and the water dripping from it is properly caught by eave-troughing, and conducted by down-pipes and impervious drain-pipes into a water-tight tank sufficiently capacious to prevent overflow under any circumstances, and that by this method 20 inches of water from rain and dew are collected in the course of the year, the private houses will have the command of 28,280 gallons, and the cottage 7070 gallons in a year.... A tank 16 feet long, and ten feet wide, will hold 1000 gallons in every foot of depth, and where the water is not wanted for drinking, it need not be covered, except with a common boarded floating roof of half-inch boards fastened together. This floating roof keeps the water clean, and prevents evaporation.”[222]

[Footnote 222: ‘On the Storage of Water,’ by Bayley Denton.]

Leakage of pipes of any kind into a cistern or tank should be particularly guarded against. Another important precaution claiming adoption is to see that the overflow-pipe is not directly connected with the sewer, for if it be, the sewer gases will rise through it, and being prevented escaping from the cistern because of its covering, will become absorbed by the water. To obviate this, the overflow-pipe is curved, so as to force a syphon trap; but this device conduces to a sense of false security, since it mostly fails owing to the evaporation of the water in it, or to the gases forcing their way through it. The overflow-pipe, therefore, should never have direct communication with the sewer, but should always end above ground, and discharge over a trapped grating into it. For similar reasons the same tanks or cisterns should never supply the water used for culinary or drinking purposes and also the water-closets.

To the water in the tanks attached to these latter, some disinfectant substance should from time to time be added; more particularly during hot weather.

Unless a cistern be efficiently protected, particularly if it be placed in an exposed situation, various disgusting and filthy substances, such as the ordure of birds, cats, rats, and dead insects, &c., will be liable to fall into it, and foul its contents. This must not only be guarded against by the proper means, but even where the contamination may not be suspected, or likely to occur, the cistern should be frequently examined and periodically cleansed; part of the proper carrying out of which should consist in always running off the water remaining in it and renewing it with fresh.

The London and General Water Purifying Company have adopted an excellent idea in connection with tanks and cisterns; they fit them with filters, so that the water drawn from the pipes shall have been submitted to filtration previous to delivery.

=TAN′NATE.= A salt of tannic acid.

=TAN′NER’S BARK.= The best of this is oak bark; but the bark of the chestnut, willow, and larch, and other trees which abound in tannin, are also used for preparing leather.

=TAN′NIC ACID.= C_{27}H_{22}O_{17}. _Syn._ TAN, TANNIN, GALLO-TANNIC ACID†; TANNINUM, ACIDUM TANNICUM (B. P., Ph. L., D., & U. S.), L. A peculiar vegetable principle, remarkable for its astringency and its power of converting the skins of animals into leather.

_Prep._ 1. (Pelouze.) From galls, in moderately fine powder, by percolation, in a closed vessel, with sulphuric ether that has been previously agitated with water. After some time the percolated liquid will be found divided into two distinct portions, the lower and heavier one being a watery solution of tannic acid, and the upper one an ethereal solution of gallic acid and colouring matter. Fresh ether must be passed through the powder as long as the lower stratum of liquid continues to augment. The two fluids are now carefully separated, and after the heavier one has been well washed with ether, it is gently evaporated to dryness, preferably under the receiver of an air pump, or over sulphuric acid. The ether may be recovered unaltered from the ethereal solution, by cautious distillation in a retort connected with a Liebig’s condenser supplied with ice-cold water. _Prod._ About 40%.

2. (Ph. D.) From galls, in tolerably fine powder, 8 oz., and a mixture of sulphuric ether, 3 pints, with water, 5 fl. oz.; by percolation, in successive portions, like the last; the aqueous solution of tannic acid being evaporated, and finally dried at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr.

_Prop., &c._ Pure tannic acid is perfectly white, but as ordinarily met with it has a slight yellowish colour, owing to the action of the air; it is uncrystallisable; possesses a powerful and purely astringent taste, without bitterness; is freely soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and only very slightly in ether; it reddens vegetable blues; when boiled with acids, it assimilates water and splits into gallic acid and grape sugar; when heated in the dry state, it suffers decomposition, metagallic and pyrogallic acids being formed; it unites with the bases, forming salts called tannates, which are characterised by striking a deep black with the persalts of iron (ink), and forming a white precipitate with gelatin.

E. Schmidt[223] gives the following comparative method of determining tanning materials, stating, preliminarily, “that the question to be solved is, knowing that a certain weight of pure tannin is required to obtain a certain result, how much of another tanning body, _e.g._ the extract of a wood, is required to produce the same result? None of the published methods for the determination of tannin is sufficiently precise, easy, and rapid for industrial purposes.”

[Footnote 223: Chem. News, from ‘Bull. de la Soc. Chem. de Paris.’]

The author proposes a modification of Pibram’s method with sugar of lead, the modification being as follows:

A. _Preparation of the Test Liquor._ Fifty grams neutral acetate of lead are dissolved in 400 grams of alcohol, of 92 per cent., and distilled water is added to make up 1 litre.

On the other hand, 1 gram of tannin is dissolved in 40 grams of alcohol of the same strength, and the solution is made up with water to the bulk of 100 c.c. This being done, 10 c.c. of the tannin solution are mixed with 20 c.c. of water, and heated to 60°. The lead liquor is then run into the hot solution from a burette, graduated to tenths of a c.c., so long as a precipitate is formed. At this temperature, and with these alcoholised liquids, the precipitate forms and settles rapidly. Iodide of potassium may be used as an indicator to show excess of lead, proceeding in the same manner as is done with ferrocyanide in titrating phosphates with nitrate of uranium. If we suppose that to precipitate 10 c.c. of the tannin solution 28° of the lead liquor have been required, then 2·8 c.c. of the latter = 0·10 gram of tannin.

B. _Preparation of the Sample to be tested._ Suppose that chestnut bark is to be examined. It is coarsely powdered, and 10 grams are mixed with an equal volume of washed sand, and exhausted with water at 50° or 60° C. The filtered liquid is evaporated to dryness in a water bath in a tarred porcelain capsule. After evaporation the capsule is weighed, which shows the yield of the bark in aqueous extract. This is taken up in 40 grams of alcohol at 92°, and water is added to make up 100° c.c. The liquid is filtered if needful. In this manner the resinous, albuminoid, pectic, and gummy matters are got rid of.

C. _Titration._ The liquid thus prepared is divided into two parts. The first, one third of the entire volume, serves for direct determination of the acetate of lead. Suppose that a gram of the dry extract of chestnut has required, for 10 c.c. of the tannin liquor, in three successive experiments, 16°, 17°, and 16° of the burette, which corresponds to 57 per cent. of tannin. Thus figure 57 represents not only tannin, but every other substance capable of precipitating acetate of lead.

The tannin is then absorbed with bone black, previously washed with hydrochloric acid, and dried at 100° C. in the following manner:——We act with bone black upon the tannin liquor, and on a solution of pure tannic, prepared at a standard somewhat lower than that indicated for the extract by the first direct titration. In the present case this solution of tannin should be prepared at 55 per cent.

From one and the same glass tube, about 1 centimètre in diameter, we cut off two lengths of 20 centimètres each, and we draw out each at one of its ends. The two tubes are fixed perpendicularly with the points downwards, and plugged with a little carded cotton. Into each is put 10 grams of the bone black, pouring into one of them the second part of the tannin liquor under examination, and into the other the same volume of the pure solution of pure tannin at 55 per cent.

Twenty c.c. of the tannin liquor (which will be found to have retained its original brown colour in spite of the bone black) are now heated to 60° C., and the standard lead liquor is added from the burette as before. Two successive trials show 16° = 8° for 10 c.c. in place of the 16° found for 10 c.c. on direct titration. On the other hand, 20 c.c. of the solution of pure tannin require 14°, or 7° for 10 c.c. Thus we see that in the tannin liquor (chestnut extract) there is a certain quantity of matter which acts upon the standard lead solution like tannin, corresponding to 1° of the lead liquor, _i. e._ to 357 thousandths of a centigram of tannin; 28°, therefore, correspond to 10 centigrams. The figure 57, obtained by direct titration, is, therefore, too high by 3·57 per cent., and the extract contains 57 - 3·57 = 53·43 per cent. of tannin.

_Uses, &c._ The value of substances containing tannin in the preparation of leather is well known. In its pure form it is used as an astringent in medicine; internally, in diarrhœa, hæmorrhages, as a tonic in dyspepsia, &c.; externally, made into a gargle, injection, or ointment.——_Dose_, 1 to 10 gr., in the form of pills or solution. See GALLIC ACID, &c.

=TAN′NIN.= See TANNIC ACID.

=TAN′NING.= When the skin of an animal, carefully deprived of hair, fat, and other impurities, is immersed in a dilute solution of tannic acid, the gelatin gradually combines with that substance as it penetrates inwards, forming a perfectly insoluble compound, which resists putrefaction completely; this is tanned leather. In practice, lime water is used for cleansing and preparing the skin, water acidulated with oil of vitriol for ‘raising’ or opening the pores, and an infusion of oak bark, or sometimes of catechu, or other astringent matter, as the source of tannic acid. The process itself is necessarily a slow one, as dilute solutions only can be safely used. Skins intended for the curriers, to be dressed for ‘uppers,’ commonly require about 3 weeks; and ‘thick hides,’ from 12 to 18 months.

Of late years various ingenious contrivances have been adopted, with more or less success, to hasten the process of tanning skins and hides. Among these may be mentioned the employment of stronger tan solutions, the application of a gentle heat, puncturing the skins to afford more ready access for the liquid to their interior parts, and maceration in the tan liquor under pressure, either at once or after the vessel containing them has been exhausted of air by means of an air-pump. On the merit of these several methods it has been remarked “that the saturated infusions of astringent barks contain much less extractive matter, in proportion to their tannin, than the weak infusions; and when the skins are quickly tanned in the former, common experience shows that it produces leather which is less durable than leather slowly formed.” (Sir H. Davy.) “100 lbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion of bark, produce 137 lbs. of leather; while 100 lbs., slowly tanned in a weak infusion, produce only 117-1/2 lbs.” “Leather thus highly (and hastily) charged with tannin is, moreover, so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and danger of persons wearing shoes made of it.” (Ure.)

According to Mr G. Lee, much of the original gelatin of the skin is wasted in the preliminary processes to which they are subjected, more especially the ‘liming’ and ‘bating,’ He says, that 100 lbs. of perfectly dry hide, cleaned from extraneous matter, should, on chemical principles, afford at least 180 lbs. of leather.

MOROCCO LEATHER is prepared from goat or sheep skins, which, after the action of lime water and a dung bath, are slightly tanned in a bath of sumach. They are subsequently grained, polished, &c.

RUSSIA LEATHER is generally tanned with a decoction of willow bark, after which it is dyed, and curried with the empyreumatic oil of the birch tree. It is the last substance which imparts to this leather its peculiar odour and power of resisting mould and damp. See LEATHER, TANNIC ACID, TAWING, &c.

=TANTALIC ACID.= _Syn._ TANTALIC ANHYDRIDE; COLUMBIC ACID. Rose believed this substance to be a dioxide, to which he gave the formula TaO_{2}; but the subsequent researches of Marignac, and the crystalline form of potassic tantalic fluoride 2KF, TaF_{5}, seem to show that it is to be regarded rather as Ta_{2}O_{5}.

=TAN′TALUM.= Ta. _Syn._ COLUMBIUM. A rare metal discovered by Mr Hatchett, in 1801, in a mineral from Massachusetts; and by M. Ekeberg, in 1803, in tantalite, a mineral found in Sweden. It exists in most of its ores in combination with oxygen.

=TAPEWORM.= See WORMS.

=TAPEWORM CURE= (Bloch, Vienna). Coarsely powdered pomegranate root bark, 125 grammes, boiled for half an hour in 800 grammes water. To this add solution of ammonia, 5 grammes; boil again for a quarter of an hour. Add kousso flowers 25 grammes. Again boil for a few minutes, and when cold add citric acid, 1 gramme; and alcohol, 30 grammes. Press, filter, and set aside. The product should weigh about 500 grammes. Klinger says this remedy is merely a concentrated essence of pomegranate root bark, and contains neither ammonia nor citric acid.

=Tapeworm Cure= (Jacoby, Berlin). A box containing 20 grammes of kousso powder and directions for use. (Hager.)

=Tapeworm Cure= (Mix). (_a_) A mixture containing 3 decigrammes of sulphate of quinine, with a few drops of hydrochloric acid to dissolve it in 200 grammes water. To be taken in the course of three days. (_b_) A box with 12 grammes kousso powder. A teaspoonful to be taken each morning in black coffee. (Schädler.)

=Tapeworm Cure= (Richard Mohrmann, Frankenberg, Saxony). This Mohrmann travels about in the fashion of the old charlatans, to sell his medicines. These consist of two varieties, the first being 10 grammes of extract of male fern, the second a mixture of 8 grammes each of raspberry juice and castor oil. These remedies have been used for tapeworm for almost 100 years. The doctor’s directions for use are to mix 30 grammes of the extract with the castor oil and raspberry compound, and 30 drops of the mixture to be taken every quarter of an hour, until purging occurs.

=Tapeworm Cure= (Mork, Berlin). A decoction of about 110 grammes of pomegranate root bark, yielding 400 grammes of liquid, and mixed 1 gramme of extract of male fern. The directions order that on one day one or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil should be taken, a herring salad in the evening, and the following morning, after coffee, a third of the contents of the bottle, another third half an hour later, and the remainder in yet another half hour. (Hager.)

=Tapeworm Cure for Children and Adults= (E. Karig, Berlin). Burned oxide of copper, 1 gramme; cassia powder, 1-1/2 gramme; sugar of milk, 10 grammes. Divide in 24 powders. (Schädler.)

=Tapeworm Pills, Laffon’s=, are compounded of the ethereal extract of the root of _Aspidium Lonchitis_, _Asp. Helveticum_, and _Asp. Filixmas_, together with the alcoholic extract of the flowers of _Achillea mutellina_ and _maschata_, and the powder of the flowers of _Arnica Doronicum_. (Wittstein.)

=Tapeworm Pills, Peschier’s.=——Ethereal extract and powder of the rhizome of male fern, of each gramme 1·6 make 20 pills. Take ten at night and ten in the morning.

=TAPIO′CA.= _Syn._ TAPIOCA (Ph. E. & D.), L. The fecula of the root of _Janipha manihot_ (_Jatropha manihot_——Linn.), which has been well washed in water, and dried on hot plates, by which it assumes the appearance of warty-looking granules.

Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only slightly soluble in cold water, but entirely soluble in boiling water, forming a translucent and highly nutritious jelly. Its granules are muller-shaped, about 1/2000 of an inch in diameter, and display very marked hilums. It is used in a similar manner to sago and arrow-root. See CASSAVA.

=TAPS, WOODEN (to prevent their cracking).= The taps are placed in mother paraffin, heated to from 110° to 120°; by this means the water is eliminated from the wood, and the wood becomes thoroughly impregnated with paraffin. The taps are heated in this bath until all the aqueous vapour has been expelled, and are left in it, after the removal of the vessel from the fire, up to the very moment the paraffin begins to solidify. Wooden taps thus prepared are very durable, do not become soaked with liquids, keep very tight, and are not liable to become mouldy. The excess of paraffin is wiped off with care, and the taps are next rubbed clean with a piece of flannel. (Dr E. Kopp.)[224]

[Footnote 224: ‘Chemical News.’]

=TAR.= _Syn._ PIX LIQUIDA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A liquid bitumen prepared from the wood of _Pinus sylvestris_, and other species, by heat. The chemical constitution of tar is very complicated. Its uses in the arts are well known. As a medicine it is stimulant, diuretic, sudorific, and vermifuge.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 minims, made into pills with flour; in ichthyosis, &c. Externally, in lepra, psoriasis, foul ulcers, &c. See OINTMENT and INFUSION.

=Tar, Barbadoes.= _Syn._ PIX LIQUIDA BARBADENSIS, PETROLEUM BARBADENSE, PETROLEUM (Ph. L. and E.), L. “Black liquid bitumen, exuding spontaneously from the earth.” (Ph. L.) Its properties for the most part resemble those of the last.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops; in asthma, chronic coughs, tapeworm, &c. Externally, in chilblains, chronic and rheumatic pains, &c. See PETROLEUM.

=Tar, Coal.= Produced during the distillation of bituminous coal for gas. See NAPHTHA, &c.

=TARAX′ACUM.= See DANDELION.

=TAR COLOURS.= _Syn._ COAL TAR COLOURS, ANILINE COLOURS, &c. Coal tar, the source of the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, during the manufacture of ordinary illuminating gas, and collected in a tank from the hydraulic main and condensers.

The composition of coal tar is highly complex, the most important constituents being, however, a series of homologous hydrocarbons obtained by distilling coal tar, and known as ‘coal naphtha.’ Naphtha, by rectification between 180° and 250° Fahr. (82 and 121 Cent.), yields a light yellow oily liquid, of sp. gr. ·88, the benzol of commerce.

By the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy oily liquid with an odour of oil of bitter almonds is obtained. In commerce this substance is made in large cast-iron pots, fitted with tight covers, and provided with stirrers worked by steam power. By means of pipes the reagents are admitted and the nitrous fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol and the spent reagents are drawn off from the bottom. The entire charge of benzol is first placed into the vessels, and the mixed acids are, as the reaction is very energetic, cautiously run in, the whole being well stirred throughout. When finished, the contents are drawn off, and the nitro-benzol collected, washed with water, and, if necessary, neutralised with a solution of soda. See BENZOL.

Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a similar apparatus, only provided with means of admitting a current of superheated steam, and condensing the aniline as it distils over. Into the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as the reduction is violent, stirring well all the time. A current of superheated steam is passed through, and the aniline collected as it distils over as a pale, sherry-coloured oily liquid, boiling at 360° Fahr. (182 Cent.), and of sp. gr. 1·02. See ANILINE.

MAUVE, INDISINE, VIOLINE, PHENAMINE, the first-discovered coal tar, or aniline colour, was obtained by Mr Perkins during some experiments directed towards the artificial formation of quinine, and was also first practically manufactured by Mr Perkins. Commercially, mauve is made as follows:

Aniline and sulphuric acid in proper proportions are dissolved in water in a vat by aid of heat, and when cold a solution of bichromate of potassium added, and the whole allowed to stand a day or two, when a black precipitate is obtained, which, after collecting on shallow filters, is washed and well dried. This black resinous substance is digested with dilute methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus, to dissolve out the mauve, and the major portion of the spirit distilled off. The mauve is precipitated from the aqueous solution left behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing is either drained to a paste or dried.

The amount of mauve thus obtained is but small in comparison with the raw material, coal tar, as 100 lbs. of coal yield 10 lbs. 12 oz. of coal tar; 8-1/2 oz. of mineral naphtha, 2-3/4 oz. of benzol; 4-1/4 oz. of nitro-benzol, 2-1/4 oz. of aniline, and 1/4 oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually sent into the market in paste or solution, the expense of the crystals being heavy, and offering no corresponding advantages.

Other salts than the bichromate of potassium have been employed to convert aniline into mauve, as chloride of copper, permanganate of potassium, &c.; but experience has shown none to possess the same advantages as the bichromate of potassium.

MAUVEINE, the organic base of mauve or aniline purple, is a black crystalline powder, of the formula C_{27}H_{24}N_{3}, yielding a dull violet solution. The moment, however, mauveine is brought in contact with an acid, it turns a magnificent purple colour. The salts of mauveine form beautiful crystals possessing a splendid green metallic lustre, soluble very readily in alcohol, and less so in water. The commercial salt, or mauve, is the acetate, or sometimes the hydrochlorate.

=Magenta.= _Syn._ ANILINE RED, ROSEINE, FUCHSINE, AZALEINE, SOLFERINO, TYRALINE. Various processes have been proposed and patented for the preparation of this commercially important coal-tar colour. Amongst these processes are——

1. Gerber-Keller’s, patented in France, October 29th, 1859. By this the aniline is treated with mercuric nitrate.

2. Lauth and Depouilly used nitric acid.

3. Medlock (patent dated January, 1860). Nicholson, and Messrs Girard and De Laire, all in 1860, separately patented the use of arsenic acid. This process, being the one now almost exclusively employed, is thus described in Crace Calvert’s work, ‘Dyeing and Calico Printing,’ edited by Messrs Stenhouse and Grove. “The manufacture of magenta, as it is now conducted in the large colour works, is a comparatively simple process, the apparatus employed consisting of a large cast-iron pot set in a furnace, provided with means of carefully regulating the heat. It is furnished with a stirrer, which can be worked by hand or by mechanical means, the gearing for the stirrer being fixed to the lid, so that by means of a crane the lid may be removed, together with the stirrer and gearing. There is also a bent tube passing through the lid for the exit of the vapours, which can be easily connected or disconnected with a worm at pleasure; lastly, there are large openings at the bottom of the pot, closed by suitable stoppers, so that the charge can be removed with facility as soon as the reaction is complete. Into this apparatus, which is capable of holding about 500 gallons, a charge of 2740 lbs. of a concentrated solution of arsenic acid, containing 72% of the anhydrous acid, is introduced, together with 1600 lbs. of commercial aniline. The aniline selected for this purpose should contain about 25% of the toluidine.

“After the materials have been thoroughly mixed by the stirrer the fire is lighted, and the temperature gradually raised to about 360° F. In a short time water begins to distil, then aniline makes its appearance along with the water, and, lastly, aniline alone comes over, which is nearly pure, containing, as it does, but a very small per centage of toluidine. The operation usually lasts about eight or ten hours, during which time about 170 gallons of liquid pass over, and are condensed in the worm attached to the apparatus; of this about 150 lbs. are aniline. The temperature should not exceed 380° F. at any period during the operation. When this is complete steam is blown in through a tube, in order to sweep out the last traces of the free aniline, and boiling water is gradually introduced in quantity sufficient to convert the contents into a homogenous liquid. When this occurs the liquid is run out of the openings at the bottom into cisterns provided with agitators; here more boiling water is added, in the proportion of 300 galls. to every 600 lbs. of crude magenta, and also 6 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. The mass is then boiled for four or five hours by means of steam pipes, the agitators being kept in constant motion. The solution of hydrochloride, arsenite, and arseniate of rosaniline thus obtained is filtered through woollen cloth, and 720 lbs. of common salt added to the liquid (which is kept boiling) for each 600 lbs. of crude magenta. By this means the whole of the rosaniline is converted into hydrochloride, which, being nearly insoluble in the strong solution of arseniate and arsenite of sodium produced in the double decomposition, separates and rises to the surface; a further quantity is deposited from the saline solution on allowing it to cool and stand for some time. In order to purify the crude rosaniline hydrochloride it is washed with a small quantity of water, redissolved in boiling water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, filtered, and allowed to crystallise.”

If in the treatment of aniline with arsenic acid the latter be considerably beyond the proportion of aniline employed, VIOLET and BLUE dyes may be formed. The production of such has been patented by Girard and De Laire.

4. Laurent and Casthélaz have obtained aniline red direct from benzol, without the preliminary isolation of aniline. Nitrobenzol is treated with twice its weight of iron finely divided, and half its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter obtained by this process is said to be inferior in beauty to that procured from aniline.

5. Messrs Renard Brothers include in their patent the ebullition of aniline with stannous, stannic, mercurous, and mercuric sulphates, with ferric and uranic nitrates and nitrate of silver, and with stannic and mercuric bromides.

6. Messrs Dale and Curo’s (patent dated 1860) consists in the treatment of aniline or hydrochlorate of aniline with nitrate of lead.

7. Mr Smith claims the ebullition of aniline with perchloride of antimony, or the action of antimonic acid, peroxide of bismuth, stannic, ferric, mercuric, and cupric oxides, upon hydrochlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the temperature of 180°.

Coupier’s process for the manufacture of magenta without the use of arsenic acid is as follows:——He heats together pure aniline, nitrotoluene, hydrochloric acid, and a small quantity of finely-divided metallic iron, to a temperature of about 400° F. for several hours. The pasty mixture soon solidifies to a friable mass resembling crude aniline red——ordinary commercial aniline. The above processes are for the preparation of crude aniline red only. The crude colours contain some undecomposed aniline, mostly in the form of salts. They are also contaminated with tarry matters, some insoluble in water and dilute acids; others soluble in bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, or in caustic or carbonated alkalies. If, therefore, the crude red be boiled with an excess of alkali the undecomposed aniline is expelled, the acid which exists in the product being fixed. On treating the residue with acidulated boiling water the red is dissolved, while certain tarry matters remain insoluble. If now the boiling solution be filtered, and then saturated with an alkali, the colouring matter is precipitated in a tolerable state of purity. By redissolving the precipitated red in an acid, not employed in excess, a solution is obtained which frequently crystallises, or from which a pure red may be thrown down by a new addition of chloride of sodium or other alkaline salt.

Dr Hofmann and Mr Nicholson have demonstrated that pure aniline, from whatever source obtained, is incapable of furnishing a red dye, but that it does so when mixed with its homologue toluidine——toluidine by itself being equally incapable of yielding it. From this it will be evident that an aniline rich in toluidine is an essential condition for obtaining aniline red.

Magenta consists of brilliant large crystals, having a beautiful golden-green metallic lustre, and soluble in water to an intense purplish-red solution. It is a salt of a colourless base, rosaniline, which is prepared from magenta by boiling with hydrate of potassium, and allowing the solution to cool, when it crystallises out in colourless crystals, having the formula C_{20}H_{19}N_{3}H_{2}O. All the salts of rosaniline have a splendid purple-red colour, and that usually met with as magenta is the hydrochlorate, although the nitrate, oxalate, and acetate are also to be obtained.

Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is sometimes used as an adulterant of crystallised magenta. If present, the larger crystals of dyed sugar may be readily detected by their colour being paler at the edges, when the suspected sample is spread out on a sheet of white paper in the sunshine. One of the best methods of testing magenta is to make a comparative dyeing experiment with the sample under examination, and with one of known purity, using white woollen yarn.

From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline a large number of colouring matters are produced, the most important of which will be briefly described below.

ANILINE BLACK. “Dissolve 20 parts of potassium chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of copper, 16 parts of chloride of ammonium, and 40 parts of aniline hydrochloride, in 500 parts of water, warming the liquid to about 60°, and then removing it from the water bath. In about three minutes the solution froths up and gives off vapours which strongly attack the breathing organs. If the mass does not become quite black after the lapse of a few hours it is again heated to 60°, and then exposed in an open place for a day or two, and afterwards carefully washed out till no salts are found in the filtrate. For use in printing, the black paste is mixed with a somewhat large quantity of albumen, and the goods after printing are strongly steamed. The paste can be pressed into moulds, and used as a substitute for Indian ink.” (A. Müller.) “Mix equal weights of aniline (containing toluidine), hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate, with a minute quantity of cupric chloride and a sufficient quantity of water, and leave the mixture to evaporate spontaneously, when a black powder will be obtained.” (Rheineck.)

ANILINE BLUE, or BLEU DE LYONS. This dye is prepared by heating a mixture of magenta, acetate of sodium, and aniline in iron pots, provided with stirrers, &c., in an oil bath, to 370° Fahr. (190° C.), and the excess of aniline distilled over. When a good blue has been obtained the heat is removed, and the thick treacly fluid purified. This is effected for the commoner varieties by treating the crude product with hydrochloric acid, to dissolve all the excess of aniline, and the various red and purple impurities; but for the better qualities by mixing the crude product with methylated spirit, and pouring the whole into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and then thoroughly washing the colouring matter that is precipitated, with water and drying.

This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a colourless base, which has been named Triphenyl-rosaniline. C_{38}H_{31}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{16}(C_{6}H_{5})_{3}N_{3}. Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into the market either as a coarse powder of a coppery lustre, or in alcoholic solution; as it is insoluble in water, which necessitates it being added to the dye bath in solution in spirit, a great drawback.

Mr Nicholson, by treating Lyons blue in the same manner as indigo is converted into sulphindigotic acid, has succeeded in rendering it soluble; dissolving in alkalies to form colourless salts, and decomposed by acids into its original blue colour.

By a modification of this method ‘NICHOLSON’S BLUE’ is prepared, a fine soluble blue dye. Another colouring matter called Paris blue or bleu de Paris was obtained by heating stannic chloride with aniline for 30 hours at a temperature of 356° Fahr. (180 C.). It is a fine pure blue, soluble in water, and crystallising in large blue needles with a coppery lustre.

Another method pursued in manufacture of this colour on a large scale is carried out by allowing a mixture of a salt of rosaniline, with an excess of aniline, to digest at a temperature of 150° to 160° for a considerable time. If a mixture of 2 kilogrammes of dry hydrochlorate of rosaniline, and 4 kilogrammes of aniline be employed, the operation is completed in four hours. The crude blue is purified by treating it successively with boiling water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and with pure water, until it is of the purest blue colour. ‘Nicholson’s blue’ is obtained by digesting triphenyl rosaniline——mono-sulphonic acid (made by dissolving triphenyl rosaniline hydrochloride in strong sulphuric acid, and heating the solution for five or six hours. On the addition of water, the acid is obtained as a dark blue precipitate, and dried at 100°), with a quantity of soda-lye not quite sufficient for saturation, filtering the solution and evaporating. It is dried at 100°. Wool dipped into a hot aqueous solution of Nicholson’s blue, especially if borax or water-glass be added, extracts it in a colourless state, and holds it so fast that it cannot be washed out with water, but on dipping the wool thus prepared into an acid the salt is decomposed, and the colouring matter is set free.

ANILINE BLUE FOR PRINTING. Blumer-Zweefel gives the following process:——“Mix 100 parts of starch with 1000 parts of water, and add to it while warm 40 parts of potassium chlorate, 3 to 4 parts of ferrous sulphate, and 10 parts of sal ammoniac. The well-mixed paste, when quite cold, is mixed with 70 parts of aniline hydrochloride, or an equivalent quantity of tartrate, and immediately used. The printed goods are oxidised, then passed through warm or faintly alkaline water, whereby the blue colour is developed.”

VIOLET IMPERIAL. If the action of the aniline and magenta in the process of manufacturing aniline blue be stopped before it is finished, and the resulting product treated with dilute acid, a colouring matter called violet imperial is obtained. It is now, however, replaced by the Hofmann violets.

Mr Nicholson obtains another violet from aniline red, by heating it in a suitable apparatus to a temperature between 200° and 215° C. The resulting mass is exhausted with acetic acid, and the deep-violet solution diluted with enough alcohol to give the dye a convenient strength. Aniline violet, although it resists the action of light to a very considerable extent, has been shown by Chevreul to be inferior in this particular than either madder, cochineal, or indigo.

HOFMANN VIOLETS. On a large scale these violets are produced in deep cast-iron pots, surrounded by a steam jacket, and provided with a lid, having a perforation for distilling over the excess of reagents.

These vessels are charged with a solution of magenta in methylated or wood spirit, and iodide of ethyl or methyl, in proportions according to the shade required, and the whole heated by steam for five or six hours, when the excess of alcohol and iodide of ethyl is distilled over. The resulting product is dissolved in water, filtered, precipitated with common salt, and well washed.

Like most of the other colours, Hofmann violets are salts of colourless bases. That of a red shade has a formula of C_{22}H_{23}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{18}(C_{2}H_{5})N_{3}; of a true violet shade C_{24}H_{27}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{17}(C_{2}H_{5})_{2}N_{2}; and of a blue shade of violet, of C_{26}H_{31}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{16}(C_{2}H_{5})_{3}N_{3}. They are all moderately fast on wool and silk, although less so on cotton, and, as they can be produced in nearly every shade of violet, are in great use, having replaced most of the other violets.

The following processes have also been proposed for the production of aniline violet:

1. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a solution of permanganate of potassium. (Williams.)

2. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a solution of ferricyanide of potassium. (Smith.)

3. Oxidation of a cold and dilute solution of hydrochlorate of aniline, by means of a dilute solution of chloride of lime. (Bolley, Beale, and Kirkmann.)

4. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by means of peroxide of lead under the influence of an acid. (Price.)

5. Oxidation of a salt of aniline in an aqueous solution of peroxide of manganese. (Kay.)

6. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by free chlorine or free hypochlorous acid. (Smith.)

DAHLIA. This is prepared from mauve and iodide of ethyl, in the same manner as the Hofmann violets, and is a purple-red violet. It is a good colour, but the expense precludes its general use.

BRITANNIA VIOLET. This is obtained in the same manner as the Hofmann violets, by acting on an alcoholic solution of magenta, with a thick, viscid, oily fluid of the formula C_{10}H_{15}Br_{3}, obtained by cautiously acting with bromine on oil of turpentine. It is a beautiful violet, capable of being manufactured of every shade, from purple to blue, and most extensively used.

ALDEHYDE GREEN. Prepared by dissolving one part of magenta in three parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with one part of water, adding by degrees one and a half part of aldehyde, and heating the whole on a water bath until a drop put in water turns a fine blue. It is then poured into a large quantity of hot water containing three parts of hyposulphite of sodium, boiled and filtered. The filtrate contains the green, which can either be kept in solution or be precipitated by means of tannic acid or acetate of sodium. Like the other colours, this green is a salt of a colourless base, containing sulphur, the formula of which is not known, and is principally used for dyeing silk, being very brilliant in both day and artificial light.

IODIDE GREEN. Produced during the manufacture of the Hofmann colours, and is now used for dyeing cotton and silk; its colour being bluer than that of aldehyde green, it is more useful. Iodide green, not being precipitated by carbonate of sodium, is usually sold in alcoholic solution.

PERKINS GREEN. This is also a magenta derivative, and a salt of a powerful colourless base. It resembles the iodide green, but is precipitated by alkaline carbonates and picric acid. This colour is used chiefly for calico printing, and is quite as fast as the Hofmann colours.

ANILINE GREEN. When treated with chlorate of potassium, to which a quantity of hydrochloric acid has been added, aniline assumes a rich indigo-blue colour. The same result occurs if the aniline be treated with a solution of chlorous acid. Similar blues have been obtained by Messrs Crace Calvert, Lowe, and Clift. Most of these blues possess the property, when subjected to the action of acids, of acquiring a green tint, called EMERALDINE. Dr Calvert obtained this colour directly upon cloth, by printing with a mixture of an aniline salt and chlorate of potassium, and allowing it to dry. In about twelve hours the green colour is developed. This colour may be converted into blue by being passed through a hot dilute alkaline solution, or through a bath of boiling soap.

ANILINE YELLOW. Amongst the secondary products obtained during the preparation of aniline red, there occurs a well-defined base of a splendid yellow colour, to which the name _chrysaniline_ has been given. It is prepared by submitting the residue, from which the rosaniline has been extracted, to a current of steam for some time, when a quantity of the chrysaniline passes into solution. By adding nitric acid to the solution, the chrysaniline is thrown down in the form of a difficultly soluble nitrate. The intimate relation between chrysaniline, rosaniline, and leucaniline has been shown by Hofmann.

Chrysaniline C_{20}H_{17}N_{3}. Rosaniline C_{20}H_{19}N_{3}. Leucaniline C_{20}H_{21}N_{3}.

SAFFRANINE. This dye stuff is of a bright red-rose colour. Mené says it may be prepared commercially by treatment of heavy aniline oils successively with nitrous and arsenic acids; or two parts of the aniline may be heated with one of arsenic acid, and one of an alkaline nitrate for a short time, to 200° or 212° F. The product is extracted with boiling water, neutralised with an alkali, filtered, and the colour thrown down by common salt.

Besides the above products obtained from aniline, a series of colours have been obtained from phenol, or carbolic acid, another substance obtained from coal tar.

PICRIC ACID. This is obtained by treating in a suitable apparatus, with proper precautions, carbolic acid with nitric acid. It is a pale yellow crystalline acid, forming dark orange explosive salts, and dyeing silk a fine yellow.

ISOPURPURATE OF POTASSIUM. GRENATE BROWN. GRENATE SOLUBLE. By treating picric acid with cyanide of potassium a very explosive salt is obtained, used to dye wool a dark maroon colour.

AURINE, or ROSOLIC ACID. This is obtained by heating a mixture of sulphuric, oxalic, and carbolic acids, and purifying the products. It is a beautiful reddish, resinous substance, with a pale green lustre, and yielding an orange coloured solution, changed by alkalies to a splendid crimson. Owing to the difficulty in using it, however, it is not very extensively employed.

PEONINE, or CORALLINE. This dye is formed when rosolic acid and ammonia are heated to between 248° and 284° Fahr. (120° to 140° C.). It is a fine crimson dye, forming shades similar to safflower on silk, but, owing to the bad effects of acids, not much used.

AZULINE. Prepared by heating coralline and aniline together. A coppery coloured resinous substance, soluble, in alcohol, and with difficulty in water, and dyeing silk a blue colour. The aniline blues, however, have superseded it to a great extent.

There are other substances obtained from coal tar that have been employed to form dyes, but of which we shall only refer to one——naphthaline. By treating this in exactly the same manner as benzol, it is converted into aniline. A solid crystalline white base, termed naphthylamine, is produced. From this substance is obtained the following dye.

DINITRONAPHTHAL, or MANCHESTER YELLOW. Naphthylamine is converted into diazynaphthol by treatment with nitrate of potassium, and the latter, when heated with nitric acid, yields the colour. It is a weak acid, and the salt employed in commerce is the beautiful yellow crystalline calcium salt which dyes silk and wool a magnificent golden-yellow colour.

=TARPAU′LIN.= _Syn._ TARPAWLING. Canvas covered with tar or any composition to render it waterproof.

=TAR′RAS.= _Syn._ TERRAS. A volcanic product resembling puzzolano, that imparts to mortar the property of hardening under water. Several other argillo-ferruginous minerals possess the same power, and are used under this term.

=TAR′TAR.= _Syn._ ARGAL, ORGOL; TARTARUM, TARTARUS, L. Impure bitartrate of potassa. Crude tartar is the concrete deposit formed upon the sides of the casks and vats during the fermentation of grape juice. That obtained from white wine is white argol; that from red wine, red argol. After purification it forms cream of tartar.

=Tartar, Ammo′′niated.= _Syn._ AMMONIO-TARTRATE OF POTASSA, SOLUBLE TARTAR (Ammoniated); TARTARUS AMMONIATUS, TARTARUM SOLUBILE AMMONIATUM, L. _Prep._ Neutralise a solution of cream of tartar with ammonia in slight excess, then evaporate, and crystallise. Very soluble in water. A favourite laxative on the Continent.

=Tartar, Bo′′raxated.= _Syn._ SOLUBLE CREAM OF TARTAR, BORO-TARTRATE OF POTASSA AND SODA; TARTARUM BORAXATUM, CREMOR TARTARI SOLUBILIS, POTASSÆ ET SODÆ TARTRAS BORAXATA, L. _Prep._ From borax, 2 lbs; cream of tartar, 5 lbs. (both in powder); dissolved in water, evaporated, and crystallised. See POTASSIUM BOROTARTRATE.

=Tartar, Chalybea′ted.= Potassio-tartrate of iron.

=Tartar, Cream of.= Bitartrate of potassa.

=Tartar, Emet′ic.= Potassio-tartrate of antimony.

=Tartar, Oil of.= Deliquesced carbonate of potassa.

=Tartar, Reduced.= _Syn._ CREMOR TARTARI REDUCTUS, L. An article is sold, under the name of ‘British cream of tartar,’ which contains 1/4 its weight or more of bisulphate of potassa.

=Tartar, Salt of.= Carbonate of potassa.

=Tartar, Sol′uble.= Neutral tartrate of potassa.

=Tartar, Spirit of.= Pyrotartaric acid.

=TARTAR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ ACID OF TARTAR, ESSENTIAL SALT OF T.†; ACIDUM TARTARICUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), SAL ESSENTIALE TARTARI†, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of cream of tartar, 4 lbs.; boiling water, 2 gall.; dissolve by boiling; add, gradually, of prepared chalk, 12 oz. 7 dr. (made into a milk with water), and, when the effervescence ceases, add another like portion of prepared chalk, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, 26-1/2 fl. oz., or q. s., diluted with water, 4 pints; collect the precipitate (‘tartrate of lime’), and, after well washing it with water, boil it for 15 minutes in dilute sulphuric acid, 7 pints and 17 fl. oz.; next filter, evaporate the filtrate (to the density of 1·38), and set it aside to crystallise; redissolve the crystals in water, concentrate the solution by evaporation, and recrystallise a second and a third time. The Edinburgh formula is nearly similar. In the Ph. L. & D. tartaric acid is placed in the Materia Medica.

2. (Gatty.) The solution of argol or tartar is first neutralised with carbonate of potassa, and to every 300 gall. of the clear liquid, at 5° Twaddell, 34 gall. of milk of lime (1 lb. of lime per gall.) are added; carbonic acid gas is then forced in, with agitation; decomposition ensues, with the formation of ‘bicarbonate of potassa’ and ‘tartrate of lime,’ the last is converted into tartaric acid in the usual manner, and the former is evaporated in iron pans, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace for its potassa.

_Prop._ Tartaric acid forms inodorous, scarcely transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, more or less modified, which are permanent in the air; it possesses a purely sour taste, dissolves in about 2 parts of water at 60° Fahr., and in about its own weight of boiling water; it is slightly soluble in alcohol; the aqueous solution exhibits right-handed polarisation, and suffers gradual decomposition by age.

It is free from colour; is entirely, or almost entirely, dissipated by ignition; and is entirely soluble in water.

_Tests._ 1. Tartaric acid is known to be such by its solution giving white precipitates with solutions of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia, which dissolve in excess of the acid.——2. A solution of potassa causes a white granular precipitate of cream of tartar, soluble by agitation in excess of the precipitant.——3. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead give white precipitates, which, when heated, f nine, and yield the pure metal.——4. If to a solution of tartaric acid, or a tartrate, solution of a ferric or aluminum salt be added, and subsequently ammonia or potassa, no precipitate is formed.——5. At about 570° Fahr. all the tartrates are blackened, and yield a peculiar and characteristic odour.

_Uses, &c._ Tartaric acid is chiefly employed in calico printing, and, in medicine, as a substitute for citric acid and lemon juice in the preparation of cooling drinks and saline draughts. For the latter purpose, bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline salt commonly employed.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 grains.

_Concluding Remarks._ On the large scale the decomposition of the tartar is usually effected in a copper boiler, and that of the tartrate of lime in a leaden cistern. This part of the process is often performed by mere digestion for a few days, without the application of heat. Leaden or stoneware vessels are used as crystallisers. Good cream of tartar requires 26% of chalk and 28·5% of dry chloride of calcium for its perfect decomposition. Dry tartrate of lime requires 75% of oil of vitriol to liberate the whole of its tartaric acid. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid may be safely, nay, advantageously, employed. Some manufacturers bleach the coloured solution of the first crystals by treating it with animal charcoal; but for this purpose the latter substance should be first purified by digesting it in hydrochloric acid, and afterwards by edulcorating it with water, and exposing it to a dull red heat in a covered vessel. The general management of this manufacture resembles that of citric acid. To obtain a large product, care must be taken that the whole of the tartrate of lime be thoroughly decomposed, a matter not always effected by clumsy manipulators, who do not adapt their quantities or practice to the circumstances before them.

=TAR′TRATE.= A salt of tartaric acid.

=TARTS.= These may be regarded as miniature pies, consisting of fruit, either fresh or preserved, baked or spread on puff-paste.

=TARTS.= To make an apple tart take about 2 lbs. of apples, peel them, cut each into four pieces, and remove the cores; then let each of the quarters be subdivided into two or three pieces, according to the size of the apple. Having done this, put half the pieces into a pie-dish, press them evenly down, and sprinkle over them two ounces of brown sugar; then add the remaining apples, and afterwards another 2 oz. of sugar, so that the apples shall form a kind of dome, the centre of which is about two inches above the sides, now add a wineglassful of water, and cover the top over with short paste. Let bake in a moderately heated oven from half to three quarters of an hour.

The quantity of sugar must depend upon the quality, and the degree of sweetness, or the reverse, of the apples used. If they are of the sweet kind or very ripe, use less sugar, but a double quantity of water; in the latter case a little of the juice of lemon will improve the flavour. Chopped lemon-peel, or cinnamon, or cloves, may also be added to the tart with advantage.

On making green rhubarb or greengage tarts it will be necessary to use a little more sugar, and to proceed as for apple tart, taking care, however, to omit the lemon juice and peel, cinnamon, or cloves. Tarts of ripe currants, raspberries, cherries, damsons, and mulberries, may be made in the same manner as rhubarb tart. Pink rhubarb does not require peeling.

=TAU′RIN.= C_{2}H_{7}NSO_{3}. Obtained when purified bile is boiled for some hours with an excess of hydrochloric acid. By filtration, evaporation, and dissolving the dry residuum in about 6 parts of boiling alcohol, nearly pure taurin crystallises out as the solution cools. It forms with crystalline needles, which are soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in alcohol. It is remarkable for containing fully 25% of sulphur.

=TAUROCHOLAL′IC ACID.= See CHOLEIC ACID.

=TAW′ING.= In the preparation of the TAWED LEATHER used for gloves, housings, &c., the skins are first soaked, scraped, and hung in a warm room until they begin to exhale an ammoniacal odour, and the wool readily comes off; they are then de-haired, and soaked in water with some quicklime for several weeks, the water being changed two or three times during that period; they are then again beamed, smoothed, and trimmed, after which they are rinsed, and resoaked in a vat of bran-and-water, where they are kept in a state of gentle fermentation for some weeks (in this state they are called ‘pelts’); the skins are next well worked about in a warm solution of alum and salt, again fermented in bran-and-water for a short time, and are then stretched on hooks, and dried in a stove-room; they are, lastly, again soaked in water and trodden or worked in a pail or tub containing some yolks of eggs beaten to a froth with water, after which they are stretched and dried in a loft, and are smoothed with a warm smoothing-iron. Sometimes the process is shortened by soaking the skins in the following mixture after the first steep with bran:——Common salt, 3-1/2 lbs.; alum, 8 lbs.; boiling water, q. s.; dissolve, add of wheaten flour, 21 lbs.; yolks of 9 dozen eggs; make a paste. For use, a portion is to be largely diluted with water.

CHAMOIS or SHAMMY LEATHER is generally prepared from either sheep or doe-skins, which, after dressing, liming, &c., are well oiled on the grain side, then rolled into balls, and thrown into the trough of the fulling-mill, where they are beaten for 2, 3, or 4 hours. They are next aired, and again oiled and fulled, and this is repeated a third time, or oftener, as circumstances may direct. The oiled skins are then exposed to a fermenting process, or heating in a close chamber, and are afterwards freed from redundant oil by being scoured in a weak alkaline lye. They are, lastly, rinsed in clean water, wrung at the peg, dried, and ‘finished’ at the stretcher-iron.

TAWED LEATHER differs from TANNED LEATHER in yielding size or glue under the influence of heat and moisture, in nearly the same way as the raw skins.

=TAXIDERMY, Practical.= The following review on the excellent work on this subject is from ‘The Bazaar,’ ‘Practical Taxidermy; a manual of instruction to the amateur in collecting, preserving, and setting up Natural History Specimens of all kinds. By Montagu Browne.’

“The author of this little book begins at the beginning, and, before detailing the process of skinning, preserving, and mounting any given vertebrate, he starts with a chapter on ‘Trapping and Decoying Birds and Animals.’ In this chapter descriptions are given of various forms of springs, snare, ‘figure-4 trap,’ clap-net, glade-net, bow-net, and box trap; and some wrinkles are imparted which may be useful to wildfowl shooters, to say nothing of gamekeepers, whose livelihood depends on their success in destroying what they are pleased to regard as ‘vermin.’ Chapter 3 is devoted to ‘Necessary Tools,’ of which not only descriptions, but figures are given, and those who have no knowledge of taxidermy will probably be surprised to learn how few tools are really necessary for the purpose.

“On the subject of preservative soaps and powders, Mr Browne has a good deal to say, and gives no less than seventeen different receipts. Many of these, however, are only noticed to be condemned, for the author has been a great experimentalist, and has tested the efficiency or otherwise of all the preparations he names, with a view of ascertaining the best, and at the same time that which is most harmless to the operator. For the preservation of birds he pins his faith to the fourth formula (p. 46), which is a preservative soap for the inside of the skin, composed of 1-1/2 lb. whiting or chalk, 1 lb. of soft soap, and 2 oz. of chloride of lime, finely pounded. These ingredients are boiled together in a pint of water, and the mixture, when properly applied, is said to be so efficacious as to completely supersede arsenical paste or soap. Presuming that it is used only for such specimens as are to be immediately cased up in air-tight cases, nothing further is needed; but as regards such specimens as are left exposed or uncased, ‘a wash of benzoline liberally applied from time to time——say twice a year——to the outside,’ is recommended.

“We have long since proved the efficacy of this fluid, not only in repelling the attacks of moths, and the larvæ of destructive beetles such as _Dermestes lardarius_, but in killing them in skins that have been already attacked by them. We can therefore indorse Mr Browne’s remarks, and may supplement them by a ‘wrinkle’ which he has probably discovered by this time, although he does not refer to it. It is this. If the amateur in search of benzoline applies to the nearest chemist for it, he will be served with the ‘rectified’ fluid, and will be asked three shillings or three and sixpence for an ordinary medicine bottlefull. If he proceeds, however, to an oil and colour shop, and asks for it as supplied for burning in the sponge lamps, he may get a pint for about a tithe of the cost.

“The best way to apply it is to pour some out in a saucer, saturate a pinch of cotton wool with it, and dab it on all over the fur or feathers. The great advantage about it is that, while killing or repelling insects, it does not in the least injure the specimen to which it is applied. We have seen a mounted specimen of a bird almost saturated with it, so that the feathers looked quite draggled; but as soon as the moisture had evaporated, the feathers all resumed their former shape and glossy appearance. Care should be taken not to use it by candle light, as the vapour is inflammable.

“Amongst the seventeen receipts for ‘preservatives’ of different kinds, we do not see a very simple powder which we have used with success for very small bird skins, which were almost too delicate to stand the application of a brush and paste, or soap. It is composed of burnt alum and sugar of lead, and mixed in the proportion of two thirds of the former to one third of the latter. The alum dries, the sugar of lead preserves, and if the specimen while being skinned be dusted with this mixture, it will absorb all moisture as it arises, for which purpose plaster of Paris is usually employed. A very little goes a long way, and it is desirable not to apply too much, lest the astringent nature of the alum should cause the skin to become brittle and crack.

“Possibly Mr Browne has not referred to this mixture on account of the poisonous nature of the sugar of lead. He justly remarks that too much care cannot be exercised in the employment of poisonous preservatives, and we fully agree with him.

“On the subject of his instructions for skinning birds we have not much criticism to offer, except perhaps as regards his mode of filling out the skin after the preservative has been applied, and before the skin is sewn up. We have found by experience that, after the artificial neck of tow or cotton wool has been inserted, and the wing bones tied inside, the skin is much better filled by degrees with little bits of cotton wool inserted piecemeal, instead of with an artificial body ‘as nearly as possible shaped to the original body of the bird.’ The advantage of the former plan is that it is much more quickly executed, and a nice soft skin is the result, instead of a comparatively hard one. By introducing the wool piecemeal, too, scarcely any portion of the skin is left without support on the inside, as is often the case when a ‘made body’ is inserted. This is material; for if there be any want of inside support at a given point, pressure upon that point from the outside will cause the skin to crack. These remarks, however, must be taken to apply only to such specimens as are intended to be preserved as skins, and are not to be set up.

“Few amateurs, probably, give much time to mounting their specimens, for they can get them so well done by professional taxidermists, at prices varying to suit all purses. The art of skinning wild animals and birds, however, and curing or dressing animal hides, should be acquired by every sportsman and naturalist who intends to travel and collect and bring home trophies. To such a one we may specially recommend the chapters which are devoted to this portion of the subject. In this, as in other respects, Mr Browne’s book is a ‘practical’ manual of taxidermy.”

=TAXINE.= A poisonous alkaloid present in the leaves and seeds of the yew (_Taxus faccata_).

=TEA.= _Syn._ THEA, L. The dried leaves of the Chinese tea plants (_Thea Bohea_ and _Thea viridis_).

It was formerly supposed that BLACK TEAS could only be obtained from _T. Bohea_, and GREEN TEAS from _T. viridis_, but Fortune and others have proved that both sorts may be made from either species, and that the differences in colour and flavour depend chiefly on the age of the leaves and the treatment they undergo in the drying process. Another species, named _Thea Assamica_, furnishes ASSAM TEA.

Mulder gives the following as the composition of tea:

Black Green Tea. Tea. Essential oil 0·60 0·79 Chlorophyll 1·84 2·22 Wax 0·00 0·28 Resin 3·64 2·22 Gum 7·28 8·56 Tannin 12·88 17·80 Theine 0·46 0·43 Extractive matter 21·36 22·80 Colouring substances 19·19 23·60 Albumen 2·80 3·00 Fibre 28·33 17·80 Ash (mineral substances) 5·24 5·56

Dr Walter Blyth, commenting upon the above, says, the amount of theine is certainly understated.

_Pur._ The chief adulteration of tea which is extensively practised at the present day is mixing it with a certain portion of exhausted tea-leaves, which have been redried and curled. The collection and preparation of these occupy several hundred persons, chiefly women and children, in and about London. The leaves which have been found in the possession of the manufacturers of imitation tea are those of the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white thorn. According to Mr Warrington, a most extensive system of adulterating tea is practised in China. Many samples directly imported from that country, examined by him, did not contain a single grain of tea, being made up entirely of other leaves. The ordinary green teas he found, for the most part, spurious, being manufactured out of the cheaper black teas. These are ‘faced up’ or ‘painted’ with various colouring substances, powdered porcelain, clay, &c., which are readily perceived under the microscope, and even admit of being separated, and chemically examined.

It is a general practice among the grocers in this country to impart what they call a ‘bloom’ to their green teas by ‘rouncing’ them up with a little calcined magnesia, or finely powdered talc or French chalk. The quantity that adheres to the tea is very trifling, but it, greatly improves its appearance. Black teas are ‘faced,’ in a similar manner, with finely powdered plumbago or black-lead.

Pure China tea is not turned black by being put into water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge a solution of ammonia blue. The infusion is amber-coloured, and is not reddened by the addition of an acid. The ashes left from the combustion of genuine tea are white, and do not exceed 5 to 5-1/2%. If they exceed this they may be chemically examined with the usual tests for alumina, chromate of lead, copper, cyanide of potassium, gypsum, lime, magnesia, &c. Many of these substances may be detected by simply agitating the tea with a little cold water, when they will be detached from its surface, and render the water turbid, or, by their gravity, sink to the bottom.

Mr A. H. Allen[225] arranges the adulteration of tea under four heads, giving at the same time directions for their detection:

[Footnote 225: ‘Chemical News,’ xxix, 123, 167, 189, 221; and xxx, 2.]

1. _Mineral additions for increasing weight or bulk_: (_a_) Magnetic matter. Detected by drawing a magnet under a weighted portion of the tea spread upon paper, whereby the magnetic matter is separated from the tea and may be weighed.

(_b_) Siliceous matter. The ash must be estimated by igniting a weighed portion of the tea. The ash of genuine tea varies from 5·24 to 6·0 per cent. The ash is then boiled with water, the insoluble part again treated with hydrochloric acid, and the silica collected and weighed. Genuine tea does not contain, on an average, more than 0·30 per cent. of ash insoluble in acid; adulterated teas sometimes contain as much as 10 per cent.

2. _Organic adulterations for increasing weight or bulk_: (_a_) Exhausted tea leaves. Best detected by estimating the tannin, gum, soluble ash, insoluble matter, &c.

α. Tannin. 5 gr. of lead acetate are dissolved in 1 litre of water, and the solution filtered after standing; 5 mgms. of pure potassium ferricyanide are dissolved in 5 c.c. of water, and an equal bulk of strong ammonia solution is added. The lead solution is standardised by diluting 10 c.c. to 100 c.c. with boiling water, and adding to it from a burette a solution of 0·1 pure tannin in 100 c.c. of water, until a few drops, when allowed to fall through a filter on to a drop of the ferricyanide solution, spotted on a slab, produce a pink colour. A solution of the tea is made by repeatedly boiling about 2 grams of the finely-powdered sample with 80 c.c. of water, until it is completely exhausted. The solution is filtered and made up to 250 c.c., and used as already described.

The amount of tannin in genuine black tea averages about 10 per cent. A small quantity of tannin, about 2 per cent., remains in the exhausted leaves. The percentage of exhausted leaves, E, in a sample may be estimated, when the per cent. of tannin, T, is known by the equation:

E = (10 - T) / 8 × 100.

β. Insoluble matter is best estimated by boiling the pounded sample repeatedly with water, and drying the residue at 120° C., until the weight is constant. The insoluble matter in black tea varies from 46·7 to 53·6 per cent., while in previously infused leaves it varies between 72 to 75 per cent.

γ Gum. The aqueous decoction is evaporated nearly to dryness, the residue treated with methylated spirit, filtered, washed with spirit, rinsed off the filter with hot water, the liquid evaporated at a steam heat, weighed, ignited, and weighed again. The loss represents gum.

δ. Soluble ash. The aqueous solution of the ash is evaporated, _gently_ ignited, and weighed. Genuine tea contains not less than 3 per cent. of soluble ash, while in exhausted leaves this item falls as low as 0·52 per cent. If S represents the percentage of soluble ash, the percentage of exhausted leaves E may be approximately found in the absence of foreign leaves by the equation:

E = (6 - 2S) × 20.

(_b_) Foreign leaves. The presence of leaves, other than those of the tea plant, may be detected with some accuracy by estimating the insoluble matter, tannin, gum, and ash; but the microscope must decide this question.

3. _Adulterants for imparting a fictitious strength._ (_a_) Extraneous tannin matters, such as catechu, &c., are detected by an unusually high percentage of tannin, as indicated by the lead process. Tea, adulterated with catechu, gives an infusion which quickly becomes muddy on cooling. 1 gram of the sample and 1 gram of pure tea are each infused in 100 c.c. of water, and the solutions poured off from the leaves are precipitated, while boiling, with a slight excess of neutral lead acetate, filtered, and tested as follows:——About 20 c.c. of the pure tea infusion, when gently heated with a few drops of silver nitrate, gives a slight cloudiness only; while tea, containing catechu, gives a copious brownish precipitate, and the liquid acquires a distinct yellow tinge. One drop of ferric chloride gives a light green colour if catechu is present, and a greyish-green precipitate on standing; the solution from pure tea gives a reddish colour with ferric chloride, due to acetate, and no precipitate on standing. These tests are applicable only when catechu is present in tolerably large quantities.

(_b_) Lie tea, when thrown into hot water, falls to powder, because the gum or starch used to keep it in a compact form is dissolved. The liquid may be acidified with sulphuric acid, decolourised with permanganate, and tested for starch. The ash of lie tea is often as high as 30 or 40 per cent.

(_c_) Caper tea is made into little glossy masses by the aid of gum or starch; it is usually much adulterated. The insoluble matter is usually much less than in genuine tea; the gum amounts to 15 or 20 per cent. The soluble ash often falls below 2 per cent.

(_d_) Soluble iron salts are added to give an appearance of strength by the formation of tannate of iron. They are detected by shaking the powdered leaves with cold dilute acetic acid, filtering, and testing for iron, in the filtrate.

(_e_) Alkaline carbonates are sometimes added to tea. The soluble ash gives the yellow sodium flame, if sodium salts have been added; the alkalinity may also be determined in the soluble ash. The average amount of potash (K_{2}O) in tea is about 1·62 per cent.

4. _Facing and colouring materials._ These may be detected under the microscope, or the leaves may be washed with warm water, the colouring matter collected and examined. Indigo is best detected by the microscope; Prussian blue, by boiling with caustic alkali, filtering, and testing for ferrocyanide by ferric chloride. The residue, insoluble in alkali, is fused with alkaline carbonate, evaporated to dryness with hydrochloric acid; the residue tested for silica, and the filtrate tested for lime and magnesia.

Moisture varies from 6 to 8 per cent.

Among domestic substitutes for tea are——the leaves of speedwell, wild germander, black currant, syringa or mock orange, purple-spiked willow herb, winter green, sweetbriar, cherry tree, sloe, &c., all of which are used for tea, either singly or mixed. The addition of a single bud of the black currant to the infusion of ordinary black tea imparts to it a flavour closely resembling that of green tea.

The brownish-coloured powder vended under the name of ‘la veno beno’ is a mixture of 2 parts of tea-dust with 5 parts of powdered catechu or terra japonica. A few grains of this substance thrown into the teapot are described in the advertisements as being capable of more than doubling the strength of the beverage.

=Tea, Lie.= Of this compound, Dr Hassall says:——“It is so called because it is a spurious article and not tea at all. It consists of dust of tea leaves, sometimes of foreign leaves and sand made up by means of starch or gum into little masses, which are afterwards painted and coloured, so as to resemble either black or green gunpowder. The skill exhibited in the fabrication of this spurious article is very great, and we have met with at least a dozen varieties of it, differing from each other in the size and colouring of the little masses.”

The once notorious ‘PARAQUAY PLANT,’ sold in packets, was simply new meadow-hay that had been wetted with a strong infusion of catechu, then dried, chopped small, and strongly compressed. See THEINE and CAFFEINE.

=Tea.= “The tea is not a meal; when it is properly used, it should not be a meal; but it has a special purpose to fulfil, which I will now explain. Tea——and under the generic term tea I include coffee——tea is usually taken three hours after dinner. This is the moment which corresponds with the completion of digestion, when, the food having been conveyed away from the stomach, nothing remains behind but the excess of the acid juices employed in digestion, these acid juices create an uneasy sensation at the stomach, and a call is made for something to relieve the uneasiness; tea fulfils that object.” “On the same principle, after the business of the dining-room, the antacid and refreshing beverage, either in the shape of tea or coffee, is prepared in the drawing-room. In taking either, the nearer they approach to the simple infusion the better; little milk or cream, and less sugar, should be the principle. But, seeing the purpose of tea, how unreasonable to make it the excuse for a meal, to conjoin with it toast, muffins, bread and butter, and _id genus omne_.” “Three meals a day may be taken as the standard of habit and custom; tea and coffee having a specific place and purpose as a beverage, but none as a meal.” (Eras. Wilson.) See MEALS, &c.

Although tea is undoubtedly prejudicial to children and to adults of nervous and irritable temperament, there can be no question that, if its use be not abused, it possesses valuable physiological properties. On the nervous system it acts as a pleasant stimulant and restorative, its moderate use not being followed by depression. Dr Parkes says these effects are in some measure due to the warmth of the infusion. According to the same authority its use is followed by very little quickening of the pulse, whilst there is an increase in the amount of perspiration, and a slightly diminished action on the bowels. Cases, however, are not uncommon in which this latter effect is reversed.

Dr Edward Smith says that tea increases the excretion of pulmonary carbonic acid. The contention that the elimination of urea is lessened, does seem to have been not satisfactorily established. If so, the diminution is very trifling. Sir Ranald Martin says tea is most useful against excessive fatigue, especially in hot climates. The traveller in the Australian bush speaks highly of its renovating effects at the end of a long day passed in the saddle.

A cup of strong green tea without milk or sugar is a popular and frequently by no means inefficient remedy for a severe nervous headache. According to Liebig, tea and coffee resemble soup in their effect on the system. Lehmann’s experiments seem to show that they lessen the waste of tissue in the human body. Tea taken too continuously, or in excess, produces indigestion, flatulence, and constipation, besides rendering its votaries anæmic and depressed in spirits.

It is a fallacy to suppose that soft water makes the best tea. It certainly yields a darker infusion than that made from moderately hard water, but this is owing to the soft water taking up a large quantity of bitter, physiologically inert, extractive matter from the tea, the delicate flavour of which becomes thereby greatly impaired. This is why connoisseurs object to an infusion of too dark a colour. Moderately hard _boiling_ water, on the contrary, fails to dissolve this objectionable ingredient, and hence produces a beverage in which the characteristic taste of the pleasant aromatic principle of the tea is not masked by the bitter substance. London water, which, when boiled, has a hardness of about 5 degrees (equal to 5 grains of lime salts to the gallon), makes excellent tea——better, in fact, than a water of half the hardness, the latter yielding a slightly bitter infusion. In the use of moderately hard water, it is essential that it should be allowed to remain on the tea sufficiently long. The Chinese never employ either very soft or immoderately hard water, but _a water of medium hardness_.

“Experimentally it is found that infusions of tea and coffee are strong enough when the former contains 0·6 per cent. of extractive matter, and the latter 3 per cent., so that a moderate-sized cup (5 oz.) should contain about 13 grains of the extract of tea, or 66 grains of coffee. These proportions will be obtained when 263 grains of tea (about 2-1/2 teaspoonfuls) or 2 oz. of freshly-roasted coffee are infused in a pint of boiling water; and the amounts of the several constituents dissolved are about as follows:——

“Constituents. Tea. Coffee. grs. grs. Nitrogenous matters 17·2 44·0 Fatty matter —— 3·0 Gum, sugar, and extractive 31·7 103·2 Mineral matters 9·1 22·8 ———— —————— Total extracted 58·8 173·0

“So that tea yields, to a pint of fresh water, about 22 per cent. of its weight, and coffee about 20 per cent. Lehmann found that only 15-1/2 per cent. of tea was dissolved by water, whereas Sir Humphry Davy estimated it at 33-1/2 per cent. No doubt the quality of the water, as well as that of the tea, affects the results, for cold distilled water will extract from 40 to 44 per cent. of black tea, and nearly 50 per cent. of green; but, for all this, about 22 per cent. is a good average with boiling water.”[226]

[Footnote 226: Letheby, ‘Lectures on Food.’ Longmans.]

Dr Edward Smith has shown in the following table that, when the usual custom of measuring tea into the teapot by the spoonful is followed, very varying weights of tea are employed. Thus he found that the weight of a spoonful of tea was for——

_Black Teas._

Oolong 39 grains. Congou (inferior) 52 ” Flowery Pekoe 62 ” Souchong 70 ” Congou (fine) 87 ”

_Green Teas._

Hyson 66 grains. Twankay 70 ” Fine Imperial 90 ” Scented Caper 103 ” Fine Gunpowder 123 ”

The attempt to make good tea will prove a failure unless the water employed is _boiling_. Previously to making the infusion, the teapot should always be warmed up by means of boiling water. The kettle should be filled from the _tap_, and not the boiler. It should also be borne in mind that neither good tea nor coffee can be obtained if they are made with water that has been in the kettle for many hours. The tea is ready to be drank after the boiling water has stood on it for five minutes.

=Tea, Beef.= _Syn._ INFUSUM CARNIS BUBULÆ, JUSCULUM CUM CARNE BOVIS, L. This is merely a very concentrated soup formed of lean beef. According to the common plan, lean beef, 1 lb., is gently simmered in water, 1 quart, for about 1/2 an hour, when spices, salt, &c., are added, and in a few minutes the whole is strained for use. The following are other formulæ:

1. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Take good rump steak, 1/2 lb.; cut it into thin slices, spread these over a hollow dish, sprinkle a little salt on them, add a pint of boiling water, and place the dish (covered) near the fire for 1/2 an hour; then remove the whole to a saucepan, and boil it gently for 15 minutes; lastly, strain through a hair sieve.

2. (Prof. Liebig.) Beef, free from fat, 1 lb., is to be minced very small, mixed with an equal weight of cold water, and, after digestion and agitation in the cold for about 1/2 an hour, heated slowly to boiling; when it has boiled for a minute or two, strain it through a cloth. It may be coloured with roasted onion or burnt sugar, and spiced and salted to taste.

_Obs._ Similar preparations are ordered in some foreign Pharmacopœias from calves’ lights, crayfish, frogs, mutton, pullets, snails, tortoise, veal, &c. In the Ph. L. 1746 a form was given for viper broth (JUSCULUM VIPERINUM). See ESSENCE OF BEEF, EXTRACT OF MEAT, &c.

=TEETH (The).= _Syn._ DENTES, L. An object very subservient to health, and which merits due attention, is the preservation of the teeth; the care of which, considering their importance in preparing the food for digestion, is, in general, far from being sufficiently appreciated. Comparatively very few persons wash their mouth and clean their teeth even once a day; a feat which ought always to be practised at the conclusion of a meal, when either animal food or vegetables are eaten; for the first is apt to leave behind it a rancid acrimony, and the other an acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. Those who abhor a fetid breath, rotten teeth, and the toothache, would do well to invariably clean their teeth before retiring to rest. With smokers, this practice is almost obligatory. Washing the mouth frequently with cold water is not only serviceable in keeping the teeth clean, but in strengthening the gums, the firm adhesion of which to the teeth is of the greatest importance in preserving them sound and secure. Some persons think it serviceable to add a few drops of spirit or essence of camphor to the water thus employed, a plan we certainly approve of. See BREATH, DENTIFRICES, PASTES, POWDERS, TOOTH CEMENTS, WASHES, &c.

=Teeth, Stoppings for.= See DENTISTRY.

=TEETH′ING.= _Syn._ DENTITION. Children are sometimes born with one or more teeth; but, in general, the teeth, at birth, consist of mere pulpy rudiments buried in the gum. Their development is gradual. About the third or fourth month they begin to assume shape and hardness. At this period children become fretful, the saliva flows copiously, the gums grow turgid, and there is a fondness of biting hard cold objects. In nearly all cases there is more or less fever, frequently a cough or diarrhœa, and a rash commonly appears, which is called by nurses the ‘red gum.’ These symptoms generally abate after a fortnight or three weeks, and the child remains undisturbed until the seventh or eighth month. About this period the gums again become red, tender, and swollen, and often extremely sensitive, and painful. The upper part of the gum gradually becomes attenuated and pale, and, just before the tooth appears, even covered with a blister. These changes are usually attended by an increased flow of saliva, or ‘drivelling,’ and a lax state of the bowels, both of which are regarded as favorable symptoms. Sometimes, however, the diarrhœa is excessive, when it may be cautiously restrained by a dose or two of rhubarb-and-magnesia, with a little dill or peppermint water; or, better, by the daily use of a little arrow-root, to which a few drops of pure port wine may be added. Sometimes the local irritation is considerable, or there are spasms or convulsions, in which case the practice is to lance the gums. When there is drowsiness, stupor, or oppressed respiration, one or two leeches may be applied to the temples, and a small blister to the back of the neck, or behind the ear. Sluggishness of the bowels may be removed by a little castor oil; or, when there is actual constipation, by a little calomel or mercurial powder and rhubarb. Excessive irritability, without other marked symptoms, is best combated by a drop or two of tincture of hops in sweetened water. Throughout the whole period of dentition the use of warm dry clothing, freedom from tight bandages, with thorough ventilation, good nursing, exercise, fresh air without undue exposure, abundance of crawling on the carpet, and frequent warm baths, will be found most advantageous. Indeed, the last, without other treatment, are often sufficient to subdue the most distressing convulsions and the most obstinate diarrhœa, and in no case can they do harm. See NURSING, STROPHULUS, &c.

=TELEPHONE.= Within the memory of the present generation Sir Charles Wheatstone made some experiments on the transmission of sound, which were subsequently repeated and enlarged upon by Professor Henry in America. Connecting together by means of a bar of wood the sounding boards of two pianos placed in houses on opposite sides of the street, Henry found that when the piano on one side of the street was played upon the musical sounds it gave out were reproduced by that on the other side. The next research in this direction was that of Page, in 1837, who, setting up vibrations in bars of iron, by rapidly magnetising and demagnetising them elicited from them musical notes corresponding with the velocity of the vibration. Similar effects, but more marked in character, were produced by De la Rive, in 1843, by means of a succession of electric currents transmitted through a copper wire stretched through a cylinder made of insulated copper wire.

In 1861 Reiss, of Freidrichsdorf, perfected an instrument which, by means of the vibrations of a diaphragm alternately completing and breaking the continuity of a galvanic circuit, reproduced musical sounds in an iron bar at a distance.

Varley, in 1870, obtained similar results to Reiss by the rapid charging and discharging of a condenser.

In the first of these experiments——viz. Henry’s——the sound was mechanically conducted along the bar of wood from the strings of one piano to those of the other, which, being thrown into similar vibratory movements gave rise to similar sounds.

In the other experiments, on the contrary, the sounds were not due to the chemical conduction at all, but to currents of electricity. It has been explained that Reiss’ instrument was capable of reproducing musical sounds at a distance from their origin. Reiss’ may, therefore, be regarded as the original telephone. But, although able to reproduce a musical note or sound originating at a distance, this instrument failed altogether in the case of a word or a sentence, for the simple reason that the current of electricity which passes through the wires is an intermittent one. Musical sounds differ in tone, in intensity, and quality. The tone depends upon the number of vibrations produced in the air per second; when these are less than sixteen no sound is produced. The intensity is due to the extent or amplitude of the vibrations; and the quality or _timbre_, to the form of the undulations made by the vibrating particles of the atmosphere. Now, of all these qualities or varieties of sound, the first only, or the tone, can be reproduced by a current of intermittent electricity, so that Reiss’ is a _tone_ telephone, and as such is only capable of redelivering a number of musical notes. To Professor A. Graham Bell alone belongs the merit of having invented an _articulating_ or _speaking_ telephone, or an apparatus by means of which not only tone, but intensity and _timbre_ of sound——in short, speech in its entirety can be electrically conveyed from one point to another, no matter how distant. The practical result of this is that a conversation can be carried on, the distance by which the speakers may be separated being of no import. To the particular species of electricity by which this is accomplished Professor Bell has given the name ‘undulatory,’ in contradistinction to ‘intermittent’ or ‘pulsatory.’ The annexed plate, which is half the actual size of Bell’s articulating telephone, represents that instrument in section.

_m m_ is a permanent bar-magnet, to the upper end of which is attached a soft iron core, which becomes magnetised by the permanent magnet. Surrounding the iron core is a coil of very fine insulated copper wire (_b_), the two ends of which are carried to the terminals (_t t_), by means of which one is connected with the line wire, and the other with the earth, _d_ is a disc of thin iron plate, either tinned or japanned, about the size of a crown piece, and _c_ is the cavity or mouth-piece. Upon applying the lips to this and speaking into it, the iron disc (_d_) vibrates towards the soft iron core, the result being that a current of induced electricity is set up in the coil (_b_), Which, being in connection by means of the telegraph wire with a precisely similar arrangement at the other end of the line, reproduces there the spoken words by means of a corresponding disc. The magnet with its attachments are enclosed in a wooden case (_a a_, _a a_, _a a_); _n n_ are screws which secure the iron disk (_b_); _s_ is a screw for adjusting the distance between the polo of the magnet and the disk (_b_).

The extreme simplicity of Professor Bell’s telephone was the outcome of several antecedent experiments, worked out by forms of apparatus gradually diminishing in complexity.

The German physicist Helmholtz had previously shown that by the agency of a current of intermittent electricity passed through a tuning-fork, he could produce simultaneous vibrations in a number of other forks connected with the first by a wire, and that by varying the loudness of these vibrations by means of resonators, so as to combine the musical notes in different proportions, the resulting sound was an imitation of certain vowel sounds, or a copy of the _timbre_ of sound.

Professor Bell’s first telephone was an extension of Helmholtz’s device for producing vowel or composite sounds. A number of steel wires of different pitch were made into a harp, and connected by a powerful permanent magnet, the same arrangement being repeated at the other end of the circuit. In the magnetic field of the permanent magnet was an electro-magnet. When a permanent magnet is vibrated in the neighbourhood of an electro-magnet, this latter will have a current of electricity generated in it, the intensity of which will vary with the velocity of the vibrations in the permanent magnet, whilst it will be either positive or negative according to the direction of these same vibrations. So that a vowel sound, if produced by causing a number of the rods of the harp to vibrate at the same time, can be transmitted by a current of electricity, and will be reproduced by the harp at the other end of the connecting wire. If a piano were sung into whilst the pedal was down, not only would the pitch of the voice be echoed back, but an approach to the quality of the vowel would also be obtained. And theory teaches that if the piano had a very much larger number of strings to the octave, we should get not only an approximation to, but an exact vocal reproduction of the vowel. If, therefore, in the harp there were a large number of steel rods to the octave, and you were to speak in the neighbourhood of such a harp, the rods would be thrown into vibration with different degrees of amplitude, producing currents of electricity, and would throw into vibration the rods at the other end with the same relative amplitude, and the _timbre_ of the voice would be reproduced.

The effect when you vibrate more than one of these rods simultaneously is to change the shape of the electrical undulation, and a similar effect is produced when a battery is included in the circuit. In this case the battery current is thrown into waves by the action of the permanent magnets. Hence you will see that the resultant effect on the current of a number of musical-tones, is to produce a vibration which corresponds in every degree to the moving velocity of the air. Suppose, for instance, you vibrate two rods in the harp, you have two musical notes produced, but of course if you pay attention to a particle of air, it is impossible that any particle of air can vibrate in two directions at the same time; it follows the resultant form of vibration. One curve would show the vibration of a particle of air for one musical tone, the next one for another, and the third the resulting motion of a particle of air when both musical tones are sounded simultaneously. You have by the harp apparatus the resultant effect produced by a current of electricity, but the same resultant effect could be produced in the air. There is an instrument called the phonantograph. It consists of a cone which, when spoken into, condenses the air from the voice. At the small end of the cone there is a stretched membrane which vibrates when a sound is produced, and in the course of its vibration it controls the movement of a long style of wood, about one foot in length. If a piece of glass with a smoked surface is rapidly drawn before the style during its movement, a series of curves will be drawn upon the glass. I myself uttered the vowels _e_, _ay_, _eh_, _ah_, _aah_. These vowels were sung at the same pitch and the same force, but each is characterised on the glass by a shape of vibration of its own. In fact, when you come to examine the motion of a particle of air, there can be no doubt that every sound is characterised by a particular motion. It struck me that if, instead of using that complicated harp, and vibrating a number of rods tuned to different pitches, and thus creating on the line of wire a resultant effect, we were at once to vibrate a piece of iron, to give to that piece of iron not the vibration of a musical tone, but to give it the resultant vibration of a vowel sound, we could have an undulatory current produced directly, not indirectly, which would correspond to the motion of the air in the production of a sound.

The difficulty, however, was how to vibrate a piece of iron in the way required.

The following apparatus gave me the clue to the solution of the problem in the attempt to improve the phonantograph. I attempted to construct one modelled as nearly as possible on the mechanism of the human ear, but on going to a friend in Boston, Dr Clarence J. Blake, an aurist, he suggested the novel idea of using the human ear itself as a phonantograph, and this apparatus we constructed together. It is a human ear. The interior mechanism is exposed, and to a part of it is attached a long style of hay. Upon moistening the membrane and the little bones with a mixture of glycerin and water, the mobility of the parts was restored, and on speaking into the external artificial ear a vibration was observed, and after many experiments we were enabled to obtain tracings of the vibration on a sheet of smoked glass drawn rapidly along. This apparatus gave me the clue to the present form of the telephone. What I wanted was an apparatus that should be able to move a piece of iron in the way that a particle of air is moved by the voice.[227]

[Footnote 227: From Professor Bell’s lecture at the Society of Arts, Nov. 28th, 1877, published in the Journal of the Society, vol. 26, p. 17.]

We need not follow Professor Bell through the various stages by which he arrived at his most successful solution of this problem further than to state that the simplicity of construction exhibited in the present form of instrument did not characterise the earlier articulatory telephones. Amongst the causes contributing to this simplicity may be mentioned the abandonment of an animal membrane attached to the iron plate, the diminution of the coil of insulated wire, and the substitution for the galvanic battery which formerly formed part of the circuit, of the permanent magnet.

Professor Bell records the curious fact that hardly any difference is observable in the results by varying the size, thickness, and force of the permanent magnet, and that beyond a remarkable effect in the quality of the voice, distinct articulations might be obtained from iron plates of from 1 inch to 2 feet in diameter and from 1/64th to 1/4th inch in thickness. With plates of uniform thickness, but of varying diameter, he obtained the following results. With a plate of small diameter the articulation was perfectly distinct, but the sound emitted was as if a person were speaking through the nose. By gradually enlarging the diameter of the plate this nasal effect as gradually disappeared, until when a certain diameter was attained a very good quality of voice manifested itself.

By continuing to enlarge the diameter, a coarse, hollow, drum-like effect was produced, until when the diameter became very large, the sound resembled that one hears when the head is inside a barrel, and was accompanied with a reverberating sound. By reversing the above conditions——that is, by keeping the diameter constant, and varying the thickness——it was found that with a very thin plate the drum-like sound was produced; by gradually increasing the thickness this effect passed off; then followed distinct articulation, until at a certain increase of thickness the peculiar nasal quality again developed itself.

In practice it has been found desirable, in establishing speaking communication between two distant places, to employ two telephones instead of a single one; one being applied to the mouth and the other to the ear during a conversation.

With one telephone it was no unusual occurrence for confusion to arise in consequence of the two speakers talking or listening at the same time.

So faithful is the transmission by the telephone of every variety of sound, that Mr Preece states, when in telephonic communication with Prof. Bell, through a quarter of a mile he has heard him “laugh, sneeze, cough, and, in fact, make any sound the human voice can produce.” It must be borne in mind, however, that the transmitted speech can only be distinctly heard in the immediate vicinity of the receiving apparatus; the keenest hearing fails to detect it at the distance of little more than a foot away. Hence, when a message is expected, the recipient has to place his ear to the mouthpiece of the instrument, and use it as an ear-trumpet.

A circumstance tending to impair the satisfactory working of Bell’s telephone is, that the line wire to which the ends of the coil are attached becomes inductively affected by the currents of electricity passing through the parallel and contiguous telegraph wires, the effect, on a line where there is an active transmission of telegraphic messages, being that the telephone “emits sounds that are very like the pattering of hail against a window, and which are so loud as to overpower the effects of the human voice.”[228]

[Footnote 228: Preece.]

This inconvenience can, however, it is stated, be remedied.

If all the arrangements of the instrument were perfect, there should be no limits to the distance through which speech could be conveyed by the telephone. Professor Bell says that in laboratory experiments “no difficulty has been found in using an apparatus of this construction through a circuit of 6000 miles;” and that he had found it act efficiently between New York and Boston, a distance of 258 miles, subject to the condition that the neighbouring telegraph wires were not in action.

Mr Preece has carried on conversations between Dublin and Holyhead, a distance of 100 miles.

Two useful applications of the telephone are recorded by Professor Bell, the one its employment in connection with the diving bell; the other as a means of communication between those above and below ground in mines. It has been largely adopted in extensive factories and in commercial houses both in America and in this country, supplementing, because of its much greater simplicity and easy application, the electric telegraphs previously in use in such establishments.

We extract the following from the ‘Journal of the Society of Arts,’[229]

[Footnote 229: Vol. 26, p. 887.]

“THE TELEPHONE AND THE TORPEDO.

“A novel application of the Bell telephone is one which has been made in connection with torpedoes by Captain C. A. M’Evoy, of 18, Adam Street, Adelphi. The torpedoes to which the telephone has been applied are those of the buoyant contact class——that is, floating torpedoes, which are used for the protection of rivers and harbours. These torpedoes are held in position beneath the surface of the water by mooring lines and anchors, and it is necessary to ascertain from time to time that these deadly agents are in active working order. They are, of course, connected to the shore by electric wires by which they may be exploded. They are also arranged so that they may be exploded electrically by contact with passing vessels. For this latter purpose they are fitted with what is known as a circuit closer, which is placed in the middle of the charge within the torpedo. The testing is ordinarily performed by sending a current of electricity through the torpedo and fuse; but, in order that the fuse may not be fired, and the torpedo consequently exploded during the process of testing, an extremely weak current has to be used in connection with a sensitive galvanometer. The consequence is that the indications received are so very delicate that they are not always to be relied on. Now, what Captain M’Evoy does is to supplement the electrical test by the test of sounds, and to this end he encloses an ordinary Bell telephone in each torpedo. The telephone is so placed that the vibrating diaphragm is in a horizontal plane, and upon it are laid a few shot or particles of metal, and these are boxed in. Every motion of the torpedo causes the shot to shift their position upon the face of the diaphragm and to cause a slight noise, which is distinctly heard in the receiving telephone on shore. Thus each torpedo two or three miles away, in the restless waters of a channel, is continually telling the operator on shore of its own condition in language sometimes excited, according to the state of calmness or agitation of the water at the time. Should the torpedoes be sunk, they would lie motionless on the bottom, and the silence of the telephone would indicate the fact of their inoperativeness. The telephones are connected to the ordinary electric wires of the torpedoes, but this does not prevent them from being tested in the usual way from the battery on shore.”

=TELLU′RIUM.= A rare greyish-white elementary substance, found only in small quantities, associated with gold, silver, lead, and bismuth, in the gold mines of Transylvania. It has often been described as a metal, but is now commonly classed with the non-metals.

1. Tellurium may be obtained from the bismuth ore (the telluride of bismuth) by strongly heating the ore with a mixture of carbonate of potash and charcoal. A potassium telluride is formed which dissolves in water, forming a solution of a purplish-red colour, from which the tellurium deposits on exposure of the liquid to the atmosphere.

2. Schrötter gives the following method for the obtainment of metallic tellurium:——The raw material is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid as long as carbon dioxide is evolved, then with strong acid until all sulphuretted hydrogen is driven off.

The liquid is decanted from the residue, which is washed with hydrochloric acid and hot water, then boiled with aqua regia until the insoluble matter is white. From the aqua regia solution any gold that may be present is precipitated by means of ferrous sulphate, and afterwards zinc is added to precipitate the tellurium. The precipitate on the zinc is washed, dried, and heated to redness, treated with sulphuric acid to remove any silver, and the remaining tellurium is then collected.

Tellurium bears a great resemblance to bismuth in appearance, having a pinkish metallic lustre; it further resembles bismuth in being crystalline and brittle.

Below a red heat it enters into a state of fusion; at a high temperature it becomes converted into a yellow vapour. It burns in air, when strongly heated, with a blue flame having a green rim, and giving off white fumes that have a peculiar odour. When taken internally, even in very minute quantities, tellurium imparts to the breath an offensively powerful odour of garlic. Tellurium dissolves in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, to which it imparts a rich purple-red colour. If the acid solution be diluted with water the tellurium precipitates unchanged. There are two oxides of tellurium: the dioxide (TeO_{2}) and the trioxide (TeO_{3}), the first of which corresponds to sulphurous, and the second to sulphuric anhydride.

_Tellurous acid_ (H_{2}TeO_{3}) is obtained by pouring a solution of tellurium on nitric acid of 1·25 into water, when the tellurous acid is precipitated as a bulky hydrate. This hydrate is slightly soluble in water and reddens litmus. It forms salts called tellurites.

_Telluric acid_ (H_{2}TeO_{4}). When tellurium or tellurous acid is gently heated with nitre a potassic tellurate is formed, this being decomposed by a salt of barium, whilst the resulting barium tellurate is in its turn decomposed, and the telluric acid separated by sulphuric acid. The telluric acid occurs in hexagonal prismatic crystals, which, when heated usually to redness, becoming converted into telluric anhydride, which then assumes an orange-yellow colour. This telluric anhydride (TeO_{3}) is entirely insoluble in water, nitric and hydrochloric acids, and alkaline solutions. Although it has but a feeble attraction for bases, telluric acid forms salts which are called tellurates. There are two chlorides of tellurium: the dichloride (TeCl_{2}) and the tetrachloride (TeCl_{4}). They may both be obtained by the direct action of chlorine on tellurium.

_Telluretted hydrogen, or dihydric telluride_. (H_{2}Te). This compound presents a striking analogy to seleniuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen. Like both of these it is gaseous, but resembles the latter in smell more than the former. It burns with a blue flame, reddens litmus, and when fused into water forms a colourless solution, which becomes brown by exposure to the air, owing to the oxidation of hydrogen and the deposition of tellurmin. The salts of most of the metals are decomposed when a current of telluretted hydrogen is passed through these solutions, from which the metals are then thrown down as tellurides. These tellurides present a close resemblance to the corresponding sulphides. The tellurides of the alkali metals, like the sulphides, are soluble in water.

_Tests._ The most distinctive character of tellurium compounds is the reddish-purple solution of potassium telluride they furnish when fused with potassic carbonate and charcoal and treated with water.

=TEM′PERATURE.= In English pharmacy it is customary to measure the degree of heat by Fahrenheit’s thermometer. When a boiling heat is directed, 212° is meant. A gentle heat is that which is denoted by any degree between 90° and 100° Fahr.

Whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is supposed to be of the temperature of 62° Fahr. (Ph. L.)

In the B. P., Ph. E., & D., and in chemical works in this country generally, the specific gravities of bodies are taken at, or referred to, the temperature of 60° Fahr. See THERMOMETERS.

The following data may be of use to the pharmacist:

_Degree of Fahr._ 2786 Cast iron melts (Daniell). 2016 Gold melts (Daniell). 1996 Copper melts (Daniell). 1873 Silver melts (Daniell). 1750 Brass (containing 25% of zinc) melts (Daniell). 1000 Iron, bright cherry red (Poillet). 980 Red heat, visible in daylight (Daniell). 941 Zinc begins to burn (Daniell). 773 Zinc melts (Daniell). 644 Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 (Graham). 640 Sulphuric acid boils (Marignac), 620 (Graham). 630 Whale oil boils (Graham). 617 Pure lead melts (Rudberg). 600 Linseed oil boils. 518 Bismuth melts (Gmelin). 442 Tin melts (Crichton). 380 Arsenious acid volatilises. 356 Metallic arsenic sublimes. 315 Oil of turpentine boils (Kaure). 302 Etherification ends. 257 Saturated sol. of sal ammoniac boils (Taylor). 256 Saturated sol. of acetate of soda boils. 239 Sulphur melts (Miller), 226 (Fownes). 238 Saturated sol. of nitre boils. 221 Saturated sol. of salt boils (Paris Codex). 220 Saturated sol. of alum, carb. soda, and sulph. zinc, boil. 218 Saturated sol. of chlorate and prussiate potash, boil. 216 Saturated sol. of sulph. iron, sulph. copper, nitrate of lead, boil. 214 Saturated sol. of acetate lead, sulph. and bitartrate potash, boil. 213 or (213·5) Saturated sol. of water begins to boil in glass. 212 Water boils in metal, barometer at 30°. 211 Alloy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 lead, melts. 201 Alloy of 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 tin, melts (Kane). 207 Sodium melts (Regnault). 145 White of egg begins to coagulate. 185 Nitric acid 1·52 begins to boil. 180 (about) Starch forms a gelatinous compound with water. 176 Rectified spirit boils, benzol distils. 173 Alcohol (sp. gr. ·796 to ·800) boils. 151 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 (Lepage). 150 Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scanlan). 141·8 Chloroform, and ammonia of ·945, boil. 44·5 Potassium melts (Bunsen). 132 Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) boils (Kane). 122 Mutton suet and styracin melt. 116 Bisulphuret of carbon boils (Graham). 115 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 92 (Thomson). 112 Spermaceti and stearin of lard melt. 111 Phosphorus melts (Miller). 98 Temperature of the blood. 95 Ether (·720) boils. 95 Carbolic acid crystals become an oily liquid. 88 Acetous fermentation ceases, water boils _in vacuo_. 77 Vinous ferm. ends, acetous ferm. begins. 64·4 Oil of anise liquefies. 59 Gay Lussac’s _Alcoomètre_ graduated at. 55 Syrups to be kept at (P. L.). 30 (about) Olive oil becomes partially solid. 32 Water freezes. ·5 Cold produced by snow 2 parts and salt 1 part. -37·9 Mercury freezes.

=TENT.= A piece of lint, or compressed sponge, used to dilate openings, wounds, &c.

=TERBIUM.= A rare metal found by Prof. Mosander, associated with erbium and yttrium in ordinary yttria. See ERBIUM and YTTRIUM.

=TER′RA.= [L.] Earth. TERRA JAPONICA, catechu; TERRA PONDEROSA, sulphate of baryta, &c.

=TER′RA COT′TA.= Literally, baked clay; a term applied to statues, architectural ornaments, &c., made of pure white clay, fine sand, and powdered potsherds, slowly dried, and baked to a strong hardness.

=TEST.= _Syn._ REAGENT. Any substance employed to determine the name or character of any other substance, or to detect its presence in compounds.

=TEST SOLUTIONS.= The test solutions here given are those of the British Pharmacopœia, which are used for determining the strength of various Pharmacopœial preparations by volumetric analysis. In the Pharmacopœia it is stated: The processes for volumetric estimations may be performed either with British or with metrical weights and measures, and the solutions are so arranged that they will be of the same strength, and the same indications will be obtained in using them, whichever system is employed, without the necessity of altering any of the figures by which the quantities of the substances tested or of the test solutions required in the process are expressed.

According to the British system, the quantities of the substances to be tested are expressed in grains by weight, whilst the quantities of the test solutions employed in testing are expressed in grain-measures, the grain-measure being the volume of a grain of distilled water.

According to the metrical system, the quantities of the substances to be tested are expressed in grammes by weight, whilst the quantities of the test solutions employed in testing are employed in cubic centimètres, the cubic centimètre being the volume of a gramme of distilled water.

As the cubic centimètre bears the same relation to the gramme that the grain-measure bears to the grain, the one system may be substituted for the other, with no difference in the results excepting that, by the metrical system, all the quantities will be expressed in relation to a weight (the gramme) which is more than fifteen times as great as the British grain.

In practice it will be found convenient in substituting metrical for British weights and measures, to reduce the values of all numbers to one-tenth by moving the decimal points, and this has been done in the tables appended to the descriptions of the volumetric solutions. The quantities indicated in the Pharmacopœia, which in grains and grain-measures can be conveniently used, would be found inconveniently large if the same numbers of grammes and cubic centimètres were employed.

The following apparatus is required in the preparation and use of these solutions.

For British weights and measures:

1. A flask, which, when filled to a mark on the neck, contains exactly 10,000 grains of distilled water at 60°. The capacity of the flask is therefore 10,000 grain-measures.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when filled to O, holds 10,000 grains of distilled water, and is divided into 100 equal parts.

3. A burette. A graduated glass tube which, when filled to O, holds 1000 grains of distilled water, and is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part therefore corresponds to 10 grain-measures.

For metrical weights and measures:

1. A glass flask which, when filled to a mark on the neck, contains 1 litre, or 1000 cubic centimètres.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when filled to O, contains 1 litre (1000 cubic centimètres), and is divided into 100 equal parts.

3. A burette. A graduated tube which, when filled to O, holds 100 cubic centimètres, and is divided into 100 equal parts.

(One cubic centimètre is the volume of one gramme of distilled water at 4° C.[230], 1000 cubic centimètres equal 1 litre).

[Footnote 230: It is customary to make the measurements with metrical apparatus at 60° Fahr.]

Volumetric solutions, before being used, should be shaken in order that they may be throughout of uniform strength. They should also be preserved in stoppered bottles. All measurements should be made at 60°.

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF BICHROMATE OF POTASH (Bichromate of potash, KO,2CrO_{3} = 147·5, or K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} = 295).

Take of—— Bichromate of potash 147·5 grains. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the bichromate of potash into the 10,000 grain flask, and, having half filled the flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve; then dilute the solution with more water, until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures: 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 14·75 grains of the bichromate (1/10th of K_{2}CrO_{3}, or 1/20th of K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} in grains), and, when added to a solution of a protosalt of iron, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of converting 16·8 grains (1/10th of 6Fe, or 1/20th of 6Fe in grains) from the state of protosalt to that of persalt grammes, and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures; but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. Thus, 14·75 grammes of bichromate of potash should be made to form 1000 cubic centimètres of solution. 100 cubic centimètres of this solution contain 1·475 grammes of the bichromate (1/100th of KO,2CrO_{3}, or 1/200th of K_{2}Cr_{2}0_{7} in grammes), and, when added to a solution of protosalt of iron acidulated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of converting 1·68 grammes of iron (1/100th of 6Fe, or 1/200 of 6Fe, in grammes) from the state of protosalt to that of persalt.

This solution is used for determining the proportion of protoxide of iron in the following preparations. It is known that the whole of the protosalt has been converted into a persalt when a minute drop of the liquid, placed in contact with a solution of red prussiate of potash on a white plate, ceases to strike with it a blue colour.

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /-----------/\-------------\ or /---------/\--------\ Grains weight = Grain measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Ferri arsenias 20 = 170 or 2·0 = 17·0 ” carb. sacch. 20 = 330 ” 2·0 = 33·0 ” oxid. magn. 20 = 83 ” 2·0 = 8·3 ” Phosphas 20 = 250 ” 2·0 = 25·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA (hyposulphite of soda crystallised, NaO_{1}S_{2}O_{2} + 5HO = 124, or Na_{2}H_{2}S_{2}O_{4}.4H_{2}0 = 248).

Take of—— Hyposulphite of soda, in crystals 280 grains. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Dissolve the hyposulphite of soda in 10,000 grain-measures of water. Fill a burette with this solution and drop it cautiously in 1000 grain-measures of the volumetric solution of iodine until the brown colour is just discharged. Note the number of grain-measures (_n_) required to produce this effect; then put 8000 grain-measures of the same solution into a graduated jar, and augment this quantity by the addition of distilled water until it amounts to (8000 × 1000) / _n_ grain-measures. If, for example, _n_=950, the 8000 grain-measures of solution should be diluted to the bulk of (8000 × 1000) / 950 = 8·421 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contains 24·8 grains of the hyposulphite (1/10th of 2(NaO,S_{2}O_{2} + 5HO), or 1/10th of =Na_{2}H_{2}S_{2}O_{4},4H_{2}O= in grains), and therefore corresponds to 12·7 grains of iodine (1/10th of an equivalent).

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres of this solution contain 2·48 grammes of the hyposulphite (1/100 of 2(NaO,S_{2}O_{2}+ 5HO), or 1/100th of Na_{2}H_{2}S_{2}O_{4}.4H_{2}O in grammes), and therefore corresponds to 1·27 grains of iodine (1/100th of an equivalent).

This solution is used for testing the following substances. In each case, except that of iodine, a solution of iodide of potassium and hydrochloric acid are added to the substance, and the amount of iodine so liberated is indicated by this solution:

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /------------/\------------\ or /---------/\---------\ Grains weight = Grain-measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Calx Chlorata 10·0 = 850 or 1·00 = 85·0 Iodum 12·7 = 1000 ” 1·27 = 100·0 Liq. calc. chloratæ 60·0 = 500 ” 6·00 = 50·0 Liq. chlori 439·0 = 750 ” 43·90 = 75·0 Liq. Sodæ chloratæ 70·0 = 500 ” 7·00 = 50·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF IODINE (iodine, I = 127, or I = 127).

Take of iodine 127 grains. Iodide of potassium 180 ” Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the iodide of potassium and the iodine into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to about two thirds its bulk with distilled water, gently agitate until solution is complete, and then dilute the solution with more water, until it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grains (12·7 grains) of iodine, and therefore correspond to 1·7 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 3·2 grains of sulphurous acid, and 4·95 grains of arsenious acid.

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1·27 grammes of iodine, and correspond to 0·17 grammes of sulphuretted hydrogen, 0·32 grammes of sulphurous, and 0·495 grammes of arsenious acid. This solution is for testing the following substances. It is dropped from the burette into the liquid to be tested, until free iodine begins to appear in the solution.

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /------------/\------------\ or /---------/\--------\ Grains weight = Grain-measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Acid. arsenios 4·0 = 808 or 0·40 = 80·8 Acid. sulphurosum 34·7 = 1000 ” 3·47 = 100·0 Liquor arsenicalis 441·5 = 808 ” 44·15 = 80·8 Liquor arsenici } hydrochloricus} 441·5 = 810 ” 44·15 = 81·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER (nitrate of silver, AgO, NO_{5} = 170, or AgNO_{3}* = 170).

Take of nitrate of silver 170 grains. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the nitrate of silver into the 10,000 grain flask, and having filled half the flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve; then dilute the solution with more water until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures.

The solution should be kept in an opaque stoppered bottle. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grains of nitrate of silver (or 1·70 grains). Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes of nitrate of silver (or 1·7 grammes).

It is used in testing the following substances.

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /------------/\------------\ or /--------/\---------\ Grains weight = Grain-measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Acid. hydrocyan. 270 = 1000 or 27·0 = 100·0 Potass. bromid. 10 = 840 ” 1·0 = 84·0 Sodæ arsenias (dry) 10 = 1613 ” 1·0 = 161·3

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF OXALIC ACID (crystallised oxalic acid, 2HO, C_{4}H_{6} + 4HO = 126, or H_{2}C_{2}O_{4}2H_{2}O = 126). Take of——

Purified oxalic acid in } crystals, quite dry, but } 630 grains. not effloresced } Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the oxalic acid into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to about two thirds of its bulk with water, allow the acid to dissolve, and then dilute the solution with more water until it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain half an equivalent in grains (63 gr.) of oxalic acid, and are therefore capable of neutralising an equivalent in grains of an alkali or alkaline carbonate. Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1/20th of an equivalent in grammes (6·3 grammes) of oxalic acid, and will neutralise 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes of an alkali. The following substances are tested with this solution:

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /-------/\-------\ or /--------/\--------\ Grains = Grain- Grams = C. C. of weight of measures weight of vol. sol. substance. of vol. sol. substance.

Ammoniæ carb. 59·0 = 1000 or 5·90 = 100·0 Borax 191·0 = 1000 ” 19·10 = 100·0 Liq. ammon. 85·0 = 500 ” 8·50 = 50·0 Liq. ammon. fort. 52·3 = 1000 ” 5·23 = 100·0 Liq. calcis 4380·0 = 200 ” 438·00 = 20·0 Liq. calcis sacchar 460·2 = 254 ” 46·02 = 25·4 Liq. plumbi subacet. 413·3 = 810 ” 41·33 = 81·0 Liq. potassæ 462·9 = 482 ” 46·29 = 48·2 Liq. potassæ efferves. 4380·0 = 150 ” 438·00 = 15·0 Liq. sodæ 458·0 = 470 ” 45·80 = 47·0 Liq. sodæ efferves. 4380·0 = 178 ” 438·00 = 17·8 Plumbi acetas 38·0 = 200 ” 3·80 = 20·0 Potassa caustica 56·0 = 900 ” 5·60 = 90·0 Potassæ bicarb. 50·0 = 500 ” 5·00 = 50·0 Potassæ carb. 83·0 = 980 ” 8·30 = 98·0 Potassæ citras 102·0 = 1000 ” 10·20 = 100·0 Potassæ tartras 113·0 = 1000 ” 11·30 = 100·0 Potassæ tartras acida 188·0 = 1000 ” 18·80 = 100·0 Soda caustica 40·0 = 900 ” 4·00 = 90·0 Soda tartarata 141·0 = 1000 ” 14·10 = 100·0 Sodæ bicarb. 84·0 = 1000 ” 8·40 = 100·0 Sodæ carb. 143·0 = 960 ” 14·30 = 96·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF SODA (hydrate of soda, NaO, HO = 40, or NaHO = 40).

Take of solution of soda a sufficiency. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Fill a burette with the solution of soda, and cautiously drop this into 63 gr. of purified oxalic acid, dissolved in about 2 oz. of water, until the acid is exactly neutralised as indicated by litmus.

Note the number of grain-measures (_n_) of the solution used, and having then introduced 9000 grain-measures of the solution of soda in a graduated jar, augment this quantity by the addition of water until it becomes

9000 × 1000 / _n_ grain-measures =

If, for example, _n_ = 930, the 9000 grain-measures should be augmented to

9000 × 1000 / 930 = 9,677 grain-measures.

One thousand grain-measures of this solution contain one equivalent in grains (40 gr.) of hydrate of soda, and will therefore neutralise one equivalent in grains of any monobasic acid.

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed, instead of grains and grain-measures; but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 1000 cubic centimètres contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes (4 grammes) of hydrate of soda, and will neutralise 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes of an acid.

This solution is used for testing the following substances:

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /--------/\-------\ or /--------/\--------\ Grains = Grain- Grams C. C. of weight of measures weight of = vol. sol. substance. of vol. substance. sol.

Acetum 445·4 = 402 or 44·54 = 40·2 Acid. acet. 182·0 = 1000 ” 18·20 = 100·0 Acid. acet. dil. 440·0 = 313 ” 44·40 = 31·3 Acid. acet. glac. 60·0 = 990 ” 6·00 = 99·0 Acid. citric 70·0 = 1000 ” 7·00 = 100·0 Acid. hydrochloric 114·8 = 1000 ” 14·48 = 100·0 Acid. hydrochloric dil. 345·0 = 1000 ” 34·50 = 100·0 Acid. nitric 90·0 = 1000 ” 9·00 = 100·0 Acid. nitric dil. 361·3 = 1000 ” 36·13 = 100·0 Acid. nitro-hydrochlor. dil. 352·4 = 920 ” 35·24 = 92·0 Acid. sulph. 50·6 = 1000 ” 5·06 = 100·0 Acid. sulph. arom. 304·2 = 830 ” 30·42 = 83·0 Acid. sulph. dil. 359·0 = 1000 ” 35·90 = 100·0 Acid. tart. 75·0 = 1000 ” 7·50 = 100·0

=TE′TANUS.= Spasm with rigidity. When it affects the under jaw, it is called TRISMUS, or locked-jaw; when the body is drawn backward by the contraction of the muscles, it is called OPISTHOTONOS; when the body is bent forward, EMPROSTHOTONOS; and when the body is drawn to one side, PLEUROSTHOTONOS.

The cause of tetanus, in temperate climates, is generally irritation of the nerves, arising from local injuries, especially punctured or lacerated wounds. Of these the most trivial are occasionally sufficient to produce locked-jaw. In hot climates the disease is occasionally produced by exposure to cold, or by suddenly suppressed perspiration. The last variety is curable; the former one scarcely ever so. The proper treatment is a matter still undetermined. Sedatives, antispasmodics, and powerful stimulants, have each had their advocates. Large doses of wine and spirits, in conjunction with opium, have occasionally been administered with success. Electricity and the vapour bath have also proved useful. In all cases the bowels should be moved by active aperients, either by the mouth or per anum. Dr Shrimpton[231] recommends the Chinese mode of treating tetanus, which is as follows:——From four to five grains of solid opium are mixed with tea-leaves, or dried roses, and carefully beaten together with molasses. The patient smokes this mixture, and endeavours to draw the smoke into the lungs, leaving off when the narcotic effects are produced. These last generally from three to four hours. The same operation should be repeated whenever there are any signs of returning spasms.

[Footnote 231: ‘Lancet,’ 1871, vol. ii, page 547.]

=TET′TERS.= The popular name of several cutaneous diseases, the treatment of which can only be properly undertaken by the experienced medical man.

=THAL′LIUM.= Tl. [Eng., L.] A heavy metal, belonging to the mercury, silver, and lead group, discovered by Crookes in the early part of 1861, and displayed by him as “a new metallic element” at the opening of the International Exhibition, on the 1st of May, 1862. Thallium is a widely-diffused metal, being found in many minerals, particularly in iron- and copper-pyrites and native sulphur. It has recently been obtained in comparatively large quantities from the dust of the flues leading to sulphuric acid chambers. The spectrum of thallium consists of a single most characteristic line of a beautiful green colour. The spectrum produced when the metal is burnt in the electric arc is, however, more complicated, and consists of several green, blue, and other lines.

Thallium melts at 550° Fahr., and at a less heat may be readily welded, a property that has hitherto been regarded as peculiar to iron and platinum. Its specific gravity varies from 11·8 to 11·9, according to the mode of preparation. When freshly cut it has a dull white colour, destitute of the brilliancy of polished silver. Exposed to the air, it tarnishes rapidly, a straw-coloured oxide making its appearance on the surface. The oxide is alkaline and caustic to the taste, and much more soluble than the oxides of silver and lead. The metal is remarkable for its strongly marked diamagnetic characters, resembling bismuth in this respect. The alloys of thallium are very remarkable. Copper, alloyed with only one half per cent, of thallium, becomes quite brittle; but the alloy with tin is malleable. Mr Crookes has prepared a great number of the salts of this interesting metal. These need not be described here, as they have not yet been applied to any use in the arts. See SULPHURIC ACID.

=THALLOGENS.= Thallogens or Thallogenous plants are structurally the simplest of the acotyledonous, or flowerless plants, consisting simply of a collection of cellular tissue, called a _thallus_. They are entirely destitute of woody fibre. The _Algæ_, _Characeæ_, _Fungi_, and Lichens are thallogenous plants.

=THEBA′INE.= C_{19}H_{21}NO_{3}. _Syn._ THEBAIA, PARAMORPHIA. A crystalline substance obtained by Thibourméry from an infusion of opium that has had its morphia extracted by acting on it by an excess of lime.

=THE′INE.= C_{8}H_{10}N_{4}O_{2}. _Syn._ THEINA. An alkaloid extracted from tea. It is identical with caffeine, and may be obtained from tea in the same manner as that substance is from coffee. The best ‘gunpowder tea’ contains fully 6% of theine, about one half of which is lost in the present careless mode of making infusion of tea for the table.

Mr Lewis Thompson, M.R.C.S., in a contribution to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ for 1871, directs attention to the value of theine as a therapeutic agent, as well as gives an easy method for its preparation. He writes as follows:——“I wish to direct the attention of the medical profession to a valuable agent which has hitherto escaped notice, although its powers are most unquestionable, and its cost price very trivial. The article to which I allude is theine, a substance existing in tea and coffee, and, as I believe, in many other vegetable products.

“As a medicine, theine is powerfully tonic and stimulant, and appears to possess the tonic virtues of the disulphate of quinia united to the stimulating power of wine, but with this difference, that the stimulus from theine is not followed by depression, as in the case of wine and alcohol.

“Theine seems to act chiefly on the great sympathetic or ganglionic system of nerves, and but slightly on the brain. I have used it in doses of from 1 to 5 grams, with very marked advantage, in the low stage of typhoid fevers, confluent smallpox, and that form of mortification of the toes which is so singularly fatal to old people. But, in addition to this, different medical friends of mine have found it useful in hemicrania, neuralgia, and what has been called relapsing fever; and in the case of an overdose of opium, it appeared to relieve the narcotic symptoms speedily.

“With regard to the cost of this medicine, I have discovered that in the ordinary process of roasting coffee, the whole of the theine is driven off before the torrefaction of the coffee is completed; and thus theine may be cheaply collected by making the axis of the coffee roaster tubular. If, instead of a solid axis, we employ at one end of the roasters a tube passing away to the distance of about three feet, the theine is condensed in this tube by the refrigerating power of the atmosphere, and may afterwards be easily dissolved out by a little water, and purified in the manner about to be indicated.

“As the result of much experience, I have obtained on an average, 75 grains of theine from the roasting of 1 lb. of raw coffee; and when we reflect that in Great Britain alone, there are more than 13,000 tons of coffee roasted annually, we see that about 140 tons of theine are wasted and lost every year by sheer ignorance. It may, perhaps, be thought that the saving of the theine will damage the flavour of the coffee, but from experience I know that it has no such effect; and, in point of fact, it is an advantage to the flavour of the coffee to make both the axes of the roaster tubular, and to cause a gentle current of air to pass through the apparatus during the roasting of the coffee, so as to expel the empyreumatic products that are formed. I will now relate the fact upon which the purification of theine depends, and when this is once clearly understood, the manufacture of theine from either tea or coffee becomes an extremely simple matter. Theine is absolutely insoluble in a concentrated solution of the carbonate of potash, and thus we may precipitate it from its admixture with sugar, mucilage, and vegetable extract. If, then, by means of the subacetate of lead, we have removed from a vegetable infusion the tannin, malic acid, &c., we have only to evaporate the filtered solution to a small bulk, and add to it its own weight of dry carbonate of potash, and the whole of the theine becomes at once insoluble; so that having collected this insoluble product, and boiled it in rectified spirits of wine, we have a solution of pure theine, which, after distilling off the spirit, furnishes crystals fit for immediate use. In conclusion, I will merely mention a distinctive test for theine, sufficiently delicate to detect the one thousandth of a grain of that substance. Dissolve the theine in a small quantity of water, and pass through this a stream of euchlorine, then allow the fluid to evaporate at a steam heat; a blood-coloured substance will remain, which, on the application of a few drops of cold water, forms a beautiful scarlet solution like red ink. It is, I apprehend, almost unnecessary for me to say that euchlorine gas is formed by the action of hydrochloric acid upon the chlorate of potash.

“I ought, perhaps, to add that theine collected as a waste product of coffee, and purified by myself, has cost me less than threepence per ounce troy.”

=THENARD’S BLUE.= See ULTRAMARINE (Cobaltic).

=THEOBROMÆ OLEUM.= _Syn._ CACAO BUTTER. A concrete oil, obtained by expression and heat from the ground seeds of _Theobroma Cacao_. Occurs in cakes of a yellowish colour, of a pleasant cacao odour. Does not become rancid from exposure to air. Contained in all the suppositories.

_Not official._——The following form good bases for suppositories:——Theobroma oil, when melted, begins to solidify at 72° Fahr.; stearine of cocoa-nut oil at 75° Fahr.; 4 of stearine and 2 of mutton fat at 77° Fahr.; 4 of stearine and 1 spermaceti at 80° Fahr. Stearine alone is, perhaps, a better substance than cacao butter for making suppositories. It begins to solidify at 78° Fahr., but there is stearine that solidifies at 120° Fahr.; this will not answer for suppositories.

=THEOBRO′MINE.= A peculiar principle, closely resembling caffeine or theine, found by Woskresensky in the seed of the _Theobroma Cacao_, or the nuts from which chocolate is prepared. Its form is that of a light, white, crystalline powder, which is rather less soluble than caffeine. It is obtained like caffeine. See COCOA.

=THERI′ACA.= A name given in ancient pharmacy to various compound medicines, chiefly electuaries or confections, employed as antidotes to poisons or infection. The THERIACA ANDROMACHI, Ph. L. 1746, contained above 60 ingredients. Mithridate and Venice treacle are examples of this class. See TREACLE.

=THERMOM′ETERS.= FAHRENHEIT’S scale is the one generally employed in England, while that of CELSIUS, or the CENTIGRADE scale, is principally used on the Continent. REAUMUR’S is another scale occasionally employed. DE LISLE’S thermometer was formerly used in Russia, and some other parts of the north of Europe. As references to these scales are frequently met with in books, it is useful to know their relative value, and the method of reducing the one to the other. The boiling point of water is indicated by 212° on Fahrenheit’s scale, 100° on the Centigrade scale, 80° on that of Reaumur, and O° on that of De Lisle; the freezing point of water marks 32° Fahrenheit, and 0°, or zero, on the Centigrade and Reaumur, and 150° on the scale of De Lisle. The 0°, or zero of Fahrenheit, is 32° below the freezing point of water.

1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those of Fahrenheit, multiply them by 9, divide the product by 5, and to the quotient add 32; that is——

Cent.° × 9 / 5 + 32 = Fahr.°

2. To reduce Fahrenheit’s degrees to Centigrade:

(Fahr.° - 32) × 5 / 9 = Cent.°

3. To reduce Reaumur’s to Fahrenheit’s:

Reau.° × 9 / 4 + 32 = Fahr.°

4. To convert Fahrenheit’s to Reaumur’s:——

(Fahr.° - 32) × 4 / 9 = Reaumur.°

Thermometers intended to register extreme degrees of heat are called PYROMETERS (which _see_)

=THIBANT’S BALSAM.= FOR WOUNDS. Digest flowers of St John’s wort, one handful in 1/2 pint of rectified spirit; then express the liquor, and dissolve in it myrrh, aloes, and dragon’s blood, of each 1 dr., with Canada balsam, 1/2 oz.

=THO′RIUM.= Th. _Syn._ THORINUM. A very rare element, belonging to the group of earthy metals. Metallic base of thoria. It is obtained by the action of potassium on the chloride of thorium, and washing the resulting mass in water.

=THORN-APPLE.= See DATURA.

=THROAT AFFECTIONS.= We intend here only to allude to those arising from exposure or cold. The list is, therefore, a short one. CROUP, one of the most important, has been already briefly noticed.

QUINSY, or INFLAMMATORY SORE THROAT, commonly commences with stiffness and pain on one side of the throat, and swelling of the tonsils, attended by febrile symptoms, which increase as tumefaction advances, and sometimes become extreme. There is great restlessness and anxiety, considerable difficulty in swallowing even liquids, the respiration is painful and laborious, and the speech obstructed. When the inflammation is not resolved, these symptoms rapidly increase in severity, the patient suffers the greatest misery, the tumour suppurates rapidly, the abscess bursts, and with the rupture comes almost immediate relief. It occasionally happens that the other side of the throat then becomes affected, and goes through the same stages; but in general this is not the case, and the patient rapidly recovers, a few detergent gargles and a light nutritious diet being all that is required. Sometimes, at the very commencement of the attack, the inflammation may be resolved by the patient sucking a lozenge or powder, every hour or two, containing 1/4 or 1/2 grain of tartarised antimony carefully triturated with about 20 gr. of lump sugar, so as to keep up a constant state of nausea or vomiting for hours.

MALIGNANT SORE THROAT is marked by the inflammation of the tonsils being more superficial; but no sooner does it occur than it passes into small ulcers of varied colours and appearance, extending to the pharynx, and spreading over the whole fauces into the nostrils, and even around the glottis and down the œsophagus. These ulcers rapidly slough, and the febrile symptoms of a typhoid character, which are present throughout, become more or less severe. In this way the disease often hastens to a fatal termination, and, being highly contagious, often extends itself to all, or nearly all, the members of a family. The treatment must be similar to that adopted for typhus fever. Stimulating gargles, containing capsicum, the mineral acids, or port wine, are useful local remedies. See DIPHTHERIA.

=THRUSH.= _Syn._ APHTHA, L. A disease of infancy, which, in its common form, is marked by small white ulcers upon the tongue, palate, and gums. In some cases it extends through the whole course of the alimentary canal, and, assuming a malignant form, proves fatal. The treatment consists of a gentle emetic of ipecacuanha wine, followed by an occasional dose of rhubarb and magnesia, to keep the bowels clear, and to arrest diarrhœa. The ulcerations may be touched with a little honey or borax; and if they assume a dark colour, or there be much debility, astringents and tonics should be had recourse to. In all cases the diet should be light, but supporting, as imperfect nutrition is a common cause of the disease.

_In Animals._ Topical applications of alum or borax, glycerine, Condy’s fluid; laxatives. The food should be cooling and digestible.

=THYMOL.= _Syn._ THYMIC ACID, C_{10}H_{14}O. This substance is the oxygenated constituent of the essential oils of thyme (_Thymus vulgaris_), horse mint (_Monarda punctata_), and (_Ptychotis ajowan_) a common umbelliferous plant growing in India. Thymol is isomeric with cymilic alcohol, and homologous with phenyl.

Thymol may be procured from either of the above sources by treatment with caustic potash or soda, as described below, or by submitting the essential oils to a low temperature for some days. When prepared by the first process thymol occurs as an oily fluid; and when by the second, as a crystalline solid.

The following are the details of the preparation of the liquid variety of thymol as given by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society in their formulæ for new remedies published in 1877:——

“Treat essential oil of thyme with an equal volume of an aqueous solution of potash or soda, and shake several times to facilitate combination. The thymol dissolves, forming a soluble compound, whilst the thymene, a carbide of hydrogen, that accompanies it in the essence, does not combine with the alkali and separates. Filter the solution obtained and treat with an acid——hydrochloric acid, for example——which sets free the thymol. The product should be purified by washing, dried, and distilled. Thymol was obtained in fine tubular crystals by Flückiger and Hanbury, who exposed oil of ajowan to a temperature of 0° C.; the oil so treated yielded 35 per cent. of its weight of crystallised thymol. Mr Gerrard says it is stated that oil of thyme yields as much as 50 per cent.

“As found in commerce, thymol consists of irregular broken crystals, nearly transparent and colourless; the taste is burning and aromatic, sp. gr. 1·028, but lighter than water when fused; its melting point is about 44° C. When once completely fused and allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature, it will maintain itself in the fluid condition for several days, but the contact of a crystal will at once cause it to crystallise. It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzol, carbon bisulphide, fats, and oils, and but sparingly in water and glycerin. The alkaline hydrates of potash and soda are powerful solvents of thymol; ammonia dissolves it but sparingly.

“The potash and soda solutions are spoken of by some authors as chemical combinations; but the following test will demonstrate them otherwise. When shaken with ether the thymol can be entirely removed, and obtained as a neutral volatile residue.”[232]

[Footnote 232: “Thymol and its Pharmacy,” by A. W. Gerrard, F.C.S., ‘Ph. Journ.,’ vol. viii, 3rd series, 645.]

With sulphuric acid thymol forms crystallisable colugated acid, the thymol sulphuric having the formula HC_{10}H_{13}SO_{4}. Undiluted thymol is an energetic caustic. According to Bucholz, thymol possesses ten times the septic power of carbolic acid, over which it also has the advantage of being non-poisonous, and of giving off an agreeable odour. Although considerably dearer than carbolic acid, the much smaller quantity required to produce an equivalent effect nearly equalises it in point of cost. It is said to have been successfully employed in the antiseptic treatment of wounds in destroying the fœtor arising from ulcerated surfaces and carious bones; in the form of spray during surgical applications, as well as for certain throat affections, and as an ointment and lotion in psoriasis and other skin diseases. When thymol is to be used for lotions, injections, inhalations, or spray solutions, the Paris Pharmaceutical Society recommends 1 part of thymol to be dissolved in 4 parts of alcohol at 90°, and this to be added to 995 parts of distilled water.

Dr Crocker, of University College Hospital, strongly recommends thymol lotion to be prepared with glycerin, which, he says, obviates the drying effect upon the skin produced by aqueous or spirituous solutions of the thymol alone. According to Mr Gerrard, this lotion is prepared by dissolving 1 part of thymol in 120 parts of glycerin, and reducing by water to 600 parts. Dr Symes says he finds milk to be an excellent solvent for thymol, of which it will take up readily to nearly 10 per cent. of its weight. In cases, therefore, in which solutions are required of greater strength than aqueous ones, he recommends the employment of the fluid.

An ointment varying in strength from 1 to 5 parts of thymol to 100 of lard, is said by Mr Gerrard to be employed in our hospitals. In the preparation of this ointment, it is of importance to first dissolve the thymol in a few drops of spirits, and then to mix it with the lard. The neglect of this precaution causes the undissolved particles of thymol present in the ointment to act as a caustic irritant on the skin, and to eat little holes in it. Mr Gerrard found vaseline an unsuitable and objectionable vehicle for the application of thymol, since, after a few days, an ointment prepared with it had its surface covered with minute crystals of thymol.

The ‘Medical Times’ contains the following formula for the preparation of thymol gauze for dressing wounds:——“Bleached gauze, 1000 parts; spermaceti, 500; resin, 50; thymol, 16 parts.” This is said to yield an extremely soft and pliant preparation, excellently adapted for wounds, fitting accurately to them, and absorbing at the same time the blood and secretions from them like a sponge would do. Dr Ranke has pointed out that, in consequence of the great reduction in the amount of secretion from wounds caused by the use of thymol, the consequent consumption of bandages becomes so much less as to more than compensate for the great difference in price between thymol and carbolic acid.

Another advantage possessed by thymol over carbolic acid is that the redness, vesication, and eczema, frequently induced when dressings of the latter agent are used, does not follow the application of thymol dressings.

Mr Squire prepares an antiseptic adhesive plaster, containing 1 part of thymol to a 1000 of plaster.

Mr Gerrard in operating upon nine different samples of commercial oil of thyme (so-called oil of origanum) by means both of caustic soda and refrigeration, states, that except in one doubtful case, he was unable to obtain the slightest trace of thymol. From this circumstance Mr Gerrard infers that thymol is not present in the English oils of thyme of commerce, from which it must have been removed in the countries where it is produced, the residual cymene and thymene being sent us is an oil of thyme.

Large quantities of thymol are prepared in Germany, principally from the seeds of the _Ptychotis ajowan_. One firm of chemical manufacturers residing in Leipzig is reported to have sent out during the months of September and November last year more than a ton of it. Thymol wadding is also in extensive demand.

=TIC DOULOUREUX′.= [Fr.] According to a writer in one of the medical periodicals, a solution of atropia, 2 gr., in water, 1 fl. dr., to which nitric acid, 1 drop (minim), has been previously added, applied as a paint, by means of a camel-hair pencil, to the part of the face over the spot affected, immediately and completely subdues the pain, or, at all events, within 3 to 5 minutes, in all accidental cases, and affords considerable relief in others. The application is to be continued until some relief is experienced. The solution, being very poisonous, must not be taken internally, nor applied to the skin when broken. See ATROPIA and NEURALGIA.

=TIN.= Sn. _Syn._ STANNUM (Ph. E. & D.), L. This metal has been known from the most remote antiquity, being mentioned in the books of Moses (Numb. xxxi, 22), and by Homer (‘Iliad,’ x, 25), and other early writers. The ancients obtained it principally, if not solely, from Cornwall. The Phœnicians traded with England for this metal at least 1000 years before the birth of Christ.

Tin occurs in nature in the state of oxide, and, more rarely, as sulphide (TIN PYRITES). In Cornwall it is found under the form of peroxide (MINE-TIN, TIN-STONE), associated with copper ore, in the slate and granite rocks, and as an alluvial deposit (STREAM-TIN) in the beds of rivers.

_Prep., &c._ The ore is first reduced to powder in stamping-mills, washed to remove earthy matter, and then roasted to expel arsenic and sulphur; it is next deoxidised or reduced by smelting it with about 1-6th of its weight of powdered culm, and a little slaked lime; it is, lastly, refined by ‘liquation,’ followed by a second smelting of the purer portion, which, after being treated in a state of fusion, for some time with billets of green wood, or ‘tossed,’ as the workmen call it, is allowed to settle, and is then cast into large blocks, which, after being assayed, receive the stamp of the duchy. Two varieties of commercial tin are known, called respectively grain tin and bar tin. The first is the best, and is prepared from the stream ore.

_Prop._ Tin approaches silver in whiteness and lustre; in hardness it is intermediate between gold and lead; it is very malleable when pure, but the presence of a very small quantity of any other metal, particularly lead, deprives it of this property; when rubbed it evolves a peculiar odour, and when bent backwards and forwards it emits a peculiar crackling noise; it melts at 442° Fahr.; volatilises at a white heat; and when heated above its melting-point, with free access of air, is speedily converted into a yellowish-white powder, which is the peroxide, or the ‘putty powder’ of polishers. Sp. gr. 7·29 to 7·31.

_Pur._ It is almost entirely dissolved by hydrochloric acid, yielding a colourless solution; the precipitate thrown down by hydrate of potassium is white, and soluble in excess of the precipitant. If it contain arsenic, brownish-black flocks will be separated during the solution, and arseniuretted hydrogen evolved, which may be inflamed and tested in the usual manner. The presence of other metals in tin may be detected by treating the hydrochloric solution with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·16, first in the cold, and afterwards with heat, until all the tin is thrown down in the state of insoluble stannic oxide. The decanted acid solution from pure tin leaves no residuum on evaporation. If, after all the acid has been dissipated by heat, dilution with water occasion a heavy white precipitate, the sample contained bismuth; if, after dilution, a solution of sulphate of ammonium or of sodium produce a similar white precipitate (sulphate of lead), it contained lead; if ammonia, added in excess, occasion reddish-brown flocks, or if ferricyanide of potassium give a blue precipitate, it contained iron; and, if the clear supernatant liquid leave a residuum on evaporation, copper.

_Tests._ The stannous salts are characterised as follows:——1. Hydrate of potassium gives a bulky white precipitate, readily soluble in excess of the precipitant; on concentrating the solution, the precipitate is changed from stannous hydrate into stannic hydrate, which remains in solution, and metallic tin, which separates in brown flakes.——2. Ammonia, and the carbonates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, give white precipitates, insoluble in excess.——3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in neutral and acid solutions, a dark brown precipitate, which is soluble in hydrate of potassium, in the alkaline sulphides (especially when they contain an excess of sulphur), and in strong hot hydrochloric acid; and insoluble in nitric acid, even when boiling.——4. Sulphide of ammonium produces a like brown precipitate, soluble in excess of the precipitant, provided the latter contains an excess of sulphur.——5. Terchloride of gold gives, in the cold, on the addition of a little nitric acid, a precipitate of the purple of Cassius.——6. Mercuric chloride gives a black precipitate, but in excess it produces a white one.

=Stannous Chloride.= SnCl_{2}. _Syn._ PROTOCHLORIDE OF TIN. _Prep._ (ANHYDROUS.) Distil a mixture of tin and mercuric chloride. Grey, resin-like, solid, fusible, and volatile.

(HYDRATED; TIN SALT.) Boil an excess of tin in hydrochloric acid. A powerful deoxidising agent. It is somewhat extensively used as a mordant in dyeing.

=Stannous Hydrate.= Sn(HO)_{2}. _Syn._ HYDRATED OXIDE OF TIN. _Prep._ Precipitate stannous chloride with carbonate of potassium, well wash, and dry under 196°. Greyish-white powder, soluble in acids and alkaline hydrates, except ammonia.

=Stannous Iodide.= SnI_{2}. _Syn._ PROTIODIDE OF TIN. Heat tin and iodine together. A fusible brownish-red, translucent substance, soluble in water.

=Stannous Oxide.= SnO. _Syn._ PROTOXIDE OF TIN. _Prep._ Ignite the hydrate in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. Black powder, inflammable in air, and insoluble in acids.

=Stannous Sulphide.= SnS. _Syn._ PROTOSULPHIDE OF TIN. A brittle bluish-grey substance, obtained by heating tin and sulphur.

The stannous salts behave with reagents as follows:——1. Hydrate of potassium, ammonia and alkaline carbonates, give a white precipitate, which is freely soluble in an excess of hydrate of potassium and in acids, sparingly soluble in excess of ammonia, only very slightly soluble in excess of carbonate of potassium, and insoluble in excess of carbonate of ammonium.——2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in acid neutral solutions, a golden-yellow precipitate, either at once or on heating the liquid, which is readily soluble in pure hydrate of potassium, the alkaline sulphides, and boiling hydrochloric acid; less soluble in ammonia, and insoluble in nitric acid.——3. A plate of metallic zinc throws down metallic tin, under the form of grey scales or a spongy mass, from solutions free from nitric acid; and from those containing free nitric acid, white stannic hydrate.——4. Mercuric chloride gives a white precipitate.——5. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives no precipitate at first, but after a time the whole forms a thick jelly.

_Assay._ Each grain of stannic oxide (see _above_), after being washed and gently ignited, is equivalent to ·78365 gr. of pure tin. The loss of weight represents the impurities. Each gr. of sulphate of lead, so treated, is equiv. to ·683 gr. of metallic lead (nearly).

_Uses._ The uses of tin in the arts are well known. In medicine, 1 to 3 dr. of the filings or powder, made into an electuary with treacle, are sometimes given in tapeworm, for 2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by an aperient.

=Stannic Chloride.= SnCl_{4}. _Syn._ BICHLORIDE OF TIN, TETRACHLORIDE OF TIN, PERCHLORIDE OF TIN, PERMURIATE OF T.†; STANNI BICHLORIDUM, STANNI PERMURAS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Liebig.) By dissolving grain tin in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; nitric acid and water, of each 1 part (all by volume); observing to add the tin by degrees, and to allow one portion to dissolve before adding another, as without this precaution the action is apt to become violent, and stannic oxide of tin to be deposited.

2. (ANHYDROUS; LIBAVIUS’S FUMING LIQUOR.) By heating stannous chloride in chlorine gas; or, by distilling a mixture of powdered tin, 1 part, with corrosive sublimate, 3 parts (5 parts——Fownes). A very volatile, colourless, mobile liquid, which fumes in the air, and boils at 248° Fahr.; when mixed with 1-3rd of its weight of water, it solidifies to a crystalline mass.

_Obs._ Solution of stannic chloride is much used by dyers, under the names of ‘SPIRITS OF TIN,’ ‘DYERS’ SPIRITS,’ ‘TIN MORDANT,’ &c., the proportions of the ingredients and the state of dilution being various, according to circumstances or the caprice of the manufacturer. A process, which has been highly recommended, and which seems preferable to all others, is to prepare a simple solution of the stannous chloride, and to convert it into a solution of the stannic chloride, either by the addition of nitric acid and a gentle heat, or by passing chlorine through it. See TIN MORDANTS.

=Stannic Hydrate.= Sn(HO)_{4}. _Syn._ HYDRATED PEROXIDE OF TIN, STANNIC ACID. _Prep._ By adding hydrate of potassium or an alkaline carbonate to a solution of stannic chloride. Soluble in acids and pure alkalies. Its compound with the latter are sometimes called STANNATES.

=Stannic Iodide.= SnI_{4}. By dissolving stannic hydrate in hydriodic acid. Yellow, silky crystals.

=Stannic Oxide.= SnO_{2}. _Syn._ BINOXIDE OF TIN, PEROXIDE OF TIN. _Prep._ By the action of nitric acid on metallic tin, the resulting white powder being well washed with water; or, by heating metallic tin above its melting-point, in the air. Yellow; anhydrous; insoluble.

_Obs._ Frémy has given the name of METASTANNIC ACID to the oxide prepared by the action of nitric acid on metallic tin; the hydrate he calls STANNIC ACID. See POLISHERS’ PUTTY.

=Stannic Sulphide.= SnS_{2}. _Syn._ BISULPHIDE OF TIN, BRONZE POWDER, MOSAIC GOLD; AURUM MUSIVUM, AURUM MOSAICUM, STANNI BISULPHURETEM, L. _Prep._ 1. To pure tin, 12 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add of mercury, 6 oz.; to the powdered mass, when cold, add of chloride of ammonium, 6 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 7 oz; and after thorough admixture place the compound in a glass flask or matrass, and gradually heat it, imbedded in sand, to low redness, and continue the heat for several hours, or until white fumes cease to be disengaged; the ‘aurum musivum’ remains at the bottom of the vessel, under the form of soft and very brilliant gold-coloured flakes.

2. (Berzelius.) Stannic oxide and sulphur, of each 2 parts; chloride of ammonium, 1 part; mix, and expose it to a low red heat, in a glass or earthenware retort, until sulphurous fumes cease to be evolved.

Used as a metallic gold colour, or substitute for powdered gold, in bronzes, varnish work, sealing-wax, &c.

=TIN FI′LINGS.= See TIN POWDER (_below_).

=TINFOIL, Lead in.= Tinfoil very rarely consists of pure tin; generally it contains more or less lead. According to the recent analysis of August Vogel, who has examined a great number of samples from very different sources, it contains from 1 to 19 per cent. of lead. There are, however, specimens of tinfoil which contain so little lead that it hardly gives a reaction with the appropriate tests.

Since tinfoil is so much used for covering articles of diet, or of confectionery, or of perfumery, it was a matter of some interest to determine whether or not there was any danger of transference of lead from the wrapper to the contents. A number of experiments upon soap, chocolate, and different kinds of dry sugar, which had been enveloped in tinfoil very highly charged with lead, showed that there was no contamination with lead. Cheese, on the other hand, on account of its being moist, and being closely in contact with the foil, did take up lead.

Of course the lactic acid of the cheese would also favour the taking up of the metal. A point worthy of being recorded in connection with this matter is the rapid diminution of the lead toward the centre of the cheese. Often plenty of lead was found in the rind, and none a little way in the cheese.[233]

[Footnote 233: ‘Repertorium für Pharmacie,’ Von Buchnee.]

=TIN GLASS†.= See BISMUTH.

=TIN MOR′DANTS.= _Syn._ DYERS’ SPIRIT, SOLUTION OF TIN, SPIRIT OF T., NITROMURIATE OF T.† These, as noticed above, vary greatly in their composition and character.

_Prep._ 1. Take of aquafortis, 8 parts; sal ammoniac or common salt, 1 part; dissolve, and add, very gradually, of grain tin, 1 part; and, when dissolved, preserve it in stoppered bottles from the air. This is the common ‘SPIRIT OF TIN’ of the dyers.

2. (Berthollet.) Nitric acid, at 30° Baumé, 8 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part; dissolve, then add by degrees, of tin, 1 part; and when dissolved, dilute the solution with 1-4th of its weight of water.

3. (Dambourney.) Hydrochloric acid, at 17° Baumé, 4 parts; nitric acid, at 30° Baumé, 1 part; mix, and add by degrees, of Molucca tin, 1 part.

4. (Hellot.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; nitre, 1/2 oz.; dissolve, then add, by degrees, of granulated tin, 2 oz.

5. (Poerner.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1-1/2 oz.; dissolve, then add, by very slow degrees, of pure tin. beaten into ribands, 2 oz.

6. (Schoeffer.) Nitric acid and water, of each 2 lbs.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; pure tin, 4-1/2 oz.; as last. All the above are used chiefly for dyeing scarlet, more particularly with cochineal.

7. (LAC SPIRIT.) From grain tin, 1 lb, slowly dissolved in hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·19), 20 lbs. Recommended as a solvent for lac dye. For use, 3/4 to 1 lb. of the liquid is digested on each lb. of the dye for 5 or 6 hours, before adding it to the dye bath.

8. Hydrochloric acid, 6-3/4 lbs.; aquafortis, 1/2 lb.; grain tin, gradually added, 1 lb. Recommended for lac dye.

=TIN-PLATE.= Iron-plate covered with a coating of tin, by dipping it into a bath of that metal.

=TIN POW′DER.= _Syn._ TIN FILINGS, TIN DUST; STANNI PULVIS (Ph. E & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Melt grain tin in an iron vessel, pour it into an earthenware mortar heated a little above its melting-point, and triturate briskly as the metal cools; lastly, sift the product, and repeat the process with what remains in the sieve.

2. (Ph. D.) Melt grain-tin in a black-lead crucible, and, whilst it is cooling, stir it with a rod of iron until it is reduced to powder; let the finer particles be separated by means of a sieve, and when, after having been several times in succession shaken with distilled water, the decanted liquor appears quite clear, let the product be dried for use.

_Obs._ Powdered tin is also prepared by filing and rasping.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 dr., as a vermifuge. POLISHERS’ PUTTY, coloured with ivory black, is frequently substituted for this powder, and hence arises the ill effects that sometimes follow its use.

=TIN′NING.= _Proc._ 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper, boiled with a solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer of pure tin.

2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin filings and caustic alkali or cream of tartar.

_Obs._ By either of the above methods chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly tinned.

3. The following method for tinning copper, brass, and iron in the cold, and without apparatus, is by F. Stolba.[234]

[Footnote 234: ‘The Pharmacist,’ iv, 86.]

The requisites for accomplishing this object are:——1st. The object to be coated with tin must be entirely free from oxide. It must be carefully cleaned and care be taken that no grease spots are left; it makes no difference whether the object be cleaned mechanically or chemically. 2nd. Zinc powder; the best is that prepared artificially by melting zinc, and pouring it into an iron mortar. It can be easily pulverised immediately after solidification; it should be about as fine as writing sand. 3rd. A solution of protochloride of tin containing 5 or 10 per cent., to which as much pulverised cream of tartar must be added as will go on to the point of a knife. The object to be tinned is moistened with the tinned solution, after which it is rubbed hard with the zinc powder. The tinning appears at once. The tin-salt is decomposed by the zinc, metallic tin being deposited. When the object tinned is polished brass or copper, it appears as beautiful as if silvered, and retains its lustre for a long time. 4th. (C. Paul.)[235] The zinc or iron articles are immersed in a mixture of 1 part sulphuric or nitric acid with 10 parts of water; a solution of copper sulphate or acetate is then slowly added. After the deposition of a thin layer of copper, the articles are removed, washed, moistened with a solution of 1 part ‘tin crystals,’ in 2 parts water and 2 parts hydrochloric acid, and then shaken up with a mixture of fine chalk and copper. Ammonium sulphate, which is prepared by dissolving 1 part of copper sulphate in 16 parts of water, and adding ammonia until a clear dark blue liquid is obtained.

[Footnote 235: Dingl. Polyt, J., ccviii, 47-49, ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.’]

The articles may now be tinned by immersion in a solution of 1 part of tin crystals with 3 parts white argol in water. Brass, copper, or nickel goods, also iron and zinc articles which have been copper-plated, may be silvered by treatment (after thorough cleansing), with a solution of 14 grams silver in 26 grams of nitric acid, to which is added a solution of 120 grams of potassium cyanide in 1 litre water, and also 28 grams of finely powdered chalk.

=TINS, To Clean.= All kinds of tins, moulds, measures, &c., may be cleaned by being well rubbed with a paste made of whiting and water. They should then be rubbed with a leather, and any dust remaining on them should be removed by means of a soft brush. Finally, they must be polished with another leather. Always let the inside of any vessel be cleaned first, since in cleaning the inside the outside always becomes soiled. For very dirty or greasy tins, grated bath-brick and water must be used.

=TINC′TURE.= _Syn._ TINCTURA, L.; TEINTURE, Fr. Tinctures (TINCTURÆ; ALCOOLÉS, ALCOOLATURES) are solutions of the active principles of bodies, obtained by digesting them in alcohol more or less dilute. ETHEREAL TINCTURES (TINCTURÆ ÆTHEREÆ; ETHÉROLÉS, ETHÉROLATURES) are similar solutions prepared with ether.

_Prep._ “Tinctures are usually prepared by reducing the solid ingredients to small fragments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating them for 7 days, or longer, in proof spirit or rectified spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico (or paper), and finally expressing the residuum strongly, to obtain what fluid is still retained in the mass. They are also advantageously prepared by the method of displacement or percolation.” (Ph. E.) “All tinctures should be prepared in closed glass (or stoneware) vessels, and be shaken frequently during the process of maceration.” (Ph. L.) Cooper’s patent jars are very convenient for the preparation of tinctures, as they are made with wide mouths large enough to admit the hand, and yet may be closed in an instant, with as much ease and certainty as an ordinary stoppered bottle.

Tinctures are better clarified by repose than by filtration, as in the latter case a considerable portion is retained by the filtering medium, and lost by evaporation. The waste in this way is never less than 10% of spirit. In all ordinary cases, it is sufficient to allow the tincture to settle for a few days, and then to pour off the clear supernatant portion through a funnel loosely choked with a piece of sponge or tow; after which the remaining foul portion of the liquid may be filtered through bibulous paper in a covered funnel. The filtration should be conducted as rapidly as possible, for the double purpose of lessening the amount lost by evaporation and the action of the air on the fluid. Tinctures which have been long exposed to the air frequently lose their transparency within a few days after being filtered, owing to the oxidisement and precipitation of some portion of the matter previously held in solution, a change which occurs even in stoppered bottles. Resinous and oily tinctures, as those of myrrh, tolu, and lavender (comp.), may be generally restored to their former brightness by the addition of a quantity of rectified spirit, equal to that which they have lost by evaporation; but many tinctures resist this mode of treatment, and require refiltering.

Ethereal tinctures are best prepared by percolation, and should be both made and kept in stoppered bottles.

Mr Umney says:——It must always be remembered that the quantity of spirit required to make the measure of tinctures to a given bulk, will only be strictly uniform, in so far as the operators proceed under precisely the same circumstances.

No causes will be found to influence results more than the manufacture of tinctures upon a small, as compared with a large, scale, and the use of the screw as compared with the hydraulic press, in the final removal of the spirit from the mare; even the temperature of summer and winter may cause a variation in the results.

_Qual._ The tinctures of the shops are usually very uncertain and inferior preparations, owing to their manufacture being carelessly conducted, and refuse drugs and an insufficient quantity of spirit being employed in their production. It is a general practice among the druggists to substitute a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water, or a spirit of about 26 u. p., for proof spirit; and a mixture of 2 galls. of water with 5 galls. of rectified spirit, for rectified spirit. In some wholesale drug-houses all the simple tinctures (except those that are of a very active or valuable kind, as LAUDANUM, for instance) are made with 1 lb. of the dry ingredient to the gall. of spirit, irrespective of the instructions in the Pharmacopœia. Appearance is the object which is alone aimed at, without reference to quality. If the tincture be perfectly transparent, and has a good colour, the conscience of the seller and the stomach of the consumer are alike satisfied.

_Assay._ 1. The RICHNESS in ALCOHOL may be readily determined by Brande’s method of alcoholometry; but more accurately by the method of M. Gay-Lussac (see ALCOHOLOMETRY). That of tinctures containing simple extractive, saccharine, or like organic matter, in solution, may be approximately found from the boiling-point, or from the temperature of the vapour of the boiling liquid.

2. The QUANTITY of SOLID MATTER per cent. may be ascertained by evaporating to dryness 100 grains-measure, in a weighed capsule, by the heat of boiling water.

3. The QUANTITY of the INGREDIENTS used in the preparation of tinctures may be inferred from the weight last found, reference being had to the known per-centage of extract which the substances employed yield to spirit of the strength under examination. When the ingredients contain alkaloids, or consist of saline or mineral matter, an assay may be made for them.

_Uses, &c._ Tinctures, from the quantity of alcohol which they contain, are necessarily administered in small doses, unless in cases where stimulants are indicated. The most important and useful of them are those that contain very active ingredients, such as the tincture of opium, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, &c. In many instances the solvent, even in doses of a few fluid drachms, acts more powerfully on the living system than the principles it holds in solution; and, when continued for some time, produces the same deleterious effects as the habitual use of ardent spirits. When the action of a substance is the reverse of stimulant, it cannot with propriety be exhibited in this form, unless the dose be so small that the operation of the spirit cannot be taken into account, as with the narcotic tinctures. Hence, this class of remedies are in less frequent use than formerly.

The following list embraces all the formulæ of the tincturæ of the London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and British Pharmacopœias, with a few others likely to be useful to the reader. These will furnish examples for the preparation of others in less general use, care being had to proportionate the ingredients with due reference to the proper or usual dose of tinctures of that class.

=Tincture of Ac′etate of I′ron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FERRI ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of iron, 5; acetate of potash, 4; rectified spirit, q. s.; dissolve the acetate of potash in 20 of water and add 16 of spirit to the solution of iron; mix the two liquids, and shake well occasionally for an hour, then filter, and add to the filtered liquid sufficient rectified spirit to make up 40.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. D.) To water, 9 fl. oz., add of pure sulphuric acid, 6 fl. dr.; and in the mixture, with the aid of a gentle heat, dissolve sulphate of iron, 8 oz.; next add of pure nitric acid, 1/2 fl. oz., previously diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate the resulting solution to the consistence of a thick syrup; dissolve this in rectified spirit, 1 quart; also dissolve of acetate of potash, 8 oz., in another quart of rectified spirit; and having thoroughly mixed the solutions, by frequent agitation in a large bottle, filter the whole, with expression, first through calico, and then through paper. Sp. gr. ·891.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 drops, in water, in the same cases as in the other chalybeates.

=Tincture of Acetate of Zinc.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZINCI ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Acetate of potash and sulphate of zinc, of each 1 oz.; rub them together, then add of rectified spirit, 16 fl oz.; macerate for a week, and filter. Astringent. Diluted with water, it is used as a collyrium and injection.

=Tincture of Ac′onite.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ACONITI (Ph. L.), TINCT. ACONITI RADICIS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Powdered root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 8; macerate for 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press the marc and add spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 minims, twice or thrice a day.

2. (Ph. L.) Take of aconite root, coarsely powdered, 15 oz. (20 oz.——Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

_Obs._ These tinctures differ materially in strength.——_Dose._ Of the Ph. L., 5 to 10 drops; of the Ph. D., 3 to 6 drops, two or three times daily (carefully watching its effects); in rheumatism, gout, syphilis, &c., where a narcotic sedative is indicated. Diluted with water, it forms an excellent embrocation in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. It should be applied by means of a small sponge, tied to the end of a stick or glass rod. The Ph. D. formula is nearly the same as that for Dr Turnbull’s concentrated tincture of aconite root, and that given by Dr Pereira. The TINCTURA ACONITI FOLIORUM of the Ph. U. S. is made with 1 oz. of the dried leaves to 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

=Tincture of Aconite, Ethereal.= _Syn_. TINCTURA ACONITI ÆTHEREA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Powdered aconite, 4 oz.; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). It is best prepared by percolation.

=Tincture of Ailanthus Bark.= _Syn._ TINCTURA AILANTHI CORTICIS. _Prep._ Take Of ailanthus bark, bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for seven days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, press, filter, and add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint.——_Dose._ From 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Al′oes.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ALOËS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1; extract of liquorice, 3; proof spirit, 40; macerate seven days, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 40.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely powdered, 1 oz.; extract of liquorice, 3 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formula of the Ph. E. is nearly similar. Purgative and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1/4 to fl. oz.

=Tincture of Aloes, Alkaline.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ALOËS ALKALINA. (Swediaur.) _Prep._ Aloes, 1/2 oz.; extract of liquorice, 1-1/2 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 1 oz. Digest, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 4 dr.

=Tincture of Aloes (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF ALOES AND MYRRH; TINCTURA ALOËS COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), TINCTURA ALOËS ET MYRRHÆ (Ph. E.), ELIXIR ALOËS†, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely powdered, 4 oz.; hay saffron, 2 oz.; tincture of myrrh, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, with occasional agitation, and strain. The Dublin College (1826) omits the saffron.

2. (Wholesale.) From aloes, 1 lb.; myrrh, 3/4 lb.; hay saffron, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 pints; water, 3 pints; as the last. Purgative, stomachic, and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Amber.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SUCCINI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Amber, in fine powder, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 6 oz. Digest for 6 days and filter.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 drops.

=Tincture of Amber, Alkaline.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SUCCINI ALKALINA. (Ph. E. 1744.) _Prep._ Rub 2 oz. of amber with a sufficient quantity of carbonate of potash to form a soft paste; dry this, and digest it in 16 oz. of rectified spirit for 8 days.

=Tincture of Ambergris.= _Syn._ TINCTURA AMBERGRISEÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Ambergris, 1 part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Macerate 10 days.

=Tincture of Ammo′′nia (Compound.)= _Syn._ TINCTURA AMMONIÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mastic, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. dr.; digest until dissolved, decant, add, of oil of lavender, 14 drops; stronger solution of ammonia, 1 pint; and mix well.

2. (Ph. L. 1836; AQUA LUCIÆ; EAU DE LUCE.) As the last, but adding 4 drops of oil of amber along with the oil of lavender.

_Obs._ This preparation is reputed antacid, antispasmodic, and stimulant.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops, in water; in hysteria, low spirits, &c. In the East Indies, eau de luce is regarded almost as a specific for the bite of the cobra di capello and other venomous reptiles.

=Tincture of Ammo′′nia-chlo′′ride of I′ron.= _Syn._ AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF IRON, MYNSIGHT’S A. T. OF I.; TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI (Ph. L.). TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIATI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chloride of iron, 4 oz.; proof spirit and distilled water, of each 1 pint; dissolve.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 drops, or more; as a stimulant, chalybeate tonic. “A fl. oz. of this, on potassa being added, yields 5·8 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.” (Ph. L.)

=Tincture of Ammoniacum.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GUMMI AMMONIACI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Gum ammoniacum, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days, and strain.

=Tincture of Angelica.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ANGELICA. (Aust. Ph.) _Prep._ Dried angelica root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz. Digest, and filter.——_Dose_, 1 dr.

=Tincture of Angostu′ra.= Tincture of cusparia.

=Tincture, Antiscorbutic.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ANTISCORBUTICA, TINCTURA ARMORACUE COMPOSITA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Fresh horseradish root, 8 oz.; black mustard seed, 4 oz.; muriate of ammonia, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. (by weight); compound spirit of scurvy grass, 16 oz. (by weight). Macerate 10 days.

=Tincture of Ants.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FORMICARUM. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Ants recently collected, cleaned, and bruised, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days.

=Tincture of Ar′nica.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ARNICAE, T. A. FLORUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor. and Hamb. Cod.) Flowers of _Arnica montana_, 1-1/2 oz.; spirit, sp. gr. ·900 (15-1/2 o. p.), 1 lb.; digest for 8 days, and strain, with expression.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops; in diarrhœa, dysentery, gout, rheumatism, paralysis, &c.

=Tincture of Arnica Root.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ARNICAE (B. P.), TINCTURA ARNICÆ RADICIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Bruised root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 20; macerate forty-eight hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and, when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash the marc, press, filter, and make up to 20——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. From arnica root, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; as the last.

=Tincture, Aromatic.= _Syn._ TINCTURA AROMATICA. (Gr. Ph.) _Prep._ Cinnamon, 4 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; galangal root, 1 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.; all in coarse powder; proof spirit, 3 lbs. 2 oz. (by weight). Macerate 8 days, and strain.

=Tincture, Aromat′ic.= Compound tincture of cinnamon.

=Tincture of Artichoke.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CYNARÆ. _Prep._ Fresh artichoke leaves, bruised, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 lb. Digest for 7 days, express and filter.

=Tincture of Assafœtida.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Assafœtida (small fragments), 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate seven days, strain, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Assafœtida (small), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D), and filter. “It cannot be made by percolation with delay.” (Ph. E.)

3. (Wholesale.) Assafœtida, 2-1/2 lbs.; boiling water, 2 quarts; dissolve, add of rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall.; agitate well for 3 or 4 days, then let it settle, and decant the clear portion.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c.

=Tincture of Assafœtida (Ammo′′niated).= See FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA.

=Tincture of Assafœtida, Ethereal.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ ETHEREA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Assafœtida, 1 part; alcoholised ether, 5 parts (by weight). Macerate for 10 days. The ether is made by mixing equal weights of ether and rectified spirit.

=Tincture, Asthmat′ic.= Compound tincture of camphor.

=Tincture, Astringent.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ASTRINGENS. (Dr Copland.) _Prep._ Catechu, 1/2 oz.; myrrh, 1/2 oz.; Peruvian bark, 2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1-1/2 dr.; spirit of horseradish, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 oz. Digest. For sponginess of the gums.

=Tincture, Balsamic.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BALSAMICA. (P. E. 1744.) _Prep._ Copaiba, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; balsam of Tolu, 2 dr.; benzoin, 1/2 dr.; saffron, 1 scruple; rect. spirit, 16 oz.; digest 4 days in a sand bath, and strain.

=Tincture, Balsam of Copaiba.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BALSAMI COPAIBÆ. (Guibourt.) _Prep._ One part of copaiba to 8 of alcohol. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Balsam of Gilead.= _Syn_. TINCTURA BALSAMI GILEADENSIS. (Guibourt.) _Prep._ One part of balsam to 8 of rectified spirit.

=Tincture of Bal′sam of Peru.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.) Balsam of Peru, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; dissolve. Pectoral, stimulant, and fragrant.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops.

=Tincture of Balsam of Tolu.= Tincture of Tolu.

=Tincture of Bark.= Tincture of cinchona.

=Tincture of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) The dried leaves in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate forty-eight hours in 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, add the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash and press the marc; filter and make up 20.——_Dose_, from 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of belladonna, 4 oz. (5 oz. in coarse powder——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14——Ph. D.), press, and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) From the dried leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate 14 days.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 drops, gradually increased; also externally, diluted with water.

=Tincture of Benzoin.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BENZOINI. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Benzoin, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest for 8 days, frequently shaking; then filter.

=Tincture of Ben′zoin (Compound.)= _Syn._ FRIAR’S BALSAM, TRAUMATHC B., BALSAM FOR CUTS, COMMANDER’S BALSAM, VERVAIN’S B., WOUND B., JESUITS’ DROPS, WADE’S D.; TINCTURA BENZOINI COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCT. BENZOËS COMP., BALSAMUM TRAUMATICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Benzoin, 8; prepared storax, 6; balsam of Tolu, 2; socotrine aloes, 1-1/2; rectified spirit, 80; macerate seven days, filter, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr., triturated with mucilage or yolk of egg.

2. (Ph. L.) Gum benzoin, coarsely powdered, 3-1/2 oz.; prepared storax, 2-1/2; balsam of Tolu, 10 dr.; Socotrine or hepatic aloes, in coarse powder, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 7 days, and strain.

3. (Ph. E.) Benzoin, 4 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2-1/2 oz.; East Indian (hepatic) aloes, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

_Obs._ Either of the above formulæ produces a most beautiful tincture, truly balsamic. The following is, however, very generally employed by the wholesale druggists, and the product, though possessing a very rich colour, is thin and watery.

4. (Wholesale.) From gum benzoin, 4 lbs.; aloes (lively coloured), 1-1/4 lb.; liquid storax, 1 lb.; balsam of Tolu, 1/4 lb.; powdered turmeric (best), 9 oz.; rectified spirit, 5-1/2 galls.; digest with frequent agitation for 10 days, then add of hot water, 1-1/2 gall., again digest for 4 days, and, after 24 hours’ repose, decant the clear portion.

_Dose_, 10 drops to 2 fl. dr.; as a stimulating expectorant, in chronic coughs, and various breath affections. It is also employed to stop the bleeding from cuts, &c., and promote their healing.

=Tincture, Bitter.= _Syn._ TINCTURA AMARA (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Unripe oranges, 2 oz.; centaury, 2 oz.; gentian root, 2 oz.; zedoary root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 35 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days, and strain.

=Tincture, Bitter Stomach′ic.= Tincture of gentian.

=Tincture of Black Snake-root.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CIMICIFUGÆ, TINCTURA ACTÆÆ RACEMOSÆ. _Prep._ Bruised root of black snake-root, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Blessed Thistle.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CARDUI BENEDICTI. (Ph. Bruns) _Prep._ Blessed thistle, 6 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 pints.

=Tincture of Blood Root.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SANGUINARIÆ. (Ph. U. S.) _Prep._ Blood root in moderately fine powder, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 oz.; made by percolation.——_Dose._ As a stimulant and alterative, 30 to 60 drops; as an emetic, 3 to 4 dr.

=Tincture, Brandish’s.= Alkaline tincture of rhubarb.

=Tincture of Buchu.= _Syn._ TINCTURA DIOSMÆ, T. BUCKU (Ph. E.), T. BUCHU (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Buchu bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for forty-eight hours with 3/4 of the spirit, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the rest of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and wash the marc, filter and make up to 8.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Buchu leaves, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.); or proceed by the method of percolation.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a tonic, sudorific, and diuretic. It is inferior to the fresh infusion.

=Tincture of Calum′ba.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CALUMBÆ (B. P., Ph. L. &. E.), T. COLOMBÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Bruised calumba, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate forty-eight hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Calumba root, finely sliced, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate a week (14 days.——Ph. D.), press, and filter. “Or, more conveniently, by percolation, allowing the calumba, in moderately fine powder, to first soak in a little spirit for 6 hours.” (Ph. E.)

_Obs._ This tincture is commonly made with 1 lb. of calumba root to the gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as a stomachic bitter and tonic, usually joined with soda or chalybeates.

=Tincture of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ SPIRIT OF WINE AND CAMPHOR, CAMPHORATED SPIRIT; TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ; (Ph. E. & D.), SPIRITUS CAMPHORÆ (Ph. L.), SPIRITUS CAMPHORATUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve. This is only one half as strong as the Ph. L. preparation.

2. (Ph. D.) Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. Stimulant and anodyne.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops. Also as a liniment for sprains, bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c. For the Ph. L. formula, see SPIRIT.

=Tincture of Camphor (Compound).= _Syn._ CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM ASTHMATIC ELIXIR, PAREGORIC E., ASTHMATIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), TINCTURA OPII CAMPHORATA (Ph. E. & D.), ELIXIR PAREGORICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 40 gr.; benzoic acid, 40 gr.; camphor, 30 gr.; oil of anise, 1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 20 oz.; macerate seven days, strain, wash the marc with spirit, and filter 20 oz.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 50 gr.; powdered opium and benzoic acid, of each 72 gr.; oil of aniseed, 1 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar. The oil of aniseed, probably one of the most useful and characteristic of the ingredients, was omitted in the Ph. L. 1824, but was restored in that of 1836.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered opium, 3 oz.; benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each 2 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 galls.; as before.

_Obs._ This tincture is a popular and excellent pectoral and anodyne, where there are no inflammatory symptoms.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in troublesome coughs, &c. 1/2 fl. oz. contains about 1 gr. of opium.

=Tincture of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCTURA LYTTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cantharides, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 80; macerate, agitating occasionally, for seven days, in a closed vessel, strain, press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make up 80.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered cantharides, 4 dr. (1/2 oz.——Ph. D.), and strain, with expression.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered cantharides, 2-1/4 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 gall.; as the last.——_Dose_, 10 drops, gradually raised to 1 fl. dr., in any bland liquid; in fluor albus, gleets, incontinence of urine, lepra, &c. It should be used with caution. The Ed. College recommends it to be prepared by displacement.

=Tincture of Cantharides (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS ETHEREA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Powdered cantharides, 1 oz.; acetic ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 10 days in a stoppered bottle, express, and filter.

=Tincture of Capsicum.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF CAYENNE PEPPER; TINCTURA CAPSICI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Capsicum, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 27; macerate 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; as soon as it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 27.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Capsicum, bruised, 10 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 14 days (or percolate,——Ph. E.).——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops; in atonic dyspepsia, scarlet fever, ulcerated sore throat, &c. It is also made into a gargle.

3. (Ph. D.) Cayenne pods, bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days. This is of fully twice the strength of the preceding.

=Tincture of Capsicum (Concentrated).= See ESSENCES.

=Tincture of Capsicum with Veratria.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CAPSICI CUM VERATRIA. (Dr Turnbull.) _Prep._ Dissolve 4 gr. of veratria in 1 oz. of concentrated tincture of capsicum.

=Tincture of Card′amoms.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CARDAMOMI (Ph. E.), TINCT. AMOMI REPENTIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Cardamom seeds, 3-1/2 oz. (4-1/2 oz.——Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 14 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

_Obs._ The shells should be sifted from the seeds before maceration, and the latter are preferably ground in a pepper-mill instead of being bruised in a mortar. Aromatic and carminative.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an adjunct to purgative mixtures.

=Tincture of Cardamoms (Compound).= _Syn._ STOMACHIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CARDAMOMI COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), TINCTURA STOMACHICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cardamom seeds, freed from their pericarps, bruised, 1; caraway, bruised, 1; raisins, freed from their seeds, 8; bruised cinnamon, 2; cochineal, in powder, 1/2; proof spirit, 80; macerate 48 hours with 3/4 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour upon it the remainder of the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, press, wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (P. L.) Cardamoms (without the shells), caraways, and cochineal, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; cinnamon, bruised, 5 dr.; raisins, stoned, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, then strain, with expression.

3. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but using only 1 dr. of cochineal, and macerating 14 days; or, “it maybe prepared by the method of displacement.” (Ph. E.)

4. (Wholesale.) From cardamoms and caraway seeds, of each 4 oz.; cochineal (s. g.), 6 oz.; cassia, 8 oz.; sultana raisins, 5 lbs.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each, 2 galls.); macerate, &c., as before.

_Obs._ The Dublin College omitted the cochineal and raisins in their Ph. of 1826, but have restored them in their new one. The order of the London College to stone the raisins is seldom adopted in practice; by which the tincture is rendered unfit to be employed in dispensing prescriptions containing quinine or other alkaloids. When pharmaceutists are too lazy to follow the instructions in their Pharmacopœia, they had better use sultana raisins, which have no stones.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a cordial and stomachic, but chiefly as an adjunct, for its colour and flavour.

=Tincture of Cascaril′la.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CASCARILLÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cascarilla, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remainder of the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, wash the marc, press, filter, and make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cascarilla, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.). An excellent tonic and stomachic; chiefly employed as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Cas′sia.= _Syn._ TINCTURE CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Cassia, 3-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, or percolate. Stomachic and carminative.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Castor.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CASTOREI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCT. CASTOREI ROSSICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Castor, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 20; macerate seven days, strain, and wash the marc with spirit sufficient to make up to 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Castor, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

_Obs._ The Dublin College ordered Russian castor in their Ph. of 1826; but the scarcity and high price of that variety, we fear, too often precludes its use. The tincture of the shops is usually made with only 8 oz. of castor to the gall. of proof spirit. Nervine and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.

=Tincture of Castor (Ammo′′niated).= _Syn._ ELIXIR FŒTIDUM, TINCTURA CASTOREI COMPOSITA, T. C. AMMONIATA (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Castor, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; assafœtida, in small fragments, 10 dr.; spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest 7 days in a well-closed vessel. Stimulant and antispasmodic.——_Dose_ and _uses_, as the last. With the addition of 1/2 oz. of opium, it forms the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir Castorei Thebaicum of foreign Pharmacopœias.

=Tincture of Castor (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA CASTOREI ÆTHEREA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Castor, in powder, 1 oz.; alcoholised ether (see ETHEREAL TINCT. OF ASSAFŒTIDA), 10 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Castor Oil Seeds.= _Syn._ TINCTURA RICINI. Castor oil seeds bruised are digested with five times their weight of rectified spirit. This tincture is stated to be 4 times the strength of the oil.

=Tincture of Cat′echu.= _Syn._ COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CATECHU; TINCTURA CATECHU COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. CATECHU (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in coarse powder, 2-1/2; cinnamon, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 20: macerate for seven days with agitation, strain, press, and filter, and add spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Catechu, in powder, 3-1/2 oz. (4 oz.——Ph. D.); cinnamon, bruised, 2-1/2 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) From catechu, 2 lbs.; oil of cassia, 3 fl. dr.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1 gall.; macerate for 10 days.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as a warm astringent; in diarrhœa, &c., either alone, or combined with chalk.

=Tincture of Cevadilla.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SABADILLÆ. (Dr Turnbull.) _Prep._ Digest the seeds of cevadilla (freed from their capsules), and bruised, for ten days in as much rectified spirit as will cover them; express and filter. For external use only in rheumatism.

=Tincture of Chamomile.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ANTHEMIDIS. (Aust. Ph.) Dried chamomile flowers, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint.

=Tincture of Chiret′ta.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CHIRAYTÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA CHIRAYTA, T. CHIRETTÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Chiretta, cut small and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 minims; B. Ph. dose 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Chiretta or chirayta (bruised), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. Tonic and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Chloroform (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA CHLOROFORMI COMPOSITA. (B. P.) _Prep._ Mix 2 fl. oz. of chloroform with 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit and 10 fl. oz. of compound tincture of cardamoms.——_Dose_, 20 to 40 minims.

=Tincture of Cinchona.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF BARK; TINCTURA CINCHONÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. CORTICIS PERUVIANI, T. C. P. SIMPLEX, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 4; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 30.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

_Obs._ The Dublin College orders pale bark, and the Edinburgh either species, according to prescription.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge.

=Tincture of Cinchona (Ammoniated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA CINCHONÆ AMMONIATÆ. (Ph. L. 1824.) _Prep._ Peruvian bark, 4 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 32 fl. oz. Macerate for 10 days.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Tincture of Cinchona (Compound).= _Syn._ COMPOUND TINCTURE OF BARK, HUXHAM’S T. OF B., FEVER TINCTURE; TINCTURA CINCHONÆ COMPOSITÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA CINCHONÆ COMPOSITÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCT. CORTICIS PERUVIANI COMPOSITA, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Pale cinchona bark, in coarse powders; bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised, 2; serpentary, bruised, 1; saffron, 1/4; cochineal, 1/8; proof spirit, 40: macerate 48 hours with 30 of spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 40.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Pale bark, bruised, 4 oz.; dried bitter orange-peel, 3 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); serpentary root, bruised, 6 dr.; hay saffron, 2 dr.; cochineal, in powder, 1 dr.; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); press, and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) From pale bark, 3-1/2 lbs.; dried orange peel, 2 lbs.; serpentary root, 4 oz.; hay saffron, 1 oz.; cochineal, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.); macerate for 14 days.

_Obs._ in the Ph. E. yellow bark is ordered.——_Dose_ and _use_, as the last.

=Tincture of Cinchona (Pale).= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF PALE BARK; TINCTURA CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ From pale bark, as the last.

=Tincture of Cinna′mon.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CINNAMOMI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cinnamon, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 3-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.). In the shops cassia is usually substituted for cinnamon, and spirit 26 u. p. for proof spirit.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a cordial, aromatic, and stomachic.

=Tincture of Cinnamon (Compound).= _Syn._ AROMATIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CINNAMOMI COMPOSITA (Ph. L., E., & D.), T. AROMATICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1 oz.; cardamoms (bruised, without the shells), 1/2 oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each 2-1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.). The Ph. E. omits the ginger, and uses 1/2 oz. more cardamoms.

2. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. The following form is current in the wholesale houses.

3. Cassia, 1 lb.; cardamoms, 6 oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each 1/4 lb.; oil of cassia, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.). Cordial, aromatic, stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; in atonic gout, debility, flatulence, &c.

=Tincture of Cloves.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CARYOPHYLLI. (Guibourt.) _Prep._ Cloves, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz. Macerate 10 days.

=Tincture of Coch′ineal.= _Syn._ TINCTURA COCCI CACTI (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cochineal, in powder, 1; proof spirit, 8: macerate 7 days; strain, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 30 to 90 minims twice a day. Used chiefly for colouring medicines.

2. (Ph. D.) Cochineal, in fine powder, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Antispasmodic and sedative; but chiefly employed for its colour.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Cochineal (Ammoniated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA COCCI AMMONIATA. (Dr Eberle.) _Prep._ Cochineal, 1/2 oz.; water of ammonia, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 5 drops in hooping-cough.

=Tincture of Col′chicum.= _Syn._ GOUT TINCTURE, TINCTURE OF MEADOW SAFFRON; TINCTURA COLCHICI SEMINUM (B. P.); TINCTURA COLCHICI (Ph. L., & E.), T. SEMINUM COLCHICI (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. Colchicum seed, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8: macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of meadow saffron (_Colchicum autumnale_), bruised (finely ground in a coffee-mill——Ph. E.), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); then press, and filter.——_Dose_, 15 to 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

=Tincture of Colchicum Bulbs.= _Syn._ TINCTURA COLCHICI E RADICE. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Macerate 1 part of the bulbs in 5 parts (by weight) of proof spirit, for 10 days.

=Tincture of Colchicum (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA COLCHICI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), SPIRITUS COLCHICI AMMONIATUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Colchicum seeds, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest for 7 days, then press, and filter.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

=Tincture of Colchicum Flowers.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FLORUM COLCHICI; EAU MEDICINALE D’HUSSON. (Dr Wilson.) _Prep._ Take of the fresh juice of colchicum flowers, 2 parts; French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 part; mix, and in a few days decant, or filter, and preserve it in small bottles in a cool place.

=Tincture of Colocynth.= _Syn._ TINCTURA COLOCYNTHIDIS. (Ph. G.) Colocynth, 1 part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. _Dose_, 6 to 20 drops.

=Tincture of Contrayerva.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CONTRAYERVÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Contrayerva root, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

=Tincture of Copai′ba (Alkaline).= _Syn._ TINCTURA COPAIBÆ ALKALINE, L. _Prep._ (Lewis Thompson.) Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 2 oz., in water, 1 pint, and add to this balsam of copaiba, in a thin stream, constantly stirring, until the mixture, at first white and milky, becomes clear, like jelly or amber, which will generally take place when about a pint of balsam has been added; set the mixture aside for two or three hours, then pour in of rectified spirit, 1 quart, and mix the whole together. Sweet spirit of nitre may be substituted for spirit of wine, provided it does not contain free acid.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

=Tincture of Croton.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CROTONIS. _Prep._ Croton seed, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. (Beasley.)

=Tincture of Cu′bebs.= _Syn._ ESSENCE OF CUBEBS; TINCTURA CUBEBÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), TINCTURA PIPERIS CUBEBÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Cubebs, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cubebs (bruised or ground in a pepper-mill), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press out the liquor, and filter.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., three or four times a day; in gonorrhœa, &c.

3. (Ph. D., & Ph. L. 1836.) Cubebs, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart (proof spirit——Ph. D. 1826); macerate for 14 days.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Cuspa′′ria.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CUSPARIÆ (Ph. E.), T. ANGOSTURÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Angostura bark or cusparia, 4-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. Tonic, stimulant, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Deadly Nightshade.= Tincture of belladonna.

=Tincture, De Coetlogon’s.= Haffenden’s tincture.

=Tincture of Digita′lis.= Tincture of fox-glove.

=Tincture of Elaterium.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ELATERII. _Prep._ Extract of elaterium, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Elecampane′.= _Syn._ TINCTURA INULÆ, T. HELENII, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Powdered elecampane, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 15 days. Tonic, deobstruent, and expectorant.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, palsy, dropsies, uterine obstructions, &c.

=Tincture of Er′got.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SECALII CORNUTI, TINCTURA ERGOTÆ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Ergot, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 4; macerate 48 hours with 3 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with the spirit to make up 4.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) Ergot (ground in a coffee-mill), 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest for 7 days.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful; to excite the action of the uterus in labour.

3. (Ph. D.) Ergot, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expression.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; as the last.

=Tincture of Ergot (Ammoniated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ERGOTÆ AMMONIATA. (Gore.) _Prep._ Bruised ergot, 4 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 10 oz.; macerate for a month, express, and filter.——_Dose_, 30 drops every 10 minutes till it excites uterine contractions.

=Tincture of Ergot (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ERGOTÆ ÆTHEREA (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Ergot, bruised, 15 oz.; ether, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.——_Dose_, 10 drops to 1 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Eucalyptus.= _Syn._ TINCTURA EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. (Dorvault.) _Prep._ Eucalyptus (globulus) leaves, cut, 1 part; alcohol (80 per cent.), 5 parts. Digest 5 days, and filter.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Euphorbium.= _Syn._ TINCTURA EUPHORBII. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Euphorbium, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days.

=Tincture, Febrifuge.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FEBRIFUGA. (Dr Clutton.) _Prep._ Febrifuge spirit, 1/2 pint; angelica root, 1-1/2 dr.; serpentary, 1-1/2 dr.; cardamom seeds, 1-1/2 dr. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Flea-bane.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ERIGERONIS. _Prep._ Dried Canada flea-bane (_Erigeron Canadense_), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Macerate, express, and filter.

=Tincture of Foxglove.= _Syn._ TINCTURA DIGITALIS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Dried foxglove leaves, 4 oz. (5 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); then press, and strain.

2. (B. P.) Digitalis leaves in coarse powder, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 part. Proceed as for tincture of aconite. (B. P.)

_Obs._ This tincture is a powerful sedative, diuretic, and narcotic. The commencing dose should be 10 drops, gradually and cautiously increased to 30, or even 40; in asthmas, dropsies, fevers, phthisis, &c. “If 40 fl. oz. of spirit be allowed to pass (percolate) through the sp. gr. will be ·944; and the solid contents of 1 fl. oz. will amount to 24 gr.” (Ph. E.)

=Tincture of Galanga.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GALANGÆ. (Ph. Amst.) _Prep._ Galangal root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 drops.

=Tincture of Gal′banum.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GALBANI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Galbanum, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Stimulant and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr. “If less nauseous than tincture of assafœtida, it is also less powerful.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.)

=Tincture of Galls.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GALLÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), TINCTURA GALLARUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1 (B. P.) Galls, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Galls, in powder, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); then express the liquid, and filter it. Astringent and styptic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. It is chiefly used as a test for iron.

=Tincture of Garden Marigold.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CALENDULÆ. _Prep._ A saturated tincture of the leaves and flowers of the garden marigold is prepared with whisky, and is reputed to be of service as an application for lacerated wounds.

=Tincture of Garden Nightshade (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA SOLANI ÆTHEREA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Powdered leaves of garden nightshade, 4 oz.; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). Make by percolation.

=Tincture of Gentian (Ammo′′niated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA GENTIANÆ AMMONIATÆ, L.; ELIXIR ANTISCROFULEUX, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Gentian, 1 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1/4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. As the last; but preferred in acidity and low spirits.

=Tincture of Gen′tian (Compound).= _Syn._ BITTER STOMACHIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA GENTIANÆ COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCTURA AMARA, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Gentian, bruised, 1-1/2; bitter orange peel, bruised, 3/4; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/4; proof spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Gentian root, sliced and bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; dried orange peel, 10 dr.; cardamoms, bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.). The Edinburgh College substitutes canella for cardamoms, and adds of cochineal, 1/2 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Gentian root, 3 oz.; dried bitter orange peel, 1-1/2 oz.; cardamoms, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Wholesale.) Gentian, 2-1/2 lbs.; dried orange peel, 1-1/4 lb.; bruised cardamoms, 2-1/2 lbs.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.); digest as last.

_Obs._ This is an excellent and popular stomachic bitter and tonic——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl dr.; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c.

=Tincture of Geranium.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GERANII. _Prep._ Dried roots of _Geranium maculatum_, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints. Astringent. Used chiefly in gargles.

=Tinc′ture of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Ginger, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate the ginger 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Ginger, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) Coarsely powdered unbleached Jamaica ginger, 1-1/4 lb.; rectified spirit (or spirit distilled from the essence), 1-1/2 gall.; water, 1/2 gall.; digest as above. Stimulant and carminative.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

_Obs._ The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 resembles the above; that of the last Ph. D. orders 8 oz. of ginger to 1 quart of rectified spirit. The product is, consequently, of fully 3 times the strength of that of the others, and is similar to the common ESSENCE OF GINGER of the shops.

=Tincture of Ginger (Stronger).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS FORTIOR. (B. P.) Pack tightly in a percolator, ginger in fine powder, 10 oz., and pour over it carefully 1/2 pint of rectified spirit. After two hours more add more spirit, and let it percolate slowly until 1 pint of tincture has been collected.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 minims.

=Tincture of Gold-Thread.= _Syn._ TINCTURA COPTIS. (Dr Wood.) _Prep._ Gold-thread, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.——_Dose_, 1 dr. Tonic.

=Tincture, Gout.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ANTARTHRITICA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr. Graves’s.) Take of dried orange peel and powder of aloes and canella, of each 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 quart; digest a week, and strain, with expression.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls night and morning.

2. (Dr Wilson’s.) Tincture of colchicum flowers.

3. Tincture of colchicum.

=Tincture of Green Hellebore Root.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VERATRI VIRIDIS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite. (B. P.)

=Tincture of Gua′iacum.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GUAIACI (Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Guaiacum resin (powdered), 7 oz. (8 oz.——Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for 14 days, and filter. An excellent sudorific; in chronic gout and rheumatism.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr., taken in milk.

=Tincture of Guaiacum (Alkaline).= _Syn._ TINCTURA GUAIACI ALKALINI. (Dr Dewees.) _Prep._ Guaiacum, 5 oz.; carbonate of potash or of soda, 3 dr.; pimento, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful 3 times a day in dysmenorrhœa.

=Tincture of Guaiacum (Compound).= _Syn._ AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM, VOLATILE T. OF G., RHEUMATIC DROPS; TINCTURA GUAIACI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. G. AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Guaiac resin, in fine powder, 4; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 20; macerate 7 days, filter, and wash the filter with the spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr., with 1 dr. of mucilage or yolk of egg, to form an emulsion.

2. (Ph. L.) Guaiacum, in coarse powder, 7 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (spirit of ammonia——Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for 7 days, and decant or filter. A powerful, stimulating sudorific and emmenagogue; in chronic rheumatism, gout, amenorrhœa, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr. in milk, or some viscid liquid.

=Tincture of Guaiacum Wood.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GUAIACI LIGNI. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ One part of the rasped wood to 5 parts by weight of proof spirit. Digest 10 days and strain.

=Tincture of Guarana.= _Syn._ TINCTURA PAULLINIÆ. (Dorvault.) _Prep._ Alcoholic extract of guarana, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Dissolve.

=Tincture, Haffenden’s Balsam′ic.= _Syn._ DE COETLOGON’S BALSAMII TINCTURE. This is a nostrum, of many virtues, prepared from tincture of serpentary (of double strength), 1-1/2 fl. oz.; compound of tincture of benzoin, 1 fl. oz.; tinctures of Tolu and opium, of each 1/2 fl. oz.; with rectified spirits, q. s. to render the mixture ‘bright,’ should it turn milky. (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Tincture, Hatfield’s.= _Prep._ From gum guaiacum and soap, of each 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week. Used as TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM; also externally.

=Tincture of Hedge-Hyssop.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GRATIOLÆ. (Reece.) _Prep._ Dried hedge-hyssop, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 oz.

=Tincture of Hel′lebore.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF BLACK HELLEBORE; TINCTURA HELLEBORI (Ph. L.), L. TINCTURA HELLEBORI NIGRI. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Black hellebore root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, then strain, with expression.

_Obs._ This tincture is a powerful emmenagogue, and was a favourite remedy with Dr Mead in uterine obstructions and certain cutaneous affections.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. See TINCTURE OF VERATRUM.

=Tincture of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CICUTÆ, T. CONII (Ph. L. & E.), T. CONII MACULATI, L. _Prep._ 1, (Ph. L.) Dried hemlock leaves, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, press, and filter. In the Ph. L. 1836, cardamom seeds, 1 oz., was added.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh hemlock leaves, 12 oz.; express the juice, bruise the residuum, and treat it, by percolation, first with tincture of cardamoms, 10 fl. oz., and next with rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; mix the liquids, and filter. Deobstruent and narcotic.——_Dose_ of the Ph. L., 20 to 60 drops; that of the Ph. E. tincture is less, it being a much stronger and certain preparation. See HEMLOCK.

3. (B. P.) Hemlock fruit, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tincture of aconite (B. P.).

=Tincture of Hemp.= Tincture of Indian Hemp.

=Tincture of Hen′bane.= _Syn._ TINCTURA HYOSCYAMI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Hyoscyamus leaves, dried and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, pack in a percolator, and when it has drained pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of henbane, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, soporific, and narcotic.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.

_Obs._ This, as well as the TINCTURES OF FOXGLOVE, HEMLOCK, HOPS, JALAP, LOBELIA INFLATA, RHATANY, SAVINE, SQUILLS, SENNA, VALERIAN WORMWOOD, &c., is usually prepared by the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried leaves (or dried drugs) to each gall. of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water.

=Tincture of Hops.= _Syn._ TINCTURA LUPULI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCTURA HUMULI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Hop, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, add the remaining spirit, and when fluid ceases to drop, wash the marc, filter, and make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hops, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days, then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, and soporific.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. For the formula of the Ph. E. and D., see TINCTURE OF LUPULIN.

=Tincture of Hops (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA LUPULI COMPOSITA, LIQUEUR DES TEIGNEUX. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Hops, 1 oz.; smaller centaury, 1 oz.; orange peel, 2 dr.; carbonate of potash, 12 gr.; proof spirit, 18 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Horse-Chestnut.= _Syn._ TINCTURA HIPPOCASTANEI. _Prep._ Horse-chestnut bark, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints. Macerate for 10 days, and filter.

=Tincture, Hudson’s.= Tooth tincture.

=Tincture, Huxham’s.= Compound tincture of cinchona.

=Tincture of Indian Hemp.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CANNABIS INDICÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA CANNABIS, T. C. INDICÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (B. P.) Extract of Indian hemp, 1; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 minims with 1 dr. of mucilage, adding 1 oz. of water.

2. (Ph. D.) Purified extract of Indian hemp, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; dissolve. 21 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the extract.

_Obs._ The formula of O’Shaughnessy and the Bengal Ph. are similar.——_Dose_, 10 drops every 1/2 hour in cholera; 1 fl. dr. every 1/2 hour in tetanus till the paroxysms cease, or catalepsy is induced.

=Tincture of Indian Tobac′co.= Tincture of lobelia.

=Tincture of I′odine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA IODINEI (Ph. E.) TINCTURA IODINII, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Iodine, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, and preserve it in well-closed bottles.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 drops, twice or thrice daily, where the use of iodine is indicated. Externally, as a paint, &c.

_Obs._ The formulæ of Magendie, the Ph. U. S., and the Paris Codex, are similar.

=Tincture of Iodine (Colourless).= _Syn._ TINCTURA IODI DECOLORATA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Iodine, 10 oz.; hyposulphite of soda, 10 oz.; distilled water, 10 oz. Digest with gentle heat, occasionally shaking; and, when the solution is completed, add liquor ammoniæ (·960), 16 oz. (by weight), shake together, and add rectified spirit, 75 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Iodine (Compound).= _Syn._ ANTISCROFULOUS DROPS; TINCTURA IODI (B. P.), TINCTURA IODINII COMPOSITA (Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. Iodine, 1/2; iodide of potassium, 1/4; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 minims. Also an excellent application to the throat in diphtheria.

2. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodine, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.——_Dose_, &c., as the last.

=Tincture of Iodine (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA IODINII ÆTHEREA. _Prep._ Iodine, 2 scruples, sulphuric ether, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

=Tincture, Iodoform (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA IODOFORMI ÆTHEREA. (Odin & Lemaire.) _Prep._ Crystallised iodoform, 15 gr.; ether at 60° Baumé, 1 dr. (by weight).

=Tincture of Ipecacuan′ha.= _Syn._ TINCTURA IPECACUANHA, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Ipecacuanha (coarsely powdered), 1 oz.; spirit, sp. gr. ·897 to ·900 (16 to 17 o. p.), 8 oz.; macerate for 8 days. The tincture of the P. Cod. has twice its strength.——_Dose_, 10 or 12 drops to 2 fl. dr., according to the intention.

=Tincture of Jaborandi.= _Syn._ TINCTURA JABORANDI. (‘Ph. Journ.’) _Prep._ Powdered jaborandi leaves, 10 oz.; rectified spirit, q. s. Percolate until a pint of tincture is obtained.——_Dose_, 10 minims to 1 or 2 dr.

Mr Shuttleworth, the Editor of the ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,’ thus utilises the residue left after making tincture of myrrh. He says “that, from fifty-two pounds of the residue of percolation, dissolved in boiling water, strained and allowed to deposit, he obtained twelve gallons of mucilage, forming an excellent substitute for paste, and possessing unlimited keeping qualities. Although scarcely so adhesive as gum Arabic, this latter property may be obtained by the addition of a little molasses.”

=Tincture of Jal′ap.= _Syn._ TINCTURA JALAPÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Jalap, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours in six of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, pour on the remaining spirit, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap, coarsely powdered, 5 oz. (10 oz.——Ph. L. 1836; 7 oz.——Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1-1/2 pint——Ph. D.); macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Cathartic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Jalap (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA JALAPÆ COMPOSITA. (Ph. E. 1744.) _Prep._ Jalap root, 6 dr.; black hellebore root, 3 dr.; juniper berries, 1/2 oz.; guaiacum shavings, 1/2 oz.; French brandy, 24 oz.; digest for 3 days, and strain. The _Eau de Vie Allemande_ of the Paris Codex is: Jalap, 8 oz.; turpeth root, 1 oz.; scammony, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 96 oz. (by weight).——_Dose_, 4 dr.

=Tincture of Ki′no.= _Syn._ TINCTURE KINO (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Kino, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 10; macerate 7 days, filter, and make up 10.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered kino, 3-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.), and filter. Astringent.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr., combined with chalk mixture; in diarrhœa, &c.

A writer in the ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ says the following formula will yield a tincture which has no tendency to gelatinise like the simple tincture of the B. P.:

Kino, in fine powder, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; water, 4 oz.; glycerin, 4 fl. oz. Mix the alcohol, water, and glycerin together, and having mixed the kino with an equal bulk of clean sand, introduce in a percolator, and pour on the menstruum.

Mr Haselden says, that for some years past he has preserved tincture of kino from gelatinising by keeping it in bottles holding 2 oz. only.

=Tincture of Lactu′′carium.= _Syn._ TINCTURA LACTUCARII, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Powdered lactucarium, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, and sedative.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 drops; in cases for which opium is unsuited, 10 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of lactucarium.

=Tincture of Larch.= _Syn._ TINCTURA LARICIS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Larch bark, in coarse powder, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Macerate the bark for 48 hours in 15 oz. of the spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally; then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, continue the percolation with the remaining 5 oz. of spirit. Afterwards subject the contents of the percolator to pressure, filter the product, mix the liquid, and add rectified spirit, q. s. to make 1 pint.——_Dose_, 20 to 30 minims.

=Tincture of Lav′ender (Compound).= _Syn._ RED LAVENDER, RED LAVENDER DROPS, RED HARTSHORN; TINCTURA LAVENDULÆ COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), SPIRITUS LAVANDULÆ COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 90 minims; English oil of rosemary, 10 minims; cinnamon, bruised, 150 gr.; nutmeg, bruised, 150 gr.; red sandal wood, 300 gr.; rectified spirit, 40 oz.; macerate the cinnamon, nutmeg, and red sandal wood in the spirit for 7 days, then press out and strain; dissolve the oils in the strained tincture, and add sufficient rectified spirit to make 40 oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon and nutmegs, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; red sanders wood, sliced, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then strain, with expression, and dissolve in the strained liquid, oil of lavender, 1-1/2 fl. dr., oil of rosemary, 10 drops.

3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Spirit of lavender, 1-1/2 pint; spirit of rosemary, 1/2 pint; red sanders wood (rasped), 5 dr.; cinnamon and nutmegs (bruised), of each 2-1/2 dr.; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Ph. E.) Spirit of lavender, 1 quart; spirit of rosemary, 12 fl. oz.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.; red sanders, 3 dr.; cloves, 2 dr.; as No. 1.

5. (Ph. D.) Oil of lavender. 3 fl. dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; nutmegs, 1/2 oz.; cloves and cochineal, of each 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

6. (Wholesale.) From oil of cassia, 3/4 fl. oz.; oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz.; oils of lavender and rosemary, of each 4-1/2 fl. oz.; red sanders (rasped), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 6 galls., (or rectified spirit and water, of each 3 galls.); digest 14 days. Should it be cloudy, add a little more proof spirit.

_Obs._ Compound tincture of lavender is a popular stimulant, cordial, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls (1/2 to 2 fl. dr.); in lowness of spirits, faintness, flatulence, hysteria, &c.

=Tincture of Lem′ons.= _Syn._ TINCTURA LIMONUM (Ph. L.), TINCTURA LIMONIS (B. P., Ph. D., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, sliced thin, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, strain, press, filter, and make up with spirit to 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. Fresh lemon peel, 3-1/2 oz. (cut thin, 5 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.), then express the liquid, and filter it. An aromatic bitter and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Lobe′′lia.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF INDIAN TOBACCO; TINCTURA LOBELIÆ INFLATÆ, TINCTURA LOBELIÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims, but 1 dr. may be given for dyspnœa; 4 dr. as an emetic.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried and powdered lobelia inflata, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.), press, and filter.——_Dose._ As an expectorant, 10 to 60 drops; as an emetic and antispasmodic, 1 to 2 fl. dr., repeated every third hour until it causes vomiting. It is principally employed in spasmodic asthma, and some other pulmonary affections.

=Tincture of Lobelia (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA LOBELIÆ ÆTHEREA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1; spirit of ether, 8; macerate 7 days, press, and strain 8.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims as an antispasmodic.

2. (Ph. L.) Indian tobacco, powdered, 5 oz.; ether, 14 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 26 fl. oz.; macerate 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Dry lobelia, 5 oz.; spirit of sulphuric ether, 1 quart; by digestion for 7 days, or by percolation.——_Dose_, 6 or 8 drops to 1 fl. dr.

4. (Whitlaw’s.) From lobelia, 1 lb.; rectified spirit and spirit of nitrous ether, of each 4 pints; sulphuric ether, 4 oz.——_Dose_, &c., as the last.

TINCTURE OF LU′PULIN. _Syn._ TINCTURE OF HOPS; TINCTURA LUPULI (Ph. E.), TINCTURÆ LUPULINÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Lupulin (the yellowish-brown powder attached to the scales of hops, separated by friction and sifting), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or proceed by displacement——Ph. E.), press, and filter.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. See TINCTURE OF HOPS.

=Tincture of Malate of Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FERRI MALATIS; TINCTURA FERRI POMATA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Extract of malate of iron (see EXTRACT OF APPLES), 2 oz.; spirituous cinnamon water, 18 oz. Dissolve and filter.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.

=Tincture of Mastic.= _Syn._ TINCTURA MASTICHES. _Prep._ Mastic, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used in making Eau de Luce. If required for stopping hollow teeth, double the quantity of mastic must be used.

=Tincture of Mat′ico.= _Syn._ TINCTURA MATICO (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Matico leaves, in coarse powder, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expression.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an internal astringent or hæmostatic. It is a very feeble remedy, as matico leaves are destitute of either tannin or gallic acid, and derive their power of stopping local bleeding from the peculiar mechanical construction of their surface.

=Tincture of Mea′dow Saf′fron.= Tincture of colchicum.

=Tincture of Mone′sia.= _Syn._ TINCTURA MONESIÆ, L. _Prep._ From monesia, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Astringent.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Musk.= _Syn._ TINCTURA MOSCHI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Musk, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Antispasmodic; but principally used as a perfume, being too weak for medical use.

=Tincture of Musk (Artificial).= _Syn._ TINCTURA MOSCHI ARTIFICIALIS. (Van Mons.) _Prep._ Artificial musk, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=Tincture of Musk Seed.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ABELMOSCHI SEMINUM. (Dr Reece.) _Prep._ Musk seed, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Digest seven days, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Myrrh.= _Syn._ GOLDEN TOOTH-DROPS; TINCTURÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Myrrh, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, wash the marc, press, and make up to 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr. More frequently used mixed with water to form a gargle.

2. (Ph. L.) Myrrh, in powder, 3 oz. (3-1/2 oz., Ph. E.; 4 oz.——Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days,——Ph. D.; or by displacement——Ph. E.), and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) Myrrh (in coarse powder), 2-1/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; water, 1 gall.; as the last.

_Obs._ Tincture of myrrh is tonic and stimulant.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., as an adjuvant in mixtures, gargles, &c. Chiefly used diluted with water, as a dentifrice or wash for ulcerated and spongy gums.

=Tincture of Myrrh (Alkaline).= _Syn._ TINCTURA MYRRHÆ ALKALIZÆ. (Ph. E. 1744.) _Prep._ Powdered myrrh, 1-1/2 oz.; solution of carbonate of potash, a sufficient quantity; mix into a soft paste, dry it, and add rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 6 days, and strain.

=Tincture of Myrrh (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA MYRRHÆ COMPOSITA, L. _Prep._ From myrrh and socotrine aloes, of each 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; water, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days. This is frequently substituted for ‘COMPOUND TINCTURE OF ALOES’ in the wholesale trade.

=Tincture of Nux Vomi′ca.= _Syn._ TINCTURA NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Nux vomica, 1; rectified spirit, 10; soften the nux vomica by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine powder. Macerate 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 10.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nux vomica (ground in a coffee-mill), 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; macerate 7 (14) days.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 drops; in paralysis, &c. It is poisonous.

=Tincture of Nux Vomica (Ethereal).= _Syn._ TINCTURA NUCIS VOMICÆ ÆTHEREA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Coarsely powdered nux vomica, 1 oz.; spirits of ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 8 days.

=Tincture, Odontalgic.= _Syn._ TOOTHACHE TINCTURE; TINCTURA ODONTALGICA, L. _Prep._ 1. Tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; ether, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cloves, 15 drops.

2. Rectified spirit, 3 fl. dr.; chloroform, 2 dr.; creasote, 1 dr.; mix.

3. (Collier.) Pellitory of Spain, 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest for a week.

4. (Niemann.) Digest 60 or 80 common lady-birds (_Coccinella septempunctata_——Linn.) in rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. for 8 days, and strain.

_Obs._ The above are commonly applied, on a small piece of lint, in toothache. For other formulæ see DROPS, TINCTURES OF MYRRH and PELLITORY, &c.

=Tincture of O′pium.= _Syn._ LAUDANUM, LIQUID, L., ANODYNE TINCTURE, THEBAIC T.; TINCTURA OPII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), THEBAICA, LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1-1/2; proof spirit, 20; macerate 7 days, strain, express, filter, and add spirit to make 20.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 3 oz. (3 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.), and strain, with expression.

3. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 3 oz.; boiling water, 13-1/2 fl. oz.; digest, with heat, for 2 hours, break down the opium with the hand, strain, and express the infusion; then macerate the residuum for about 20 hours in rectified spirit, 1 pint 7 fl. oz.; next strain, press, mix the watery and spirituous infusions, and filter.

_Obs._ This preparation has a deep brownish-red colour, and the characteristic odour and taste of opium. 14 minims or measured drops of the London, and about 15 minims of the Edinburgh and Dublin tinctures, are equivalent to 1 gr. of dry opium, or 1·12 gr. of ordinary opium. 14 minims of this tincture are equal to about 25 drops of it poured from a bottle. Its sp. gr. is ·952 (Phillips).——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops; as an anodyne, sedative, or hypnotic. The following form is substituted for that of the Pharmacopœia by many of the wholesale drug houses:——Take of Turkey opium, 2-1/2 lbs.; boiling water, 9 quarts; digest till dissolved or disintegrated, cool; add of rectified spirit, 2 galls.; and, after repose for 24 hours, decant the clear portion. _Prod._ 4 galls.

=Tincture of Opium (Ammo′′niated).= _Syn._ AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM, SCOTCH PAREGORIC; TINCTURA OPII AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Opium, in powder, 100 gr.; saffron, cut small, 180 gr.; benzoic acid, 180 gr.; oil of anise, 60 minims; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; macerate 7 days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation, strain, and add sufficient rectified spirit to make up 20 oz.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron, of each 6 dr.; opium, sliced, 4 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; spirit of ammonia (Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for a week, and filter. Stimulant antispasmodic, and anodyne.——_Dose_, 20 to 80 drops; in hysteria, hooping-cough, &c.

_Obs._ This preparation is called ‘PAREGORIC,’ or ‘PAREGORIC ELIXIR,’ in Scotland, but should be carefully distinguished from the compound tincture of camphor, which passes under the same names in England; as the former contains about 4 times as much opium as the latter. 80 minims, or 145 poured drops, contain about 1 gr. of opium.

=Tincture of Opium (Cam′phorated).= Compound tincture of camphor.

=Tincture of Opium (Ecard’s, or Bamberg’s).= _Syn._ TINCTURA OPII ECARDI, ECARD’S or BAMBERG’S THEBAIC TINCTURE. _Prep._ Opium, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz. Digest in a warm room for 6 days, and strain.

=Tincture of Opium (Fetid).= _Syn._ TINCTURA OPII FŒTIDA. (Ph. Fulda.) _Prep._ Castor oil, 4 oz.; assafœtida, 2 oz.; salt of hartshorn, 1 oz.; dry opium, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 32 oz.——_Dose_, 15 minims to 1 dr.

=Tincture of Opium (Odourless).= _Syn._ TINCTURA OPII DEODORATA. (Ph. U. S.) _Prep._ Opium dried, and in moderately fine powder, 2-1/2 troy oz.; ether, rectified spirit, of each 8 oz. (o. m.); water, a sufficient quantity. Macerate the opium with 1/2 pint of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat this operation twice with the same quantity of water, mix the express liquids and evaporate to 4 oz. (o. m.); let cool, and shake repeatedly in a bottle with the ether. When it has separated by standing, pour off the ethereal solution, and evaporate the remaining liquid till all the ether has disappeared. Mix the residue with 20 oz. (o. m.) of water, and filter. When the liquid has ceased to pass, add enough water to make the filtrate measure 1-1/2 pint (o. m.). Lastly, mix in the spirit.

=Tincture of Or′ange Peel.= _Syn._ TINCTURA AURANTII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. CORTICIS AURANTII, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Dried bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 10; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, press, and filter, add sufficient proof spirit to make 10.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 3-1/2 oz. (4 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press, and filter. A grateful bitter stomachic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; chiefly as an adjuvant in mixtures, &c.

=Tincture of Orange Peel (Fresh).= _Syn._ TINTURA AURANTII RECENTIS. (B. P.) _Prep._ Bitter orange, rectified spirit, of each a sufficient quantity. Carefully cut from the orange the coloured part of the rind in thin slices, and macerate 6 oz. of this in 1 pint of spirit for a week, with frequent agitation; then pour off the liquid, press the dregs, mix the liquid products, and filter; finally, add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint.——_Dose_, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Orange, with Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FERRI AURANTIACA. (Ph. Wurt.) _Prep._ Iron filings, 4 oz,; Seville oranges deprived of their seeds, no. 4. Beat them together, leave them for 2 days; then add Madeira wine, 10 oz.; spirits of orange peel, 2 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

=Tincture of Orris Root.= _Syn._ TINCTURA IRIDIS. _Prep._ Freshly powdered orris root, 1 part; proof spirit, 5 parts. Sold as _Esprit de Violette_.

=Tincture of Ox-gall.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FELLIS BOVINI. _Prep._ Inspissated ox-gall, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest until dissolved.

=Tincture of Paracress.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SPILANTHI COMPOSITA. _Prep._ Paracress, dried and bruised, 2 oz.; pyrethrum root in coarse powder, 2 oz.; spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days. Sialagogue.

=Tincture of Pareira Brava.= _Syn._ TINCTURA PAREIRÆ BRAVÆ. (Brodie). _Prep._ Pareira brava root, 2 oz.; French brandy, 1 pint. Digest for 7 days.

=Tincture of Pel′litory.= _Syn._ TOOTHACHE TINCTURE; TINCTURA PYRETHRI (B. P.) _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Pellitory root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, then pack it in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 20.

2. Pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1/4 pint; digest a week. In the P. Cod. a tincture is ordered prepared with spirit about 41 o. p., and another prepared with spirit of sulphuric ether.

3. (COMPOUND.——Brande.) Pellitory root, 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz.; digest for eight days. Both the above are used for the toothache. See TINCTURE, ODONTALGIC.

=Tincture of Pepper (Stomachic).= _Syn._ TINCTURA PIPERIS STOMACHICA; ESSENTIA STOMACHICA POLYCHRESTA (Spielman.) _Prep._ Capsicum, 1 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; long pepper, 2 dr.; white pepper, 2 dr.; solution of acetate of potash, 6 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 1 oz. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Perchloride of Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FERRI PERCHLORIDI. (B. P.) _Prep._ Mix 5 fl. oz. of strong solution of perchloride of iron with 15 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims.

=Tincture of Phos′phorus (Ethereal).= _Syn._ ÆTHER PHOSPHORATUS, TINCTURA PHOSPHORI ÆTHEREA, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Phosphorus (powdered by agitation with rectified spirit), 16 gr.; ether, 2 oz.; macerate, with agitation, for 4 days, then decant the clear portion, and preserve it in a stoppered bottle, in a cool dark situation.

2. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut small, 1 part; ether, 50 parts; digest with occasional agitation for 1 month, and decant the clear.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 drops, in any bland vehicle, thrice daily; in impotency, low sinking conditions of the system, &c.

=Tincture of Poplar Buds.= _Syn._ TINCTURA POPULI. (Van Monc.) _Prep._ Poplar buds, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 24 oz. Macerate and filter.

=Tincture of Quas′sia.= _Syn._ TINCTURA QUASSIÆ (B. P., Ph. E), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Quassia in chips, 3/4; proof spirit, 20; digest 7 days; filter, and make up to 20.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Quassia, in chips, 10 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days. Bitter, tonic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, &c.

=Tincture of Quassia (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA QUASSIÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Cardamoms and cochineal, of each, bruised, 1/2 oz.; powdered cinnamon and quassia chips, of each 6 dr.; raisins, 7 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or by percolation), then press, and filter. Aromatic and tonic.——_Dose_ and _use_, as the last.

=Tincture of Quinine (Ammoniated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA QUININÆ AMMONIATA. (B. P.) _Prep._ Sulphate of quinine, 160 gr.; solution of ammonia, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 17-1/2 oz.; dissolve the quinine in the spirit with a gentle heat, and add the solution of ammonia.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Quinine (Compound).= _Syn._ FEVER DROPS; TINCTURA QUINÆ (B. P.); TINCTURA QUINÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.) _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinia, 1; tincture of orange peel, 60; dissolve with a gentle heat, digest for 3 days with occasional agitation and strain.——_Dose_, 1 to 1-1/2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of quinine, 5 dr. 1 scrup. (or 320 gr.); tincture of orange peel, 1 quart; digest, with agitation, for 7 days, or until solution is complete.

_Obs._ Unless the tincture employed as the solvent be of the full strength, some of the disulphate remains undissolved. It is an excellent medicine when faithfully prepared.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in debility, dyspepsia, &c.

=Tincture of Red Gum.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GUMMI RUBRI. (Mr Squire.) _Prep._ Red gum, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4. Digest and strain.——_Dose_, 20 to 40 minims.

=Tincture of Red Lav′ender.= Compound tincture of lavender.

=Tincture of Rhat′any.= _Syn._ TINCTURA KRAMERIÆ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Rhatany, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator; when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Rhatany root, in coarse powder, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, then press, and filter. Astringent.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr. The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.

=Tincture of Rhododendron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA RHODODENDRI. (Niemann.) _Prep._ Leaves of _Rhododendron Chrysanthum_, 2 oz.; French brandy, 1/2 lb.; sherry, 1/2 lb. Digest for 15 days.

=Tincture of Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ TINCTURA RHEI (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, bruised, 2; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/4; coriander, bruised, 1/4; saffron, 1/4; proof spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop pour on the remaining spirit, press and wash the marc, and add spirit to make up 20.——_Dose._ As a stomachic, 1 to 2 dr.; as a purgative, 1/2 to 1 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 3-1/2 oz.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by the method of displacement.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 4 dr.; saffron, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. Both the above are cordial, stomachic, and laxative.——_Dose_, 1 fl. dr, to 1 fl. oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb (Aqueous).= _Syn._ TINCTURA RHEI AQUOSA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Rhubarb, 10 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; boiling water, 85 oz. Infuse for 1/4 hour, then add rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight); let stand 2-1/2 hours, and add cinnamon water, 15 oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA RHEI COMPOSITA (Ph. L. & D.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb, sliced, 2-1/2 oz.; liquorice root, bruised, 6 dr.; ginger (bruised) and hay saffron, of each 3 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then press, and filter.

2. (Ph.) Rhubarb, 3 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; liquorice root, 1/2 oz.; saffron, 1/4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; liquorice root, 4 dr.; ginger and saffron, of each 2 dr.; proof spirit, 16 fl. oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.

_Obs._ This tincture is a popular remedy in diarrhœa and colic, and is an especial favourite with drunkards.——_Dose_, as a stomachic, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a purgative, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. oz. The tincture of rhubarb of the shops is mostly inferior, being generally deficient both in rhubarb and spirit. The following forms we have seen extensively employed in the wholesale trade:——East Indian rhubarb, 20 lbs.; boiling water, q. s. to cover it; infuse for 24 hours, then slice the rhubarb, and put it into a cask with moist sugar, 14 lbs.; ginger, bruised, 3-1/2 lbs.; hay saffron, 1 lb.; carbonate of potash, 1/2 lb.; bruised nutmegs, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 19 galls.; water, 21 galls.; macerate with frequent agitation for 14 days, decant the clear portion, and press and filter the bottoms. Those houses that adhere to the Ph. L. for 1824 substitute cardamom seeds, 5 lbs., for the ginger. For the corresponding Ph. E. formula see the last article.

=Tincture of Rhubarb (Brandish’s Al′kaline).= _Syn._ TINCTURA RHEI ALKALINA BRANDISHII, L. _Prep._ From rhubarb, in coarse powder, 1-1/2 oz.; Brandish’s alkaline solution, 1 quart; macerate for a week. In the original formula only 1/2 oz. of rhubarb is ordered.——_Dose_, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr., in any bland liquid, not acidulous; in acidities, dyspepsia, &c.

=Tincture of Rhubarb and Aloes.= _Syn._ SACRED ELIXIR†; TINCTURA RHEI ET ALOËS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, in powder, 1-1/2 oz.; Socotrine or East Indian aloes, 6 dr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, or percolate. A warm stomachic purgative.——_Dose_, 1/2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb and Gen′tian.= TINCTURA RHEI AMARA, TINCTURA RHEI ET GENTIANÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; gentian, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; proceed as for the last. Stomachic, tonic, and purgative.——_Dose_, 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb and Sen′na.= _Syn._ WARNER’S GOUT CORDIAL; TINCTURA RHEI ET SENNÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna and red sanders wood, of each 2 dr.; coriander and fennel seed, of each 1 dr.; saffron and extract of liquorice, of each 1/2 dr.; stoned raisins, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 2-1/2 pints; macerate for 14 days. A popular stomachic and laxative.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. oz.

=Tincture (Riemer’s Nervous).= _Prep._ From oil of juniper, 1 part; volatile liquor of hartshorn, 4 parts; rectified spirit, 16 parts.——_Dose_, 1 teaspoonful in water.

=Tincture of Rose.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ROSÆ. _Prep._ Dried red rose, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days.

=Tincture of Rosemary.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ROSMARINI. (Ph. Bruns.) _Prep._ Flowering tops of rosemary, 1-1/2 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 6 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

=Tincture, Ruspini’s.= See TINCTURE, TOOTH.

=Tincture of Saf′fron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CROCI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), T. C. SATIVÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Saffron, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1 pint——Ph. D.); proceed either by maceration (for 14 days——Ph. D.) or by displacement. Stimulant, and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 fl. dr. Chiefly used for its colour and flavour.

=Tincture of Saponin.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SAPONINI. _Prep._ Bark of _Quillai Saponaria_, 1 part; alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 parts. Heat to ebullition and filter.

=Tincture of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA SARZÆ COMPOSITA, LIQUEUR DÉPURATIVE. (François.) _Prep._ Sarsaparilla, guaiacum, china root, sassafras, of each 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.

=Tincture of Savine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SABINÆ. (B. P.) _Prep._ Savine tops, dried, and coarsely powdered, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tincture of aconite.

=Tincture of Scammony.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SCAMMONII. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Scammony, 4 oz.; rect. spirit, 20 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Senega.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SENEGÆ. (B. P.) _Prep._ Senega, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite.

=Tincture of Senna (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF SENNA, ELIXIR OF HEALTH†; TINCTURA SENNÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA SENNÆ COMPOSITÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 5; raisins, freed from seeds, 4; caraway, bruised, 1; coriander, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 40; macerate the ingredients 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit; press, filter, and make up 40.——_Dose_, 2 to 8 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 3-1/2 oz.; caraway seeds, bruised, 3-1/2 dr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1 dr.; stoned raisins, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Senna and stoned raisins, of each 4 oz.; sugar, 2-1/2 oz.; corianders, 1 oz.; jalap, 6 dr.; caraways and cardamoms, of each 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by percolation.

4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 4 oz.; caraway and cardamom seeds, of each, bruised, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

5. (Wholesale.) From senna, 6 lbs.; treacle, 2 lbs.; caraways, 3/4 lb.; cardamoms, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit and water, of each 4 galls.; as before. Carminative, stomachic, and purgative.——_Dose_, 1/4 to 1 fl. oz.

_Obs._ “If Alexandrian senna be used for this preparation, it must be freed from cynanchum (argol) leaves, by picking.” (Ph. E.)

=Tincture of Ser′pentary.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF VIRGINIAN SNAKE ROOT; TINCTURA SERPENTARIE (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours, with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3-1/2 oz. (cochineal, 1 dr.——Ph. E); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation——Ph. E.), strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Sesquichloride of Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF MURIATE OF IRON, TINCTURE OF STEEL, STEEL DROPS; TINCTURA FERRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.), TINCTURA FERRI SESQUICHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), T. FERRI MURIATIS (Ph. E.), FERRI MURIATIS LIQUOR, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Strong solution of perchloride of iron, 1; rectified spirit, 3; mix.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims in water.

2. (Ph. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; mix, and digest in a sand bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle heat, for a day——Ph. E.), until solution is complete, then add, when cold, of rectified spirit, 3 pints, and (in a short time) filter. Sp. gr. ·992. “1 fl. oz., potash being added, deposits nearly 30 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.” (Ph. L.)

3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8 oz.; pure hydrochloric acid, 1 quart; distilled water, 1 pint; mix, and dissolve by a gentle heat; next add, in successive portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl. dr.; evaporate by a gentle heat to a pint, and, when cold, mix this in a bottle with rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; lastly, after 12 hours, filter. Sp. gr. 1·237.

_Obs._ This tincture is an active ferruginous tonic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops, gradually increased, taken in water, ale, or wine. In the old tinctura martis, Ph. L., iron filings, and in the T. ferri muriatis, Ph. E. 1817, black oxide of iron, were used instead of the sesquioxide or carbonate. ‘Bestuchef’s nervine tincture’ of the P. Cod. is prepared by dissolving 1 dr. of dry sesquichloride of iron in 7 dr. of spirit of sulphuric ether. See GOLDEN DROPS.

=Tincture of Sesquini′trate of Iron‡.= _Syn_. TINCTURA FERRI SESQUINITRATIS, L. _Prep._ (Onion.) Iron filings, 1/2 oz.; nitric acid (1·5), 2-1/4 oz.; dissolve, add of hydrochloric acid (1·16), 6 dr., simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of rectified spirit, 8 oz., and filter. Proposed as a substitute for the last preparation, but the name misrepresents its chemical constitution.

=Tincture of Soap.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SAPONIS. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ White soap, 3 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 5 oz. (by weight). Dissolve.

=Tincture of Soap with Turpentine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SAPONIS TEREBINTHINATA. BAUMÉ DE VIE EXTERNE. _Prep._ White soap, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 3 oz.; spirit of wild thyme, 2 lb.; white of ammonia, 2 oz.

=Tincture of Squills.= _Syn._ TINCTURA BECHICA, TINCTURA SCILLÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 8.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and sliced (or in coarse powder), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press and filter. A stimulating expectorant and diuretic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops; in chronic coughs, and other bronchial affections.

=Tincture of Squills (Alkaline).= _Syn._ TINCTURA SCILLÆ ALKALINA. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Squill, 8 parts; caustic potash, 1 part; rectified spirit, 50 parts; macerate, 8 days.

=Tincture of Stavesacre (Concentrated).= _Syn._ TINCTURA STAPHISAGRIÆ CONCENTRATA. (Dr Turnbull.) _Prep._ Digest stavesacre seeds in twice their weight of rectified spirit. For external use in neuralgic and rheumatic affections, as a substitute for solution of delphinia.

=Tincture, Stomach′ic.= Compound tincture of cardamoms. Compound tincture of gentian is also, occasionally, so called.

=Tincture of Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF THORN-APPLE; TINCTURA STRAMONII (B. P., Ph. D. & U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Stramonium seeds, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit. When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple seeds (bruised), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or by displacement——Ph. U. S.), then press, and filter. Anodyne.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 drops; in neuralgia, rheumatism, &c. Said to be superior to laudanum.

=Tincture, Styptic.= _Syn._ TINCTURA STYPTICA. (Ph. L. 1746.) _Prep._ Calcined sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; French brandy, coloured by the cask, 2 lbs.

=Tincture, Sudorific.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SUDORIFICA. (Ph. E. 1744.) _Prep._ Serpentary root, 5 dr.; cochineal, 4 dr.; castor oil, 1 dr.; saffron, 2 scruples; opium, 1 scruple; spirit of Mindererus, 16 oz. Digest for 3 days and strain.

=Tincture of Sum′bul.= _Syn._ TINCTURA SUMBULI (B. P.) _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Sumbul, bruised fine, 1; proof spirit, 8; digest 7 days and filter.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims.

2. From sumbul, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for a week, and strain, with expression. Stimulant and tonic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 or 40 drops.

=Tincture of Tartrated Iron.= _Syn._ TINCTURA MARTIS TARTARIZATA. _Prep._ Pure iron filings, 100 parts; cream of tartar, 250, rectified spirit, 50 parts (by weight). Put the filings and tartar into an iron kettle with sufficient water to form a paste, leave them for 24 hours, add 3000 parts of soft water and boil for 2 hours, stirring constantly and supplying the waste of water. Decant and filter the liquor, and evaporate it till it has the density of 1·286, and add the spirit.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 drops.

=Tincture of Thorn-apple.= Tincture of stramonium.

=Tincture of Thuja.= _Syn._ TINCTURA THUJÆ. Fresh leaves of thuja, 1 part; spirit (90 per cent.), 10 parts. Macerate for 10 days, and filter.——_Dose_, 10 drops in water. The leaves of thuja are collected in June and July. Those of the _T. orientalis_ and _T. occidentalis_, have the reputation in Belgium of curing smallpox.

=Tincture of Tobac′co.= _Syn._ TINCTURA NICOTIANÆ, TINCTURA TABACI, L. _Prep._ From pure manufactured tobacco, 1-1/4 oz,; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days. Compound spirit of juniper is often used instead of proof spirit. Sedative and narcotic.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 drops. A tincture is also made from the fresh leaves. See VEGETABLE JUICES and TINCTURES (Ethereal).

=Tincture of Tol′u.= _Syn._ TINCTURA TOLUTANUS (B. P.), TINCTURA TOLUTANA (Ph. L. & D.), T. BALSAMI TOLUTANI, T. TOLUIFERÆ BALSAMI, L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1; rectified spirit, 8; dissolve, filter, and make up to 8.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 minims, mixed with mucilage or syrup.

2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (3-1/2 oz.——Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1 quart (1 pint——Ph. D.); dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat——Ph. E. & D.), and filter.

_Obs._ This tincture is reputed pectoral and expectorant; but it is chiefly used as an adjuvant in mixtures, on account of its flavour.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops.

=Tincture, Tooth.= _Prep._ 1. (Greenhough’s.) From bitter almonds, 2 oz.; Brazil wood, cinnamon, and orris root, of each 1/2 oz.; alum, cochineal, and salt of sorrel, of each 1 dr.; spirit of scurvy grass, 2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 1-1/2 pint; macerate a week.

2. (Hudson’s.) From the tinctures of myrrh and cinchona, and cinnamon water, equal parts, with a little arquebusade and gum Arabic.

3. (Ruspini’s.) From orris root, 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; ambergris, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digested for 14 days. The above are used as cosmetics for the teeth and gums. The last has long been a popular dentifrice.

=Tincture, Toothache.= Odontalgic tincture. See also DROPS, ESSENCE, &c.

=Tincture of Turmeric.= _Syn._ TINCTURA CURCUMÆ. (Dr Wood.) _Prep._ Turmeric, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.

=Tincture of Turpentine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA TEREBINTHINÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

=Tincture of Tuyaya.= _Syn._ TINCTURA TUYAYÆ. _Prep._ Tuyaya root, in powder, 12 oz.; proof spirit, 36 oz.; macerate for 14 days. If for internal use it must be diluted with four times its volume of spirit.——_Dose_, 1 to 10 minims. In syphilis.

=Tincture of Vale′rian.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VALERIANÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Valerian bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate the valerian 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and filter, washing the marc with spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press, and filter. Tonic and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.

=Tincture of Valerian (Compound).= _Syn._ AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF VALERIAN, VOLATILE T. OF V.; TINCTURA VALERIANÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. V. AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Valerian, bruised, 1; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 8; macerate the valerian 7 days, press, filter, and add spirit to make up 8.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (simple——Ph. E.), 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation——Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic.——_Dose_ and _use_, same as those of the simple tincture, than which it is thought to be more powerful. The tincture of the shops is generally made with only 1 lb. of the root to the gallon.

=Tincture of Vanilla.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VANILLÆ. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Vanilla pods, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. Macerate 8 days.

=Tincture of Veratria.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VERATRIÆ. (Magendie.) _Prep._ Veratria, 4 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.

=Tincture of Vera′trum.= _Syn._ TINCTURE OF WHITE HELLEBORE; TINCTURA VERATRI VIRIDIS; TINCTURA HELLEBORI ALBI, T. VERATRI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; macerate the powder with 15 of the spirit 48 hours, agitating occasionally, pack it in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit, when it ceases to drop, press, filter, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. E.) White hellebore, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest or percolate.——_Dose_, 10 drops, 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased; in gout, rheumatism, &c., as a substitute for colchicum; also, externally.

=Tincture of Virginian Snake Root.= Tincture of serpentary.

=Tincture of Vittie-vayr.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VETIVERIÆ, L. _Prep._ From vittie-vayr (roots of _Andropogon muricatis_), 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Stimulant, tonic, and sudorific.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 drops.

=Tincture, Vulnerary.= _Syn._ TINCTURA VULNERARIA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Fresh leaves of wormwood, angelica, basil, calamint, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, balm peppermint, origanum, rosemary, rue, savory, sage, wild thyme, St John’s wort tops, lavender tops, of each 1 oz. (all cut up); rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days.

=Tincture of Walnuts.= _Syn._ TINCTURA INGLANDIS. (Ph. Dan.) _Prep._ Green shells of walnut, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 24 oz. Digest for 6 days.

=Tincture of Walnut Leaves.= _Syn._ TINCTURA INGLANDIS FOLIORUM. (Mr Ince.) _Prep._ Dried walnut leaves, 16 oz.; macerated for 7 days in a gallon of proof spirit.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. To prevent sickness, or to cover the taste of cod-liver oil.

=Tincture, Warburg’s Fever.= _Syn._ TINCTURA FEBRIFUGA WARBURGII. The composition was for a long time kept secret; but in 1875 Dr. W. published the following formula for it, through Prof. Maclean:——Aloes (Soc.), lb. j; Rad. Rhei, Sem. Angelic., Conf. Damocrat. āā ℥iv; Rad. Helenii, Croci Sat., Sem. Fœnic., Cretæ ppt. āā ℥ij; Rad. Gent., Rad. Zedoar., Pip. Cubeb., Myrrhæ, Camphoræ, Boleti laric., āā ℥j. Digest with 500 oz. of proof spirit in a water-bath for 12 hours; express, and add quinin. disulph. ℥x. Then replace in water-bath until the quinine is dissolved. Filter when cool. _Dose_, 1/2 oz. (undiluted) after an aperient.

=Tincture of Wild Cherry Bark.= _Syn._ TINCTURA PRUNI VIRGINIANÆ. _Prep._ Wild cherry bark, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest 14 days, press, and filter. May also be made by percolation.

=Tincture of Winter Cherry.= _Syn._ TINCTURA PHYSALIS ALKIKENGÆ. _Prep._ Take of the whole plant, dried, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days, strain, and filter. Diuretic and febrifuge.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Tincture of Wormwood.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ABSINTHII. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Dried wormwood, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 30 oz. (by weight.); macerate for 8 days, and strain.——_Dose_, 1 dr.

=Tincture of Wormwood (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ABSINTHII COMPOSITA. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Dried wormwood tops, 1 oz.; gentian, bitter orange peel, of each 1 oz.; germander, 1 oz.; rhubarb, 3/4 oz.; aloes, 2 dr.; cascarilla, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 2 pints.

_Loss of Spirit in making Tinctures by the British Pharmacopœia._[236]——MR UMNEY gives the following table, as embodying the result of his experience:——

[Footnote 236: ‘Pharm. Journ,’, 3rd series, 1, 321-379.]

------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+-------- |Alcohol ·838|Alcohol ·920| Loss |Gain Quantity|to make |to make |p. c. by|p. c. by made. |up measure. |up measure. |volume. |volume. ------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+-------- Galls. | Pints. | Pints. | | Tinct. aconit 4 | 2·5 | ... | 7·9 | Tinct. arnicæ 10 | 3·0 | ... | 3·8 | Tinct. aurantii 10 | ... | 5·0 | 6·3 | Tinct. belladonnæ 2 | ... | ·7 | 4·1 | Tinct. benz. comp. 5 | ... | ... | ... | 10·0 Tinct. buchu 2 | ... | 1·0 | 6·3 | Tinct. calumbæ 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·1 | Tinct. camphor, comp. 10 | ... | ·5 | ·7 | Tinct. cantharid 4 | ... | ·6 | 1·9 | Tinct. capsici 5 | 1·0 | ... | 2·5 | Tinct. cardam. co. 20 | ... | ... | ... | 2·5 Tinct. cascarillæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. castor 2 | ·5 | ... | 3·2 | Tinct. catechu 5 | ... | No loss. | ... | Tinct. chirettæ 2 | ... | 2·0 | 12·5 | Tinct. cinchonæ 10 | ... | 12·0 | 15·0 | Tinct. cinchonæ co. 10 | ... | 9·0 | 11·3 | Tinct. cinnam. 5 | ... | 4·0 | 10·0 | Tinct. cocci 1 | ... | ·25 | 3·1 | Tinct. colchici sem. 2 | ... | 1·5 | 9·4 | Tinct. conii 2 | ... | ·75 | 4·6 | Tinct. croci 1 | ... | ·60 | 7·5 | Tinct. cubebæ 2 | ·5 | ... | 3·2 | Tinct. digitatis 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·5 | Tinct. ergotæ 2 | ... | 2·0 | 12·5 | Tinct. ferri acet. 1 | 1·2 | ... | 15·0 | Tinct. gallæ 1 | ... | ·4 | 5·0 | Tinct. gent. co. 10 | ... | 7·0 | 8·7 | Tinct. hyoscyami 10 | ... | 6·0 | 7·5 | Tinct. jalapæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. kino 1 | No loss. | ... | ... | Tinct. krameriæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. lavand. comp. 20 | 2·0 | ... | 1·3 | Tinct. limonis 2 | ... | 1·5 | 9·4 | Tinct. lobeliæ 3 | ... | 2·5 | 10·5 | Tinct. lobeliæ æther. 3 | 3·5[237]| ... | 14·5 | Tinct. lupuli 5 | ... | 4·0 | 10·0 | Tinct. myrrhæ 5 | 2·5 | ... | 6·2 | Tinct. nuc. vom. 4 | ·0 | ... | 6·2 | Tinct. opii 10 | ... | ·75 | 1·0 | Tinct. opii ammon. 2·5 | ·5 | ... | 2·5 | Tinct. pyrethri 1 | 1·0 | ... | 12·5 | Tinct. quassiæ 1 | ... | ·7 | 8·7 | Tinct. rhei 10 | ... | 4·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. sabinæ 2 | ... | ·8 | 5·0 | Tinct. scillæ 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·5 | Tinct. senegæ 1 | ... | ·75 | 9·3 | Tinct. sennæ 10 | ... | 2·0 | 2·5 | Tinct. serpentar 1 | ... | ·9 | 10·9 | Tinct. stramon. 1 | ... | ·5 | 6·3 | Tinct. sambul 3 | ... | 1·0 | 4·2 | Tinct. valer. ammon. 5 | 3·5[238]| ... | 4·4 | Tinct. valerian 5 | ... | 2·3 | 5·7 | Tinct. veratri virid. 2 | 2·5 | ... | 15·6 | Tinct. zingiber 5 | 2·5 | ... | 6·3 | Tinct. zingiber fort. 10 | 3·6 | ... | 37·5 | ------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+--------

[Footnote 237: Sp. æther. sulph.]

[Footnote 238: Sp. ammon. aromat.]

=Tincture of Yellow Jasmine.= _Syn._ TINCTURA GELSEMII SEMPERVIRENS. _Prep._ Yellow jasmine, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.——_Dose_, 20 to 40 minims.

=Tincture of Zedoary.= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZEDOARIÆ. (Ph. Amst.) _Prep._ Zedoary root, 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Zedoary (Compound).= _Syn._ TINCTURA ZEDOARIÆ COMPOSITA; WEDEL’S ESSENTIA CARMINATIVA. _Prep._ Zedoary, 4 oz.; calamus, galangal, of each 2 oz.; chamomile, aniseed, caraway seed, of each 1 oz.; bay-berries and cloves, of each 6 dr.; orange-peel and mace, of each 4 dr.; peppermint water and rectified spirit, of each 24 dr. In 6 days strain, and add hydrochloric ether, 4 oz.

=TINCTURES (Concentrated).= _Syn._ TINCTURÆ CONCENTRATÆ HAENLI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Baden.) Digest 8 parts of the vegetable powder in 16 of spirit of the sp. gr. ·857 (45 o. p.), for 4 days, at 72° Fahr., with occasional agitation, then press, and filter; to the marc or residuum add as much spirit as it has absorbed, and again press, and filter; the weight of the mixed liquors should be 16 parts. In this way are prepared concentrated tinctures of aconite leaves; arnica and chamomile flowers; belladonna, digitalis, hemlock, henbane, peppermint, and savine leaves; ipecacuanha and valerian roots, &c.

=TINCTURES (Cu′linary).= See ESSENCES, SPIRITS, &c.

=TINCTURES (Ethe′′real).= _Syn._ TINCTURÆ ÆTHEREÆ, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From the vegetable substance, 1 oz.; sulphuric ether, 4 oz. (or 6 fl. oz.); by maceration, for 4 days, in a well-closed vessel; or, preferably, by percolation in a cylindrical glass vessel furnished with a stopper, and terminating at the lower end in a funnel, obstructed with a little cotton. The powder being introduced over the cotton, pour on enough ether to moisten it, put in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of a bottle, and leave it for 48 hours; then add, gradually, the remaining portion of the ether, and, lastly, enough water to displace the ether absorbed. In this manner are prepared the ethereal tinctures of aconite leaves, arnica flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, tobacco, pellitory, solanum, valerian, stramonium, &c., of the Paris Codex.

The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris, assafœtida, cantharides (acetic ether), castor, musk, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration only.

=TINCTURES (Odorif′erous).= These are prepared from odoriferous substances by the usual processes of digestion or percolation. See SPIRITS.

=TINCTURES from Recent Vegetables.= See VEGETABLE JUICES.

=TIN′DER (German).= See AMADOU.

=TISANE.= [Fr.] _Syn._ PTISAN; PTISANA, L. This form of medicine is much used in France. Tisanes may be readily prepared by slightly medicating barley, rice, or tamarind water, lemonade, &c. See DECOCTION, INFUSION, JULEP, PTISAN, &c., and below.

=Tisane, Antimonial.= (Brera.) Lemonade, 2 pints; tartar emetic, 2 gr.; sugar, q. s.

=Tisane, Antiscorbutic.= An infusion of buckbean and the fresh roots of horseradish.

=Tisane, Antivenereal.= Various compound decoctions of sarsaparilla are known by this name.

=Tisane of Arnica.= (P. Cod.) As elder flower tisane.

=Tisane of Arnica Flowers.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Arnica flowers, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 6 pints. Infuse half to an hour and filter through paper. Prepare in the same manner saffron tisane.

=Tisane of Asparagus.= (P. Cod.) Asparagus root, 3/4 oz.; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Tisanes are prepared in the same way from the roots of elecampane, comfrey, strawberries, rhatany, soap-wort, spruce-fir buds, Peruvian bark, dulcamara and burdock root.

=Tisane of Bread.= _Syn._ DECOCTUM ALBUM. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Prepared hartshorn, 1 oz.; bread crumb, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, sufficient quantity to yield 5 pints; boil for 1/2 hour, strain through a coarse sieve, and add white sugar, 6 oz.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.

=Tisane of Cassia.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Extract of cassia, 1 oz.; dissolve in 5 pints of water at 140° F.

=Tisane, Common.= A decoction of pearl-barley and couch-grass, flavoured with liquorice root.

=Tisane of Couch Grass.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Root of couch grass, sliced, 6 dr. Boil for 1/2 hour with water sufficient to yield 2 pints.

=Tisane of Elder Flowers.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Elder flowers, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/4 pint. Macerate for 1/2 hour, and strain.

=Tisane of Gentian.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Gentian, sliced, 1/2 oz.; cold water, 5 pints. Infuse 4 hours, and strain. In the same manner prepare tisanes of quassia, simaruba, and rhubarb.

=Tisane of Groats.= From groats, as tisane of pearl barley.

=Tisane of Guaiacum Wood.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Guaiacum shavings, 1-3/4 oz. Boil for 1 hour with sufficient water to yield 2 pints, and strain.

=Tisane of Gum.= _Syn._ EAU DE GOMME. _Prep._ Bruised gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, 2-1/2 pints. Dissolve without heat, and strain.

=Tisane of Iceland Moss.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Just boil 2-1/2 dr. of Iceland moss in a little water and throw away the first decoction, then wash the remaining moss with cold water; then add a fresh quantity of water, and boil for 1/2 hour, so as to obtain 2 pints.

=Tisane of Irish Moss.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Wash 90 gr. of carrageen in cold water; then, after boiling ten minutes, add water in sufficient quantity so as to yield 2 pints.

=Tisane of Liquorice.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Sliced liquorice, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner (but infusing for 1/2 hour) tisanes from the dried leaves of borage, wormwood, holy thistle, chicory, fumitory, ground ivy, pellitory, wild pansy, soapwort, scabious, from the cones of the hop, aniseed, red-rose leaves, lesser centaury tops, and linseed.

=Tisane of Mezereon.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Mezereon bark, 2 dr.; water, 2-1/2 pints; boil to 1-3/4 pint, and strain.

=Tisane of Orange Leaves.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Leaves of the orange tree, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints; infuse 1/2 hour, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes from the leaves of wormwood, maiden-hair, hyssop, balm, mint, and sage; and from the flowers of white mullein, chamomile, red poppy, mallow, marshmallow, lime, coltsfoot, and violet.

=Tisane of Pearl Barley.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Wash 3/4 oz. of pearl barley in cold water; strain off water, and boil in a sufficient quantity of water, so as to yield 2 pints. Tisanes of groats and rice are made in the same manner.

=Tisane, Pectoral.= An infusion of the roots of liquorice and marshmallow, Canadian maidenhair, and the flowers of the red poppy and coltsfoot, in a decoction of rice.

=Tisane of Rice.= (P. Cod.) Prepared in the same manner as tisane of pearl barley.

=Tisane of Rice, with Lemon.= (Augustin.) _Prep._ Washed rice, 1 oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil, strain, add barley sugar, 1/2 dr.; lemon juice, 1 oz.

=Tisane of Roses with Milk.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Conserve of roses, 1 oz.; new milk, 1 pint. Rub together, and strain.

=Tisane, Royal.= From senna, fresh chervil, and sulphate of soda, of each 4 dr.; aniseed and cinnamon, of each 1 dr.; 1 lemon, sliced; cold water, 1-3/4 pint; macerate for 24 hours, stirring occasionally, then press and filter. Aperient.——_Dose._ A wineglassful, or more, repeated every half-hour, until it operates.

=Tisane of Salep.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Boil 1 dr. of salep in 16 oz. of water, and strain.

=Tisane of Senega.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Senega, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse for 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes of the roots of marshmallow and valerian.

=Tisane of Sulphuric Acid.= (P. Cod.) LIMONADE SULFURÏQUE. _Prep._ Sulphuric acid (1·84), 72 minims; water, 4-1/2 pints; syrup, 10 oz. (by weight); mix s. a. Prepare in the same manner nitric and phosphoric acid lemonade; the first with acid of sp. gr. 1·42; the second with acid of sp. gr. 1·45.

=Tisane of Tamarinds.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Pulp of tamarind, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse 1/2 hour.

=Tisane, Tartaric.= (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Syrup of tartaric acid, 2 oz.; water, 18 oz. Prepare in the same manner with their respective syrups, lemonades of citric acid, gooseberries, cherries, and raspberries.

=TIS′SUE (Blis′tering).= See VESICANTS.

=TITA′NIUM.= A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1794, and examined by Wollaston in 1822. It is occasionally found at the bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works, in combination with nitrogen and cyanogen, under the form of minute crystals, having a coppery lustre.

=TOAD-IN-THE-HOLE.= One to six ounces of flour, break the contents of one egg, and stir in by degrees one pint of milk, taking care to keep the mixture free from lumpiness. Place meat or ox kidney cut in slices in a greased pie dish or tin; then pour the batter over the meat after adding a pinch of salt, and let it bake for an hour to an hour and a quarter. The batter should be allowed to stand before being cooked.

=TOAST (Essence of).= This is liquid burnt sugar or spirit colouring. Used to make extemporaneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops to the glass), and to flavour soups, gravies, &c.

=TOAST AND WATER.= Toast a crust of bread, taking care not to char it, and put it into a pint of cold water, in a covered vessel. After standing half an hour it will be ready for use.

=TOBAC′CO.= _Syn._ TABACUM (Ph. L., E., & D.), L.; TABAC, Fr. The prepared leaf of _Nicotiana Tabacum_ (Linn.), or other species of the same genus. The name was given to this herb by the Spaniards, because it was first seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, in Mexico.

The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained from Virginia, and other parts of the United States, and recently from Japan and California, but the finest varieties are imported from Havannah and from the East. The plants are gathered when mature, during hot dry weather, and are hung up in pairs, in sheds, to dry. When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated from the stems, bound up in bundles, and these are formed into bales, or packed in hogsheads, for exportation.

_Prep._ To impart to the dried leaves the characteristic odour and flavour of tobacco, and to render them agreeable to smokers and snuffers, it is necessary that they should undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fermentation. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco be crushed between the fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous smell common to most plants; but if it be triturated in a mortar along with a very small quantity of quicklime or caustic alkali, it will immediately exhale the peculiar odour of manufactured tobacco. This arises from the active and volatile ingredients being liberated from their previous combination, by the ammonia developed by fermentation, or the action of a stronger base. Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of chloride of ammonium, and this substance, as is well known, when placed in contact with lime or potassa, immediately evolves free ammonia. If we reverse the case, and saturate the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the addition of any mild acid, its characteristic odour entirely disappears. In the preparation of tobacco previously to its manufacture for sale, these changes are effected by a species of fermentation. Pure water, without any addition, is quite sufficient to promote and maintain the perfect fermentation of tobacco. The leaves soon become hot and evolve ammonia; during this time the heaps require to be occasionally opened up and turned over, lest they become too hot, take fire, or run into the putrefactive fermentation. The extent to which the process is allowed to proceed varies, for different kinds of snuff or tobacco, from one to three months.

_Qual., &c._ Tobacco is a powerful narcotic, sedative, and emetic; and is also cathartic and diuretic; but the last in a weaker degree than either squills or foxglove. Its action is violently depressing and relaxing, producing fainting and even death, in comparatively small quantities. Toxicologists rank it among the more active narcotico-acrid poisons; and physicians, when they wish to produce sudden physical prostration, in accidents or spasmodic diseases, order an enema of the infusion or smoke of tobacco. Its deleterious properties depend on the presence of narcotine, one of the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of which ordinary Virginia tobacco contains from 6 to 7%.

“The chief sources of tobacco in Europe are Germany, Holland, Salonica, Hungary, and Russia; in Asia, the principal are China, Japan, the East Indies, Latakia, and other parts of Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Java, Syria, and Manilla; in Africa, Algiers; in South America, Varinas, Brazil, Uruguay, New Grenada, Paraguay, Cumana, and other fields are most productive; while the great tobacco districts of North America are the United States, Mexico, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. The extent to which these and others are severally laid under contribution by the manufacturers of this country is shown by the following partial analysis of the imports of 1873 and 1874:”[239]

[Footnote 239: ‘British Manufacturing Industries,’ Sandford.]

+------------------------------------------+------------+------------+ | From | 1873. | 1874. | +------------------------------------------+------------+------------+ | | lb. | lb. | | Germany | 687,720 | 856,646 | | Holland | 5,429,511 | 7,356,798 | | France | 1,436,985 | 1,712,839 | | Greece | 330,712 | 84,161 | | Turkey | 1,430,572 | 696,132 | | British India | 3,068,109 | 2,359,987 | | Philippine Islands | 171,803 | 780,098 | | China | 2,136,637 | 1,398,467 | | Japan | 4,846,892 | 2,948,036 | | Spanish West India Islands | 295,654 | 242,304 | | New Grenada (United States of Columbia) | 2,199,885 | 1,617,573 | | Argentine Republic | 340,787 | 663,940 | | United States of America | 57,593,826 | 53,567,555 | | Other countries | 1,404,640 | 1,890,679 | | +------------+------------+ | | 81,382,733 | 76,175,215 | +------------------------------------------+------------+------------+

Most of the so-called Havannah cigars which arrive in England are shipped from German ports. It appears that a higher price is obtainable for dark than for light-coloured cigars, the demand for the former being about three times as large as for the latter. Unfortunately, however, owing in a great measure to the partial failure of the tobacco crops of late years, light-coloured tobacco is much more common than dark. In order, therefore, to render the cigars made of light-coloured tobacco saleable at a higher price, and also to improve the appearance of old and faded cigars, if we are to believe a pamphlet recently published at Bremen, where there are several of these manufactories, various infusions have of late been prepared and largely sold, under the name of “Havanna brown,” “sap brown,” and “condensed sauce.” All these preparations are now openly advertised, and directions given for using them. None of these infusions contain anything particularly injurious, most of them consisting of brown vegetable dyes; nevertheless, they enable the manufacturer to give to cigars made of old and faded leaves the appearance of good Havannah cigars. A German paper states that if a piece of white blotting paper, saturated with diluted sal ammoniac, is passed a few times lightly over the cigar, the colouring matter, if any has been used, will come off on it, whereas the natural brown of the tobacco leaf will remain.

=Tobacco Adulteration.=——The popular belief that bad cigars are made of cabbage leaves is not justified by the last official report on tobacco adulteration. This document contains a tabulated account of the seizures of spurious tobacco made in the United Kingdom since 1864; and in the whole paper there is no mention whatever of the much-suspected vegetable. Its place in the black list is supplied by a variety of ingredients large enough to rejoice the heart of any member of the Anti-Tobacco League. The dishonest dealer in things smokeable is shown by the report to make use of three different sorts of materials besides that which he professes to employ. The first sort is required for the actual substance of the cigar; the second for improving its outward appearance; and the third for imparting to it what is supposed to be a better taste. In the former category the favourite substances seem to be the leaves of the lime tree, the husks of wheat and oats, cotton, yarn, and tonquin bean. But there are numerous cases where the ingredients have been much more curiously selected, and have included cocoa-nut fibre, small seeds, cotton, wood, and bread. At one establishment 50 lbs. of ‘tobacco dust’ were found and analysed, when it was shown to contain string, wood, nails, grindings of tobacco-pipe, dirt, and all sorts of refuse. Another large class of materials is apparently used for securing the adhesion and consistency of the cigar when made. Amongst these starch is the most prominent; but it includes gum and amidine, blue, gum Arabic, glue, glycerin, and essential oils. The colour of the fabrication is the next thing to be attended to, and for this purpose resort is had to yellow ochre, red sandalwood, logwood, lampblack, and Venetian red. As for the flavour of the cigar, it is varied to suit the most diverse tastes; but the usual object seems to be to impart to it a pleasing sweetness of tone. Accordingly saccharine matter, and especially treacle, is very largely pressed into the service. For those who like a rather more decided taste, liquorice, salt, logwood, glycerin, and aniseed are used. It is in Dublin where the latter ingredient is most fashionable, while Edinburgh is fondest of treacle and sugar, and East London is addicted to liquorice. (‘Pall Mall Gazette.’)

=Tobacco, British.= _Syn._ HERB TOBACCO; TABACUM ANGLICUM, SPECIES STERNUTORIÆ, L. _Prep._ Take of thyme, marjoram, and hyssop, of each 2 oz.; betony and eyebright, 3 oz.; rosemary and lavender, of each 4 oz.; coltsfoot, 1 lb.; mix, press them together, and cut the mass in imitation of manufactured foreign tobacco. Some asthmatic subjects add 5 or 6 oz. of stramonium or thorn-apple leaves; and others add 1/2 lb. of genuine tobacco.

=Tobacco, Indian.= See LOBELIA.

=TOD′DY.= Obtained from various species of palms, by cutting off the end of the flowering bud, and collecting the sap. Used, fresh, as a cooling beverage; and, after fermentation, as an intoxicating one. Sweetened grog is so called in Cornwall, and in some other parts of England.

=TOF′FY.= _Syn._ EVERTON TOFFY. A sweetmeat prepared by heating brown sugar, in a saucepan or skillet, with about one half its weight of fresh butter, for 15 to 20 minutes, or until a ‘little of it dropped into cold water forms a lump that breaks crisply,’ it is then poured into a little buttered tin mould.

=TOM′BAC.= An alloy consisting of copper, 16 lbs.; tin, 1 lb.; zinc, 1 lb. Red tombac is composed of copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 1 lb.

=TON′ICS.= Medicines that increase the tone of the muscular fibre, and impart vigour to the system.

=TON′QUIN REMEDY.= _Syn._ PULVIS TRUNCHINENSIS, P. ALEXIPHARMICUS SINENSIS, L. _Prep._ From valerian, 20 gr.; musk, 16 gr.; camphor, 6 gr.; mix. Antispasmodic and alexiterial, in doses of 6 to 12 gr., in hooping-cough, &c.; 1 dr., in hydrophobia, exanthemata, and mania.

=TOOTH′ACHE.= _Syn._ ODONTALGIA, L. This annoying affection frequently arises from sympathy with a disordered stomach. In such cases a saline purgative should be administered, and an emetic, if required. When cold is the cause, an excellent remedy is a hot embrocation of poppy-heads, followed by the use of flannel and diaphoretics. When it arises from a hollow or decayed tooth, the best application is a piece of lint moistened with creasote, or a strong spirituous solution of creasote, and closely rammed into the cavity of the tooth. Laudanum, the essential oils of cloves, caraway, and cajeput, and essence or tincture of pellitory of Spain, are also used in the same way. To prevent the recurrence of the latter kind of toothache, the cavity should be filled with an amalgam of gold, or with mineral marmoratum, or some other good cement. In many cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still better, a small piece of pellitory, will afford relief in a few minutes. The celebrated John Wesley recommended a ‘few whiffs’ at a pipe containing a little caraway seed mixed with the tobacco. A slight ‘shock’ from a voltaic battery will often instantly remove the toothache after all other means have failed. See DROPS, ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.

=TOOTH CEMENTS.= See DENTISTRY.

_Obs._ It is absolutely necessary for success that the teeth be well cleaned out, and wiped dry, before applying any of the above stoppings or cements.

=TO′PAZ.= See GEMS.

=TOR′MENTIL.= _Syn._ TORMENTILLÆ RADIX; TORMANTILLA (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root or rhizome of _Potentilla Tormentilla_, It is astringent and febrifuge, without being stimulant.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 gr.; in agues, diarrhœa, &c.; also, formerly, in syphilis.

=TORTOISE-SHELL, to Polish.= Dip a soft linen rag into rouge powder, and rub the tortoise-shell with it, and finish off with the hand. Tortoise-shell combs will not lose their polish if they are rubbed with the hand, after removal from the hair.

=TOUCH-NEEDLES.= See ASSAYING.

=TOUCH-WOOD.= See AMADOU.

=TOUS-LES-MOIS.= The fecula of the roots of _Canna edulis_ (Ph. D.); intended as a substitute for arrow-root. To the naked eye, it closely resembles the finest quality of potato-starch, but under the microscope its granules are found to be oblong, oval, with a concentric structure, and larger than those of the potato tuber.

=TOXICOL′OGY.= See POISON.

=TRAG′ACANTH.= See GUM.

=TRANSPA′′RENCIES.= Water-colour pictures on paper, linen, or calico, if executed in non-opaque or glazing colours, may be converted into transparencies by simply brushing over their backs with Canada balsam, thinned down, when necessary, with a little oil of turpentine. For coarse work, boiled oil may be employed.

=TRAPS, HOUSE.= With few exceptions, the endless varieties of traps advertised for house-drains are all modifications of the older forms of the syphon, the midfeather and the ball-trap. The syphon trap consists of a bent tube with a deep curve, in which the water lies and acts as an hydraulic valve.

The following conditions are essential for its proper action. The curve must be of such a depth as to ensure a height of not less than 3/4 inch of water always standing above the highest level of the water in the curve. The outlet pipe attached to the trap should not be too small nor have too sudden a fall as it leaves the trap, otherwise when ‘running full’ of water, all the water will be sucked out of it by the pipe beyond, owing to the too narrow bore and too perpendicular inclination of this latter.

The midfeather trap consists of a round or square box or receptacle, into the upper part of which, on one side, an inlet pipe discharges, whilst at a corresponding height on the opposite side there is an outlet pipe. The upper part of the box is divided by a partition, which dips at least 3/4 inch below the surface of the water, always standing in the receptacle, at the level of the outlet pipe. The principle, therefore, of the midfeather is similar to the syphon trap. The receptacle is so arranged that any heavy substances collected at the bottom can from time to time be removed. A useful variety of the midfeather is ‘Dean’s patent drain-trap,’ manufactured by Edwards, of Ruabon.

The ball-trap is not in very general use. By this arrangement the drain is trapped by means of a hollow ball, which rises with the water in the drain until it is carried against and closes an orifice.

The common ball-trap is stated to be inefficient and unsatisfactory. The facility with which it can be removed or placed out of gear often leads, in the hands of careless servants, to the untrapping of the drain altogether. A good description of common sink trap is Antel and Lock’s, shown in the accompanying engraving, which explains itself.

Amongst the circumstances that impair the efficiency of house-traps may be included the neglect to allow the passage of water through them sufficiently often, and with force enough to flush and cleanse the trap, and renew the water in it. The results are, that the water becomes saturated with sewage exhalations, which escape into and contaminate the air in the house; and that the trap becomes either dry or choked up.

Another contingency to which house-traps are exposed when the drains are made to form a continuous and disconnected system with the sewers, is that of the water being sucked out of the trap, owing to the combined effect of the pressure of sewer air and the aspirating power of the house, into which the sewer-gas would then pass unchecked.

In our articles DRAINAGE and SINKS, we have pointed out the peril attaching to the intimate connection between the house-drains and sewers, and given in the former practical directions for its avoidance.

To rest in the belief that the danger can be removed (although the risk may be slightly diminished) by the use of traps alone, is to entertain a very false sense of security.

=TRAUMAT′IC BALSAM.= Compound tincture of benzoin is known by this name. See TINCTURE.

=TRAUMAT′ICINE.= This article, as manufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, is simply a solution of white and dry unmanufactured gutta percha in bisulphuret of carbon. A small portion dropped on a wound, or raw surface, almost instantly forms a pliable, waterproof, and air-tight defensive covering to the part. The only objection to the preparation is the fetid odour of the menstruum, which, however, is lost in a few seconds, or may be obviated by employing chloroform as the solvent.

=TREA′CLE.= _Syn._ MOLASSES; THERIACA (B. P.), THERIACA, SACCHARI FÆX (Ph. L. & E.), L. The viscid, brown, uncrystallisable syrup which drains from moist sugar during its formation (molasses), and from the sugar-refining moulds (sugar-house molasses). The last, according to Dr Ure, has generally the sp. gr. 1·4, and contains about 75% of solid matter.

Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and always contains more or less free acid. It is used as the vehiculum in some of the pill-masses of the Ph. L. See SUGAR.

=Treacle, German.= _Syn._ THERIACA GERMANIÆ, L. An evaporated infusion or decoction of juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted, aromatic, and diuretic.

=Treacle, Venice.= _Syn._ LONDON TREACLE; THERIACA, T. ANDROCHI, L. The theriaca of the Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in 75 gr.; that of the Paris Codex consists of 72 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in 72 gr.; that of the Ph. E. 1744 consists of 10 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in every 100 gr. It is prepared as follows:——Take of serpentary root, 6 oz.; valerian and contrayerva roots, of each 4 oz.; aromatic powder, 3 oz.; guaiacum resin, castor, and nutmeg, of each 2 oz.; saffron and opium (dissolved in a little wine), of each 1 oz.; clarified honey, 75 oz.; reduce all the dry ingredients to fine powder, then mix them. The confections or electuaries of catechu and opium are the representatives of the above polypharmic compounds in the modern British Pharmacopœias.

=TRI-=, TRIS-. See NOMENCLATURE.

=TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME.= _Syn._ TRICALCIC PHOSPHATE. (Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}.) Tricalcic phosphate occurs nearly pure in the mineral known as OSLEOLITE. See CALCIUM PHOSPHATE for its artificial preparation.

=TRIMETHYLAMINE.= _Syn._ TRIMETHYLIA.

{ CH_{3} } C_{3}H_{9}N, or { CH_{3} } n. { CH_{3} }

An ammonia found in large quantities in the roe of the herring. It also occurs in putrefying flour and urine, and is the ingredient which gives to the _Chenopodium vulvaria_ its peculiar and disagreeable odour. It may also be obtained by distilling ergot of rye with caustic potash. Trimethylia is a volatile fluid, with a very pungent and unpleasant fishy smell. It boils at about 41° F. It is metameric with propylamine.

=TRIPE.= This is the paunch, or first portion of the ruminant stomach of the ox. It is nutritious and easy of digestion, except when very fat. Letheby gives the following as its composition:

Nitrogenous matter 13·2 Fat 16·4 Saline matter 2·4 Water 68·0 —————— 100·0

=Tripe, Fried in Batter.= “Tripe is cut into pieces about three inches square, and dipped into a batter made of six ounces of flour, one tablespoonful of oil, or one ounce of butter, and half a pint of tepid water. Mix the oil with the flour, add the water by degrees, whip the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, stir into the batter, dip the tripe in, throw it into a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry three or four minutes, take it out, and drain.”[240]

[Footnote 240: Tegetmeier’s ‘Scholar’s Handbook of Cookery, &c.,’ Macmillan & Co.]

=TRIP′OLI.= _Syn._ ROTTEN STONE; ALANA, TERRA CARIOSA, L. A mineral employed as a polishing powder, originally imported from Tripoli, in Barbary. It consists almost entirely of silica, and is composed of the skeletons of minute infusoria, the precise character of which is readily distinguishable under the microscope.

=TRIS′MUS.= See TETANUS.

=TRITURA′TION.= _Syn._ TRITURA, TRITURATIO, L. The act of rubbing a solid body to powder. See PULVERISATION.

=TRO′CHES.= See LOZENGES.

=TRO′NA.= A native carbonate of soda, found on the banks of the soda-lakes of Sokena, in Africa.

=TROPH′AZOME.= A concentrated infusion of minced lean meat mixed with the fluid obtained from the residuum after being heated for 20 minutes in a water bath, and flavoured with salt and spices, the whole being, lastly, simmered for a few minutes. Excellent for convalescents.

=TROUT.= The _Salmo furio_ of Linnæus, a highly-esteemed fish, found in most of the rivers and lakes of this country. Other members of the genus _salmo_ are also so called, as, _S. eriox_, the bull or grey trout; _S. ferox_, the great grey or lake trout; _S. trutta_, the salmon trout, &c. All of these varieties are in the finest condition from the end of May to late in September.

The trout contains about 6 per cent. of fat. It is desirable to cook this fish as soon as convenient after taking it.

=TRUSSING.= This is a well-known operation performed on poultry or game previous to their being roasted or boiled. It simply consists in _drawing_ or removing the intestines and other objectionable parts. In doing this, care must be taken to avoid rupturing the gall-vessel, which, if broken, would impart a very bitter flavour to the poultry, &c., extremely difficult of removal.

The cook should never take for granted that poultry or game, when it comes from the dealer, has been thoroughly cleansed inside, out, in order to be safe in this matter, should always make a point of cleansing it herself.

=TULUOLE.= _Syn._ TULUOL; BENZOENE (C_{7}H_{8}.) One of the hydrocarbons homologous with benzol, with which it occurs associated with xylol and isocumole, in the light oil obtained from the distillation of coal tar. It is also one of the products of distillation of balsam of Tolu, and would seem to be identical with the _retinaptha_ obtained by Pelletier and Walter from the distillation of rosin. If oxidised by means of chromic acid it yields benzoic acid. Its boiling point is 230° F., and its sp. gr. 0·87.

=TUMOURS.= Tumours, of which there are a great variety, are abnormal growths, occurring in different parts of the body. Sir Jas. Paget describes them as belonging to the class of overgrowths or hypertrophies, their most constant distinctive characters being——1. Their deviations, both in respect to size and shape, from the normal type of the body in which they are found. 2. Their apparently inherent power and method of growth. 3. Their development and growth being independent of those of the rest of the body, and continuing with no evident purpose, when the rest of the body is only being maintained in its normal type.

Tumours are divided by pathologists into _malignant_ and _innocent_ or _benign_.

In the former division is included cancer. The most common varieties belonging to the second division are _cutaneous cysts_, _fatty tumours_, and _fibro-cellular tumours_. Cutaneous cysts, which may occur under any part of the skin, are most frequently met with in the scalp. They mostly arise from “the morbid growth of natural ducts or follicles, or by the enormous growth of elementary structures, which increase from the form of cells or nuclei, and become closed sacs with organised walls capable of producing other growths.”[241]

[Footnote 241: ‘Chambers’ Cyclopædia.’]

The most commonly occurring tumour is the fatty one. It usually develops itself on the bodies of persons of from forty to fifty years of age. It seldom occasions inconvenience, and appears to be in no way prejudicial to health; occasionally, however, these tumours are very unsightly and unpleasant to look upon. The fat of which they are composed appears to differ in no respect from ordinary human fat. The uterus is the principal seat of the fibro-cellular tumour. It occurs also in the scrotum, the bones and the subcutaneous tissue. These tumours sometimes attain great size, and grow very rapidly. They are sometimes met with exceeding 40 lbs. in weight. Certain polypi belong to this class of tumour.

A pseudo tumour is occasionally met within surgical practice, which may often be mistaken for a real one, by the unwary or inexperienced practitioner. This, which is known as a _phantom tumour_, appears to be caused by muscular contraction. Sir Jas. Paget, writing on this subject, says: “The abdominal muscles of hysterical women are most often affected, sometimes with intentional fraud. The imitation of a tumour may be so close as to require great tact for its detection; but chloroform, by relaxing the muscles, dissipates the swelling. Occasionally the apparent tumours move.

=TUNG′STEN.= W. _Syn._ TUNGSTENUM. WOLFRAMIUM, L. A heavy, grey, brittle metal, discovered by Delhuyart.

The word _tungsten_, in Swedish, signifies ‘heavy stone’ (_tung-sten_), the name being applied to the element because the source from which it is obtained is a heavy mineral called _Wolfram_. Wolfram may be regarded as a variable double tungstate of iron and manganese, and the tungsten occurs in this. A native tungstate of copper has been discovered in Chili. Tungsten is also found in the mineral _scheelite_, a tungstate of lime. From this latter compound it may be procured by digesting finely-powdered scheelite in hydrochloric acid. Chloride of calcium is formed, together with insoluble tungstic acid. Upon heating the acid to bright redness in a stream of hydrogen gas, the metal is left behind. When thus procured it is of a dark-grey colour, but under the burnisher it may be made to assume a metallic lustre. Metallic tungsten may also be obtained by the reduction of tungstic acid, by means of charcoal at a white heat. When procured by this method it is unaffected by hydrochloric or diluted sulphuric acid, although it becomes reconverted into tungstic by the action of nitric acid.

When tungsten occurs in the pulverulent form, it burns easily into tungstic anhydride, when heated in the air; and is oxidised and dissolved when boiled with the caustic alkalies or their carbonates in solution. An alloy, possessed of extreme hardness, may be procured when tungsten is combined with steel, in the proportion of 1 part of tungsten to 10 parts of steel.

There are two known oxides of tungsten, viz. a dioxide (WO_{2}) and a trioxide (WO_{3}). According to Wöhler there is a third oxide, having the composition (WO_{2}WO_{3}).

=Dioxide, or Binoxide of Tungsten.= (WO_{2}.) This is an indifferent oxide, and is obtained by treating tungstic acid with hydrogen at a low red heat. It occurs as a brown powder, which absorbs oxygen greedily from the air, and is dissolved by boiling with solution of caustic potash, hydrogen being evolved and potassium tungstate being formed.

=Trioxide of Tungsten.= (WO_{3}.) _Syn._ TUNGSTIC ANHYDRIDE. This may be obtained by decomposing wolfram with aqua regia, and evaporating to dryness. The resulting tungstic acid is dissolved in ammonia, and the ammonic tungstate purified by crystallisation. When this ammonic tungstate is heated in the air, it loses ammonia and water, pure tungstic trioxide being left behind.

=Tungstic Acid.= (H_{2}WO_{4}.) This compound may be procured by adding an excess of hydrochloric acid to a boiling solution of the trioxide in any of the alkalies. It occurs as a yellow powder.

=Tungstic Chloride.= (WCl_{6}.) This may be obtained by heating tungsten in chlorine, when it sublimes in bronze-coloured needles, which are decomposed by water. When gently heated in hydrogen, this chloride becomes converted into tetrachloride (WCl_{4}).

=Bisulphide of Tungsten.= (WS_{2}.) By heating a mixture of bitungstate of potash with sulphur, and washing the product with hot water, a black crystalline substance, having the above composition, may be obtained, resembling plumbago in appearance.

Of the salts of tungsten, tungstate of baryta has been used as a substitute for white lead in painting; but the most important of these is the tungstate of soda, described below. See also TUNGSTIC GLUE.

=TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM.= Na_{2}WO_{4}. This salt is used for rendering linen, cotton, and other fabrics uninflammable; also as a substitute for stannate of sodium as a mordant in dyeing. It may be prepared by adding 9 parts of finely-powdered tungsten to 8 parts of fused carbonate of sodium, and continuing the heat for some time; on boiling the cooled and pulverised mass with water, evaporating the filtrate to dryness, and treating the residue with luke-warm water, the salt dissolves out. Muslin steeped in a 20% solution of this salt is perfectly uninflammable when dry, and the saline film left upon its surface is so smooth that the muslin may be ironed without difficulty.

=TUNGSTIC GLUE.= Tungstic glue has been suggested as a substitute for hard india rubber, as it can be used for all the purposes to which this latter is applied. It is thus prepared:——Mix together a thick solution of glue with tungstate of soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound of tungstic acid and glue is precipitated, which, at a temperature of 86° to 104° F., is sufficiently elastic to be drawn out into very thin sheets.

=TUNNY FISH, a la Parisienne.= As a rule tunny fish is very indigestible, and may be described as “neither fish, flesh, fowl, nor good red herring;” nevertheless, some of our readers may come across this fish, and will be glad to hear of a way in which to make it palatable and digestible. Take three or four pounds of fresh tunny fish, lard it with bacon as you would veal; cook it gently in its own gravy for three hours, with salt, pepper, sweet herbs, little onions, and a small quantity of water. When well cooked, tunny fish makes a nice dish cold for breakfast.

=TUR′BOT.= The _Rhombus maximus_ (Cuvier), said to be the best, and excepting the halibut, the largest of our flat fishes. Dutch turbots are the most esteemed.

_Composition of the turbot_:

Nitrogenous matter 18·1 per cent. Fat 2·9 ” Saline matter 1·0 ” Water 78·0 ” —————— 100·0

=TUR′KEY.= See POULTRY.

=TUR′MERIC.= _Syn._ CURCUMA (Ph. L. & D.), L. The rhizome of _Curcuma longa_. The best is imported from Ceylon. It is stimulant and carminative, but is chiefly used in dyeing yellow, and as an ingredient in curry powder; also as a test for alkalies. It gives a fugitive golden yellow with wold, and an orange tinge to scarlet. It dies wool and silk, mordanted with common salt, or sal ammoniac, a fugitive yellow.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. See CURCUMINE.

_Composition of an average sample of Curcuma longa_:

Water 14·249 Curcumin 11·000 Turmeric 12·075 Volatile oil 1·000 Gum 8·113 Starch 3·627 Extractive 3·388 Woody fibre 46·548 Ash, included in above weights [5·463] ———————— 100·000

Under the microscope turmeric presents a very characteristic structure, viz. “a cellular tissue containing large, loose, yellow cells, with here and there small, but very distinct, starch granules, similar in shape and size to those of _Curcuma arrowroot_, and some woody fibre and dotted ducts. The yellow granular cells can readily be identified whenever they occur.[242]

[Footnote 242: Dr Winter Blyth.]

=TURNBULL’S BLUE.= _Syn._ FERRICYANIDE OF IRON; FERRI FERRICYANIDUM, L. _Prep._ Precipitate a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of red prussiate of potash (ferricyanide of potassium.)

_Obs._ This is a variety of Prussian blue, remarkable for its beautiful colour, and may be distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue of commerce by its action on the yellow prussiate of potash. When boiled in a solution of the latter it is decomposed, a portion is dissolved, and a grey residue remains.

=TURNER’S YELLOW.= See YELLOW PIGMENTS.

=TURNIP.= The _Brassica napus_. This vegetable possesses but little nutritive value, as will be inferred from the annexed description of its composition given by Letheby:

Nitrogenous matter 1·2 Starch 5·1 Sugar 2·1 Salt 0·6 Water 91·0 —————— 100·0

Turnips should always be thoroughly cooked, otherwise they are very liable to produce indigestion.

=TURN′SOLE.= See LITMUS.

=TUR′PENTINE.= _Syn._ TURPENTIN; TEREBINTHINA. (Ph. L., E., D.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the trunk, the bark being removed, of _Pinus palustris_ (pitch or swamp pine) and _Pinus Tœda_ (loblolly or old field pine).” (Ph. L.) “From _Pinus sylvestris_ (the Scotch fir).” (Ph. D.) “From various species of _Pinus_ and _Abies_.” (Ph. E.) It is viscid, of the consistence of honey, and transparent; by distillation it is resolved into oil of turpentine, which passes over into the receiver; and into resin, which remains in the still.

=Turpentine, Bordeaux.= _Syn._ FRENCH TURPENTINE. From the _Pinus maritima_, or cluster pine. Solidifies with magnesia. (Lindley.)

=Turpentine, Chian.= _Syn._ CHIO TURPENTINE, CYPRUS T., SCIO T.; TEREBINTHINA CHIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the incised trunk of _Pistachia terebinthus_” (Linn.). (Ph. L.) It is pale, aromatic, fragrant, and has a warm taste, devoid of acrimony or bitterness. It is much adulterated. A factitious article (terebinthina Chia factitia), made as follows, is also very generally sold for it:——Black resin, 7 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and stir in of balsam of Canada, 7 lbs.; oils of fennel and juniper, of each 1 fl. dr.

=Turpentine, Venice.= _Syn._ TEREBINTHINA VENETA (Ph. E.), L. Liquid resinous exudation from the _Abies Larix_, or larch tree. It is sweeter and less resinous-tasted than common turpentine, but is now scarcely ever met with in trade. That of the shops is wholly a factitious article, made as follows:——Black resin, 48 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and add of oil of turpentine, 2 galls.

=TUR′PETH MINERAL.= Basic sulphate of mercury.

=TURRET OF CHESTNUTS.= A ‘Turret of Chestnuts’ (_Tourelle de Marrons_) is the name of a most toothsome dish. Take rather over two pounds of chestnuts, peel, and cook them in water, with a pinch of salt therein, then put them, whilst hot, into a colander. Beat into a paste, with a little milk, sugar, and vanille. Put the mixture into a mould in the form of a turret, about an inch thick; when quite firm, open the mould and turn out the contents carefully, glaze with syrup. Fill the middle with whipped cream, flavoured with chocolate or vanille.

=TUR′TLE.= _Syn._ GREEN TURTLE. The _Testuda midas_ (Linn.), a chelonian reptile, highly esteemed for its flesh, eggs, and fat.

=TUSSILA′GO.= See COLTSFOOT.

=TU′TENAG.= A name sometimes applied to German silver; at others, to pale brass and bell metal. “In India zinc sometimes goes under this name.” (Brande.)

=TUT′TY.= _Syn._ TUTIA, TUTHIA, IMPURE OXIDE OF ZINC. The sublimate that collects in the chimneys of the furnaces in which the ores of zinc are smelting. Drying; astringent. Used in eye-waters and ointments.

=TYPE METAL.= An alloy formed of antimony, 1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted together. Small types are usually made of a harder composition than large ones. A good stereotype metal is said to be made of lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part. This alloy expands as it cools, and, consequently, brings out a fine impression.

=TYPHOID FEVER.= _Syn._ GASTRIC FEVER, ENTERIC or INTESTINAL FEVER, LOW FEVER, COMMON CONTINUED FEVER, INFANTILE REMITTENT, ENDEMIC FEVER, PYTHOGENIC FEVER. Although the term ‘typhoid’ expresses the fact that this particular form of fever resembles typhus, the researches of later pathologists, including Perry, Lombard, Stewart, and Jenner, have satisfactorily demonstrated that the two diseases are altogether distinct.

“Typhus and typhoid fevers differ,” says Sir Thomas Watson, “notably and constantly in their symptoms and course, in their duration, in their comparative fatality, in the superficial markings which respectively belong to them, and which warrant our classing them among the exanthemata, in the internal organic changes with which they are severally attended, and (what is the most important and the most conclusive) in their exciting causes.”

About the beginning of the present century, the French practitioners, after several _post-mortem_ examinations, were the first to point out that the specifically distinguishing feature of this disease was an internal exanthema. This salient characteristic, coupled with the highly infectious nature of typhoid fever, have caused it to be defined by pathologists as “a contagious eruptive fever occurring on the mucous membrane of the intestines, and therefore removed from view.”

The morbid appearance presented by the intestinal mucous membrane, varies with the time that elapses between the period of seizure and death. If the patient dies within the week, the follicles on the membrane present a thickened appearance, and are raised above it, whilst they are seen to be filled with a yellowish, cheesy-looking substance. The result of these details is to give the bowels the appearance of being covered with pustules.

When death has occurred at a later period ulceration more or less extensive has been observed to have set in.

The influence of age in predisposing to typhoid fever is forcibly illustrated in the following table extracted from Dr Walter Blyth’s ‘Dictionary of Practical Hygiène’:

Years of Age. Per cent.

Under 5 0·98 From 5 to 9 9·44 ” 10 ” 14 18·16 ” 15 ” 19 26·86 ” 20 ” 24 19·69 ” 25 ” 29 10·15 ” 30 ” 34 5·36 ” 35 ” 39 3·40 ” 40 ” 44 2·09 ” 45 ” 49 1·08 ” 50 ” 54 0·60 ” 55 ” 59 0·33 ” 60 ” 64 0·33 ” 65 ” 69 0·08 ” 70 ” 79 1·33

Dr Murchison asserts that those under thirty are more than four times as liable to be attacked by typhoid fever as persons over that age. The practical bearing of the above figures is obvious. Typhoid patients should only be nursed by the middle aged.

The season of the year also exercises an influence over the development and spread of this disease. In most countries it prevails with the greatest violence, and is most general, in Autumn, and much more frequently follows a very hot and dry summer than a damp one. The carriers of the typhoid poison are the alvine and possibly the cutaneous and other excretions. The disease may therefore be conveyed by contact with the hands or skin of an infected patient, by his urine, by his body linen, the bed clothes, or by dissemination from these into the surrounding air. But the most fertile and unquestionable cause of propagation is the contamination of drinking water by matter derived from the fœcal discharges of typhoid patients, which having soaked into the soil from the privy into which they had found their way, filtered from thence into a neighbouring well, or by means of drains proceeding from a privy or cesspool, into a stream. We can easily understand that the disease when traced to potable water, should always assume so virulent and frequently fatal a character. The fever poison is thus directly conveyed into the stomach, and hence easily reaches the intestines, whence the disease originates. This will also account for the very small quantity of infected water which it has found communicates the disease.

The outbreak of typhoid fever in Marylebone, in 1874, which attacked some 500 persons, was traced to the milk vended by a certain company; this milk having been placed in cans that had merely been washed out and cooled with water obtained from a well into which it was discovered the excreta from a typhoid patient had percolated from an adjoining privy. After the statement of these facts, the thorough and efficient disinfection of all the excretions, immediately they leave the body of the patient, as well as of his body and bed linen, mattresses, &c., and also of the sick apartment, will be obvious.

The best method of effecting this will be to follow the instructions given by Dr William Budd, for the prevention of the propagation of this disease, which are as follows:

“The means by which typhoid fever may be prevented from spreading are very simple, very sure, and their cost, next to nothing.

“They are founded on the discovery that the poison by which this fever spreads is almost entirely contained in the discharges from the bowels.

“These discharges infect (1) the air of the sick room; (2) the bed and body linen of the patient; (3) privy and the cesspool, or the drains proceeding from them.

“In these various ways, including the contamination of drinking water, already described, the infection proceeding from the bowel discharges often spreads the fever far and wide. The one great thing to aim at, therefore, is to disinfect these discharges on their very escape from the body, and before they are carried from the sickroom. This may be perfectly done by the use of disinfectants. One of the best is made of green copperas.

“This substance, which is used by all shoemakers, is very cheap, and may be had everywhere. A pound and a half of green copperas to a gallon of water is the proper strength. A teacupful of this liquid put into the night-pan every time before it is used by the patient renders the bowel discharge perfectly harmless. One part of Calvert’s liquid carbolic acid in fifty parts of water is equally efficacious.

“To disinfect the bed and body linen, and bedding generally, chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s, or Calvert’s powder is more convenient.

“These powders should be sprinkled by means of a common dredger on soiled spots on the linen, and about the room to purify the air.

“All articles of bed and body linen should be plunged, immediately on their removal from the bed, into a bucket of water containing a tablespoonful of chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s or Calvert’s powder, and should be boiled before being washed; a yard of thin white gutta percha, placed beneath the blanket, under the breech of the patient, by effectually preventing the discharges from soaking into the bed is a great additional safeguard. The privy or closet, and all drains communicating with it, should be flushed twice daily with the green copperas liquid, or with carbolic acid diluted with water.[243]

[Footnote 243: See SPOROKTON.]

“In towns and villages where the fever is already prevalent, the last rule should be put in force for all the houses, whether there be fever in them or not, and for all public drains.

“In the event of death, the body should be placed as soon as possible in a coffin sprinkled with disinfectants. Early burial is on all accounts desirable.

“As the hands of those attending on the sick often become unavoidably soiled by the discharges from the bowels, they should be frequently washed.

“The sick room should be kept well ventilated day and night.

“The greatest possible care should be taken with regard to the drinking water. When there is the slightest risk of its having become tainted with fever poison, water should be got from a pure source, or should at least be boiled before being drunk.

“Immediately after the illness is over, whether ending in death or recovery, the dresses worn by the nurses should be washed or destroyed, and the bed and room occupied by the sick should be thoroughly disinfected. These are golden rules.

“Where they are neglected the fever may become a deadly scourge; where they are strictly carried out it seldom spreads beyond the person first attacked.”

No part of the globe appears to be exempt from the visitations of typhoid fever, since it occurs not only in all the older countries of Europe and Asia and Africa, but in those also included in the North and South American Continents, as well as in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. It would appear also to have prevailed in the earliest ages, since it is evidently alluded to in the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and others. Later writers, including Sydenham and Hoffman, also constantly refer to it under a different name.

Pathologists differ as to the time that this disease lies dormant in the system before developing itself. Some practitioners contend that the usual period is from ten to fourteen days, whilst others think it is much less than this, and, in some instances, that it may not exceed one or two days.

The late Dr Murchison entertained the latter opinion. The symptoms, when they show themselves, are as follows:——An irritable condition of the stomach, accompanied by sickness or vomiting; pain, with more or less tenderness, about the abdomen; sometimes the patient suffers from great constipation, at others from diarrhœa; he also experiences great prostration of strength, has a feeble pulse, and a brown furred tongue; he is extremely restless, and at night frequently delirious; the lower limbs are frequently cold; he passes but little urine, and that of an offensive smell; the stools are dark, offensive, and very frequently bloody, this latter being a very characteristic accompaniment of typhoid fever. Bleeding from the nose sometimes occurs. The perspiration has a sour and fetid odour. After seven or eight days, small rose-coloured spots or _petechiæ_ make their appearance on the skin.

_Treatment._——The abdomen should be leeched, and mustard poultices applied. If not too prostrated, the patient should be given a hot bath; but if he be not sufficiently strong to venture upon this, ablution of the whole of the body with hot water and soap should be had recourse to, the operation being performed by means either of a sponge or a flannel.

An effervescing draught, consisting of twenty grains of carbonate of ammonia, dissolved in water, to which a tablespoonful of lemon-juice should be added, ought to be administered, and drunk whilst effervescing, every three or four hours. The diet should consist of beef tea, nutritious broth, milk, and eggs.

The necessity of thorough ventilation of the patient’s apartment, together with the methods of disinfection of the bodily discharges, the linen, &c., have been already emphasised in the directions given by Dr Budd for the prevention of the propagation of this fever.

It is, perhaps, needless to state that the outline of treatment given above is intended only for adoption by the emigrant, or of any one so unfortunately situated with regard to locality as to be unable to secure the services of a medical practitioner. Where these are obtainable the patient or his friends should use all speed in procuring them.

_Horses._——Horses are occasionally attacked with typhoid fever, the symptoms of which bear a general resemblance to those which characterise the disease in the human subject. The appearances presented after death are also very similar, particularly in the lesions observable in the mucous membrane of the intestines. As in man, the disease is greatly aggravated by insanitary surroundings and depressing external agencies, and by the animals partaking of water containing decaying organic matters.

Upon the commencement of the attack give a few doses of calomel or laudanum, or of tincture of aconite, and if the bowels are costive two or three drachms of aloes, afterwards keeping up the laxative effect by mild clysters and mashes. Afterwards administer, three or four times a day, a drachm each of chlorate of potash and chloride of ammonium, adding to these an ounce of oil of turpentine or ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, if the animal exhibit dulness or weakness. If there is tenderness or pain about the abdomen, apply hot fomentations constantly, and should there be much flatulence give occasional drenches of ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, or whiskey and water.

The food of the animal must be nutritive and generous. He should be kept in a loose box, his legs should be bandaged in flannel, and warm rugs should envelop his body. Rest and quiet are essential. During convalescence let him have small doses of gentian, chloride of iron, with ale.[244]

[Footnote 244: Finlay Dun.]

=TYPHUS FEVER.= This fever is known under various names, such as SPOTTED TYPHUS, JAIL FEVER, SHIP FEVER, CAMP FEVER, MILITARY FEVER, IRISH AGUE, FAMINE FEVER, BRAIN FEVER, PESTILENTIAL FEVER, MALIGNANT FEVER, OCHLOTIC FEVER, TYPHO-RUBEOLOID.

“1. Typhus prevails for the most part in great and wide-spread epidemics.

“2. The epidemics appear during seasons of general scarcity and wants, or amidst hardships and privations arising from local causes, such as warfare, commercial failures, and strikes among the labouring population. The statement that they always last for three years and then subside is erroneous.

“3. During the intervals of epidemics, sporadic cases of typhus occur, particularly in Ireland, and in the large manufacturing towns of Scotland and England.

“4. Although some of the great epidemics of this country have commenced in Ireland, and spread thence to Britain, appearing first in those towns on the west coast of Britain where there was the freest intercourse with Ireland, it is wrong to imagine that all epidemics have commenced in Ireland, or that typhus is a disease essentially Irish. The disease appears wherever circumstances favorable to its development are present.

“5. In many epidemics typhus has been associated with relapsing fever, and the relative proportion of the two fevers has varied greatly.

“6. From the earliest times, typhus has been regarded as a disease of debility, forbidding depletion, and demanding support and stimulation.

“7. The chief exception to the last statement originated in the erroneous doctrines taught in the early part of this century, according to which the disease was looked upon as symptomatic of inflammation or congestion of internal organs.

“8. The success believed at one time to follow the practice of venesection was only apparent. It was due to the practice, for the most part, having been resorted to in cases of relapsing fever and acute inflammations, and to the result having been compared with those of the treatment by stimulation of the much more mortal typhus.

“9. Although typhus fever varies in its severity and duration at different times, and under different circumstances, there is no evidence of any change in its type or essential characters. The typhus of modern times is the same as that described by Fracastorius and Cordames. The period during which epidemic fever was said to present an inflammatory type was that in which relapsing fever was most prevalent, and the times in which the type has been described as adynamic have been those in which relapsing fever has been scarce or absent.” (Murchison.)

In the article ‘Typhoid fever’ it has been stated that its propagation was mainly due, and had been very clearly traced, to the drinking of water contaminated by the alvine discharges of typhoid patients; in the dissemination of typhus, on the contrary, the air in the neighbourhood of the infected person appears to be the great medium for the conveyance of the disease, the poison, it is conceived, being disseminated into the surrounding atmosphere from the surface of the body or the lungs of the patient, or from the cloths, body linen, &c., worn and discarded by him. Hence it is we find, as we should expect, in the past no less than in the present, that the spread and degree of virulence of the malady have always been associated with overcrowding and bad ventilation. Although amongst the causes that predispose and induce susceptibility to its attacks, as shown above, are poverty and consequent deficiency of food and clothing, and squalor, it has been demonstrated that, with all these unfavorable conditions, patients may often recover from typhus provided they are supplied with a sufficiency of fresh air.

The fact that of late years typhus has rarely visited the inmates of our prisons, barracks, or shops, and that their comparative immunity from it has been coincident with improved ventilation and the avoidance of overcrowding, can lead to no other deduction than that previous to this reform these sanitary conditions were altogether neglected. We may narrate some of these outbreaks of typhus that have taken place previous to the application of hygienic principles to the treatment of the disease. During an assize held at Cambridge in 1522, the disease which had broken out amongst the prisoners, spread to the justices, the bailiffs, and other officers, as well as to many people frequenting the court-house, with the result that many of those so seized died.

Another outbreak of a very malignant character occurred at Exeter in 1586. Some Portuguese were captured at sea, and (the words of the old historian who records the fact clearly indicate the cause of the virulent nature of the malady) were “cast into the deep pit and _stinking dungeon_.” When brought into court they imparted the contagion to those around them. The judge and eleven out of the twelve jurymen who were thus attacked died, whilst the disease spread through and devastated the whole country.

A fourth case is recorded by Howard “at the Lent assizes in Taunton in 1730. Some prisoners who were brought there from Ivilchester Jail infected the court, and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, serjeant, John Pigot, Esq., sheriff, and some hundreds besides, died of the jail distemper.”

Another eruption, which broke out during an assize held at the Old Bailey in 1750, resulted in the contraction of the disease by the Judge, the Lord Mayor, and the Alderman, and caused the death of forty persons who were present in the close and narrow court-house during the judicial proceedings. One circumstance recorded in connection with this last attack needs no comment. It is to the effect that “a hundred prisoners were put into two rooms measuring fourteen feet by eleven feet, and seven feet high.” The instances above quoted explain why it was this disease acquired the name of _jail fever_.

During the present century six different epidemics of typhus have broken out amongst the convicts on board the Toulon Galleys. They occurred in 1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 1855, and 1856. Although the above statement of facts indisputably points to the intimate connection existing between the prevalence and violent character of typhus and overcrowding, and consequent contamination and vitiation of the air breathed by the patient, it is still a moot point with pathologists whether the disease can be generated _de novo_ by these conditions, or whether they merely assist to disseminate and intensify it. Dr Parkes, writing on this subject, says:——“With reference to the particular kind of fever in Metz, it may be noticed that an important argument against the production of exanthematic typhus from simple overcrowding has been drawn from the experience both of Metz and Paris. In both places during the sieges there was overcrowding, wretchedness, and famine, particularly at Metz; yet, as pointed out by Professor Chauffard to the Académie de Médicine, there was scarcely any or no typhus, as there had been in the wars of the first Napoleon. There was typhus in the German besieging force, but so strict was the blockade that it was not imported into Metz, and was not generated there.”[245]

[Footnote 245: Blyth.]

The mortality which has been caused in large armies by the ravages of typhus has been enormous. During the ‘thirty years’ warfare that desolated Germany from 1619 to 1648, innumerable soldiers fell victims to it, the Bavarian army alone having lost 20,000 men from this cause. Typhus also committed appalling havoc among the legions of the first Napoleon, the Bavarian contingent of the French army in the Campaign in 1812, lost nearly 26,000 men from this cause; whilst in Mayence 25,000 of Napoleon’s soldiers in garrison perished from the same cause in six months. More lately, viz. during the Crimean campaign (in 1856), typhus slew more than 17,000 French soldiers.

It frequently infested the German armies during the Franco German war of 1869-70, and committed great havoc both amongst the hosts of Russia and Turkey in the late war between those countries.

When we turn to the civil population, we find that typhus has been no less ruthless, and has slain its myriads of these also. Confining our attention to our own country, we find it to have especially devastated Ireland, which has suffered from no less than eleven violent outbreaks of typhus within the last 130 years.

In one of these visitations, viz. that of 1840, 80,000 people are estimated to have died from the disease. The largest recorded epidemic of typhus within our islands during the present century was that of 1846. It extended over the whole of the British islands, and the number of persons attacked by it were nearly 1,400,000, out of which 1,000,000 occurred in Ireland. “The Irish flocked to England in thousands, bringing the pestilence with them. It therefore was extremely prevalent in Liverpool, no less than 10,000 persons dying of typhus in that city.”[246] The latest outbreaks in England have been in 1862 and 1869; they were principally confined to London.

[Footnote 246: Blyth.]

Dr Murchison says that 14,000 persons were admitted to the London Fever Hospital during the two epidemics, and that amongst them a small number only were Irish.

All European countries, as well as North America and some parts of Asia, suffer from the ravages of this alarming disease. Africa, however, as well as Australia and New Zealand, are said to be exempt from it.

_Symptoms._——The symptoms of typhus are thus described by Dr Murchison:——“More or less sudden invasion, marked by rigors or chilliness; frequent compressible pulse; tongue furred, and ultimately dry and brown; bowels in most cases constipated; skin warm and dry; a rubeloid rash appearing between the fourth and seventh days, the spots never appearing in successive crops, at first slightly elevated, and disappearing on pressure, but after the second day persistent, and often becoming converted into true petechiæ; great and early prostration; heavy flushed countenance; injected conjunctivæ; wakefulness and obtuseness of the mental faculties, followed, at the end of the first week, by delirium, which is sometimes acute and noisy, but oftener low and wandering; tendency to stupor and coma, tremors, subsultus, and involuntary evacuations, with contracted pupils. Duration of the fever from ten to twenty-one days, usually fourteen. In the dead body no specific lesion, but hyperæmia of all the internal organs, softening and disintegration of the heart and voluntary muscles, hypostatic congestion of the lungs, atrophy of the brain, and œdema of the pia mater, are common.”

_Treatment._——The following remarks, bearing on this branch of the subject, are suggested for adoption by the non-medical reader, in the event of his being precluded by circumstances from calling in the aid of the medical practitioner. The most important points to be observed are the isolation of the patient and the thorough ventilation of his apartment by the continuous admission into it of fresh air without stint or hindrance. Dr Parkes recommends the patient to be put in the top room of the house or hospital, since there is strong evidence to show that the contagious virus is volatile and ascends through the atmosphere.

The forms of disinfection best suited for adoption in this disease, together with the method of employing them, will be found fully described in the article ‘DISINFECTANTS,’

The body of the patient should also be frequently sponged with Condy’s fluid, properly diluted, or covered with olive oil, to which has been added a small quantity of carbolic acid.

As internal remedies, dilute hydrochloric or nitro-hydrochloric acids have been highly commended. Chlorate of potash, in large doses, was formerly much employed.

These remedies may be supplemented by the use of saline medicines, sudorifics, and moderate purgatives. The diet should consist largely of milk and water, beef tea, broth, and such like digestible and nutritious food.

=UDDER, Inflammation of.= _Syn._ GARGET MAMMITIS. Amongst domestic animals, cows are the most frequently subject to this affection. It is most common amongst those cows that have lately calved or have been thoroughly milked. Heifers and even young cows that have never had a calf, however, are not exempt from it, and occasionally suffer from its attacks. The inflammation varies in intensity, in some cases only showing itself in a dryness, tenseness, heat and tenderness of the skin of the udder, whilst in others it is much more serious, and extends to the interior parts and vessels; in the latter case, giving rise to hard lumps amongst the softer texture of the udder.

Inflammation of the udder appears to result from various causes——indigestion, over driving, the too long retention of the milk in the udder, and cold; it is also very frequently associated with murrain, rheumatism, and swelling of the joints.

_Treatment._——If the disease be constitutional, as indicated by the suddeness of the attack, the best course will be to administer at once a good dose of Epsom or Glauber salts combined with a little ginger, and to give copious doses of nitre. A modified form of this treatment should be kept up for some little time by means of gentle aperients, and smaller doses of nitre. In the milder form of inflammation, viz. in that confined to the exterior of the udder, it will be best to have recourse to spirit lotions or refrigerant applications, such as ice water, or a mixture of chloride of ammonium and nitre applied immediately after mixing with water. The udder should be kept constantly cool by means of these. When the inflammation is deeper seated, as evidenced by the presence of lumps in the udder, the continuous application of warm water is advisable. Whether the cold or hot treatment be indicated, it should be diligently kept up for a day at least. In the adoption of either the cold or hot local remedies, above specified, they should be combined with some means of support (by the agency of a proper bandage) to the udder. It is also important to have the milk removed every three or four hours; if the milking operation cause pain, a syphon should be used. The hard lumps will be found to disperse best under gentle friction applied by the hand twice a day, for an hour each time, the hand being previously anointed with lard. When the surface pits or becomes soft, and very hot, it may be assumed that suppuration has set in, in which case the confined pus must be liberated by means of the lancet.

=ULCERATED SORE THROAT.= This form of sore throat, in which ulcers develop themselves upon the tonsils, is a very frequent accompaniment of scarlatina, syphilis, and other diseases, in which cases to prescribe the method of treatment would be beyond our province. For ordinary ulcerated sore throat arising from cold, chronic inflammation of the part, or a low state of health, the best course will be to gargle the throat four or five times daily with either of the following gargles: 1. Alum, 30 gr.; infusion of rose, 6 oz. 2. Sulphate of zinc, 30 gr.; distilled water, 6 oz. 3. Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; water, 6 oz. Should these fail, touch the ulcers every morning with a solution of nitrate of silver, containing ten grains of the nitrate to an ounce of distilled water.

=ULCERS.= These are open sores, mostly accompanied by a discharge of pus, or serous matter. They differ from ordinary wounds by the edges showing no disposition to unite. When they extend or deepen, it is by a process of absorption; while they heal by granulation, whereby they become filled up with little granular growths of flesh. Ulcers may appear on all parts of the body, but they most frequently attack the legs and arms.

In enfeebled states of the body, wounds, boils, and abscesses may degenerate into ulcers; they are also a consequence of enlarged or varicose veins, or the result of some specific poison in the system.

Ulcers may be classed into simple, irritable, indolent, and specific.

_Treatment._——When an ordinary wound or sore shows a disinclination to heal, but on the contrary, extends or deepens, it should be poulticed with bread and water or linseed meal. Should these remedies be ineffectual, an old fashioned but useful one, viz. a carrot poultice, may be applied. When the ulceration is irritable or painful, the poultices may be supplemented by the frequent use of a lotion consisting of four parts of water to one of tincture of opium, or of a warm decoction of poppy heads applied by means of a linen rag. Filling the cavity with prepared chalk has been recommended.

It sometimes happens that during poulticing, _proud flesh_ may form in an ulcer. When this is the case, a little sugar in powder may be sprinkled over the unhealthy excrescence, or some red precipitate ointment be applied to it. Taking care not to use too much of either. When the ulcer has a bad or fetid odour, it should be washed with a lotion composed of one part of solution of chlorinated soda to sixteen parts of water; or it may be sprinkled over with charcoal powder; or with a mixture of starch and salicylic acid. The best application to bad smelling ulcers caused by varicose veins is a lotion consisting of nitric acid considerably diluted with water. Directions are given for the treatment of varicose veins, under VARIX, further on. If the veins be ulcerated, the ulcers should be dressed with acetate of lead ointment previous to the application of the bandage. Very irritable ulcers are often greatly relieved by the gentle application to them of lunar caustic, and indolent ones by dressing with yellow basilicon ointment, or by the judicious use of black wash. The general health should be attended to by the administration of tonics consisting of the mineral acids, gentle aperients, and a digestible and nourishing diet. Small ulcers on the mucous membrane of the mouth or on the gums may be made to disappear instantly upon touching them with a piece of lunar caustic. Where any difficulty is experienced in the healing of an ulcer, or if it be at all of a serious nature, the medical practitioner should be consulted.

=UL′MIN, ULMIC ACID.= By boiling sugar in dilute sulphuric acid for a long time, a brownish-black substance is produced. Boullay and Malaguti state that this is a mixture of two distinct bodies——ulmin (sacchulmin——Liebig) and ulmic acid (sacchulmic acid——Liebig). The first is insoluble in solutions of the alkalies; the latter dissolves in them freely. A number of black uncrystallisable substances, produced by the action of powerful chemical agents upon vegetable matter, have been confounded under these names.

=ULTRAMARINE′.= _Syn._ LAPIS-LAZULI BLUE, ULTRAMARINE B.; CÆRULEUM ULTRAMONTANUM, L. This beautiful pigment is obtained from the blue mineral azure stone, lazulite, or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of which are brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucharia.

_Prep._ Pure lapis lazuli (reduced to fragments about the size of a pea, and the colourless pieces rejected), 1 lb., is heated to redness, quenched in water, and ground to an impalpable powder; to this is added, of yellow resin, 6 oz.; turpentine, beeswax, and linseed oil, of each 2 oz.; previously melted together; the whole is next made into a mass, which is kneaded in successive portions of warm water, as long as it colours it blue; from these it is deposited on repose, and is then collected, well washed with clean water, dried, and sorted according to its qualities. The first water, which is usually dirty, is thrown away; the second gives a blue of the first quality; and the third, and following ones, yield samples of less value. The process is founded on the property which the colouring matter of azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the resinous cement than the foreign matter with which it is associated. When azure-stone has its colour altered by a moderate heat, it is reckoned bad or factitious.

_Obs._ Ultramarine is the most costly, but at the same time the most splendid and permanent, of our blue pigments, and works well in oil.

=Ultramarine, Artificial.= _Syn._ AZURE BLUE, MEISSNER ULTRAMARINE, PARIS B., VIENNA B.; CÆRULEUM ULTRAMONTANUM FACTITIUM, L. From the researches of Clement, Desormes, and Robiquet, it has been inferred that the colour of ultramarine depends on the presence of sulphuret of sodium in a peculiar state of combination with the silicates of soda and alumina; but, according to Elsner and Tirnmon, a minute quantity of sulphuret of iron is also an essential ingredient. It is by heating mixtures of this kind that the artificial ultramarine of commerce is prepared. The finer specimens, thus obtained, are quite equal in durability and beauty of colour to those prepared from lazulite, while they are very much less expensive.

_Prep._ 1. Kaolin, 37 parts; sulphate of soda, 15; carbonate of soda, 22; sulphur, 18; charcoal, 8; intimately mixed and heated from 24 to 30 hours, in large crucibles; the product is then heated again in cast-iron boxes, at a moderate temperature, till the required tint is obtained; it is, finally, pulverised, washed, and dried.

2. (Gmelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part; mix well; gradually heat them in a covered crucible to redness, or till the mixture fuses, then sprinkle in, by degrees, another mixture of silicate of soda and ‘aluminate of soda’ (containing 72 parts of silica and 70 parts of alumina), and continue the heat for an hour. The product contains a little free sulphur, which may be separated by water.

3. (Robiquet.) By exposing to a low red heat, in a covered crucible, as long as fumes are given off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2 parts; anhydrous carbonate of soda and sulphur, of each 3 parts. Some manufacturers who adopt this process use 1-3rd less carbonate of soda.

4. (Tirnmon.) Take of crystallised carbonate of soda, 1075 gr.; apply a gentle heat, and, when fused in its water of crystallisation, shake in of finely pulverised orpiment, 5 gr., and, when partly decomposed, add as much gelatinous hydrate of alumina as contains 7 gr. of anhydrous alumina; finely sifted clay, 100 gr., and flowers of sulphur, 221 gr., are next to be added, and the whole placed in a covered crucible, and at first gently heated, to drive off the water; but as soon as this is effected, raised to redness, the heat being so regulated that the ingredients only ‘sinter’ together, without actually fusing; the mass is then to be cooled, finely pulverised, suspended in river water, and brought upon a filter; the product has now a very beautiful delicate green or bluish colour, but on being heated in a covered dish, and stirred about from time to time, until the temperature reaches that of dull redness, at which it must be kept for 1 or 2 hours, it changes to a rich blue. If the heat of the first calcination has been properly regulated, the whole of the mass taken from the crucible will have uniform colour; but if too little heat has been used, and the ingredients have not been properly mixed, there will be colourless parts, which should be rejected; if too much heat has been used, or the mass allowed to fuse, brown parts will appear, especially if the crucible is of a bad kind, or easily destroyed; these must also be rejected. (‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1842.)

=Ultramarine Ashes.= _Syn._ SAUNDER’S BLUE. Obtained from the resinous mass from making ultramarine, by melting it with fresh oil, and kneading it in water containing a little potash or soda; or, by burning away the wax and oil of the mass and well grinding and washing the residue with water. Very permanent, but much less brilliant than ultramarine.

=Ultramarine, Cobal′tic.= _Syn._ CHINESE BLUE, COBALT B., LOUISA B., HÖFFNER’S B., THÉNARD’S B. A very rich blue pigment, with many synonymes, prepared by slowly drying and heating to dull redness a mixture of freshly precipitated alumina (freed from water as much as possible), 8 to 10 parts; arseniate or phosphate of cobalt, 1 part. By daylight it is of a pure blue, but by artificial light the colour turns on the violet. For other formulæ see BLUE PIGMENTS.

=U′PAS.= The Javan name for several deadly poisons. ‘Bohun upas’ is a gum-resin obtained from the bark of the _Antiaris toxicaria_. (See ANTIARINE.) The ‘upas tieuté’ is obtained from the _Strychnos Tieuté_, and owes its fatal power to strychnine. They are both used to poison arrows and other deadly weapons.

=URA′′NIUM.= U. A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789. It occurs in the pitchblende of Saxony, and the uranite of Cornwall. The chief oxides of uranium are the protoxide and the sesquioxide, or uranic oxide.

=Uranic Oxide= (U_{2}O_{3}) may be obtained in the anhydrous state by heating the hydrated sesquioxide to a temperature of 572° Fahr. The sesquioxide is capable of acting both as an acid and a base. The uranic salts are yellow.

=Uranous Oxide.= (UO.) This may be procured by igniting uranium oxalate in a closed vessel, or in a stream of hydrogen gas. Acids are without action upon this oxide. When, however, it is obtained as an hydrate (which it may be by treatment of its chloride with ammonia) this latter is easily acted upon by acids, and gives rise to salts having a green colour, which rapidly absorb oxygen. Peligot proposed to call this oxide _Uranyl_ (UO.), from the tendency it showed to follow the deportment of a metal when it combined with elementary bodies.

=Chlorides of Uranium.= Uranium forms two chlorides, U_{2}Cl_{3} and UCl_{2}.

_Uses._ Its ores and oxides are occasionally used to colour glass and enamels.

=U′RATES.= Salts of uric acid.

=U′REA.= COH_{4}N_{2}. _Syn._ CYANATE OF AMMONIUM (Anomalous). A crystalline, colourless, transparent substance, discovered by Fourcroy and Vauquelin in urine, and by Wöhler as the first organic compound artificially produced.

Urea generally occurs in slender, striated, colourless prisms, as shown on next page. It is slightly deliquescent. It has a neutral reaction and a bitterish taste. It is extremely soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but very slightly so in ether. At about 248° Fahr. it melts. At a little higher temperature it becomes decomposed into ammonia, carbonate, cyanate of ammonium, and cyanuric acid; this latter being left in the retort.

The ammoniacal odour acquired by urine after a few days is due to the conversion of the urea into carbonate of ammonia, as shown by the following equation:

Urea. Water. Carb. Ammonia. CH_{4}ON_{2} + 2H_{2}O = (NH_{4})_{2}CO_{3}.

This change is effected by the mucus of the bladder present in the urine. A solution of pure urea may be kept at ordinary temperature, or even boiled, without undergoing alteration.

Urea occurs as an essential component of the urine of man and animals, being more particularly abundant in the urinary excretion of the flesh-eating mammalia; nor is it altogether absent from the urine of birds and amphibia. According to Bischoff and Voit, urea is the result of tissue metamorphosis. The greater number of inquirers, however, hold an opposite opinion, and believe that it is derived from the albuminous constituents of the food, when these preponderate over the quantity required for the nutrition of the body. Dr Lionel Beale says his “own researches render it probable that all pabulum entering the system must, before its elements can he applied to the nutrition of the tissues, or removed by the organs of respiration or secretion, be first of all taken up by cells (chyle-corpuscles, white blood-corpuscles), and become living or _germinal matter_, which, after passing through certain definite stages of existence, becomes serum of the blood, and the _formed_ matter of the red blood-corpuscles.

“The products resulting from the disintegration of this formed matter may be taken up by the germinal matter of the tissues, and at length become tissue, or by that of secreting cells, in which case it is removed in the form of the constituents of various excretions from the body altogether.” About an ounce and a quarter of urea is daily excreted by a healthy man, although of course there will be a variation in this amount principally depending upon the quantity of animal food and active exercise taken during the twenty-four hours. As might be anticipated a smaller quantity of urea is excreted by women than by men, since they are unable to indulge to the same extent in muscular exercise. A diminished quantity also results from breathing impure air, and from a diseased and unhealthy condition of the lungs or of the circulation, and also, as might be expected, from an insufficiency of food.

_Prep._ (Thénard.) Fresh urine, gently evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, is treated with its own volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·19; the mixture is shaken and immersed in an ice bath, to solidify the crystals of nitrate of urea (p. 1689); these are washed with ice-cold water, drained, and pressed between sheets of blotting paper; they are next dissolved in water, and the solution is decomposed and precipitated with carbonate of potassium (or carbonate of barium); the whole is then gently evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum is exhausted with pure alcohol, which dissolves the urea, which crystallises out as the solution cools.

=Urea, Factitious.= Mix 28 parts of well-dried ferrocyanide of potassium with 14 of black oxide of manganese (both in fine powder), and heat them to dull redness on an iron plate. Lixiviate with cold water, add 22-1/2 parts of dry sulphate of ammonia, concentrate by evaporation with a heat not exceeding 212° F., decant the concentrated liquid, treat it with rectified spirit, and crystallise. This is intended as a cleanly substitute for the preceding.

=Urea, Ni′trate of.= _Syn._ UREÆ NITRAS, L. _Prep._ From urine, as described above; or it may be prepared by saturating artificial urea with nitric acid. Diuretic.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr. twice or thrice daily; in dropsy.

=U′RIC ACID.= C_{5}H_{4}N_{4}O_{3}. _Syn._ LITHIC ACID; ACIDUM LITHICUM, A. URICUM, L. A substance discovered by Scheele, and peculiar to the urine of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents and several birds. The fæces of the boa constrictor consist of little else than urate of ammonium. It constitutes one of the commonest varieties of urinary calculi, and of the red gravel or sand which is voided in certain morbid states of the urine. Guano derives its principal value as a manure from the presence of urate of ammonium. The gouty concretions of the joints, popularly known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly of urate of sodium.

_Prep._ Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of serpents, reduced to fine powder, in a solution of caustic potassa, by boiling; then add hydrochloric acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes, and well wash the precipitate with water.

_Prop., &c._ Brilliant, very minute, white and silky scales, which are tasteless, inodorous, slightly soluble in boiling water, and dissolve in strong sulphuric acid, but are again precipitated by water. It forms salts with the bases called urates, all of which are very sparingly soluble. The characteristic reaction of uric acid is, that when moistened with nitric acid and heated, it dissolves, and by evaporation yields a red compound, which, upon the addition of a drop or two of solution of ammonia, assumes a magnificent crimson colour, being converted into murexide.

Uric acid is a constituent of healthy human urine, in which it exists combined with bases in the form of urates, which, being in small quantity, are soluble in the urine. 1000 grains of the urine contain from 1/2 grain to 1 grain of the acid. Drs Beale and Thudichum respectively estimate the amount of uric acid excreted in twenty-four hours by a healthy adult man at from 5 to 8 grains. To determine the amount of uric acid in urine proceed as follows:——To a certain weight of the urine, hydrochloric or nitric acid is added, and the urine set aside for some hours, at the end of which time, the insoluble crystals of uric acid which are formed, are washed, dried, and weighed.

With the exception of the urates, uric acid is one of the deposits most frequently met with in abnormal urine, wherein it occurs as a small reddish powder adhering to the bottom or sides of the containing vessel. As a urinary deposit, uric acid assumes a great variety of forms, that of most frequent occurrence being the rhombic, modified in many of the crystals by the rounding of two of the angles, as shown in the engraving on next page.

=URINARY DISEASES.= This class of disorders, which in general terms may be said to embrace affections of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, &c., comprises diseases of these parts varying greatly in character and pathological importance.

The most serious forms of kidney disease are CONGESTION of the kidney, a very frequent accompaniment of heart or lung disease; PYELITIS, or inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney; SUPPURATIVE NEPHRITIS, or inflammation of the substance of the kidney, which ends in suppuration; ACUTE NEPHRITIS, or ACUTE BRIGHT’S DISEASE, acute inflammation of the kidney, frequently arising from scarlatina or cold; CHRONIC NEPHRITIS, or CHRONIC BRIGHT’S DISEASE, a formidable and incurable variety of kidney affection, giving rise to dropsy, and, owing to the disintegration of the organ, to poisoning of the blood by urea. In advanced cases of this disease the urine contains a large quantity of albumen and casts of the urinary tubes.

CALCULUS OF THE KIDNEY. The most dangerous diseases of the bladder are those caused by the deposition in it of earthy and other concretions, known as URINARY CALCULI, which are described in the present work under CALCULUS. The presence of these calculi is indicated by acute pain in the bladder and urinary passages, extending to the adjacent parts, the pain being excruciating immediately after passing the urine. Sometimes during the act of excretion the stream of water is suddenly stopped.

Inflammation is another dangerous disease of the bladder, calling for the prompt summoning of the medical practitioner wherever possible.

The following particulars as to its symptoms and treatment are offered for adoption to emigrants and others so placed as to be beyond the means of medical succour.

Inflammation of the bladder commences with pain in the region of that organ, the pain becoming continuous and increasing in violence, and being accompanied with a sense of burning heat and of tenderness on pressure. The urine is frequently voided. The inflammation is sometimes so acute as to give rise to suppuration and the consequent discharge of pus with the urine. Sometimes the disease assumes a chronic character.

In the acute form of the disease recourse should be had to leeches, hot fomentations, and warm baths; a dose of calomel, to be followed by a brisk dose of castor oil, should likewise be administered. Alcoholic drinks of any kind must be carefully avoided, the patient being allowed to drink only cool demulcent beverages. With these should be combined effervescing draughts, frequently repeated, and small doses of Dover’s powder. Great relief will also be derived from the use of enemas of gruel containing laudanum. Where inflammation of the bladder arises from gout or rheumatism, it must be treated as for these diseases. A suppository, consisting of two grains of opium, combined with twenty grains of soap, is frequently of great benefit.

Should the disease become chronic, the best method of treatment will be the repeated use of mild aperients, the combined employment of uva ursi in infusion or powder, with either tincture of perchloride of iron, or the mineral acids. Spirituous liquors of any kind must be avoided. Demulcent drinks form the best beverage, and a farinaceous or milk diet the most desirable food.

NEURALGIA OF THE BLADDER. The pain which attends this disease is unaccompanied either by inflammation or irritation, and is recurrent in character. It may generally be arrested by tincture of perchloride of iron, or of iron and quinine, administered three times a day.

IRRITATION OF THE BLADDER. The patient affected with this disorder gratifies the frequent desire he has to pass his urine, the operation being accompanied with pain and forcing, the most severe pain being experienced after the excretion has taken place. The tincture of perchloride of iron will also be found the best remedy for this disorder. It should be given in conjunction with the infusions of uva ursi, Pareira brava, or buchu.

Mucilaginous drinks should also be had recourse to.

CATARRH OF THE BLADDER. The symptoms of this disease are irritation, and the presence of much mucus in the urine. The same treatment may be adopted as recommended for irritation of the bladder. If there be an absence of pain, spirits of nitre and copaiba balsam in moderate doses frequently afford relief.

STRANGURY. Constant micturition, only a few drops of urine passing at the time, occasioning burning and cutting pains around the parts. Strangury is generally due to some irritating cause, which should, if possible, be discovered and removed. Cantharides taken either internally, or applied externally, as in the form of a blister, will sometimes give rise to it. The patient should drink copiously of mucilaginous beverages, such as linseed tea, slippery elm bark, barley water, with gum Arabic dissolved in it. An injection consisting of thirty or forty drops of laudanum in a spoonful of gruel will be found to afford immediate relief. If the above means fail, a pill containing a grain of camphor in five grains of extract of henbane should be given, and a warm bath taken. See GRAVEL.

=U′RINE.= The density of the urine varies from 1·005 to 1·030;[247] the average, in health, being 1·020, when it contains about 380 gr. of solid matter in the pint. According to Berzelius, the proportion is about 6-3/4%, the rest being pure water. It exhibits a decidedly acid reaction, and is never alkaline, except during disease, or the use of large quantities of alkaline salts of the vegetable acids. The average quantity secreted during 24 hours may be taken at 2 pints to 3 pints; as might be supposed, a larger quantity is passed during the summer than in the winter months.

[Footnote 247: From 1·015 to 1·025, Beale.]

Miller gives the following as the composition of healthy urine:——

In 100 Specific gravity 1·020 parts of solid Water 956·80 matter.

{ { Urea 14·23 33·00 { { Uric acid 0·37 0·86 { Organic matters, 29·79 { Alcoholic extract 12·53 29·03 { { Watery extract 2·50 5·80 { { Vesical mucus 0·16 0·37 { { { Sodic chloride 7·22 16·73 A { { Phosphoric anhydride 2·12 4·91 { { Sulphuric anhydride 1·70 3·94 { Fixed salts, 13·35 { Lime 0·21 0·49 { { Magnesia 0·21 0·28 { { Potash 1·93 4·47 { { Soda 0·09 0·12 { Loss 0·03 —————— —————— 1000·00 100·00 A = Solid matters, 43·2.

The presence of bile in urine, or other like fluids, may be detected as follows:——Put a small quantity of the suspected liquid into a test-tube, and add to it, drop by drop, strong sulphuric acid, until it becomes warm, taking care not to raise the temperature above 122° Fahr.; then add from 2 to 5 drops of syrup (made with 5 parts of sugar to 4 of water), and shake the mixture. If the liquid contain bile, a violet coloration is observed. Acetic acid may be substituted for sugar.

Another test for bile consists in pouring a little of the suspected urine into a test tube, and adding to it a few drops of tincture of iodine, when if bile be present the fluid becomes distinctly green. Rosenbach says that urine containing bile, when passed through white filtering paper, imparts a yellow or brown colour to the paper. On allowing one drop of strong nitric acid to run down the side of the moist filter it leaves a yellow streak, soon changing to orange, with a violet border, on the outside of which blue and emerald-green zones may be observed. These colours remain visible for some time.

Dark-coloured urine, owing to substances other than bile, does not produce this play of colours.

The reagents most generally employed for detecting the presence of sugar in urine are Trommer’s (_see_ SUGAR) and Fehling’s solutions. For the effective application of Fehling’s test, Dr Roberts[248] advises the following method of procedure:——Pour some of the Fehling’s solution into a narrow test tube to the depth of 3/4 of an inch; heat until it begins to boil; then add 2 or 3 drops of the suspected urine. If the sugar be abundant, a thick yellow opacity or deposit of yellow suboxide are produced (and this changes to a brick-red at once if the blue colour of the test remains dominant). If no such reaction ensue, go on adding the urine until a bulk nearly equal to the test employed has been poured in; heat again to ebullition, and no change occurring, set aside without further boiling. If no milkiness is produced as the mixture cools, the urine may confidently be pronounced free from sugar, or, at any rate, it contains less than 1/40th percent.

[Footnote 248: ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ by Dr W. Roberts.]

If the quantity of sugar is very small, viz. from a 1/2 to 1/40th per cent., the precipitation of the yellow or cuprous oxide does not take place immediately, but occurs after some time as the liquid cools, and the manner of the change is peculiar. First, the mixture loses its transparency, and passes from a clear bluish green to a light greenish opacity, just as if some drops of milk had fallen into the tube. This green milky appearance is quite characteristic of sugar.

Before using the Fehling’s solution it should be always examined previously to the addition of the urine, by being first boiled alone, when if it remains clear it may be pronounced in fit condition. On the contrary, should the preliminary boiling give a deposit, the solution must be discarded, and some freshly made employed instead.

Böttger has proposed the following quantitative test for the presence of sugar in urine:

He first adds some potash to the sample of urine, and then a small quantity of subnitrate of bismuth, and boils the mixture. If sugar is present, the suboxide is reduced, and metallic bismuth being liberated is precipitated as a black powder.

Another method of applying the bismuth test is as follows:——One part of crystallised carbonate of soda is dissolved in three parts of water, and added to an equal quantity of the urine. A small quantity of basic nitrate of bismuth is then added to the mixture, which is then heated to the boiling point. A black precipitate is formed if the urine contains sugar.

Horsley’s test consists in boiling with the suspected urine a mixture of equal parts of neutral chromate of potash and solution of potash, when, if sugar be present, a green colour will be produced, owing to the formation of the sesquioxide of chromium.

M. Luton’s, which is a modification of Horsley’s test, a solution of bichromate of potash is decomposed by excess of sulphuric acid, and upon the urine being boiled with the mixture, a splendid green colour is imparted to it. Urea, albumin, and the urates do not interfere with this reaction.

Vidau has observed that a mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric acid and oil of brune (oil of sesame), either in the cold, or when slightly heated, assumes a distinct rose colour in the presence of cane or grape sugar, provided 0·001 gramme of sugar is present for every c.c. of mixture.

One of the best methods for the accurate and quick estimation of the amount of sugar in urine is, perhaps, the volumetric, devised by Fehling, who employed a standard copper solution, known as ‘Fehling’s solution,’ of the following composition:

Sulphate of copper 90-1/2 grains. Neutral tartrate of potash 364 ” Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1·12 4 fl. oz. Add water to make up exactly 6 ”

Of this solution 200 grains are exactly decomposed by one grain of sugar.

The following is the mode of performing the analysis given by Dr Roberts[249]:——Measure off 200 grains of the above standard solution in a 200-grain tube, pour this into a flask, and add about twice its volume of water; then place over a spirit lamp to boil. While the copper solution is being heated the urine to be analysed should be diluted with water to a known degree. In the case of ordinary diabetic urines the best dilution is one in ten. This is obtained by carefully filling a 6-ounce measure with water to the depth of 4-1/2 ounces, and then adding urine so as to make up exactly 5 ounces. The mixture will then contain exactly one tenth of urine (when the quantity of sugar in the urine is very small, a dilution of one in five, or even the undiluted urine may be employed). The next step is to fill a burette (which must be graduated to grains) with the diluted urine to 0. Then proceed to add it in successive small portions to the boiling copper solution until the blue colour has entirely disappeared. After each fresh addition from the burette, the mixture should be raised to the boiling point, and then allowed to stand a few seconds, so that the precipitated copper may subside, and the observer may see, by holding the flask between the eye and the light, whether the mixture still retains any blue colour.

[Footnote 249: ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ by Dr W. Roberts.]

As soon as the blue colour has disappeared the analysis is complete, and the quantity of diluted urine may be read off. The percentage of sugar in the urine can now be readily calculated. Suppose 125 grains had been added from the burette, this represents one tenth, or 12·5 grains of undiluted urine, and contains exactly one grain of sugar; by dividing 12·5 into 100 the per-centage of sugar is obtained, or 100/12·5 = 8; the urine contains 8 per cent. of sugar.

Another process for the quantitative determination of sugar in urine, called by its author, Dr Roberts, “the differential density method,” is based upon the loss of density, experienced by diabetic urine, after all the sugar has been removed by fermentation. Dr Roberts says repeated examples derived from diabetic urine so treated, together with corresponding experiments made with solutions of sugar of known strength in normal urine, and in pure water, as well as theoretical calculation have warranted the conclusion, _that the number of degrees of density so lost indicates as many grains of sugar per fluid ounce_.

The method, which is extremely simple, is thus performed:——Into a 12-ounce bottle measure 4 fluid ounces of the diabetic urine, and drop into it a piece of fresh German yeast, about as large as a cobnut or walnut; insert a cork in the bottle, and let the cork have a nick cut in the side, to allow of the escape of the carbonic acid. Then fill an ordinary 4-ounce bottle with the same sample of urine, omitting to add any yeast, and cork it in the ordinary manner. Place both bottles in a warm situation, where the temperature is about 80° or 90° Fahr., for twenty or twenty-four hours; at the end of which time, the fermentation being over, the scum will either have cleared off or subsided. The fermented urine is then poured into a proper urine-glass, and its specific gravity ascertained.

The specific gravity of the unfermented companion portion is also taken, and by comparing the two results the loss of density is thus arrived at. Before the respective densities are taken it is best to remove the two samples to a cool place, where they should remain for two or three hours, in order that they may acquire the temperature of the surrounding air.

The two following examples may serve as illustrations of the method.

I. II. Density before fermentation 1053 1038 Density after fermentation 1004 1013 Degrees of density lost 49 25 ———— ———— Grains of sugar per fluid ounce 49 25

If it be desired to bring out the result as so much per cent., this is accomplished by multiplying the number indicating the “density lost” by the coefficient 0·23. Thus, in the first of the above examples, 49 × 0·23 = 11·27; and in the second 25 × 0·23 = 5·69, which are amounts of sugar respectively per 100 parts.[250]

[Footnote 250: Roberts.]

In taking the densities Dr Roberts advises the operator to employ a urinometer having a long scale, since the degrees are much further apart than in the scales of the short-stemmed instruments, and are therefore more distinct and can be more easily read off.

The following are examples of diabetic urine:

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1018· Water 957·00 Solid constituents 43·00 Urea Traces. Uric acid Traces. Sugar 39·80 Extractive matter and } soluble salts } 2·10 Earthy phosphates 0·52 Albumen Traces.

No. 2 (Dr Percy).

Specific gravity 1042· Water 894·50 Solid constituents 105·50 Urea 12·16 Uric acid 0·16 Sugar 40·12 Extractive matter, and} soluble salts } 53·06

No. 3 (Bouchardat).

Water 837·58 Solid constituents 162·42 Urea 8·27 Uric acid Not isolated. Sugar 134·32 Extractive matters, and } soluble salts } 20·34 Earthy phosphates 0·38

“Diabetic urine usually possesses a peculiar smell, which has been compared with that of violets, apples, new hay, whey, horses’ urine, musk, and sour milk. Such comparisons serve only to show how difficult it is to give by description a correct idea of a particular odour. The colour of diabetic urine is generally pale. Sometimes, but not usually until after two or three days, the surface becomes coloured with a whitish film, owing to the development of the _sugar fungus_, and the _penicillium glaucum_, and gradually the urine becomes opalescent in consequence of these fungi multiplying in great numbers in every part of the fluid. See URINARY DEPOSITS (FUNGI).

“Diabetic urine has a sweet taste, and often numbers of flies are attracted to it, which fact sometimes leads the patient to suspect that the urine is not healthy.”[251]

[Footnote 251: ‘Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits,’ &c., Dr Lionel Beale.]

White merino, that has been wet with a solution of bichloride of tin, is also said to form a ready test for sugar in urine.

Albumen in urine may be detected by the nitric acid, or by the heat test. The nitric acid test is performed as follows.——Fill a test tube to about an inch with the urine, then incline the tube and pour in strong nitric acid down the side of the tube, so that the acid sinks to the bottom and displaces the urine, which by reason of its smaller specific gravity rests above it. Let the acid be added till it forms a stratum about a quarter of an inch thick at the bottom.

If the urine contain albumen three layers will be perceptible——one, perfectly colourless, of nitric acid at the bottom; immediately above this an opalescent zone of the coagulated albumen; and, on the top, the unaltered urine.

In his work, ‘Kidney Diseases and Urinary Deposits,’ Dr Lionel Beale directs attention to the very important fact that “two or three drops of nitric acid to about a drachm of albuminous urine in a test tube will produce a precipitate of albumen which will be _dissolved on agitation_, while, on the other hand, about half as much strong nitric acid as there is of urine will redissolve the precipitate of albumen, unless the quantity present be excessive. Albumen precipitated by nitric acid is _soluble in weak nitric acid_, and in a considerable excess of urine, and it is also _soluble in strong nitric acid_. _It is therefore necessary in employing the nitric acid test to add from ten to fifteen drops of the strong acid to about a drachm of the urine suspected to contain albumen._”

Dr Roberts gives the following directions for applying the heat test:——If the urine have its usual acid reaction it becomes turbid on boiling when it contains albumen, and this turbidity persists after the addition of an acid. There are two points to be remembered on using heat alone as a test for albumen. First, that albumen is not coagulated by heat when the urine is alkaline; in such cases, therefore, it is necessary before boiling to restore the acidity by a few drops of acetic acid (carefully avoiding excess). Secondly, when the urine is neutral or very feebly acid, it may become turbid on heating, from precipitation of the earthy phosphates, but turbidity from this cause is easily distinguished from albumen by a drop of nitric or acetic acid, which instantly causes the phosphates to disappear. It may sometimes happen that the patient whose urine is to be submitted to examination for albumen may be taking large doses of nitric or hydrochloric acid. Under these circumstances Dr Bence Jones recommends the addition of ammonia to the urine, nearly to the point of neutralisation.

Mr Louis Siebold proposes a modification of Dr Roberts’s method of applying the heat test in acid states of the urine, which is as follows:——Add solution of ammonia to the urine until just perceptibly alkaline, filter, and add diluted acetic acid very cautiously until the urine acquires a faint acid reaction, avoiding the use of a single drop more than is necessary. Now place equal quantities of this mixture into two test tubes of equal size, heat one of them to ebullition, and compare it with the cold sample contained in the other test tube. The least turbidity is thus distinctly observed, and gives absolute proof of the presence of albumen, the error of confounding phosphates with albumen being out of the question, as they are precipitated by the ammonia and removed by filtration.

M. Galipe[252] says the following is a delicate as well as trustworthy test for albuminous urine. A few drops of the urine are carefully added to a solution of picric acid contained in a small conical test glass. If albumen be present a well-marked turbidity will be produced at the point of contact between the two liquids. On applying heat the albumen agglutinates, and rises to the surface. Phosphates and urates are said not to interfere with this test.

[Footnote 252: ‘Pharm. Zeitung for Russland,’ xiv, 48 (‘Pharm. Journ.’).]

In order to determine the quantity of albumen in urine proceed as follows:——Add a little acetic acid to the urine, and then heat it in a water bath until it boils. Or the albuminous urine may be dropped into boiling water acidulated with acetic acid. In either case collect the precipitate on a weighed filter, wash it well, dry it, and weigh it. The albumen must afterwards be incinerated, and the resulting residue, which consists of earthy salts, must be deducted from the dried precipitate.

Stolnikow[253] adopts the following method for the quantitative estimation of albumen in urine:——The urine is diluted with water until a sample poured upon some nitric acid contained in a test tube produces still a faint white ring at the point of contact after the lapse of forty seconds. The number of volumes of water added to the volume of urine (which may be taken as one) is divided by 250, and the quotient will be the percentage of albumen in the urine. This relation has been established and confirmed by gravimetric determinations.

[Footnote 253: ‘Chem. Central.’ (‘Pharm. Journ.’).]

It is sometimes desirable to remove the albumen from the urine before proceeding to search for other substances. There are several methods of accomplishing this. If the urine be boiled the albumen will become coagulated, but in many cases it may happen, owing to the urine being slightly alkaline or neutral, that a small quantity may remain in solution. Hence it will be advisable to add a little acetic acid to the urine before applying heat to it, to remove the precipitated matters by filtration, and to exactly neutralise the acid in the filtrate. If a few crystals of sulphate of soda be heated with albuminous urine, the albumen and allied matters may be entirely removed without injury to other organic matters dissolved, and without interfering with the employment of other reagents. When it is desirable to free the urine from albumen previous to testing for sugar, this latter method will be found the best and most convenient.

The following analyses represent the amount of albumen present in the urine of two patients suffering from Bright’s disease:

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1014· Water 966·10 Solid constituents 33·90 Urea 4·77 Uric acid 0·40 Fixed salts 8·04 Extractive matters 2·40 Albumen 18·00

No. 2 (Dr Percy).

Specific gravity 1020· Water 946·82 Solid constituents 53·18 Urea 7·68 Uric acid, and indeterminate } animal matter } 17·52 Fixed soluble salts 5·20 Earthy phosphates 0·14 Albumen 22·64

Dr Parkes records the case of a patient suffering from albuminuria, who excreted 545 grains of albumen in twenty-four hours. See URATES.

Urine frequently contains an abnormally large quantity of urea. Such urine is of high specific gravity——1·030 or more. When present in large excess the urea becomes deposited in ‘sparkling crystalline lamellæ’ of the nitrate, if it be mixed with an equal quantity of strong nitric acid in the cold.

The crystals vary slightly in character, according to the amount of nitric acid employed and the degree of concentration of the urine. Urine which thus yields, without previous concentration, the nitrate, is said to contain an excess of urea. See page 1689.

The quantity of urea present in urine is best determined by a process invented by Liebig. When a solution of pernitrate of mercury is added to one of pure urea the urea and mercuric salt unite and form an insoluble compound, of undetermined constitution. If, however, the chlorides of the alkalies and alkaline earths are present, this combination does not take place, owing to the decomposition of the mercuric nitrate, and the formation of bichloride of mercury, and a nitrate of the alkali or alkaline earth, both of which are soluble. When, however, the decomposition of the chloride has been completed, the urea may be entirely precipitated, provided a sufficient quantity of mercuric nitrate be added to the solution. In estimating the amount of urea in urine, therefore, it is only necessary to add to the urine a solution of the mercuric salt of known strength, since from the quantity of this latter which has been employed in throwing down the urea, this can easily be calculated.

In performing this analysis, three special solutions are requisite:

1. A solution consisting of one part by measure of a cold saturated solution of barium nitrate with two parts (also by measure) of saturated baryta water. This serves for the removal of the phosphates and sulphates, the presence of which in the urine would interfere with the analysis.

2. The standard solution of mercuric nitrate, which is made as follows:——772 grains of red oxide of mercury placed in a beaker are dissolved in a sufficient quantity of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·20) by a gentle heat, and evaporated over a water bath until all _excess of free acid_ is driven off. This may be known by the liquid becoming dense and syrupy in appearance. It is then poured into a properly graduated vessel and diluted to 10,000 grain-measures. Of this solution, 10 grain-measures = 0·1 grain of urea.

3. A solution of carbonate of soda in distilled water, 20 grains to the ounce. This solution is employed to indicate when the titration is complete, and to show the operator that all the urea has been precipitated by the mercuric salt.

The operation is thus performed:

(_a._) 400 grain-measures of the clear urine are mixed with 200 grain-measures of the baryta solution, No. 1. The mixture is poured into a filter, and of the clear filtrate which passes through 150 grain-measures are carefully measured off, and poured into a small beaker. This quantity of course contains two thirds, or 100 grain-measures of wine.

(_b._) A graduated burette (each division of which equals a grain-measure of water) is next filled with the solution (No. 2) of mercuric nitrate, which is then dropped into the beaker containing the filtered urine, until the mixture becomes turbid. The quantity of solution that has been required to just reach the point of turbidity is then noted down; it shows that all the chloride of sodium has been decomposed, and that the urea is now beginning to precipitate.

(_c._) The solution (No. 2) is now added more liberally, and thoroughly mixed with the contents of the beaker by means of a glass rod; a copious white precipitate is being formed. The operation is completed, when, of course, no more precipitate is thrown down.

(_d._) This point is ascertained by means of the solution of carbonate of soda (No. 3), to a few isolated drops of which dotted about a white plate, or slab, or placed on a watch glass, give, when mixed by means of the stirring rod with a drop of the turbid mixture from the beaker, a yellow tinge, owing to the formation of hydrated oxide of mercury.

(_e._) The quantity of solution of mercuric nitrate that it has taken to produce the above reaction is then noted down, and from this the portion used before the occurrence of the turbidity is deducted, the remainder, of course, being the amount required to precipitate the urea. By bearing in mind the statement already made that 10 grain-measures of the mercurial solution indicate 0·1 grain of urea, the quantity excreted in 24 hours may be arrived at by a very easy and obvious calculation.

_Dr Davy’s method of estimating Urea._ This consists in the decomposition of a known quantity of urine by sodium hypochlorite, the amount of urea being calculated from the resulting nitrogen. A glass tube, 12 or 14 inches in height, and graduated to tenths and hundredths of a cubic inch, is filled to more than a third of its length with mercury; a measured quantity of urine, varying from a quarter of a drachm to a drachm, is next poured into the tube, which is then filled up with a solution of sodium hypochlorite (the liquor sodæ chlorinatæ of the Dublin Pharmacopœia). This latter must be poured in quickly, and the open end of the tube immediately closed with the thumb. The tube is then shaken to ensure admixture between the urine and hypochlorite, and stood with the open end downwards in a cup filled with a saturated solution of common salt; the mercury escapes into the tube, its place being filled by the solution of salt, which being heavier than the mixture of urine and hypochlorite, retains them in the upper part of the tube. The urine becomes soon decomposed, the carbonic acid, which is one of the products of its decomposition, being absorbed by the excess of chloride of sodium present, whilst the liberated nitrogen bubbles up to the top of the tube. When no more evolution of gas takes place, the volume of nitrogen is read off, and from its amount the quantity of urea present in the amount of urine experimented upon is calculated: one-fifth of a grain of urine = 0·3098 parts of a cubic inch of nitrogen at 60° Fahr. and 30” barometric pressure.

_Haughton’s method of estimating Urea from the specific gravity of the Urine._ After having measured the urine voided during 24 hours, and determined the specific gravity of the whole collected amount, and then consulting the accompanying table, compiled by Professor Haughton, the number of grains of urea excreted per diem is immediately ascertained. This quantity will be shown by the figures which stand at the points where the lines running respectively from the number of fluid ounces and the ‘specific gravity’ intersect each other. Thus, suppose the daily amount of urine to have been 30 ounces, and the specific gravity 1006, the number of grains of urea contained in it will be 85. This method is inserted for urines containing sugar and albumen.

_Determination of the Water._ The amount of water in any sample of urine may be determined by weighing 1000 grains of the recently excreted urine into a counterpoised platinum or porcelain dish, and ascertaining the loss it has undergone after evaporation to dryness. The operation should be performed as speedily as possible. The best plan is to concentrate the urine in a water bath, the evaporation should be continued _in vacuo_ over strong sulphuric acid, until the weight of the residue remains constant. By way of control, another sample of the same urine, consisting of 500 grains, may be operated upon at the same time, and under the same conditions.

URINARY DEPOSITS, &c. These differ from the albumen, sugar, bile, &c., previously described, in being insoluble in abnormal urine. Sometimes they are diffused throughout the whole body of the urine, when they give it an opaque appearance. Sometimes they may be met with floating on its surface; at others they are only partially diffused through the fluid, frequently in the form of a transparent or opaque cloud, when they occupy a considerable space; whilst very often they occur in a crystalline or granular form, deposited sometimes at the bottom and sometimes at the sides of the vessel holding the urine.

Of the numberless insoluble substances met with in urine, both in health and disease, our limits will only permit us to notice those which are most important, and of frequent occurrence.

For the detection of the generality of these the microscope is indispensable. An instrument magnifying 200 to 220 diameters (1/4 of inch objective) will generally be found sufficiently powerful, and in some instances an inch objective, magnifying 40 diameters (as in the larger forms of crystalline deposit) will answer all the purposes.

Some of the varieties of these deposits admit of a double examination, viz. a microscopical and chemical one. When this is the case, the particulars applying to each kind of investigation will be given.

_Mucus._ Mucus is always present in small quantity in healthy urine, in which it shows itself within a few hours after the urine has been excreted in the shape of a transparent cloud towards the bottom of the vessel containing the urine.

_Pus._ The presence of pus in urine is indicated by an opaque, more or less bulky, cream-like deposit at the bottom of the vessel holding the urine, to which some separated pus globules, finding their way to the supernatant liquid, give an appearance of slight turbidity. By shaking the vessel the whole of the liquid becomes turbid, owing to the equal dissemination through it of the pus globules. The pus again deposits on standing. A small quantity of albumen is always met with in the clear part of urine which contains pus; the albumen being derived from the _liquor puris_, the liquid by which the pus-corpuscles are surrounded.

Whenever it can be obtained in sufficient quantity, pus should always be examined chemically, as follows:——The supernatant urine being decanted, the suspected sediment is shaken up with liquor potassæ, when if it become converted into a gelatinous, viscid substance, incapable of being dropped from the tube, and when poured from it running as a slimy and almost continuous mass, it may be pronounced pus. This same gelatinous viscid mass is met with in alkaline urines containing pus, adhering to the sides of the vessel in which the urine is placed, where it has been formed by the action of the carbonate of ammonia (caused by the decomposition of the urea) upon the pus. The reaction upon the pus is the same as that which takes place when liquor potassæ is employed. The stringy viscid substance due to the last cause is frequently, but erroneously, termed _mucus_.

Professor HAUGHTON’S _Table for the Estimation of the Daily Excretion of Urea from the Specific Gravity_.

-------+----------------------------------------------------------- Fluid | Specific Ounces.| Gravity. +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- |1003|1004|1005|1006|1007|1008|1009|1010|1011|1012|1013|1014|1015 -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- 20| 35| 36| 43 | 57 | 71 | 85 | 100| 103|106 | 119| 130| 136| 142 22| 38| 40| 47 | 62 | 78 | 95 | 110| 113|116 | 130| 149| 142| 156 24| 42| 43| 51 | 68 | 85 |101 | 120| 123|127 | 142| 156| 163| 170 26| 45| 47| 55 | 73 | 92 |110 | 130| 131|137 | 153| 169| 176| 184 28| 48| 50| 59 | 79 | 99 |118 | 140| 144|148 | 165| 182| 190| 198 30| 52| 54| 64 | 85 |106 |127 | 150| 155|159 | 177| 195| 204| 213 32| 55| 57| 68 | 90 |113 |135 | 160| 165|169 | 188| 208| 217| 227 34| 58| 61| 72 | 96 |120 |144 | 170| 175|180 | 200| 221| 231| 241 36| 61| 64| 76 |102 |127 |153 | 180| 185|191 | 212| 234| 244| 255 38| 65| 68| 80 |108 |134 |161 | 190| 195|201 | 224| 247| 258| 269 40| 69| 72| 85 |114 |142 |170 | 200| 206|212 | 236| 260| 272| 284 42| 74| 75| 89 |119 |148 |178 | 210| 216|222 | 247| 273| 285| 298 44| 76| 79| 93 |125 |156 |186 | 220| 226|233 | 259| 286| 299| 312 46| 80| 82| 96 |130 |163 |195 | 230| 236|243 | 271| 299| 312| 326 48| 84| 86|101 |136 |170 |203 | 240| 246|254 | 283| 312| 326| 340 50| 87| 90|106 |142 |178 |212 | 250| 257|265 | 295| 325| 340| 355 52| 90| 94|110 |147 |185 |220 | 260| 267|276 | 307| 338| 353| 369 54| 94| 98|114 |153 |192 |229 | 270| 277|286 | 319| 351| 367| 383 56| 96| 100|119 |159 |199 |238 | 280| 288|297 | 331| 364| 380| 397 58| 100| 104|123 |165 |206 |246 | 290| 298|308 | 343| 377| 394| 411 60| 104| 108|128 |171 |213 |255 | 300| 309|310 | 355| 391| 408| 426 62| 108| 110|132 |176 |220 |263 | 310| 319|329 | 404| 421| 440| 468 64| 110| 114|136 |182 |227 |271 | 320| 329|340 | 378| 417| 435| 454 66| 114| 118|140 |187 |234 |280 | 330| 340|351 | 390| 431| 448| 468 68| 116| 122|144 |193 |240 |288 | 340| 350|361 | 402| 443| 462| 482 70| 120| 126|149 |199 |248 |297 | 350| 361|372 | 414| 456| 476| 497 72| 122| 128|153 |204 |255 |305 | 360| 371|382 | 425| 469| 489| 511 74| 126| 132|157 |210 |262 |314 | 370| 381|393 | 437| 482| 503| 525 76| 130| 136|161 |216 |269 |323 | 380| 391|404 | 449| 595| 516| 539 78| 134| 140|165 |222 |276 |331 | 390| 401|414 | 461| 508| 530| 553 80| 139| 144|170 |228 |284 |340 | 400| 412|445 | 473| 521| 544| 568 ——+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----

-------+----------------------------------------------------------- Fluid | Specific Ounces.| Gravity. +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- |1016|1017|1018|1019|1020|1021|1022|1023|1024|1025|1026|1027|1028 -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- 20| 151| 160| 196| 233| 241| 249| 257| 265| 274| 276| 278| 279| 280 22| 166| 176| 215| 257| 265| 274| 282| 292| 301| 303| 305| 306| 308 24| 181| 192| 235| 280| 289| 299| 308| 319| 329| 331| 333| 334| 336 26| 196| 208| 254| 303| 313| 324| 334| 346| 356| 359| 360| 362| 364 28| 221| 224| 274| 326| 337| 349| 360| 372| 383| 386| 388| 390| 392 30| 226| 240| 294| 349| 361| 374| 386| 399| 411| 414| 416| 418| 420 32| 241| 256| 313| 373| 385| 398| 411| 425| 438| 442| 443| 446| 448 34| 256| 272| 333| 396| 409| 423| 437| 451| 466| 469| 471| 474| 476 36| 271| 288| 352| 419| 433| 448| 462| 477| 493| 497| 499| 502| 504 38| 286| 304| 372| 442| 457| 473| 488| 503| 520| 524| 527| 530| 532 40| 302| 320| 392| 465| 484| 498| 514| 530| 548| 552| 555| 558| 560 42| 317| 336| 411| 489| 506| 523| 540| 557| 575| 580| 582| 585| 588 44| 332| 352| 431| 512| 530| 548| 556| 584| 603| 607| 610| 613| 616 46| 347| 368| 450| 535| 554| 573| 592| 611| 630| 635| 638| 641| 644 48| 362| 384| 470| 558| 578| 598| 618| 637| 657| 662| 666| 669| 672 50| 377| 400| 490| 581| 602| 623| 644| 665| 685| 690| 694| 697| 700 52| 393| 416| 509| 605| 626| 648| 669| 692| 711| 718| 721| 724| 728 54| 408| 432| 529| 628| 650| 673| 695| 718| 740| 745| 749| 752| 756 56| 423| 448| 548| 651| 674| 698| 720| 745| 767| 772| 776| 780| 784 58| 438| 464| 568| 674| 698| 723| 746| 772| 794| 800| 804| 808| 812 60| 453| 480| 588| 697| 722| 748| 772| 798| 822| 828| 832| 836| 840 62| 496| 607| 719| 746| 772| 797| 824| 849| 856| 859| 864| 864| 868 64| 483| 512| 627| 742| 770| 797| 823| 851| 877| 883| 887| 862| 896 66| 498| 528| 646| 766| 794| 822| 849| 877| 904| 911| 915| 920| 924 68| 513| 544| 666| 790| 818| 847| 875| 904| 931| 939| 943| 948| 954 70| 528| 560| 686| 814| 843| 872| 901| 930| 959| 966| 971| 976| 980 72| 544| 576| 705| 838| 867| 896| 926| 956| 986| 994| 998|1004|1008 74| 558| 592| 725| 861| 891| 921| 951| 982|1014|1021|1026|1032|1036 76| 573| 608| 745| 884| 915| 946| 977|1008|1041|1049|1054|1060|1064 78| 588| 624| 765| 907| 939| 971|1002|1034|1068|1076|1082|1088|1092 80| 604| 640| 785| 930| 964| 996|1028|1060|1096|1104|1110|1116|1120 ——+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----

In urines containing pus, the clear portion should always be examined for albumen, since where this is found, except in small amount, some form of kidney disease may be suspected.

But it sometimes happens that the pus is present in such small quantity in the urine as to preclude its chemical examination. Under these circumstances, recourse must be had to the microscope. Dr Lionel Beale says, “Pus-globules, which have been long removed from the body, always have a granulated appearance in the microscope, and, when fresh, do not always exhibit a well-defined nucleus; the outline is usually distinct and circular, but it is finely crenated. Upon the addition of acetic acid the globule increases somewhat in size, becomes spherical, with a smooth, faint outline, and from one to four nearly circular bodies are developed in the centre of each. If the pus-corpuscles have lain some days in the urine they will have undergone complete disintegration.”

_Epithelium._ A great many varieties of epithelium, derived from different parts of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, vagina, &c., are more or less present in urine. A few of these are given in the accompanying engraving. In the various diseases peculiar to the urinary and genito-urinary organs the quantity of epithelium present in the urine is frequently considerable, and as in some cases it presents itself in an imperfect or disintegrated form, its identification, except to the experienced microscopist and physiologist, becomes a matter of great difficulty.

_Casts._ Casts or moulds which have been formed in the tubes of the kidneys, or in the uterus and vagina, are constantly finding their way into the urine of persons affected with acute or chronic renal diseases and uterine affections. They are very varied both in character and appearance, and difficult of recognition, except by the skilled microscopist and pathologist.

_Blood-corpuscles._ These, when present in quiescent urine, occur as a sediment at the bottom of the vessel. Some few globules, however, are diffused throughout the supernatant urine, and impart to it a smoky appearance, if the fluid have a marked acid reaction; whereas if the reaction be alkaline the corpuscles assume a bright red colour.

In the accompanying plate the three upper groups represent blood-corpuscles taken from the human body; the three lower those found in urine. Of these latter some will be seen to have lost their circular outline, and to have become jagged or crenated. In some cases, on the contrary, they swell and become much enlarged. These changes in appearance take place when the blood has remained for some time in the urine, and appear to be due to the forces of endosmose and exosmose.

_Fungi._ The chief vegetable organisms found in urine are the _sugar fungus_ and the _Penicillium glaucum_. The sugar fungus is precisely the same as the yeast plant (the _Torula cerevisiæ_). The _Penicillium_ is very frequently present in albuminous urine, with an acid reaction, as well as in diabetic.

_Uric acid._ See back.

_Urates._——According to Bence Jones the soluble urates met with in healthy urine consist of uric acid, potassium, ammonium, and sodium.

In abnormal urine the urates of ammonium and sodium sometimes occur, the latter, which are the more general, presenting under the microscope the appearance shown below.

Urate of sodium is, however, much more common in the urine of children than of adults, when it presents itself in the form of spherical crystals.

In both cases the urates are associated with uric acid (resulting from their partial decomposition), represented by the small spiked crystals protruding from the spheres in the form of needle-shaped crystals. Urate of sodium occurs as the concretions known as ‘chalk stones’ in gout. But by far the most abundant kind of urates met with in abnormal urine is that known as _amorphous urates_, which constitute the most common variety of urinary deposits.

Heintz states that they are a mixture of urate of sodium with small quantities of the urates of ammonium, lime, and magnesium. They are very frequently seen in the urine of persons in excellent health, in which, owing perhaps to too abundant or nitrogenous diet and an insufficiency of muscular exercise, being in excess, they are thrown down when the urine cools.

An excess of the amorphous urates in urine, like the presence of pus and phosphates, is indicated by the bulky precipitate more or less diffused throughout the vessel containing the urine. A very easy test will decide as to which of the three classes of substances (if only one of them be present) the precipitate belongs. The supernatant fluid being decanted from the deposit, about an equal bulk of liquor potassæ is added to the latter, when one of three results will ensue:

1. If it be _pus_, and become viscid, it will exhibit the qualities already mentioned under the description of that substance.

2. If _phosphates_, no alteration will ensue.

3. If _amorphous urate_, it will at once dissolve.

When amorphous urates are uniformly distributed throughout the urine they give it a milky appearance, which may sometimes lead to its being mistaken for _chylous_ urine, or urine throughout which fatty particles of chyle are diffused. This latter doubt, however, may be easily set at rest by gently heating it. If the turbidity is owing to the urate it will disappear; if to chyle it will remain.

If the amorphous urate be decomposed by a little hydrochloric acid, it will yield uric acid, easily recognised by its characteristic form under the microscope, or when treated with nitric acid and ammonia, will answer to the murexed test.

It sometimes happens that in testing an acid urine suspected to contain albumen, the urine may contain so large an amount of uric acid in solution that, upon adding a drop of nitric acid to it, a bulky precipitate of uric acid, exactly resembling albumen, is thrown down, and it may be erroneously regarded as this substance if examined under the microscope immediately upon its formation. Upon being allowed, however, to stand some time, and then placed under the microscope, the well-known crystals of the acid will reveal themselves.

In such urine no precipitate takes place when the liquid is heated, another essential feature in which it diverges from albumen.

_Phosphates._——The urinary earthy phosphates occur under two varieties, viz. the phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, known as the triple phosphate, and the phosphate of lime.

In the engravings below, the principal crystalline forms of the triple phosphate are shown.

Of these the triangular prismatic, with the truncated extremities, is the most common. In some cases the prisms are so much reduced in length as to resemble the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime, for which they are sometimes mistaken by the inexperienced. When any doubt exists on this point it must be set at rest by having recourse to the chemical tests given further on. The triple phosphate is rarely met with alone, urate of ammonia, and sometimes uric acid and oxalate of lime, being present, although generally occurring in neutral or alkaline urine. The triple acid is sometimes found in that which is acid.

When ammonia is added to fresh urine the triple phosphate is precipitated, and if it be then examined by the microscope it will be found to consist of beautiful stellate crystals, and to form a most attractive object. The presence of phosphoric acid can be demonstrated by the ordinary reagents.

Phosphate of lime dissolves in strong acids without effervescence. The presence of lime, as well as of phosphoric acid, can easily be verified by the usual tests.

_Oxalate of lime._ The principal crystalline forms of oxalate of lime, when it occurs as a urinary deposit, are the octahedral and the dumb-bell. Of these the most common is the octahedral. These octahedra (which have one axis much shorter than the other two) vary considerably in size, but there is reason to believe that the diversity in appearance which they exhibit is due to crystals of precisely the same shape occupying different positions as to the direction of their axes, when examined by the microscope. There are a great many diversities of the dumb-bell form of oxalate of lime, which seem to be derived from circular and oval crystals. The subjoined cuts illustrate the varieties of crystalline oxalates the most generally met with. When the crystals of oxalate are extremely minute, they are very liable to be overlooked, since they then appear as almost opaque cubes, and may not unnaturally be taken for urate of soda, to which they bear no slight resemblance; but from which they differ by being insoluble in potash or acetic acid, and not dissolving on the application of heat. We have already alluded to their resemblance to the dumb-bells of the earthy phosphates. Another distinctive feature is that the oxalates rarely sink to the bottom of the vessel, but are diffused through the mucous cloud, which forms in urine after a short time.

_Cystine._ Cystine is an occasional ingredient in urine, when it occurs as a whitish precipitate crystallised in hexagonal plates. At other times, but not so frequently, it is met with dissolved in the urine. It may be separated from the urine holding it in solution by the addition of an excess of acetic acid. Under the microscope cystine bears somewhat of a resemblance to uric acid, from which, however, it differs when under treatment with ammonia. When ammonia is added to cystine the cystine dissolves, but by the spontaneous evaporation of the ammonia remains behind in its original form; whilst, if the ammonia be allowed to escape under the same circumstance from the urate of ammonia which has been formed, this remains behind as an amorphous mass. Ammonia, therefore, dissolves the cystine without entering into chemical union with it. Potash also readily dissolves cystine, as do also oxalic acid and the strong mineral acids. It is, however, insoluble in boiling water, in weak hydrochloric acid, and, as we have seen, in acetic acid.

_Obs._ In the examination of urine it is important that the investigation should be conducted upon a portion taken from _the whole of the urine excreted during twenty-four hours_, and not on an isolated quantity voided at any particular time.

The compiler of the present article has to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr Lionel Beale’s very valuable and exhaustive work, ‘Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, &c.,’ as well as to Dr W. Roberts’s excellent book, ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ to both of which volumes the reader, desirous of further and more explicit information on the subject, is referred.

=URINOM′ETER.= An hydrometer adapted to determining the density of urine. That of Dr Prout is the simplest and best. Urinometers should always be tested by placing them in distilled water at 60° Fahr. from 1·015 to 1·025 Beale.

=URN POWDER.= Crocus martis, or jeweller’s rouge.

=URTICAR′IA.= See RASH.

=US′QUEBAUGH.= _Syn._ ESCUBAC. Literally, mad water, the Irish name of which, ‘whisky,’ is a corruption. At the present time it is applied to a strong cordial spirit, much drunk in Ireland, and made in the greatest perfection at Drogheda.

_Prep._ 1. Brandy or proof spirit, 3 galls.; dates (without their kernels) and raisins, of each, bruised, 1/4 lb.; juniper berries, bruised, 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 3/4 oz.; coriander and aniseed, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/4 oz.; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 14 days, then filter, and add of capillaire or simple syrup, 1 gall.

2. Pimento and caraways, of each 3 oz.; mace, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz; aniseed, corianders, and angelica root, of each 8 oz.; raisins, stoned and bruised, 14 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 galls.; digest as before, then press, filter, or clarify, and add of simple syrup, q. s. Should it turn milky, add a little strong spirit, or clarify it with alum, or filter through magnesia.

_Obs._ Usquebaugh is either coloured yellow with saffron (about 1/4 oz. per gall.), or green with sap-green (about 1/2 oz. per gall.); either being added to the other ingredients before maceration in the spirit.

=UVA URSI.= The _Arctostaphylus Uva Ursi_ (the Bearberry) is an indigenous plant, the leaves of which are employed in medicine. Bearberry leaves contain a large percentage of tannic acid, with a small quantity of gallic acid, some resin, and a little volatile oil and extractive, together with a crystallisable principle named _arbutin_, which is said to be a very powerful diuretic. Another crystallisable resinous body named _arbutin_ has also been discovered in them. Bearberry leaves either in the form of powder, infusion, or extract, are chiefly used in chronic diseases of the bladder, in which there is an abnormal secretion of mucus, such as _catarrhus vesicæ_, but neither acute nor active inflammation.

=VACCINA′TION.= See COW-POX. (POX.)

=VAC′CINE MATTER.= _Syn._ LYMPHA VACCINIÆ, L. This is collected either upon the points of lancet-like pieces of ivory, or by opening the pustule, and applying a small glass ball and tube (like those called by the boys in London candle-pops, or fire-pops) to the orifice, expelling part of the air in the ball by bringing a lighted taper near it; then, withdrawing the taper, the matter is sucked into the ball, in which it may be sealed up hermetically or cemented, and thus kept for a length of time. It is, however, now generally preserved between two small pieces of glass, or in straight capillary glass tubes. It is said that cotton thread is a convenient and efficient vehicle. The matter may be liquefied with a little clean water before application. A degree of heat scarcely higher than that of the blood lessens its efficacy.

=VAC′UUM.= Empty space; a portion of space void of matter. For experimental and manufacturing purposes, a sufficient vacuum is produced either by means of the air-pump, or by filling an inclosed space by steam, which is then condensed by the application of cold. Evaporation proceeds much more rapidly, and liquids boil at much lower temperatures in an exhausted receiver than when exposed to the air. Thus, under ordinary circumstances, in the air, ether boils at 96°, alcohol at 177°, and Water at 212° Fahr.; but in vacuo water boils at about 88°, alcohol at 56°, and ether at -20° Fahr. In the best vacuum obtainable by a powerful air-pump, water placed over oil of vitriol, to absorb the aqueous vapour as it forms, will often enter into violent ebullition whilst ice is in the act of formation on its surface. The reduction of the boiling-point with reduced pressure is practically taken advantage of by the pharmaceutist in the preparation of extracts, by the sugar refiner in the evaporation of his syrups, by the distiller in the production of certain liqueurs, and by the chemist in a variety of processes of interest or utility. See EXTRACTS, EVAPORATION, REFRIGERATION, &c.

=VALE′′RIAN.= _Syn._ VALERIANÆ RADIX (B. P.), VALERIANÆ RADIX, VALERIANA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The root of the wild plant _Valeriana officinalis_ (Linn.), or wild valerian.” (Ph. L.) An excitant, antispasmodic, tonic, and emmenagogue, not only acting on the secretions, but exercising a specific influence over the cerebro-spinal system, and in large quantities producing agitation, mental exaltation, and even intoxication.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 or 40 gr., thrice daily; in hysteria, epilepsy, headache (affecting only one side), morbid nervous sensibility, &c. Even the odour of it exerts a species of fascination over cats.

=VALERIAN′IC ACID.= HC_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. _Syn._ VALERIC ACID; ACIDUM VALERIANICUM, A. VALERICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. A mixture of potato oil or corn-spirit oil (hydrated oxide of amyl) with about 10 times its weight of quicklime and hydrate of potassa in equal proportions, placed in a glass flask, is kept heated to about 400° Fahr., for 10 or 12 hours, by means of a bath of oil or fusible metal; the nearly white solid residuum is mixed with water, an excess of sulphuric acid added to the mixture, and the whole subjected to distillation; the distillate is supersaturated with potassa, evaporated nearly to dryness, to dissipate any undecomposed potato oil, and then mixed with weak sulphuric acid in excess; a light oily liquid (terhydrated valerianic acid) separates, which by cautious rectification, yields at first water containing a little acid, and afterwards pure monohydrated valerianic acid, which is perfectly identical with that prepared from valerian root.

2. (Ph. D.) See VALERIANATE OF SODIUM. This is a most economical process.

_Prop., &c._ A limpid oily liquid, smelling strongly of valerian root; it has an acid taste and reaction, and leaves a sensation of sweetness and a white spot on the tongue; is inflammable; boils at 347°; is freely soluble in alcohol and ether; dissolves in 30 parts of water, and forms salts called valerianates, most of which have a sweetish taste, are soluble, and uncrystallisable; sp. gr. ·937; placed in contact with water, it absorbs a portion of it, and is converted into the terhydrated acid, with increase of sp. gr., and reduction of the boiling-point.

=VALE′′RIC ACID.= See VALERIANIC ACID.

=VALO′NIA.= The cup of a large species of acorn, imported from the Levant. Used in tanning leather.

=VANAD′IC ACID.= V_{2}O_{2}. _Syn._ VANADIC ANHYDRIDE, TEROXIDE OF V.; ACIDUM VANADICUM, L. _Prep._ (Johnston.) From the native vanadate of lead, by dissolving it in nitric acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution, to throw down lead and arsenic, filtering, and evaporating the resulting blue liquid to dryness; the residuum is then dissolved in a solution of ammonia, and a piece of sal ammoniac, considerably larger than can be dissolved, introduced; as the latter dissolves, a pulverulent precipitate of vanadate of ammonium is formed, which must be washed, first in a solution of sal ammoniac, and then in alcohol of ·860; by exposing this salt, in an open platinum crucible, to a heat a little below redness, and keeping it constantly stirred, until it acquires a dark red colour, pure vanadic acid is obtained.

_Prep., &c._ Vanadic acid is orange coloured, scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with the alkaline bases, soluble salts called vanadates; and with the other bases sparingly soluble salts. All of these have an orange or yellow colour. “Vanadate of ammonia mixed with solution of galls forms a black fluid, which is the best writing ink hitherto known. The quantity of salt required for this purpose is very small; the writing is perfectly black, and not obliterated by alkalies, acids, chlorine, or other reagents,” (Ure.)

=VANA′DIUM.= V. A rare metal discovered by Sefstom, in 1830. in some Swedish iron extracted from an iron mine near Jönköping. It has since been found in a Vanadinite lead ore met with in Scotland, Zimpanan in Mexico, and Chili, and in the iron slag of Staffordshire. Of late years a more abundant source of Vanadium has been discovered by Professor Roscoe in the cupriferous stratum of the New Red Sandstone at Alderley Edge in Cheshire. There are four, and possibly five oxides of this element.

=Vanadic oxychloride.= _Syn._ VANADIC OXYTRICHLORIDE. (VOCl_{3}.) Roscoe states there are several oxychlorides of vanadium, which, however, have not been studied. The most interesting of them is the oxytrichloride, which corresponds to the phosphorous oxychloride. This oxytrichloride is a yellow fuming liquid, which is instantly decomposed by water into vanadic and hydrochloric acids. The oxytrichloride may be obtained by heating vanadic anhydride and charcoal (mixed together) in a current of hydrogen, after which it is heated in a current of dry chlorine. An easier method is by passing dry chlorine over the sesquioxide of vanadium.

=Vanadic pentoxide.= _Syn._ VANADIC ANHYDRIDE (V_{2}O_{5}.). At a red hot heat this oxide fuses, and on cooling, crystallises in rhombic prisms. It is but little soluble in water; the aqueous solution, which is of a yellow tint, is strongly acid, and produces a marked reddening effect on litmus. Vanadic anhydride forms both normal and acid salts. The ammonic vanadiate (Roscoe’s meta vanadiate) is the chief source of the acid. This salt may be obtained by adding pieces of sal ammoniac to a crude solution of potassic vanadiate, the resulting ammonic vanadiate being insoluble in a saturated solution of sal ammoniac, is deposited in small crystalline grains. The vanadic anhydride may be obtained from the ammonic vanadiate by heating an aqueous solution of the salt in the open air, when the ammonia is driven off, and the vanadic anhydride is left behind. The acid ammonic vanadiate, mixed with tincture of galls, makes a very durable writing ink, unacted upon either by alkalies or chlorine. Acids turn such blue without, however, destroying it.

=Vanadic triox′ide.= (V_{2}O_{2}.), is the _Vanadyl_ of Roscoe, who obtained it in the form of a grey metallic-looking powder, by the transmission of a current of dry hydrogen charged with the vapours of oxychloride of Vanadium, through a tube containing ignited charcoal. It dissolves in dilute acids, with evolution of hydrogen. Solutions of its salts are lavender coloured. Berzelius regarded this oxide as a metal.

_Tests._ The vanadiates mostly occur of a red or yellow colour. When treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, they yield a solution of a fine blue colour, a reaction that distinguishes them from the chromates, which, under similar treatment, would give a green liquid. When mixed with borax and exposed to the reducing flame of the blowpipe, compounds containing vanadium give a green glass, which turns to yellow in the oxidizing flame. Professor Roscoe, to whose researches we are indebted for all the chemical knowledge we possess respecting vanadium, says:——“All the main facts now established in connection with the chemical department of this element proved it to bear a strong analogy to the elements phosphorus and arsenic; in fact, it occupied a previously vacant place in a well-defined group of triad, or, as some chemists prefer to consider them, pentad elements. There was a property of vanadium in virtue of which it might ultimately obtain considerable importance in the arts, though in the present infancy of the history of the metal it was difficult to foretell this with any certainty. This property was the power of forming a permanent black for dyeing purposes. The black produced by the action of vanadium had the advantage over copper and aniline blacks, viz. that it was permanent, whereas the latter were liable to turn green. This application of an element that was first introduced into notice as a chemical curiosity furnished one more example of the importance of original scientific investigation. However far a newly discovered substance might seem to be removed from purposes of practical utility, we never know at what moment it might be turned to account for the benefit of the human race.”

=VANIL′LA.= _Syn._ VANILLE, Fr. The dried pods of various species of Vanilla, a genus of the natural order _Orchidaceæ_. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of chocolate and perfumery. As a medicine it is much employed on the Continent as an aromatic stimulant and neurotic.——_Dose_, 6 to 12 gr.; in asthenic fevers, hysteria, hypochondriasis, impotency, &c.

Vanilla is reduced to powder (PULVIS VANILLÆ; POUDRE DE VANILLE) by slicing it, and triturating the fragments with twice or thrice their weight of well-dried lump sugar. For SUCRE DE VANILLE, 11 parts of sugar are employed.

The following table given by Messrs Tieman and Harmann, in the _Journal of the Berlin Chemical Society_, represents the quantities of Vanillin (the aromatic principle of Vanilla) contained in that substance, as obtained from different sources:——

Vanillin per Cent.

Mexican Vanilla (1873, harvest) 1·69 Mexican Vanilla (1874, harvest) 1·86 Mexican Vanilla Medium quality 1·32 Bourbon, best quality (1874-75) 1·91 Bourbon, (1874-75) 1·97 Bourbon, (1874-75) 2·90 Bourbon, Small medium (1874-75) 1·55 Java, best quality (1873) 2·75 Java, best quality (1874) 1·56

=VANILLIN.= A crystallised substance obtained from pine juice by Messrs Tiemann and Harmann. It has been shown to be identical with the aromatic principle of Vanilla.

In a paper read before the Royal Society the authors have described the process by which vanillin was artificially prepared by them. They state that the sap of the cambium of coniferous trees contains a beautiful crystalline glucoside coniferine, which was discovered by Kartig, and examined some years ago by Rubel, who arrived at the formula C_{24}H_{32}O_{12} + 3 Aq. A minute study of this compound leads us to represent the molecule of coniferine by the expression, C_{16}H_{22}O_{3} × 2 Aq., the per centages of which nearly coincide with the theoretical values of Kubel’s formula.

Submitted to fermentation with emulsine, coniferine splits into sugar, and a splendid compound, crystallising in prisms, which fuse at 73°. This body is easily soluble in ether, less so in alcohol, almost insoluble in water; its composition is represented by the formula C_{10}H_{12}O_{3}. The change is represented by the equation——

C_{16}H_{22}O_{8} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{10}H_{12}O_{3}.

Under the influence of oxidising agents, the product of fermentation undergoes a remarkable metamorphosis. On boiling it with a mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, there passes with the vapour of water in the first place ethylic aldehyd, and subsequently an acid compound soluble in water, from which it may be removed by ether. On evaporating the ethereal solution, crystals in stellar groups are left behind, which fuse at 81°. These crystals have the taste and odour of vanilla.

An accurate comparative examination has proved them to be identical with the crystalline substance which constitutes the aroma of vanilla, and which is often seen covering the surface of vanilla pods.

On analysis, the crystals we obtained were found to contain C_{8}H_{8}O_{3}. This is exactly the composition which recent researches of Carles have established for the aromatic principle of vanilla. The transformation of the crystalline product of fermentation into vanillin is represented by the following equation:

C_{10}H_{12}O_{3} + O = C_{2}H_{4}O + C_{8}H_{8}O_{3}.

To remove all doubt regarding the identity of artificial vanillin with the natural compound, we have transformed the former into a series of salts, which have the general formula, C_{8}H_{7}MO_{3}, and into two substitution products, C_{8}H_{7}BrO_{31}, and C_{8}H_{7}TO_{3}, both of which had previously been prepared by Carles from the natural compound.

=VAN SWIETEN’S SOLUTION.= Contains 1/1000th part of its weight of corrosive sublimate; or 1/2 gr. per fl. oz.

=VAPOUR.= Vapours are really gases, and amenable to substantially the same physical laws; as ordinarily understood, however, the difference between a gas and a vapour is the following:——A gas is a form of matter which exists, at ordinary temperatures and pressures, in a state of vapour; whilst a vapour has been formed by the application of heat to a body usually existing in the solid or liquid form; gases, therefore, differ from vapours only in being derived from bodies which, in the solid or liquid form, boil at very much lower temperatures.

=Vapour of Ammonia.= _Syn._ VAPOR AMMONIÆ. (St Th. Hosp.) Solution of ammonia (·959), water, equal parts. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 80° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis and functional aphonia.

=Vapour of Benzoin.= _Syn._ VAPOR BENZOINI. (St Th. Hosp.) Compound tincture of benzoin, 1 oz. A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 140° F. In acute inflammation of the pharynx and larynx.

=Vapour of Carbolic Acid.= _Syn._ VAPOR ACIDI CARBOLICI. (St Th. Hosp.) Carbolic acid, 420 gr.; water, 1 dr.; 20 drops of this in 1 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. For syphilitic and carcinomatous ulcerations.

=Vapour of Chlorine.= _Syn._ VAPOR CHLORI. (B. P.) Put chlorinated lime, 2 oz., into a suitable apparatus, moisten it with cold water, and let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

=Vapour of Conia.= _Syn._ VAPOR CONIÆ. (B. P.) Mix extract of hemlock, 60 gr.; solution of potash, 1 dr.; and distilled water, 9 dr. Put 20 minims of the mixture on a sponge, in a suitable apparatus, that the vapour of hot water passed over it may be inhaled.

=Vapour of Creosote.= _Syn._ VAPOR CREOSOTI. (B. P.) Mix creosote, 12 minims, and boiling water, 8 oz., in an apparatus so arranged that air may be inhaled through the solution.

=Vapour of Hop.= _Syn._ VAPOR LUPULI. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of hops, 6 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in 1 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. Sedative.

=Vapour of Hydrocyanic Acid.= _Syn._ VAPOR ACIDI HYDROCYANICI. (B. P.) Mix from 10 to 15 minims of diluted hydrocyanic acid with 1 dr. of cold water in a suitable apparatus, and let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

=Vapour of Iodine.= _Syn._ VAPOR IODI. Mix tincture of iodine, 1 fl. dr., and water, 1 oz., and, having applied a gentle heat, let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

=Vapour of Lactic Acid.= _Syn._ VAPOR ACIDI LACTICI. (St Th. Hosp.) Lactic acid, 20 minims; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix. For spray inhalation. Dissolves the membranous exudation in diphtheria,

=Vapour of Oil of Juniper.= _Syn._ VAPOR OLEI JUNIPERI. (St Th. Hosp.) English oil of juniper, 20 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. For vocal weakness.

=Vapour of Oil of Mountain Pine.= _Syn._ VAPOR PINI PLUMILIONIS. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of mountain pine, 1/2 dr.; light carbonate of magnesia, 15 gr.; water, 1 oz.; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis.

=Vapour of Oil of Myrtle.= _Syn._ VAPOR OLEI MYRTI. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of myrtle, 6 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 6 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In acute tonsillitis.

=Vapour of Nitrite of Amyl.= _Syn._ VAPOR AMYL NITRITIS. (St Th. Hosp.) Nitrite of amyl, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 100° F. for each inhalation. In asthma and spasm of the glottis.

=Vapour of Scotch Pine.= _Syn._ VAPOR PINI SYLVESTRIS. Oil of Scotch pine (fir-wood oil), 40 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 20 gr.; water, 1 oz.; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis.

=Vapour of Sulphurous Acid.= _Syn._ VAPOR ACIDI SULPHUROSI. (St Th. Hosp.) Sulphurous acid, 15 minims; water, 1 oz. For spray inhalation. Stimulant and antiseptic.

=Vapour of Thymol.= _Syn._ VAPOR THYMOLIS. Thymol, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.; light carbonate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, 1 oz. 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In pharyngitis and laryngitis when associated with exanthemata.

=VARICOSE VEINS.= See VARIX.

=VARIX.= The permanent unequal dilation of a vein or veins, which are then said to be ‘varicose.’ It is known by the presence of a soft tumour, which does not pulsate, and often assumes a serpentine figure. Varicose veins of the groin and scrotum generally form a collection of knots. The treatment consists of cold applications, and pressure from bandages. Some cases are relieved by ligature. When occurring in the legs, much standing or walking should be avoided, and the use of the elastic stockings made for the purpose will be proper.

=VAR′NISH.= _Syn._ VERNIS, Fr. Any liquid matter, which, when applied to the surface of a solid body, becomes dry, and forms a hard glossy coating, impervious to air and moisture.

Varnishes are commonly divided into two classes——FAT or OIL VARNISHES and SPIRIT VARNISHES. The fixed or volatile oils, or mixtures of them, are used as vehicles or solvents in the former, and concentrated alcohol in the latter.[254] The sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose of making varnishes should not be more than ·8156 (= 67 o. p.), and it should be preferably chosen of even greater strength. A little camphor is often dissolved in it, to increase its solvent power. The oil of turpentine, which is the essential oil chiefly employed for varnishes, should be pure and colourless. Pale drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally used; but poppy oil and nut oil are also occasionally employed. Among the substances which are dissolved in the above menstrua are——amber, animé, copal, elemi, lac, mastic, and sandarach, to impart body and lustre; benzoin, on account of its agreeable odour; annotta, gamboge, saffron, socotrine aloes, and turmeric, to give a yellow colour; dragon’s blood and red sandal wood, to give a red tinge; asphaltum, to give a black colour and body; and caoutchouc to impart toughness and elasticity.

[Footnote 254: Methylated spirit is now generally used for making spirit varnishes, in place of duty-paid alcohol.]

In the preparation of spirit varnishes care should be taken to prevent the evaporation of the alcohol as much as possible, and also to preserve the portion that evaporates. On the large scale, a common still may be advantageously employed; the head being furnished with a stuffing-box, to permit of the passage of a vertical rod, connected with a stirrer at one end and a working handle at the other. The gum and spirit being introduced, the head of the still closely fitted on and luted, and the connection made with a proper refrigerator, heat (preferably that of steam or a water bath) should be applied, and the spirit brought to a gentle boil, after which it should be partially withdrawn, and agitation continued until the gum is dissolved. The spirit which has distilled over should be then added to the varnish, and after thorough admixture the whole should be run off, as rapidly as possible, through a silk-gauze sieve, into stone jars, which should be immediately corked down, and set aside to clarify. On the small scale, spirit varnishes are best made by maceration in closed bottles or tin cans, either in the cold or by the heat of a water bath. In order to prevent the agglutination of the resin, it is often advantageously mixed with clean siliceous sand or pounded glass, by which the surface is much increased, and the solvent power of the menstruum greatly promoted.

To ensure the excellence of oil varnishes, one of the most important points is the use of good drying oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should be very pale, perfectly limpid or transparent, scarcely odorous, and mellow and sweet to the taste.——100 galls. of such an oil is put into an iron or copper boiler, capable of holding fully 150 galls., gradually heated to a gentle simmer, and kept near that point for about 2 hours, to expel moisture; the scum is then carefully removed, and 14 lbs. of finely pulverised scale litharge, 12 lbs. of red lead, and 8 lbs. of powdered umber (all carefully dried and free from moisture), are gradually sprinkled in; the whole is then kept well stirred, to prevent the driers sinking to the bottom, and the boiling is continued at a gentle heat for about 3 hours longer; the fire is next withdrawn, and, after 30 to 40 hours’ repose, the scum is carefully removed, and the clear supernatant oil decanted from the ‘bottoms,’——The product forms the best boiled or drying oil of the varnish maker.——Another method is to heat a hogshead of the oil gradually for 2 hours, then to gently simmer it for about 3 hours longer, and, after removing the scum, to add, gradually, 1 lb. of the best calcined magnesia, observing to mix it up well with the oil, and, afterwards to continue the boiling pretty briskly for at least an hour, with constant agitation. The fire is then allowed to die away, and, after 24 hours, the oil is decanted as before. The product is called ‘clarified oil,’ and requires to be used with driers. It should be allowed to lay in the cistern for 2 or 3 months to clarify.

In the preparation of oil varnishes, the gum is melted as rapidly as possible, without discolouring or burning it; and when completely fused, the oil, also heated to nearly the boiling point, is poured in, after which the mixture is boiled until it appears perfectly homogeneous and clear, like oil, when the heat is raised, the driers (if any are to be used) gradually and cautiously sprinkled in, and the boiling continued, with constant stirring, for 3 or 4 hours, or until a little, when cooled on a palette knife, feels strong and stringy between the fingers. The mixture is next allowed to cool considerably, but while still quite fluid, the turpentine, previously made moderately hot, is cautiously added, and the whole thoroughly incorporated. The varnish is then run through a filter or sieve into stone jars, cans, or other vessels, and set aside to clarify itself by subsidence. When no driers are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boiled until it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, the turpentine is added as before.

It is generally conceived that the more perfectly the gum is fused, or run, as it is called, the larger and stronger will be the product; and the longer the boiling of the ‘gum’ and oil is continued, within moderation, the freer the resulting varnish will work and cover. An excess of heat renders the varnish stringy, and injures its flowing qualities. For pale varnishes as little heat as possible should be employed throughout the whole process. Good body varnishes should contain 1-1/2 lb.; carriage, wainscot, and mahogany varnish, fully 1 lb.; and gold size and black japan, fully 1/2 lb. of gum per gall., besides the asphaltum in the latter. Spirit varnishes should contain about 2-1/2 lbs. of gum per gall. The use of too much driers is found to injure the brilliancy and transparency of the varnish. Copperas does not combine with varnish, but only hardens it; sugar of lead, however, dissolves in it to a greater or less extent. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with melted copal, and it is an improvement on the common process, to use it either before or in conjunction with the oil, in the preparation of copal varnish that it is desired should be very white. Gums of difficult solubility are rendered more soluble by being exposed, in the state of powder, for some time to the air.

Varnishes, like wines, improve by age; and should always be kept as long as possible before use.

From the inflammable nature of the materials of which varnishes are composed, their manufacture should be only carried on in some detached building of little value, and built of uninflammable materials. When a pot of varnish, gum, or turpentine catches fire, it is most readily extinguished by closely covering it with a piece of stout woollen carpeting, which should be always kept at hand, ready for the purpose.

An excellent paper, by Mr J. W. Niel, on the manufacture of varnishes, will be found in the ‘Trans. of the Soc. of Arts,’ vol. xlix. See also the articles ALCOHOL, AMBER, COPAL, OILS, &c., in this work.

=Varnish, Am′ber.= _Prep._ 1. Take of amber (clear and pale), 6 lbs.; fuse it, add of hot clarified linseed oil, 2 galls.; boil until it ‘strings well,’ then let it cool a little, and add of oil of turpentine 4 galls, or q. s. Nearly as pale as copal varnish; it soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of the oil varnishes; but it requires some time before it is fit for polishing, unless the articles are ‘stoved.’ When required to dry and harden quicker, drying oil may be substituted for the linseed oil, or ‘driers’ may be added during the boiling.

2. Amber, 4 oz.; pale boiled oil, 1 quart; proceed as last. Very hard.

3. Pale transparent amber, 5 oz.; clarified linseed oil or pale boiled oil, and oil of turpentine, of each 1 pint; as before.

_Obs._ Amber varnish is suited for all purposes where a very hard and durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to copal varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase its hardness and durability. The only objection to it is the difficulty of preparing it of a very pale colour. It may, however, be easily bleached with some fresh-slaked lime.

=Varnish, Balloon.= See VARNISH, FLEXIBLE (_below_).

=Varnish, Bessemer’s.= This consists of a pale oil copal varnish, diluted with about 6 times its volume of oil of turpentine, the mixture being subsequently agitated with about 1-30th part of dry slaked lime, and decanted after a few days’ repose. Five parts of the product mixed with 4 parts of bronze powder forms ‘Bessemer’s gold paint.’

=Varnish, Black.= _Prep._ 1. (BLACK AMBER VARNISH.) From amber, 1 lb.; fuse, add, of hot drying oil, 1/2 pint; powdered black resin, 3 oz.; asphaltum (Naples), 4 oz.; when properly incorporated and considerably cooled, add of oil of turpentine, 1 pint. This is the beautiful black varnish of the coachmakers.

2. (IRONWORK BLACK.) From asphaltum, 48 lbs.; fuse, add of boiled oil, 10 galls.; red lead and litharge, of each 7 lbs.; dried and powdered white copperas, 3 lbs.; boil for 2 hours, then add of dark gum amber (fused), 8 lbs.; hot linseed oil, 2 galls.; boil for 2 hours longer, or until a little of the mass, when cooled, may be rolled into pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards thin it down with oil of turpentine, 30 galls. Used for the ironwork of carriages, and other nice purposes.

(3. BLACK JAPAN, BITUMINOUS VARNISH.)——_a._ From Naples asphaltum, 50 lbs.; dark gum animé, 8 lbs.; fuse, add of linseed oil, 12 galls.; boil as before, then add of dark gum amber, 10 lb., previously fused and boiled with linseed oil, 2 galls.; next add of driers q. s., and further proceed as ordered in No. 2. Excellent for either wood or metals.

_b._ From burnt umber, 8 oz.; true asphaltum, 4 oz.; boiled linseed oil, 1 gall.; grind the umber with a little of the oil; add it to the asphaltum, previously dissolved in a small quantity of the oil by heat; mix, add the remainder of the oil, boil, cool, and thin with a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine. Flexible.

4. (BRUNSWICK BLACK.)——_a._ To asphalt, 2 lbs., fused in an iron pot, add of hot boiled oil, 1 pint; mix well, remove the pot from the fire, and, when cooled a little, add of oil of turpentine, 2 quarts. Used to blacken and polish grates and ironwork. Some makers add driers.

_b._ From black pitch and gas-tar asphaltum, of each 25 lbs.; boil gently for 5 hours, then add, of linseed oil, 8 galls.; litharge and red lead, of each 10 lbs.; boil as before, and thin with oil of turpentine, 20 galls. Inferior to the last, but cheaper.

=Varnish, Body.= _Prep._ 1. From the finest African copal, 8 lbs.; drying oil, 2 galls.; oil of turpentine, 3-1/2 galls.; proceed as for AMBER VARNISH. Very hard and durable.

2. Pale gum copal, 8 lbs.; clarified oil, 2 galls.; dried sugar of lead, 1/2 lb.; oil of turpentine, 3-1/2 galls.; proceed as before, and mix the product, whilst still hot, with the following varnish:——Pale gum animé, 8 lbs.; linseed oil, 2 galls.; dried white copperas, 1/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 3-1/2 galls.; the mixed varnishes are to be immediately strained into the cans or cistern. Dries in about 6 hours in winter, and in about 4 hours in summer. Used for the bodies of coaches and other vehicles.

=Varnish, Bookbinder’s.= _Prep._ Take of pale gum sandarach, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve by cold digestion and frequent agitation. Used by binders to varnish morocco leather book-covers. A similar varnish is also prepared from very pale shell-lac and wood naphtha.

=Varnish for Boots and Shoes.= See BOOTS and SHOES.

=Varnish, Cabinet-maker’s.= French polish is occasionally so called.

=Varnish, Carriage.= _Prep._ 1. (SPIRIT.) Take of gum sandarach, 1-1/4 lb.; very pale shell-lac, 3/4 lb.; very pale transparent resin, 1/2 lb.; rectified spirit of ·8221 (64 o. p.), 3 quarts; dissolve, and add of pure Canadian balsam, 1-1/2 lb. Used for the internal parts of carriages, &c. Dries in 10 minutes or less.

2. (OIL.)——_a._ (Best pale.) Take of pale African copal, 8 lbs.; fuse, add of clarified linseed oil, 2-1/2 galls.; boil until very stringy, then add of dried copperas and litharge, of each 1/4 lb.; again boil, thin with oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 galls.; mix, whilst both are hot with the following varnish, and immediately strain the mixture into a covered vessel:——Gum animé, 8 lbs.; clarified linseed oil, 2-1/2 galls.; dried sugar of lead and litharge, of each 1/4 lb.; boil as before, thin with oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 galls. Dries in 4 hours in summer, and 6 in winter. Used for the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches, and other vehicles, and by house painters, decorators, &c., who want a strong, quick-drying, and durable varnish.

_b._ (Second quality.) From gum animé (‘sorts’), 8 lbs.; clarified oil, 3 galls.; litharge, 5 oz.; dried and powdered sugar of lead and white copperas, of each 4 oz.; boil as last, and thin with oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 galls. Used as the last.

=Varnish, Chinese.= _Prep._ From mastic and sandarach, of each 2 oz.; rectified spirit (64 o. p.), 1 pint; dissolve. Dries in 6 minutes. Very tough and brilliant.

=Varnish, Copal.= _Prep._ 1. (OIL.)——_a._ From pale hard copal, 2 lbs.; fuse, add of hot drying oil, 1 pint; boil as before directed, and thin with oil of turpentine, 3 pints, or q. s. Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours.

_b._ From clear and pale African copal, 8 lbs.; pale drying oil, 2 galls.; rectified oil of turpentine, 3 galls.; proceed as before and immediately strain it into the store can or cistern. Very fine, hard, and durable.

2. (SPIRIT.)——_a._ From coarsely powdered copal and glass, of each 4 oz.; alcohol of 90% (64 o. p.), 1 pint; camphor, 1/2 oz.; heat the mixture, with frequent stirring, in a water bath, so that the bubbles may be counted as they rise until solution is complete, and, when cold, decant the clear portion.

_b._ From copal (which has been melted, dropped into water, and then dried and powdered), 4 oz.; gum sandarach, 6 oz.; mastic, 2 oz.; pure Chio turpentine, 3 oz.; powdered glass, 5 oz.; spirit of 90%, 1 quart; dissolve by a gentle heat. Dries rapidly.

3. (TURPENTINE.) To oil of turpentine, 1 pint, heated in a water bath, add in small portions at a time, of powdered copal (prepared as above), 3 to 4 oz.; dissolve, &c., as before. Dries slowly, but is very pale and durable.

4. (JAPANNER’S COPAL VARNISH.) From pale African copal, 7 lbs.; pale drying oil, 1/2 gall.; oil of turpentine, 3 galls.; proceed as in No. 1. Dries in 20 to 60 minutes, and may be polished as soon as hard, particularly if stoved. See JAPANNING.

_Obs._ All copal varnishes, when properly made, are very hard and durable, though less so than those of amber; but they have the advantage over the latter of being paler. They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished metal, wood, and other objects requiring a good durable varnish. Animé is frequently substituted for copal in the copal varnishes of the shops. See VARNISHES, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL, &c.

=Varnish, Crystal.= _Prep._ 1. From genuine pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine, equal parts. Used for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper, and also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings.

2. Mastic, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings.

=Varnish, Drying.= Spirit copal varnish.

=Varnish, Dutch.= Lac and toy varnishes are often so called.

=Varnish, Etch′ing.= See ETCHING.

=Varnish, Fat.= See OIL VARNISH.

=Varnish, Flexible.= _Syn._ BALLOON VARNISH, CAOUTCHOUC V., INDIA-RUBBER V. _Prep._ 1. From india rubber (cut small), 1-1/2 oz.; chloroform, ether (washed), or bisulphuret of carbon, 1 pint; digest in the cold until solution is complete. Dries as soon as it is laid on. Pure gutta percha may be substituted for india rubber.

2. India rubber, in shavings, 1 oz.; rectified mineral naphtha or benzol. 1 pint; digest at a gentle heat in a closed vessel, and strain. Dries very badly, and never gets perfectly hard.

3. India rubber, 1 oz.; drying oil, 1 quart; dissolve by heat. Very tough; dries in about 48 hours.

4. Linseed oil, 1 gall.; dried white copperas and sugar of lead, of each 3 oz.; litharge, 8 oz.; boil, with constant agitation, until it strings well, then cool slowly, and decant the clear portion. If too thick, thin it down with quick-drying linseed oil. The above are used for balloons, gas bags, &c. See BALLOON, CAOUTCHOUC, &c.

=Varnish, Furniture.= A solution of pure white wax, 1 part, in rectified oil of turpentine, 4 parts, frequently passes under this name. See VARNISHES, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL, &c.

=Varnish, Gilder’s.= _Prep._ (Watin.) Pale gum-lac in grains, gamboge, dragon’s blood, and annotta, of each 12-1/2 oz.; saffron, 3-1/4 oz.; dissolve each resin separately in 5 pints of alcohol of 90%, and make two separate tinctures of the dragon’s blood and annotta, with a like quantity of spirit; then mix the solutions in the proper proportions to produce the required shade. Used for gilded articles, &c.

=Varnish, Glass.= A solution of soluble glass. Used to render wood, &c., fire-proof.

=Varnish, Gun-barrel.= _Prep._ From shell-lac, 1-1/2 oz.; dragon’s blood, 3 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart. Applied after the barrels are ‘browned.’

=Varnish, Hair.= _Prep._ From hog’s bristles (chopped small), 1 part; drying oil, 10 parts; dissolve by heat. Said to be used to give cotton or linen cloth the appearance of horse-hair.

=Varnish, India-rubber.= VARNISH. See FLEXIBLE (_above_).

=Varnish, Italian.= _Prep._ Boil Scio turpentine until brittle, powder it, and dissolve this in oil of turpentine. Used for prints, &c.

=Varnish, Japan.= Pale amber or copal varnish. Used for japanning tin, papier mâché, &c.

=Varnish, Lac.= _Prep._ 1. Pale seed-lac (or shell-lac), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.

2. Substitute lac bleached with chlorine for seed-lac. Both are very tough, hard, and durable, but quite inflexible. Wood naphtha may be substituted for spirit. Used for pictures, metal, wood, or leather, and particularly for toys.

=Varnish, Lac (Aqueous).= _Prep._ From pale shell-lac, 5 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; digest at nearly the boiling point until dissolved; then strain. Equal to the more costly spirit varnish for many purposes; it is an excellent vehicle for water colours, inks, &c.; when dry, it is waterproof.

=Varnish, Lac (Coloured).= _Syn._ LACQUER, BRASSWORK VARNISH. _Prep._ 1. Take of turmeric (ground), 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; macerate for a week, strain, with expression, and add to the tincture, gamboge, 1-1/2 oz.; pale shell-lac, 3/4 lb.; gum sandarach, 3-1/2 lbs.; when dissolved, strain, and further add of good turpentine varnish, 1 quart. Gold coloured.

2. Seed-lac, 3 oz.; turmeric, 1 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week, frequently shaking, then decant the clear portion. Deep gold coloured.

3. Spanish annotta, 3 lbs.; dragon’s blood, 1 lb.; gum sandarach, 3-1/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; turpentine varnish, 1 quart; as before. Red coloured.

4. Gamboge, 1 oz.; Cape aloes, 3 oz.; pale shell-lac, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; as before. Pale brass coloured.

5. Seed-lac, dragon’s blood, annotta, and gamboge, of each 1/4 lb.; gum sandarach, 2 oz.; saffron, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall. Resembles the last.

_Obs._ Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood, to impart to them the appearance of gold. Articles in brass, tin plate, and pewter, or which are covered with tinfoil, are more especially so treated. As lacquers are required of different depths and shades of colour, it is best to keep a concentrated solution of each of the colouring ingredients ready, so that it may be added, at any time, to produce any desired tint.

=Varnish, Mahogany.= _Prep._ From gum animé (‘sorts’), 8 lbs.; clarified oil, 3 galls.; litharge and powdered dried sugar of lead, of each 1/4 lb.; proceed as for body varnish, and thin with oil of turpentine, 5 galls., or q. s.

=Varnish, Mastic.= _Syn._ PICTURE VARNISH, TURPENTINE V., TINGRY’S ESSENCE V. _Prep._ 1. Take of pale and picked gum mastic, 5 lbs.; glass (pounded as small as barley, and well Washed and dried), 3 lbs.; finest newly rectified oil of turpentine (lukewarm), 2 galls.; put them into a clean 4-gall. tin bottle or can, bung down securely, and keep rolling it backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter, or any other solid place, for at least 4 hours, when, if the gum is all dissolved, the varnish may be decanted, strained through muslin into another bottle, and allowed to settle; if the solution is still incomplete, the agitation must be continued for some time longer, or the gentle warmth applied as well. Very fine.

2. (Second quality.) From mastic, 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 2 galls.; dissolve with heat.

_Obs._ Mastic varnish is much used for pictures, &c.; when good, it is tough, hard, brilliant, and colourless. It greatly improves by age, and, when possible, should never be used before it has been made at least a twelve-month. Should it get ‘chilled,’ 1 lb. of well-washed siliceous sand should be made moderately hot and added to each gallon, which must then be well agitated for 5 minutes, and afterwards allowed to settle.

=Varnish, Oak.= _Syn._ WAINSCOT VARNISH, COMMON TURPENTINE V. _Prep._ 1. Clear pale resin, 3-1/2 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. To the last add of Canada balsam, 1 pint, Both are cheap and excellent common varnishes for wood or metal.

=Varnish, Oil.= The finer qualities are noticed under AMBER, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL VARNISH; the following produces the ordinary oil varnish of the shops:——Take of good clear resin, 3 lbs.; drying oil, 1/2 gall.; melt, and thin with oil of turpentine, 2 quarts. A good and durable varnish for common work.

=Varnish, Painter’s.= See CARRIAGE, COPAL, MAHOGANY, OAK, OIL, and other varnishes; the selection depending greatly on the colour and quality of the work.

=Varnish, Patent Leather.= This is carefully prepared drying oil. The skins being stretched on a board, and every trace of grease being removed from them by means of a mixture of fullers earth and water, they are ready to receive the varnish, which is then spread upon them, very thinly, by means of a species of scraper. The first coat varnish consists of pale Prussian blue (that containing some alumina), 5 oz.; drying oil, 1 gall.; boiled to the consistence of single size, and, when cold, ground with a little vegetable black; it is stoved and afterwards polished with fine-grained pumice——the second coating resembles the first, excepting in having a little pure Prussian blue mixed with it;——the third coat varnish consists of a similar mixture, but the oil is boiled until it strings well, and a little more pure Prussian blue and vegetable black are added;——the last coat varnish, or finish, is the same as the third, but must contain 1/2 lb. of pure dark-coloured Prussian blue, and 1/4 lb. of pure vegetable black per gall., to which a little oil copal or amber varnish is often added; each coat being duly stoved and pumiced before the next is applied. The heat of the stove or oven is commonly 120° Fahr. for ‘enamelled skins,’ as those of the calf and seal, intended for ‘uppers,’ and 175° to 180° for stout ‘japan leather,’ the exposure in the stove is commonly for 6 to 10 hours. The skins are next oiled and grained. The ‘graining’ of the ‘enamelled skins’ is done by holding the skin in one hand, and with a curved board lined with cork (graining stick), lightly pressed upon the fleshy side, working it up and down until the proper effect is produced.

=Varnish, Picture.= Several varnishes, especially mastic varnish, are called by this name. Pale copal or mastic varnish is generally used for oil paintings, and crystal, white hard spirit, or mastic varnish, for water-coloured drawings on paper.

=Varnish, Printer’s.= Diluted with twice its volume of oil of turpentine, it forms a good common varnish.

=Varnish, Sealing-wax.= Black, red, or any coloured sealing-wax, broken small, with enough rectified spirit (or methylated spirit) to cover it, digested till dissolved. A most useful varnish for wood-work of electrical or chemical apparatus, for tops of corks, &c.

=Varnish, Spirit.= _Prep._ 1. (BROWN HARD.)——_a._ From gum sandarach, 3 lbs.; pale seed-lac or shell-lac, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit (65 o. p.), 2 galls.; dissolve, and add of turpentine varnish, 1 quart; agitate well, strain (quickly) through gauze, and in a month decant the clear portion from the sediment. Very fine.

_b._ From seed-lac and yellow resin, of each 1-1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 5 quarts; oil of turpentine, 1-1/4 pint; dissolve. Inferior to the last.

2. (WHITE HARD.)——_a._ From gum sandarach (picked), 5 lbs.; camphor, 2 oz.; washed and dried coarsely pounded glass, 3 lbs.; rectified spirit (65 o. p.), 7 quarts; proceed as in making mastic varnish; when strained, add of pure Canada balsam, 1 quart. Very pale, durable, and brilliant.

_b._ From gum sandarach and gum mastic, of each, picked, 4 oz.; coarsely powdered glass, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, and add of pure Strasburg turpentine, 3 oz. Very fine.

3. (SOFT BRILLIANT.) From sandarach, 6 oz.; elemi (genuine), 4 oz.; animé, 1 oz.; camphor, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; as before.

4. (SCENTED.) To the preceding add some gum benzoin, balsam of Peru, balsam of Tola, oil of lavender, or the essence of musk or ambergris. The first two can only be employed for dark varnishes.

_Obs._ The above varnishes are chiefly applied to articles of the toilette, as work-boxes, card-cases, &c.; but are also suitable to other articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that require a brilliant and quick-drying varnish. They dry almost as soon as applied, and are usually hard enough to polish in 24 hours. They are, however, much less durable, and more liable to crack, than oil varnishes.

=Varnish, Stopping-out.= _Syn._ PETIT VERNIS, Fr. From lampblack, made into a paste with turpentine. Used by engravers. See ETCHING.

=Varnish, Tingry’s.= MASTIC VARNISH.

=Varnish, Toy.= Similar to common spirit varnish, but using carefully rectified wood naphtha as the solvent. See VARNISHES, LAC and SPIRIT.

=Varnish, Transfer.= _Syn._ MORDANT VARNISH. _Prep._ From mastic (in tears) and sandarach, of each 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve, and add of pure Canada balsam, 1/2 pint. Used for transferring and fixing engravings or lithographs on wood, and for gilding, silvering, &c. See VARNISH, CRYSTAL.

=Varnish, Turpentine.= See VARNISHES, MASTIC, and OAK.

=Varnish, Wainscot.= See VARNISH, OAK.

=Varnish, Wax.= _Syn._ MILK OF WAX; EMULSIO CERÆ SPIRITUOSA, L. _Prep._ 1. Take of white wax (pure), 1 lb.; melt it with as gentle a heat as possible, add of warm rectified spirit, sp. gr. ·830 (60 o. p.), 1 pint; mix perfectly, and pour the liquid out upon a cold porphyry slab; next grind it with a muller to a perfectly smooth paste, adding more spirit as required; put the paste into a marble mortar, make an emulsion with water, 3-1/2 pints, gradually added, and strain it through muslin. Used as a varnish for paintings; when dry, a hot iron is passed over it, or heat is otherwise evenly applied, so as to fuse it, and render it transparent, after which, when quite cold, it is polished with a clean linen cloth. The most protective of all varnishes.

2. Wax (pure), 5 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; dissolve. Used for furniture. See VARNISH, SEALING-WAX.

=Varnish, White.= See VARNISH, SPIRIT, 2, _a_ and _b_.

=VAR′NISHING.= To give the highest degree of lustre to varnish after it is laid on, as well as to remove the marks of the brush, it undergoes the operation of polishing. This is performed by first rubbing it with very finely powdered pumice stone and water, and afterwards with an oiled rag and tripoli, until the required polish is produced. The surface is, last of all, cleaned with soft linen cloths, cleared of all greasiness with powdered starch, and then rubbed bright with the palm of the hand.

In varnishing great care must be taken that the surface is free from grease or smoke; as, unless this be the case, the best oil or turpentine varnish in the world will not dry and harden. Old articles are usually washed with soap and water, by the painters, before being varnished, to prevent any misadventure of the kind alluded to.

=VASELINE.= See COSMOLINE.

=VEAL.= “The grain should be close, firm, and white, and the fat of a pinkish white, not a dead white, and the kidneys well covered with a thick white fat.” (Soyer.)

Veal, like pork, requires to be well dressed, to develop its nutritive qualities. It should also be eaten fresh, as a peculiar principle is generated in it when improperly kept, which acts as a malignant poison. See ROASTING, &c.

=VEG′ETABLE AL′KALI†.= Potassa.

=VEGETABLE JUICES.= See _below_.

=VEGETABLES.= Vegetables are organic beings, which are distinguished from animals by a number of characteristics, but, like them, are composed of certain proximate principles, or compounds, which possess a high degree of scientific interest, and in many cases are invaluable to man. Among the most important of these are——albumen, gluten, gum, lignin, starch, sugar, tannin, wax, the fixed and volatile oils, the resins, and gum-resins, the alkaloids, and innumerable forms of extractive matter. Several of these substances are noticed under their respective names.

The method of propagating plants from their seeds, depending on their simple exposure, at the proper season, to warmth and moisture, under the protection of the soil, is well known; that by propagation from ‘slips’ and ‘cuttings,’ which will doubtless prove interesting to the amateur gardener, are noticed below.

The choice of slips and cuttings should be made from the side shoots of trees and plants, and, when possible, from such as recline towards the grounds, observing, when they are removed by the knife, to leave a little wood of a former year or season’s growth attached to them, as such are found to take root more readily than when they are wholly composed of new wood. The time to take slips or cuttings is as soon as the sap gets into full motion. Before setting them the latter should be cut across, just below an eye or joint, with as smooth a section as possible, observing not to injure the bud. The superfluous leaves may be removed, but a sufficient number should be left on for the purposes of vegetation. The common practice of removing all or nearly all the leaves of cuttings is injudicious. In some cases leaves alone will strike root. When cuttings are set in pots, they should be so placed as to reach to the bottom and touch the sides throughout their whole length, when they will seldom fail to become rooted plants. In the case of tubular-stalked plants it is said to be advantageous to insert both ends into the soil, each of which will take root, and may then be divided, when two plants will be produced instead of one. An equable temperature, a moist atmosphere, a shady situation, and a moderate supply of water, are the principal requisites to induce speedy rooting. Excess of any of these is prejudicial. When the size of the cuttings admit, it is better to place them under a hand- or bell-glass, which will preserve a constant degree of heat, and prevent evaporation from the surface of the leaves, which is the most common cause of their dying, especially in hot, dry weather.

_Qual._ The vegetable kingdom furnishes by far the larger portion of the food of man, and indirectly, perhaps, the whole of it. The great value of culinary vegetables and fruit in a mixed diet need not be insisted on, since it is a fact which is almost universally known and appreciated.

In the choice of culinary vegetables observe, that if they are stiff and break freely and crisply, they are fresh, and fit for food; if, on the contrary, they have a flabby appearance, or are soft or discoloured, they are stale, and should be rejected.

The dose of the generality of vegetable substances that exercise no very marked action on the human frame is about 1/2 to 1 dr. of the powder, night and morning; or 1 oz., or q. s. to impart a moderately strong colour or taste, may be infused or boiled in 1 pint of water, and a wine-glassful or thereabouts taken 2 or 3 times a day.

_Collection and Pres._ The following general directions are given in the London Pharmacopœia for the collection and preservation of vegetable substances——(vegetabilia, Ph. L.):——

“Vegetables are to be collected in dry weather, and when neither wet with rain nor dew; they are to be collected annually, and are not to be kept beyond a year.

“Barks are to be collected at that season in which they can be most easily separated from the wood.” Spring is the season here alluded to; as at this time, after the sap begins to ascend, the bark is, in general, very easily separated.

“Flowers are to be collected recently blown.” The red rose, however, must be gathered before the buds are expanded.

“Fruits and seeds are to be collected when ripe.

“Herbs and leaves are to be gathered after the flowers have expanded, and before the seeds are mature.

“Roots and rhizomes (underground stems), for the most part, are to be dug up after the old leaves and stalks have fallen, and before the new ones appear.” (“Roots, which are required to be preserved fresh, should be buried in dry sand.”——Ph. L. 1836.)

“Seeds are to be collected when they are ripe, and before they drop from the plant.” (“They ought to be preserved in their seed vessels.”——Ph. L. 1836.)

“The different parts of vegetables are to be kept dried for use, except where we shall otherwise direct. Expose those you wish to dry, within a short time after they have been gathered, in shallow wicker baskets, to a gentle heat, in a dark place, and where there is a current of air. Then, the moisture being driven off, gradually increase the heat to 150° Fahr., in order that they may be dried. Finally, preserve the more delicate parts, viz. flowers and leaves, in black glass vessels, well closed, and keep the rest in proper vessels, preventing the access of light and moisture.”

Fruits, culinary vegetables, and vegetable juice, of every class, may be preserved for any length of time by several of the methods described under PUTREFACTION. On the small scale the following method is often adopted:——The substances to be preserved are put into strong glass or stoneware bottles, with necks of a proper size, which are then corked with the greatest care, tied or wired, and lined with a mixture of lime and soft cheese, or with a paste formed of linseed meal and water, spread on rags; or tin cases are employed, and are soldered up instead of being corked. The bottles are then placed in an oven, the temperature of which is cautiously raised to fully 212° Fahr.; or they are enclosed, separately, in canvas bags, and put into a copper of water to which some salt has been added, which is then gradually heated until it boils, and thus kept for 15 or 20 minutes; the whole is next left to cool, when the bottles are taken out and carefully examined before being laid by, lest they should have cracked or the lute have given way.

Herbs and flowers are now generally preserved for distillation by means of common salt. The objection which is raised against the use of fresh aromatic plants is thus obviated, whilst the odours of the distilled products are rendered superior to those obtained from either the recent or dried plant, fruit, or flower, without the great loss, inconvenience, or trouble attending the common methods. Besides, many aromatic and odorous substances almost entirely lose their properties by drying; while most of them yield more oil, and that of a finer quality, in the fresh than in the dried state. The odours of roses, elder flowers, and a variety of others are vastly improved by this treatment, and these flowers may thus be preserved with ease and safety from season to season, or even longer, if required. The process simply consists in intimately mixing the flowers or other vegetables, soon after being gathered, with about 1/4 their weight, or less, of good dry salt, and ramming down the mixture as tightly as possible in strong casks. The casks are then placed in a cold cellar, and covered with boards, on which heavy weights are put, to keep the mass tight and close. See FRUITS, PUTREFACTION, &c.

=Vegetables, Juices of.= 1. (EXPRESSED VEGETABLE JUICE, SIMPLE V. J.; SUCCI EXPRESSI, L.) These are obtained by bruising the fresh leaves, or other vegetable matter, in a marble mortar, or in a mill, and expressing the liquid portion by means of a powerful screw press. After defecation for 12 or 14 hours in a cold situation, the juice is either decanted or filtered from the feculous sediment, and is next heated for some minutes to about 185° Fahr., to coagulate albuminous matter. The clear portion is subsequently separated as before, and the product preserved for use in well-closed and well-filled bottles, in a cool situation. Some plants, as borage, cabbage, &c., require the addition of 1/8 of water before being pressed. The expression of the juice of lemons, oranges, quinces, &c., is facilitated by previously mixing the pulp with clean chopped straw. Buckthorn berries, mulberries, &c., after being crushed between the hands, are commonly left for 3 or 4 days to undergo a slight fermentation before pressing them.

The expression of the juices of the narcotic plants, and of some other vegetables, has lately assumed considerable interest, from these juices being now extensively used in pharmacy for the preparation of extracts and the preserved juices, noticed below. It appears that the juice of young plants just coming into flower yield only 2/3 the amount of extract which may be obtained from the same quantity of juice expressed from the matured plant, or when the flowers are fully blown, and the strength of the product is also inferior; the case appears to be best met by selecting the plants when more than half the flowers are fully blown. The leaves alone should be preferably employed, and should be exclusively of the second year’s growth, when the plants are biennials. (Squire.) The homœopathists commonly employ the whole flowering herb.

The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (SUCCUS SPISSATIS) are now included among the extracts.

The principal simple vegetable juices of commerce are——

BUCKTHORN JUICE (SUCCUS RHAMNI——Ph. L.), from the fruit of _Rhamnus catharticus_, or buckthorn berries.

CITRON JUICE (SUCCUS CITRI), chiefly imported from Italy in large casks.

LEMON JUICE (SUCCUS LIMONUM), Ph. L. from lemons that spoil before they can be sold; also imported.

MULBERRY JUICE (SUCCUS MORI——Ph. L.), from the fruit of the mulberry.

ORANGE JUICE (SUCCUS AURANTII), obtained from the same source as that of lemons.

CONCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE (SUCCUS SPISSATIS AURANTII vel AURANTIORUM) and CONCENTRATED LEMON JUICE (SUCCUS SPISSATUS LIMONUM) are prepared by evaporating the fresh juices of oranges and lemons, either alone or mixed with sugar, and are employed as substitutes for the fruit, where the latter cannot be obtained.

2. (ALCOHOLISED VEGETABLE JUICES, PRESERVED V. J.; TINCTURES OF RECENT PLANTS; SUCCI ALCOHOLATI, L.; ALCOOLATURES, Fr.) _Prep._ _a._ The juice, obtained by powerful pressure, in the manner noticed above, is allowed to remain for 24 hours in a cold place, when the clear portion is decanted from the feculous matter which has subsided, and is then agitated with one half its volume of rectified spirit (56 o. p.); after another 24 hours the clear portion is again decanted and, if necessary, filtered through bibulous paper or linen. In this way are now generally prepared the preserved juices of aconite, belladonna, colchicum (corms), hemlock, henbane, foxglove, elaterium, lactuca virosa, taraxacum, &c., sold in this country.

_b._ (P. Cod.) To the fresh leaves, bruised in a marble mortar, is added an equal weight of rectified spirit, and after maceration for 15 days the whole is pressed, and the resulting tincture filtered. In this manner are prepared tinctures of the fresh leaves of aconite (tinctura aconiti cum foliis recentibus), belladonna, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, strong-scented lettuce (_Lactuca virosa_), stramonium, trailing poison oak (_Rhus toxicodendron_), mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_), colchicum (corms), squirting cucumber, white poppy, taraxacum, &c., of the Paris Codex.

_Obs._ These tinctures are much more powerful, and more certain in their operation, than those prepared from the dried plants. The commencing dose is from 2 to 5 drops, the effects of which should be carefully watched. The products of the first of the above formulæ keep as well as the ordinary tinctures, and there is less waste of spirit than with the second. That of the P. Cod. is, however, preferred by M. Soubeiran, as affording more uniform products; an opinion which is questionable. Béral orders equal weights of juice and spirit; Mr Squire recommends 1/2 part; Messrs Bentley & Davenport 1/4 part (both by volume), and Mr Gieseke only 1/5 part (by weight), of spirit to 1 part of the expressed juice. The homœopathists generally go with M. Béral. “Our own experience, which has been very considerable, and extends over upwards of 16 years, leads us to prefer the proportions given in formula _a_, which are similar to those of Mr Squire. If less spirit be employed, the product is apt to suffer rapid deterioration when kept in a warm shop or surgery.” (Cooley.)

3. (ETHERIZED VEGETABLE JUICES; SUCCI ÆTHERIZATI,——L.; ETHÉROLATURES, SUCS ÉTHÉRES, Fr.) For these we are indebted to M. Bouchardat. They are prepared as follows: Ether is gradually added to the depurated freshly expressed juice, until, after active agitation, a thin layer of it rises to the surface on the mixture being allowed to repose for a minute or two; the whole is then set aside for 24 hours, when the supernatant ether is expertly removed by means of a pipette or syringe, and the juice is filtered; lastly, the decanted ether is returned to the filtrate, and the etherised juice is at once put into well-stoppered bottles. For use, one of the bottles is reversed, and the dose taken from the lower part, so that the ether remains behind. We find, in practice, that decantation, carefully conducted, may be substituted for filtration; thus not only rendering the process less costly, but ensuring a more uniform product.

The etherised juices are said to retain their active properties for an indefinite period. The method has been successfully applied to the juices of aconite, anemone, black hellebore, and hemlock, and is probably applicable to many others; but, we think, not to the juices of all the narcotic plants, as has been asserted.

=Vegetable Fibres.= The following method for the identification of vegetable fibres is intended to supplement the information previously given on this subject. Its originator, M. Vetillard, applies it for distinguishing the fibres of linen, hemp, cotton, jute, China grass, and New Zealand flax. The following extract descriptive of the process is from the ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry’:——

“If a woven or spun fibre is to be examined it must first be disintegrated into the single fibres, and any colour or finish must be removed as completely as possible. Vertical and longitudinal microscopic sections are next made. These are rendered transparent by glycerin or chloride of calcium, and treated with tincture of iodine, made by simply dissolving iodine in a solution of iodide of potassium. The excess of this tincture is removed, a drop of dilute sulphuric acid added, and the sections examined by the aid of the microscope.

_Linen Fibre._——Bundles of similar fibres, with a fine canal in the centre, long, uniformly thick, and pointed at the ends. Longitudinal section; the fibres are coloured blue, the canal yellow. Cross section: regular polygons, loosely connected, coloured blue; centres yellow.

_Hemp._——Fibres aggravated; each fibre covered with a thin skin; coloured yellow. They are thick and less uniform than the linen fibres. The ends are thick and of the shape of spatulas, and become blue or greenish blue with iodine. Cross section: irregular polygons, firmly connected; rim yellow, the mass blue, the centre colourless.

_Cotton._——Longitudinal section: single fibres, spirally wound on their own axis, with a central canal and broad ends; coloured blue by iodine. The cross sections are rounded in the shape of kidneys, and coloured blue, with yellow spots interspersed.

_China Grass._——Longitudinal section: fibres separated lengthwise, of varying thickness. The interior canal is often filled with a yellow granular substance, which is coloured brown by iodine. The fibre is turned blue by iodine. Cross section: irregular, with re-entrant angles, and little cohesion. The fibres are stouter than all other fibres, and are turned blue by iodine.

_Jute._——Fibres strongly coherent, the ends undulating and difficult to separate. Central canal wide, empty, and gently rounded at the ends; coloured yellow. Cross section: polygons strongly coherent and regular, much like those of hemp, but the central opening is larger; coloured yellow, darker at the rim.

_New Zealand Flax._——Bundles of cells of the leaves, easily separated with a needle into stiff little fibres, provided with a canal of uniform width. The sides are rolled inwards, coloured yellow. The cross section resembles that of jute, but the corners of the polygons are rounded off. They are coloured yellow by iodine tincture.

=VEGETA′TION.= Vegetation (which is here employed in the sense of plants in general) is very unequally distributed over the earth’s surface. Thus, towards the poles plants are found, not only in diminished numbers compared to their occurrence in warmer and more temperate regions, but also of much smaller size or stunted growth. No plants at all are met in the regions of eternal frost and snow, whilst in equatorial climes they attain to the most gigantic proportions, and are possessed of the most exquisite colours and perfumes, and yield the finest fruits. The habitat of a plant will, of course, be that on which it finds the conditions favorable to its existence and growth, in the shape of soil, climate, moisture, geographical position, &c.

=VEGETATION (Metallic).= This name has been fancifully applied to the following:——

LEAD TREE; ARBOR SATURNI. Take of sugar of lead, 1 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint; acetic acid, a few drops; dissolve, place the liquid in a clear white glass bottle, and suspend a piece of zinc in it, by means of a fine thread.

SILVER TREE; ARBOR DIANÆ. From nitrate of silver, 20 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve in a phial, and add about 1/2 dr. of pure mercury.

TIN TREE; ARBOR JOVIS. From chloride of tin, 3 dr.; nitric acid, 10 to 15 drops; distilled or rain water, 1 pint; dissolve in a white glass bottle, and hang in it, by a thread, a small rod of zinc.

_Obs._ In the above experiments the metals are precipitated in a very beautiful arborescent form. It is curious to observe the laminæ shoot out, as it were, from nothing, assuming forms resembling real vegetation. This phenomenon results from voltaic action being set up between the liquid and the metal.

=VEGETO-AL′KALI.= See ALKALOID.

=VEL′LUM.= A fine kind of parchment prepared from the skins of calves, kids, and lambs. The skins are limed, shaved, washed, and stretched in hoops or other frames, where they are scraped and trimmed with the currier’s fleshing-knife, and next carefully rubbed down with pumice stone; they are, lastly, polished with finely powdered chalk or fresh-slaked lime, and then dried. A green colour is given with a solution of crystallised verdigris, to which a little cream of tartar and nitric acid has been added; and a blue colour, with a solution of indigo. The surface is often finished off with white of egg, and subsequent friction.

The skins of sheep are commonly used for parchment; those of he-goats and wolves for drum-heads; and those of the ass for battledores. The species of vellum used for church services by binders is said to be prepared from pig-skins. See POUNCE.

=VEL′VET COLOURS.= _Syn._ MAP STAINS, PAPER S.; LACCA FLUIDA, L. _Prep._ 1. (BLUE.)——_a._ Dissolve litmus in water, and add 1/3 of spirit of wine.——_b._ Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralise the acid with chalk.——_c._ To an aqueous infusion of litmus add a few drops of vinegar, until it turns of a full blue.

2. (GREEN.)——_a._ Dissolve crystallised verdigris in water.——_b._ Dissolve sap green in water, and add a little alum.——_c._ Add a little salt of tartar to a blue or purple solution of litmus, until it turns green.——_d._ Dissolve equal parts of crystallised verdigris and cream of tartar in water.

3. (PURPLE.)——_a._ Steep litmus in water, and strain the solution.——_b._ Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwood.——_c._ Add a solution of carmine (red) to a little blue solution of litmus or Saxon blue.

4. (RED.)——_a._ Macerate ground Brazil wood in vinegar, boil a few minutes, strain, and add a little alum and gum.——_b._ Add vinegar to an infusion of litmus until it turns red.——_c._ Boil or infuse powdered cochineal in water containing a little ammonia or sal volatile.——_d._ Dissolve carmine in liquor of ammonia, or in weak carbonate of potash water; the former is superb.

5. (YELLOW.)——_a._ Dissolve gamboge in water, and add a little alum.——_b._ Dissolve gamboge in equal parts of proof spirit and water. Golden coloured.——_c._ Steep French berries in boiling water, strain, and add a little alum.——_d._ Steep turmeric, round zedoary, gamboge, or annotta, in a weak ley of subcarbonate of soda or potash.

_Obs._ The preceding, thickened with a little gum, are used as inks for writing, as colours to tint maps, foils, paper, artificial flowers, &c., and to paint on velvet. Some of them are very beautiful. Those containing litmus are, however, fugitive. It must be observed that those made with strong spirit do not mix well with gum water, unless somewhat diluted with water. Any other transparent colours or stains may be employed for painting on velvet, as well as the above.

=VELVET LEAF.= _Syn._ PAREIRA BRAVA, PAREIRA (Ph. L., E., & D.) L. “The root of _Cissampelos pareira_” (Ph. L.), white pareira or velvet leaf. It is tonic, aperient, and diuretic.——_Dose_, 20 to 60 grains; in chronic and purulent inflammation and extreme irritability of the bladder; in leucorrhœa, dropsy, ulceration of the kidney, &c.

=VENESECTION.= The practice of venesection, bloodletting, or phlebotomy, as it is variously denominated, has within the last thirty or forty years been nearly banished from medical practice. It seems very evident that prior to the above period medical practitioners were in the habit of resorting to venesection to an unwise extent, and in cases which the progress of modern pathology has shown it to be wholly inapplicable.

There are, we believe, some practitioners who, whilst admitting the evils arising from its misapplication and abuse, still advocate its occasional and judicious employment.

Because of the dangers that beset the operation when performed by a tyro, we forbear to give any particulars as to the method of carrying it out. The veins of the arm are those always invariably opened in venesection, although the operation may be performed on many other superficial veins.

=VEN′ISON.= The flesh of several species of deer. That from good land, killed at the proper season, and eaten in a moderately fresh state, is most easily digestible, and, perhaps, the most wholesome, of all the red meats; but when it is ‘high,’ or in a state of incipient putrefaction, it is far from wholesome, and often poisonous.

=VENO BENO (La).= See TEA.

=VENOM.= Drs Brunton and Fayrer, who have devoted many years to the study of the nature and physiological action of snake poisons, state that there appears to be some resemblance in the action of the venom or virus of the cobra, _Naja tripudians_, and of curara, the arrow-poison of the Indians; both poisons causing death by paralysing the respiratory organs.

Dr Armstrong, who has analysed the cobra poison, has not been enabled to isolate from it any crystalline principle. From its reactions he concludes that its chief ingredient is an albuminoid substance.

Dr Armstrong obtained a white precipitate from the poison by treating it with absolute alcohol, and also prepared an alcoholic extract from it.

He gives the following as the composition of the three substances. The albumen is appended for comparison:——

Crude Alcoholic Alcoholic Albumen. Poison. Precipitate. extract. Carbon 43·55 45·76 43·04 53·5 Nitrogen 43·30 14·30 12·45 15·7 Hydrogen ... 6·60 7·00 7·1 Sulphur ... 2·50 ... ... Ash ... Traces.

“But although there is little difference between the composition of the alcoholic precipitate and extract, there is an immense difference between their physiological action, the extract being a virulent poison, the precipitate almost inert. This is notably different from what has been stated by Dr Weir Mitchell respecting the poison of the rattlesnake, viz., that the alcoholic precipitate is active, whilst the extract is inert.”[255]

[Footnote 255: “Royal Society’s Proceedings,” ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

=VENTILA′TION.= The proper ventilation of our habitations, as well as of other buildings in which we pass any considerable portion of our time, is quite as necessary to health as food and clothing. Lavoisier, writing in the middle of the last century, remarks——“It is certain that mankind degenerate when employed in sedentary manufactures, or living in crowded houses, or in the narrow lanes of large cities; whereas they improve in their nature and constitution in most of the country labours which are carried on in the open air.” Yet many persons, by the care which they take to shut out fresh air, and to prevent the escape of that which their own bodies, by pulmonary and surfacial respiration, have contaminated, would seem to hug to themselves the discomfort of breathing over and over again an impure and unrefreshing atmosphere, and to be anxious to finish their career by lingering suicide. The almost universal indifference to the subject, considering its importance, is unaccountable.

The first step towards effecting and maintaining a liberal supply of fresh air is either by means of ventilators or by regularly opening the windows for stated periods daily. During the colder portions of the year, when fires are kept burning, and there is an up-current in the chimney, nothing is so simple and effective as the well-known chimney-valve of Dr Arnott; and, indeed, without this, open fires are powerful instruments of ventilation. In cold weather, where expense is not an object, the apartments may be supplied with air that has been previously warmed by passing through a heated chamber, on the principle recommended by Dr Reid; but care must be taken that, in warming the air, we do not overheat it, nor contaminate it.

A sufficient supply of light, another powerful sanitary agent, is now regarded as nearly as essential as thorough ventilation, and the two are commonly treated of together. According to Palladio, the opening of windows should not exceed a fourth, nor be less than a fifth, of the length of the side of a room, and should be in height two and one sixth times the width. Mr Gwilt, another high authority on this subject, has given as a definite rule, that we should allow 1 square foot of glass to every 100 cubic feet of space in any apartment or inclosure. A great deal must, however, depend on the shape of the apartment; but, in all cases, care should be taken that the windows are placed at the longest side of the room, and not at the narrowest, or the end of it. A southern aspect affords the most light and heat; a northern one the most diffused and least variable light, and is hence usually chosen by artists for their studios.

=VERA′TRINE.= C_{32}H_{52}N_{2}O_{8} _Syn._ VERATRIA, VERATRINA, SABADILLINE; VERATRIA (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, in the seeds of _Asagreæ officinalis_ (sabadilla), and in the rhizomes of _Veratrum album_ (white hellebore).

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Digest sabadilla seeds in boiling water for 24 hours, then squeeze them, dry them thoroughly by a gentle heat, beat them in a mortar, and separate the seeds from the capsules by agitation in a deep and narrow vessel; next grind the seeds in a coffee-mill, and exhaust them by percolation with rectified spirit; concentrate the resulting tincture by distillation, so long as no deposit forms, and pour the residuum, whilst still hot, into 12 times its volume of cold water; then filter through calico, and wash the residuum on the filter as long as the washings yield a precipitate with ammonia; unite the filtered liquid with the washings, add ammonia in excess, collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it slightly with cold water, and dry it first by imbibition with filtering paper, and then in the vapour bath. “The product is not pure, but sufficiently so for medical use. From this coloured substance it may be obtained white, but at considerable loss, by solution in very weak hydrochloric acid, decolorisation with animal charcoal, and reprecipitation with ammonia.”

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) This is the same in principle as the last; a tincture is formed by boiling the seeds in rectified spirit, which is then evaporated to a syrup, dissolved in very dilute sulphuric acid, the veratrine precipitated with, magnesia, redissolved in very dilute acid, treated with animal charcoal, the filtrate again evaporated to a syrup, and precipitated with ammonia; it is, lastly, washed and dried.

3. By means of ether, as noticed under ALKALOID and ACONITINE. This is by far the best method.

4. (B. P.) Cevadilla, 2 lbs.; distilled water, q. s.; rectified spirit, q. s.; solution of ammonia, q. s.; hydrochloric acid, q. s.; purified animal charcoal, 60 gr. Macerate the cevadilla with half its weight of boiling distilled water in a covered vessel for 24 hours. Remove the cevadilla, squeeze it, and dry it thoroughly with a gentle heat. Beat it now in a mortar and separate the seeds from the capsules by brisk agitation in a deep narrow vessel, or by winnowing it gently on a table with a sheet of paper.

Grind the seeds in a coffee mill, and form them into a thick paste with rectified spirit.

Pack this firmly in a percolator, and pass rectified spirit through it till the spirit ceases to be coloured. Concentrate the spirituous solution by distillation, so long as no deposit forms, and pour the residue, while hot, into 12 times its volume of cold distilled water. Filter through calico, and wash the residue on the filter with distilled water, till the fluid ceases to precipitate with ammonia. To the united filtered liquid add the ammonia in slight excess, let the precipitate completely subside, pour off the supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with distilled water till the fluid passes colourless. Diffuse the moist precipitate through 12 oz. of distilled water, and add gradually, with diligent stirring, sufficient hydrochloric acid to make the fluid feebly but persistently acid.

Then add the animal charcoal, digest at a gentle heat for 20 minutes, filter, and allow the liquid to cool. Add ammonia in slight, excess, and when the precipitate has completely subsided, pour off the supernatant liquid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with cold distilled water till the washings cease to be affected by nitrate of silver accidental with nitric acid. Lastly, dry the precipitate, first by imbibition, with filtering paper, and then by the application of a gentle heat.

_Prop._ Pure veratrine is perfectly white; but as usually met with, it is a yellowish or greenish-white powder; it is highly acrid; uncrystallisable; scarcely soluble in water, soluble in ether, and freely soluble in hot alcohol; heated to about 125° Fahr., it fuses like wax, and solidifies, upon cooling, to a transparent yellow mass. With the dilute acid it forms salts, which are either amorphous or difficulty crystallisable. The smallest possible portion of its powder causes violent sneezing.

_Tests._ 1. Potassa, ammonia, and their carbonates, give flocculent white precipitates which at first are not crystalline under the microscope, but which, after some minutes, assume the appearance of small scattered clusters of short prismatic crystals; they are insoluble in excess of potassa and its carbonate, and only very slightly so in excess of ammonia.——2. With sulphuric acid it strikes an intense red colour, changing afterwards to crimson, and finally to violet.——3. A dilute acetic solution of veratrine is turned to a superb red by strong sulphuric acid.

Veratrine is distinguished from brucine and the other alkaloids by its fusibility——by the crystalline form of its precipitate with potassa, and——by its reaction with oil of vitriol.

_Uses, &c._ “As an external application, it has been efficaciously employed by Magendie in France, and by Dr Turnbull in this country; but the extravagant eulogies of the latter have not tended to confirm the reputation of this remedy.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.) From 6 to 12 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, as a liniment; or 30 gr., mixed with 1 dr. of olive oil, and 1 oz. of lard, as an ointment, have been occasionally found very serviceable in neuralgia, and other like painful affections, and in gouty and rheumatic paralysis. As an internal remedy it possesses no advantage, as it merely acts as a violent and depressing cathartic.——_Dose_, 1/24 to 1/16 gr. In larger doses it acts as a powerful irritant poison. For antidotes, &c., see ALKALOID.

=VERA′TRUM.= See WHITE HELLEBORE.

=VER′DIGRIS.= _Syn._ ÆRUGO, L.; VERT-DE-GRIS, Fr. This is a mixture of several basic acetates of copper which have a green or blue colour. It is obtained in the wine districts of the south of Europe, by the action of refuse grapes, from which the juice has been expressed, on thin sheets of copper. When pure it should dissolve, almost entirely, and without effervescence, in dilute sulphuric acid. It is very poisonous; for antidotes, see COPPER.

An inferior quality of verdigris is now prepared from pommage, or apple marc, in the cider districts of England.

=Verdigris, Distilled.= _Syn._ CRYSTALLISED VERDIGRIS. This name is applied to the normal acetate of copper, which is prepared in the wine districts by dissolving ordinary verdigris, 1 part, in good distilled vinegar, 2 parts; the operation being performed in a copper vessel by the aid of a gentle heat and agitation; the solution is afterwards slowly evaporated until a pedicle begins to form on the surface, when it is transferred into glazed earthen pans (‘oulas’), in each of which are placed 2 or 3 cleft sticks, and it is then left in a warm apartment for 14 or 15 days to crystallise.

A spurious article is often prepared by adding a solution of sulphate of copper, 12-1/2 lbs. to a solution of sugar of lead, 19 lbs., or q. s., and filtering, evaporating, and crystallising the mixture.

There is an acetate of copper and lime which resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was manufactured pretty extensively in Scotland some years ago, and fetched a high price, till Dr Ure published an analysis of it in the ‘Edin. Phil. Trans.’ It is much inferior for all uses in the arts.

Pure distilled verdigris is entirely soluble in water, and is not precipitated on the addition of sulphuric acid or of ammonia in excess.

=Verdigris, English.= _Prep._ Blue vitriol, 24 lbs.; white vitriol, 16 lbs.; sugar of lead, 12 lbs.; alum, 2 lbs. (all coarsely powdered); mix, and heat them in a pot over the fire until they unite into a mass. Sold by fraudulent dealers for foreign verdigris.

=VER′DITER.= _Syn._ BLUE VERDITER, REFINER’S VERDITER; CENDRES BLEUES, Fr. A blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk, whiting, or milk of lime, to a solution of copper in nitric acid; or, by triturating recently precipitated and still moist carbonate of oxide of copper with hydrate of lime.

_Prep._ A quantity of whiting or milk of lime is put into a tub, and upon this the solution of copper is poured; the mixture is stirred every day for some hours together, until the liquor loses its colour; it is then poured off, and more solution of copper added; this is repeated until the whiting or lime has acquired the proper colour; the whole is then washed with water, drained, spread on chalk stones, and dried in the sun.

_Obs._ The cupreous solution employed in the above process is made by neutralising the nitric solution obtained from the refiners of gold and silver, by heating it along with metallic copper. For the finer qualities of verditer the lime should be of the purest kind, and the cupreous precipitate should be carefully triturated with it, after it is nearly dry, by which a fine velvety appearance is produced. The ‘cendres bleues en pâtes’ of the French differ from the above mainly in a solution of chloride of copper being employed, and in the resulting green precipitate being turned blue by the action of carbonate of potassa. Verditer is made into crayons whilst moist, or dried into a powder, or it is used as a water colour in the moist state.

=Verditer, Green.= _Syn._ BREMEN GREEN. The process for refiner’s verditer frequently miscarries, and a green colour is produced instead of a blue one. It may also be obtained directly by omitting the ‘blueing up’ with carbonate of potassa, mentioned above.

=VER′JUICE.= _Syn._ AGRESTA, OMPHACIUM, L. The expressed juice of unripe grapes. The term is also often extended to the expressed juice of the wild or crab apple. It was formerly used as an astringent and refrigerant in medicine; but it is now principally employed as an ingredient in sauces, ragoûts, &c.

=VERMICEL′LI.= This, like macaroni, is prepared from a stiff paste made of a peculiar fine kind of granular wheat flour, called semoule, which is mixed up with hot water, and, after being well kneaded, is formed into small ribands, cylinders, or tubes, by being placed in a vertical cylinder press, the bottom of which is filled with proper-shaped holes, through which it is driven by an iron plate or ‘follower’ being forced down by a powerful screw. The pieces that protrude are broken off, twisted into any desired shape upon paper, and dried. Those in the form of fillets or ribands are called ‘lazagnes.’ Vermicelli contains a large amount of gluten, and is extremely nutritious, although slightly less digestible than the ordinary wheaten foods. See MACARONI.

=VER′MIFUGES.= _Syn._ ANTHELMINTICS; ANTHELMINTICA, HELMINTHAGOGA, VERMIFUGA, L. Medicines employed to destroy or expel intestinal worms. Some of these, as coarsely powdered tin and iron filings and cowhage, act as mechanical agents, by irritating the worms; others have a specific action upon worms, as male fern, kousso, santonin, &c.; others, again, owe their power to their action as purgatives, as calomel, gamboge, jalap, &c. See WORMS.

=VERMIL′ION.= _Syn._ FACTITIOUS CINNABAR, RED SULPHIDE OF MERCURY, RED SULPHURET OF MERCURY. This article may be prepared both in the moist and dry way; that of commerce is almost entirely obtained by the latter.

_Prep._ 1. By sublimation. Take of pure mercury, 202 parts; pure sulphur, 33 parts; fuse them together by a gentle heat, observing not to allow the mass to take fire; when fused, cover over the vessel, and, when the whole has become cold, powder the mass, and sublime it in a closed vessel, so placed in a furnace that the flame may freely circulate and play upon it to about half its height, the heat being at first gradually applied, and afterwards augmented until the lower part of the subliming vessel becomes red hot; the cold sublimate is broken into pieces, ground along with water to a fine powder, elutriated, passed through a sieve, and dried. _Prod._ Fully 112% of the weight of the mercury employed.

2. In the humid way. (Brunner.) Take of pure quicksilver, 300 parts; pure sublimed sulphur, 114 parts; triturate them together for several hours, until a perfect ‘ethiops’ is formed, add gradually of caustic potassa, 75 parts, (dissolved in) water, 450 parts; continue the trituration for some time longer, then gently heat the mixture in an iron vessel, at first constantly stirring, but afterwards only from time to time, observing to keep the beat at about 113°, or, at all events, under 122° Fahr., and to add fresh water, to compensate for the portion evaporated. When the colour begins to redden, great caution is requisite to preserve the mixture at the lower temperature, and to keep the sulphuret of mercury perfectly pulverulent; as soon as the colour becomes nearly ‘fine,’ the process must be conducted with increased caution, and at a lower heat for some hours, or until a rich colour is produced, when the newly-formed vermilion must be elutriated with water, to separate any particles of metallic mercury, and carefully dried. _Prod._ 332 parts of vermilion, equal in brilliancy to the finest Chinese.

_Obs._ It has been said that the rich tone of Chinese vermilion may be imitated by adding to the materials 1% of sulphuret of antimony, and by digesting the ground sublimate, first in a solution or sulphuret of potassium, and next in diluted hydrochloric acid, after which it must be well edulcorated with water, and dried. Our own belief is, that the finer qualities of vermilion owe their superiority of shade more to the care bestowed on their sublimation, and the extent to which their division is carried, than to anything else.

Vermilion is a beautiful and permanent red pigment, and works and covers well both in oil and water.

=VERMIN.= This term has rather a large application, since, although it is generally understood to be applied to rats, mice, and certain parasitic insects infesting the dwellings and sometimes the bodies of men, it is extended by the farmer, the gardener, and the breeder of game, to those creatures from the depredations of which these three classes suffer pecuniary loss. Hence it embraces not only foxes and polecats, but weasels, stoats, hedgehogs, owls, hawks, kites, carrion crows, magpies, wood-pigeons, hares, rabbits, rooks, moles, and small birds.

Whilst the attempted partial destruction of any of the classes of animals or birds above specified may be regarded as of doubtful value, there can be no question about the practice when it is carried to the verge of extermination.

In this latter case the balance of nature is interfered with, and the system of checks which she has established for the prevention of the undue preponderance of one tribe of the animal kingdom over the other being interfered with, the result will be the undue propagation of particular species inimical to the operations of the husbandman, &c.

As illustrating this, we may mention the destruction to various crops in France caused some years ago by the ravages of certain grubs and insects, the unusual increase in the numbers of which was clearly traced to the foolish practice, amongst French farmers, of shooting all the small birds. See BUG, LOUSE, RATS.

=VERT′IGO.= Dizziness and swimming of the head. In its more serious forms there is more or less mental confusion, the objects around the patient appear in motion, the ears are oppressed with strange sounds, and visible illusions are experienced, whether the eyes be closed or open, and in darkness as well as in the light. The causes are fulness of the vessels of the head, nervous derangement, general debility, hæmorrhage, the use of narcotics, an overloaded stomach, and, in some cases, an empty one. It is also frequently symptomatic of fevers and inflammations, and of a condition threatening apoplexy. The treatment must be varied, according to the cause and the peculiar habit or condition of the patient.

=VES′ICANTS.= _Syn._ EPISPASTICS; EPISPASTICA, VESICANTIA, L. Substances which vesicate or raise blisters. Among these are the cantharis or blistering fly, mezereon, croton oil, boiling water, &c.; the first only of which is now in common use in England.

“It is a principle sufficiently established with regard to the living system, that, where a morbid action exists, it may often be removed by inducing an action of a different kind, in the same or a neighbouring part. On this principle is explained the utility of blisters in local inflammation and spasmodic action, and it regulates their application in pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis, angina, rheumatism, colic, and spasmodic affections of the stomach——diseases in which they are employed with the most marked advantage. A similar principle exists with respect to pain; exciting one pain often relieves another. Hence blisters often give relief in toothache, and some other painful affections. Lastly, blisters, by their operation, communicate a stimulus to the whole system, and raise the vigour of the circulation. Hence, in part, their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind, though in such cases they are used with still more advantage to obviate or remove local inflammation.” (‘Med. Lex.’)

Blisters are commonly prepared with cantharides plaster, or with some other preparation of cantharides; and, in the former case, are usually lightly covered with the powdered fly. In order to prevent the action of the cantharides upon the mucous membrane of the bladder, blistering plasters are often sprinkled with a little powdered camphor, or, better still, are moistened with camphorated ether, which leaves a thin layer of camphor. In all these cases the layer should not be too thick, for in that case the plaster would not take effect.

When it is not wished to maintain a discharge from the blistered part, it is sufficient to make a puncture in the vesicle, to let out the fluid; but when the case requires the blister to be ‘kept open,’ as it is called, the whole of the detached cuticle is carefully removed with a pair of scissors, and the part is dressed with either the ointment of cantharides or of savine, at first more or less diluted with lard, or simple ointment, with an occasional dressing of resin cerate. According to Mr Crowther, the blistered surface is best kept clean by daily fomentation with warm water.

Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant effects occasionally arising from the common blister, various compounds having cantharides for their base have been brought before the public. Of these, the vesicating collodion noticed under COLLODION is the most convenient and effective. The following also deserve notice:——

1. Take of cantharides, in fine powder, 2 parts; spermaceti, 2 parts; olive oil, 4 parts; white wax, 8 parts; water, 10 parts; simmer, with constant agitation, for 2 hours, strain through flannel, separate the plaster from the water, gently remelt it with common turpentine, 1 part, and spread the mass whilst still fluid. This nearly resembles the form recommended by MM. Henry and Guibourt.

2. (P. Cod.) Distil off the ether from a concentrated ethereal tincture of cantharides, melt the oily residue with twice its weight of white wax, and spread the mixture on thin oiled silk, or on cloth, prepared with wax plaster.

3. (Oettinger.) Cantharidal ether (prepared from cantharides, l part; ether 2 parts), and sulphuric ether, of each 10 dr.; turpentine and black resin, of each 2-1/2 dr.; mix, dissolve, and apply it to the surface of stretched silk or taffeta which has been previously prepared with two coatings of a solution of isinglass.

4. (CHARTA EPISPASTICA, B. P.). Digest 4 oz. of white wax, 1-1/2 oz. spermaceti, 2 oz. fluid of olive oil, 3 oz. of resin, 1 oz. of cantharides in powder, and distilled water 6 oz., in a water bath for two hours, stirring constantly, strain, and separate the plaster from the watery liquid. Mix 1/4 oz. fl. of Canada balsam with the plaster, melted in a shallow vessel, and pass strips of paper over the hot liquid, so that one surface of the paper shall receive a thin coating of plaster. It may be convenient to employ paper, ruled in square inches.

5. (CHARTA SINAPIS, B. P.) Black mustard seeds, in powder, 1 oz.; solution of gutta percha, 2 oz., or q. s. Mix so as to make a semi-fluid, and having poured this into a shallow flat-bottom vessel, such as a dinner plate, pass strips of cartridge paper ever its surface, so that one side of the paper shall receive a thin coating of the mixture. Then lay the paper on a table, with the coated side upwards, and let it remain exposed to the air until the coating has hardened. Before being applied let the mustard paper be immersed for a few seconds in tepid water.

6. (VESICATING SPARADRAP, P. Cod.) Gum elini, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 oz.; basilicon ointment, 2-1/4 oz.; resin, 1 oz.; yellow wax, 3-3/4 oz.; cantharides, in fine powder, 4-1/4 oz. Melt the first five substances together, and stir in the cantharides; when sufficiently cold, and well mixed, spread on waxed strips of linen.

_Obs._ The above compounds are spread on leather, linen, paper, silk, oiled silk, taffeta, &c., and then form the numerous compounds vended under the names of——blistering tissue, rannus vesicatorius, papier epispastique, sparadrapum vesicatorium, taffetas vesicans, tela vesicatoria, &c.

Acetic extract of cantharides, croton oil, or extract of mezereon, is sometimes substituted for the ethereal extract ordered in the above formulæ.

The ‘papier epispastique’ of Vée is prepared of three strengths, which are respectively distinguished by the colours white, green, and red. The composition is made by boiling powdered cantharides for an hour with water, lard, and green ointment, or with lard coloured with alkanet root, adding white wax to the strained fats, and spreading the mixture whilst fluid:——No. 1 is made with 10 oz. of cantharides to 4 lbs. of lard; No. 2 of 1 lb. of cantharides to 8 lbs. of green ointment; and No. 3, of 1-1/2 lb. of flies to 8 lbs. of reddened lard. To each are added 2 lbs. of white wax. (Dorvault.)

The magistral blister of Valleix is a revival of the vesicating epithem. See BLISTER, CANTHARIDES, COLLODION, &c., and _below_.

=VESICA′TION.= The formation of a blister is a vital process, and its success may be taken as a proof of the presence of life. Hence a French physician, Dr Mandl, has suggested such a stimulation of the skin as would ordinarily cause a blister as a test of life, in those cases of long-continued trance which we occasionally hear of, where all the functions of life seem to be extinct. Dr Mandl’s plan is to apply a stick of lunar caustic. The application of a little strong vinegar of cantharides, or other cantharidal blister, of the size of a sixpenny piece, or of two or three spoonfuls of boiling water by means of a bent tube of like diameter, is however, more certain and satisfactory.

=VESICA′TORIN.= _Syn._ CANTHARIDIN, CANTHARIDINA, CANTHARIDES CAMPHOR. The blistering principle of Spanish flies, discovered by M. Robiquet.

_Prep._ 1. (P. Cod.) Exhaust powdered cantharides with concentrated alcohol by percolation; distil off the spirit from the filtered tincture, and leave the residuum to deposit crystals; these may be purified by dissolving them in boiling alcohol, digestion with animal charcoal, filtration whilst hot, and crystallising by refrigeration.

2. (Thierry.) Macerate cantharides (in coarse powder) for several days in ether, in a closed displacement apparatus; then, after the whole of the soluble matter has been extracted by the addition of fresh portions of ether, pour on sufficient water to displace the retained ether; next distil off the ether, dissolve the remaining extract in boiling alcohol, filter while hot, and abandon the filtrate to spontaneous evaporation. _Prod._ ·5%.

3. Digest the aqueous extract of cantharides in hot alcohol, filter, evaporate to dryness, digest the residuum in sulphuric ether, evaporate, and slightly wash the resulting crystals with cold alcohol.

_Prop., &c._ Micaceous plates resembling spermaceti; fusible; vaporisable; insoluble in water; soluble in ether, oils, acetic acid, and hot alcohol; powerfully vesicant and poisonous. Its vapour, even at ordinary temperatures, frequently produces temporary blindness. The 1-100th part of a grain, placed on a piece of paper, and applied to the edge of the lower lip, caused small blisters in 15 minutes, which, when rubbed with a little simple cerate, extended over a large surface, and covered both lips with blisters. (Robiquet.)

=VETCH.= The common name of various leguminous plants of the genera _Vicia_ and _Ervum_, now much cultivated as green fodder for milch cows and working stock. The seeds (tares) were formerly reputed detersive and astringent. Those of “the Canadian variety make good bread.” (Lindley.)

=VET′ERINARY MEDICINES.= The common form of medicine for horses is that popularly known as horse balls. They are usually prepared by mixing the dry ingredients, in the state of powder, with a sufficient quantity of treacle, or syrup bottoms, to give the mass a proper consistence for rolling into balls; adding, when necessary, linseed meal, or any other simple powder, to increase the bulk. The usual practice among the veterinary druggists is to keep a compound known in the trade as ‘ball-mass,’ or ‘common mass,’ ready prepared to give form and bulk to more active ingredients. This is usually made of about equal parts of linseed meal and treacle, together with a little palm or lard, thoroughly incorporated by kneading with the hands; and it is kept in a cool situation, tied over to prevent it drying and hardening. For use, the ball-masses are either rolled or moulded into small cylinders of about 1-1/2 to 1-3/4 oz. in weight; and in size, from 2 to 2-3/4 inches long, and from about 1/2 to 7/8 of an inch in diameter; and they are wrapped in soft paper, which is administered with them. Those for dogs are commonly formed into large boluses or nut-like pieces. The common practice in some houses of adding a little salt of tartar or acetate of potassa to ball-masses kept in stock, for the purpose of preserving them in a soft state, is not to be commended, since these articles decompose many of the saline and mineral compounds which are subsequently added to them.

Medicines for neat cattle are always administered in a liquid form, popularly called drenches. A similar plan is adopted with small cattle, as sheep and goats. For these, however, the quantity should seldom exceed 1/4 pint. In all cases, drenches should be very slowly administered.

The following are a few useful horse-balls:

=Alterative Balls.=——1. Levigated sulphide of antimony, sulphur, and linseed meal, of each 3 oz.; nitre, 4 oz.; palm oil, q. s. to form a mass; for 12 balls. One to be taken every day, or every other day.

2. (Bell.) Sulphide of antimony, nitre, sulphur, and Æthiops mineral, of each 3 oz.; soft soap, 10 oz.; oil of juniper, 1/2 oz.; for 12 balls. As the last.

3. (White.) Sulphide of antimony, caraways, and treacle, of each 1/4 oz.; for one ball. As the last.

CORDIAL BALLS.——1. (Blaine). Coriander seed, caraway, and gentian, of each 8 oz.; ginger, 4 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; honey or palm oil, q. s. to form a mass. Cordial, warming, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 1-1/2 oz.

2. (Hill.) Anise, caraway, and cumin seed, of each 4 lbs.; ginger, 2 lbs.; treacle, q. s.; divide into 1-3/4 oz. balls. _Prod._ 21 lbs.

COUGH BALLS.——1. (Blaine.) Ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; camphor 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to form a ball. One night and morning.

2. (B. Clark.) Emetic tartar and benzoin, of each 2 dr.; squills, 4 dr.; spermaceti and balsam of copaiba, of each 1 oz.; elecampane and sulphur, of each 2 oz.; syrup of poppies, q. s. to mix; for 8 balls. As the last.

DIURETIC BALLS.——1. (Bracy Clark.) Nitre and common turpentine, of each 1 lb.; Castile soap, 1/2 lb.; barley meal, 2-1/2 lbs., or q. s. For common-sized balls.

2. (Morton.) Digitalis 1 oz.; aloes, 2 oz.; liquorice, 13 oz.; honey or Barbadoes tar, q. s. to mix; for 1-oz. balls. One, twice a day with care.

PHYSIC BALLS, PURGING B., CATHARTIC B.——1. Aloes and hard soap, of each 5 oz.; salt of tartar and cayenne pepper, of each 1 oz.; melt together. For 8 balls.

2. (Vet. Coll.)——_a._ (Common physic ball.) Aloes, 8 oz.; treacle, 3 oz.; olive oil, 1 oz.; melted together.——_Dose_, 1 to 1-1/2 oz.

_b._ (Stronger ball.) To each dose of the last, add of croton oil, 4 to 8 drops.

=Obs.= The _dose_ of the above is 1 ball, fasting in the morning, preceded by a bran mash, on one or two successive nights, and followed by gentle exercise until the ball begins to operate.

WORM BALLS.——1. Barbadoes aloes, 5 dr.; calomel and ginger, of each 2 dr.; oil of cloves, 12 drops; treacle, q. s. for a ball.

2. (J. Bell & Co.) Barbadoes aloes, 5 to 8 dr.; powdered tin,Æthiops mineral, and ginger, of each 2 dr.; oils of aniseed and savine, of each 20 drops; treacle, q. s. for a ball.

3. (Clater.) Sulphur and emetic tartar, of each 1 dr.; linseed meal, 4 dr.; palm oil, q. s. to form a ball. One every morning, having prepared the animal with a physic ball containing 1 dr. of calomel. See BALLS; also Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopœia.’

=VIN′EGAR.= _Syn._ ACETUM, L.; VINAIGRE, Fr. Dilute acetic acid, more or less contaminated with gum, sugar and vegetable matter.

1. MALT VINEGAR; ACETUM, BRITISH VINEGAr (B. P.); ACETUM BRITTANNICUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. This is the ordinary coloured vinegar consumed in this country, and is correctly described in the Ph. L. as “impure (dilute) acetic acid, prepared by fermentation from an infusion of malt (malt-wort).”

In the manufacture of MALT VINEGAR a mixture of malt and barley is mashed with hot water, and the resulting wort fermented, as in the common process of brewing. The liquor is then run into barrels, placed endways, tied over with coarse canvas, and arranged side by side in darkened chambers, moderately heated by a stove, and freely supplied with air. Here it remains till the acetous fermentation is nearly complete, which usually occupies several weeks, or even months. The newly formed vinegar is next run off into two large tuns, furnished with false bottoms, on which some ‘rape’ (the pressed cake from making domestic wines, or the green twigs or cuttings of vines) is placed. One of these vessels is wholly, and the other only about 3-4ths, filled. The fermentation recommences, and the acetification proceeds more rapidly in the latter than in the former tun, and the liquor it contains consequently matures the sooner. When fit for sale, a portion of the vinegar is withdrawn from the smaller quantity, and its place supplied with a like quantity from the full tun, and this in its turn is refilled from the barrels before noticed. This process is carried on with a number of tuns at once, which are all worked in pairs.

_Prop., &c._, The general properties of malt vinegar are well known. Its pleasant and refreshing odour is chiefly derived from acetic acid and acetic ether. Its strength is distinguished by the makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 24; the last of which, also called ‘proof vinegar,’ is the strongest, and usually contains about 4·6% of real or about 5% of glacial acetic acid. Its density varies according to the quantity of foreign matter which it contains. Sp. gr. 1·017 to 1·019——B. P. This vinegar usually contains a small quantity of sulphuric acid. The presence of 1-1000th part of this acid is allowed by law.

_Pur._ “Brownish; of a peculiar odour. Its sp. gr. is 1·019. 1 fl. oz. of the acid is saturated by 1 dr. of the crystals of carbonate of soda. If, after 10 minims of solution of chloride of barium have been added to the same quantity, more of the chloride be poured into the filtered acid, nothing further is thrown down. The colour is not changed by the addition of hydrosulphuric acid.” (Ph. L.)

2. WINE VINEGAR, FRENCH V.; ACETUM GALLICUM (Ph. E. & D.), A. VINI, L.; VINAIGRE D’ORLEANS, Fr. This is prepared, in wine countries, from grape juice and inferior new wines, worked up with wine-lees, by a nearly similar process to that adopted for malt vinegar. That prepared from white wine (WHITE-WINE VINEGAR) is the most esteemed. It is purer and pleasanter than malt vinegar. Sp. gr. 1·014 to 1·022——Ph. E.; 1·016——Phillips. It usually contains from 5 to 6% of acetic acid. “100 parts of good Orleans vinegar should require 10 parts of dry carbonate of potassa for saturation.” (Soubeiran.)

3. GERMAN, OR QUICK-METHOD OF MAKING VINEGAR; PROCESS OF HAM. This method is based upon the fact, that acetification is the mere oxidation of alcohol in contact with organic matter. Hence, by employing dilute alcohol, or liquors containing it, and by vastly enlarging the surface of the liquid exposed to the air at a proper temperature, we may reduce the period occupied in acetification from weeks to as many hours. In practice this is effected by causing the dilute spirit, previously mixed with 1-1000th part of sugar or malt extract, or the fermented and clarified malt-wort, to slowly trickle down through a mass of beech shavings steeped in vinegar, and contained in a vessel called a vinegar generator (essigbilder), or graduation vessel. This is an oaken tub, narrower at the bottom than at the top, furnished with a loose lid or cover, below which is a perforated shelf (colander or false bottom), having a number of small holes, which are loosely filled with packthread about 6 inches long, and prevented from falling through by a knot at the upper end. The shelf is also perforated with four open glass tubes, as air-vents, each having its ends projecting above and below the shelf. This arrangement is repeated a second and a third time, or even oftener, according to the size of the vessel. The tube or graduator at its lower part is pierced with a horizontal row of eight equidistant round holes, to admit atmospheric air. One inch above the bottom is a syphon-formed discharge pipe, whose upper curvature stands one inch below the level of the air-holes in the side of the tub. The floors or partitions of the tub or generator being covered with birch twigs or beech chips to the depth of a few inches, the alcoholic liquor (first heated to between 75° and 83° Fahr.,) is introduced at the upper part of the apparatus. This immediately commences trickling slowly down through the holes by means of the packthreads, diffuses itself over the chips or twigs forming the respective strata, slowly collects at the bottom of the tub, and then runs off by the syphon-pipe. The air enters by the circumferential holes, circulates freely through the tub, and escapes by the glass tubes. As the acetification proceeds, the temperature of the liquid rises to 100° or 105° Fahr., and remains stationary at that point while the action goes on favorably. The alcoholic solution or wort requires to be passed three or four times through the cask before acetification is complete, which is, in general, effected in from 24 to 36 hours.

_Obs._ For the production of a superior vinegar by this process, it is necessary that the spirit employed be sufficiently pure not to contaminate the product with its flavour or odour, and that the malt-wort should be fermented and treated with all the care usually employed in the production of beer. The best English manufacturers who have adopted this process are in the habit of filtering or clarifying their fermented wash, and also of storing it away for several months before they subject it to acetification in the graduator. The most favorable temperature for the process is about 90° Fahr., and this should be preserved, as much as possible, by artificial means. _Prod._ A malt-wort of the sp. gr. 1·072, or, in “technical language, weighing about 26 lbs. per barrel, afforded a vinegar containing 5·4% of pure acetic acid, and a residuary extract of 10 lbs., for 36 galls. The former of these would indicate 35 lbs. of sugar, or 13·7 lbs. per barrel of gravity; whilst the latter shows 3·8 lbs. per barrel; the two united being only 17·5 lbs., instead of 26, the original weight. The loss, therefore, has been 8·5 lbs., or from a sp. gr. of 1·072 to less than 1·050.” (Ure.) Thus, about one third of all the extractive matter of the malt is lost or dissipated during the processes of fermentation and acetification. According to Knapp, a mixture of about 80 galls, of water, 9 galls. of spirit of from 44 to 45% Tralles (18 or 20 u. p.), and 3 galls. of vinegar containing 3·5% of real acid, forming together 92 galls., yield, on an average, an almost equal quantity of vinegar, or about from 90 to 91 galls. of the above stated strength.

4. WOOD VINEGAR. See PYROLIGNEOUS ACID.

5. OTHER VARIETIES OF VINEGAR, of minor importance; chiefly domestic, and commonly ‘worked’ as malt vinegar,——ALE VINEGAR, ALEGAR; ACETUM CEREVISIÆ. From strong pale ale which has soured.——ARGOL VINEGAR; ACETUM EX TARTARO. From white argol or cream of tartar, 1 lb.; dissolved in boiling water, 2 galls.; with the addition, when cold, of proof spirit of whiskey, 3 pints.——CRYSTAL VINEGAR. Pickling vinegar, discoloured with fresh burnt animal charcoal.——CIDER VINEGAR. From cider, worked as malt vinegar.——GERMAN HOUSEHOLD VINEGAR. From soft water, 7-1/2 galls.; honey or brown sugar, 2 lbs.; cream of tartar, 2 oz.; corn spirit or whiskey, 1 gall.——GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR. From bruised gooseberries and brown sugar, of each 1-1/4 lb.; water, 1 gall. Other fruits may be substituted for gooseberries.——PICKLING VINEGAR. The strongest pale malt vinegar——RAISIN VINEGAR. From the marc left from making raisin wine, 1 cwt. to every 12 or 15 galls. of water, along with a little yeast.——SUGAR VINEGAR. From brown sugar, 4 lbs. to each gallon of water.——WHISKEY VINEGAR. From whiskey, 1 pint; sugar, 2 oz.; yeast, a dessert-spoonful.

_Pur., Tests, and Assay._ These are, for the most part, rather fully noticed under ACETIC ACID, ACETIMETRY, and above. The following additional tests, &c., may, however, be useful:——1. Paper written on or smeared with pure vinegar is not charred when strongly warmed before the fire; if it is, the sample examined contained fully 2% of oil of vitriol.——2. A small porcelain capsule, or china cup, dipped into a solution of sugar in 30 times its weight of water, and then heated to a temperature equal to that of boiling water, is not materially discoloured when a drop of pure vinegar is poured on it; but a spot of an intensely brown or black colour is formed if the sample contains only 1-300th part of sulphuric acid; if it contains only 1-1000th part, the spot is olive green; and if a less quantity, then only of a pale green colour.——3. The heavy white precipitate given with chloride of barium (see _above_) shows the presence of sulphuric acid; each grain, after being dried, and gently ignited, represents ·344 gr. of dry sulphuric acid. If the precipitate from 1000 gr. of the vinegar exceeds 2-1/2 gr., it contains an illegal quantity of this acid.——4. If a solution of nitrate of silver gives a cloudy white precipitate, hydrochloric acid is present.——5. If, after the addition of 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of potash, and evaporation of the sample to dryness, the residuum deflagrates when ignited, the sample under examination contains nitric acid.——6. If the vinegar be blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphuret of ammonia, it contains either lead or copper. If it gives a yellow precipitate with iodide of potassium or chromate of potash, the metal is lead. If ferrocyanide of potassium gives a bronze-brown coloured precipitate, or a little olive oil, when agitated with some of the vinegar, be turned green, the metal is copper.——7. If a small sample, gently evaporated to dryness, leaves more than 1% of residuum, and this has a sweet taste, it is undecomposed sugar. The presence of acrid substances, as capsicum, chillies, grains of paradise, mustard seed, pellitory of Spain, pepper, &c., may be detected by neutralising the acidity of the vinegar with carbonate of soda, when the acrid taste of the adulterant will be readily perceived.

=Vinegar, Anti′hysteric.= _Syn._ ACETUM ANTI′HYSTERICUM. _Prep._ Castor, 2 dr.; galbarium, 4 dr.; rue, 1 oz.; vinegar, 3 lbs.; macerate and strain.

=Vinegar, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ ACETUM AROMATICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Glacial acetic acid, 1 lb.; oil of cloves, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 dr.; oils of bergamot, cinnamon, pimento, and lavender, of each 1/2 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; mix. Very fine.

2. (Henry’s.) From glacial acetic acid, strongly scented with the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary, and _Calamus aromaticus_ to which the usual quantity of camphor is added. This is the formula adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall.

3. (Extemporaneous.) From acetate of potash (dry), 1 dr.; oil of vitriol, 20 drops; oils of lemon and cloves, of each 3 drops.

_Obs._ Aromatic vinegar is used as a pungent and refreshing perfume, in faintness, &c. For this purpose it is generally dropped on a small piece of sponge placed in a stoppered bottle or a vinaigrette. It is highly corrosive, and should therefore be kept from contact with the skin and clothes.

=Vinegar, Camp.= _Prep._ Take of sliced garlic, 8 oz.; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut ketchup, of each 4 oz.; 36 chopped anchovies; vinegar, 1 gall.; powdered cochineal, 1/2 oz.; macerate for a month, strain, and bottle.

=Vinegar, Cam′phorated.=

=Vinegar of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ BLISTERING VINEGAR; ACETUM CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph., L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides, in powder, 2 oz.; acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate, with agitation, for 8 days, then press, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, 3 oz.; euphorbium, 1/2 oz.; acetic acid, 5 fl. oz.; pyroligneous acid, 15 fl. oz.; macerate a week.

3. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 4 oz.; strong acetic acid, 4 fl. oz.; commercial acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·044), 16 fl. oz.; macerate, as before, for 14 days.

4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in powder, 2; glacial acetic acid, 2; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 18, or a sufficiency: add the glacial acetic acid to 13 of acetic acid, and in this mixture digest the cantharides for two hours at a temperature of 200° F.; when cold, place them in a percolator, and when the liquid ceases to drop, pour over the residuum the remaining 5 of acetic acid, and when the percolation is finished, press and make the whole liquid up to 20.

_Uses, &c._ As a counter-irritant, and to raise blisters. For the last purpose it is applied on a piece of lint, evaporation being prevented with a piece of oiled skin or thin sheet gutta percha. The last is the best, and, indeed, the only effective form; the others being too weak. “If the acetic acid be strong, a blister will be as rapidly raised without the cantharides as with them.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.)

=Vinegar of Capsi′cum.= _Syn._ ACETUM CAPSICE. _Prep._ Capsicum, 1 oz.; vinegar, 24 oz. Used as gargle.

=Vinegar of Col′chicum.= _Syn._ ACETUM COLCHICI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of colchicum or meadow saffron, 3-1/2 dr.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate for 3 days, then press out the liquor, and, after defecation, add to the strained liquid proof spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

=Vinegar, Cur′rie.= _Prep._ From currie powder, 1/2 lb.; vinegar, 1 gall.; infuse for a week. Used as a flavouring. Other like vinegars may be made in the same way.

=Vinegar of Gar′lic.= _Syn._ ACETUM ALLII. _Prep._ Fresh garlic, 1 oz.; distilled vinegar, 12 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh colchicum bulbs (dried), 1 oz.; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 1 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) Dried colchicum bulbs, 1 oz.; acetic acid (1·044), 4 fl. oz.; distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; as before, but prolonging the maceration for 7 days.

_Obs._ Vinegar of colchicum is chiefly used in gout. _Dose_, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. The Dublin preparation is about three times as strong as the others, and the dose must therefore be proportionately less.

=Vinegar, Distil′led.= _Syn._ ACETUM DESTILLATUM (Ph. L. & E., and Ph. D. 1826), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Vinegar, 1 gall.; distil in a sand bath, 7 pints. Sp. gr. 1·0065.

2. (Ph. E.) Vinegar (preferably French), 8 parts; distil over with a gentle heat, 7 parts; and dilute the product, if necessary, with distilled water, until the sp. gr. is 1·005.

_Pur., &c._ “1 fluid oz. is saturated by 57 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) 100 gr. are saturated by 13 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda. It contains about 4·6% of real acetic acid. If a pewter worm is used, a portion of lead is dissolved, and the product becomes cloudy and poisonous. Distilled vinegar is more agreeable than pure dilute acetic acid of the same strength.

=Vinegar of Fox′glove.= _Syn._ ACETUM DIGITALIS. (Ph. G.) _Prep._ Dried foxglove, 1 oz.; vinegar, 9 oz. (by weight); rectified spirit, 1 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 8 days, press and filter.——_Dose_, 30 minims.

=Vinegar of Lav′ender.= _Syn._ ACETUM LAVANDULÆ. (P. Cod.) _Prep._ Digest 1 troy oz. of dried lavender flowers with 12 oz. of vinegar for 10 days. The vinegars of other flowers are made in the same manner.

=Vinegar of Lobelia.= _Syn._ ACETUM LOBELIÆ. _Prep._ Lobelia in moderately coarse powder, 4 troy oz. Diluted acetic acid, 2 pints (o. m.). Macerate for 7 days.

=Vinegar, Marseilles.= _Syn._ VINEGAR OF THE FOUR THIEVES, PROPHYLACTIC VINEGAR; ACETUM PROPHYLACTICUM, A. ANTISEPTICUM, A. THERIACALE, A. QUATUOR FURUM, L.; VINAIGRE DES QUATRE VOLEURS, Fr. _Prep._ Take of the summits of rosemary and flowers of sage (dried), of each 4 oz.; dried lavender flowers, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; distilled vinegar, 1 gall.; digest for 7 days, press, and filter. Used as a corrector of bad smells, and formerly as a prophylactic against the plague, and other contagious diseases. It is said to have been a favourite preventive with Cardinal Wolsey, who always carried some with him. The original formula also contained, of garlic, 1/4 oz.; fresh rue, 1-1/2 oz.; and camphor, dissolved in spirit, 1 oz.

=Vinegar of Mus′tard.= _Syn._ ACETUM SINAPIS (Beral). _Prep._ Mustard, 1 oz.; vinegar, 12 oz.; distil 8 oz. For outward use, as a counter-irritant.

=Vinegar of O′′pium.= _Syn._ ACETUM OPII (Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 4 oz.; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 drops.

2. (Ph. D.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1-1/2 oz.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days.——_Dose_, 10 or 12 to 60 drops.

_Obs._ These were intended to supersede the old ‘black drop,’ which they closely resemble in their action.

=Vinegar, Rasp′berry.= _Syn._ ACETUM RUBI IDÆI, L.; VINAIGRE FRAMBOISE, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Bruised ripe raspberries and white wine vinegar, of each 3 pints; macerate for 3 days, press, strain, and to each pint add of white sugar, 1 lb.; boil, skim, cool, and at once bottle. Some persons add 2 fl. oz. of brandy to each pint.

2. (P. Cod.) Fresh raspberries, picked from their calices, 3 lbs.; (1 lb.——Ph. Bor.); good vinegar, 2 lbs.; macerate, in glass, for a fortnight, then strain, without pressure.

_Obs._ In a similar manner may be made cherry vinegar, strawberry vinegar, and the vinegars of all other like fruits.

=Vinegar of Rue.= _Syn._ ACETUM RUTÆ. (Ed. Ph. 1744). _Prep._ Rue, 1 lb. troy; vinegar, 1 gall.

=Vinegar of Squills.= _Syn._ ACETUM SCILLÆ (Ph. L. E. & D.), ACEUM SCILLITICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Take of squills, recently dried and bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate with a gentle heat in a covered vessel for 3 days, then press out the liquor, and, after defecation, add to the strained liquid, proof spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges direct cold maceration for 7 days in a glass vessel, and the Dublin omits the spirit.

2. (Wholesale.) From squills, 7 lbs.; distilled vinegar, 6 galls.; macerate in the cold for 10 days, press, and filter. Expectorant and diuretic.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. dr.; in chronic pulmonary affections, dropsies, &c.

=Vinegars (Cul′inary).= _Prep._ 1. BLACK PEPPER VINEGAR, CAPER V., CAPSICUM V., CELERY-SEED V., CHILLIE V., CRESS-SEED V., GARLIC V., GINGER V., HORSERADISH V., ONION V., RED-ROSE V., SEVILLE-ORANGE-PEEL V., SHALLOT V., TRUFFLE V., WHITE PEPPER V., with several others of a like kind, are made by steeping about an oz. of the respective articles in a pint of good vinegar for 14 days, and straining.

2. BASIL V., BURNET V., CELERY V., CHERVILLE V., ELDER-FLOWER V., GREEN-MINT V., TARRAGON V., with several others from like substances, are prepared from 2 to 3 oz. of the leaves to each pint of vinegar; the whole being frequently shaken for 14 days, then strained and bottled. They are used in cookery. The culinary vinegars may also be prepared in the same manner as the ‘culinary spirits’ and ‘tinctures,’ by simply substituting strong pickling vinegar for the spirit.

=Vinegars (Perfumed).= _Syn._ ACETA ODORIFERA, L. _Prep._ From the dried flowers, 1 to 2 oz., or the fresh flowers, 2 to 4 oz.; strongest distilled vinegar, 1 pint; digest for a week, strain with pressure, and repeat the process with fresh flowers if necessary. They may also be made by adding 15 to 20 drops, or q. s., of the respective essential oils to the vinegar. In a similar way are prepared the vinegars of clove-gilly flowers, elder flowers, lavender f. (vinaigre distillé de lavande), musk roses, orange flowers (fresh), Provins roses, red roses (vinaigre de rose; acetum rosatum), rosemary flowers (vinaigre de rosmarin; acetum anthosatum), tarragon flowers, &c. &c. Another excellent plan is to add 1 fl. oz. of glacial acetic acid to each pint of the respective perfumed spirits. This answers admirably for acetic eau de Cologne and like perfumes.

=VI′NOUS FERMENTATION.= _Syn._ ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. The peculiar change by which sugar, in solution, is converted into carbonic acid, which is eliminated, and into alcohol, which remains in solution in the fermented liquor.

The presence of a ‘ferment’ is essential to excite the vinous fermentation, as a solution of absolutely pure sugar remains unaltered, even though exposed to the conditions most favourable to its accession. In the juices of the sweet fruits, and in those vegetable solutions that spontaneously run into a state of fermentation, the ferment is supplied by nature, and is intimately associated with the saccharine matter. In the juice of those grapes which produce the more perfect wines, the relative proportions of the exciters of fermentation and the sugar are so accurately apportioned, that the whole of the former are decomposed, and nearly the whole of the latter is converted into alcohol; so that the liquid (wine) is left in a state but little liable to future change. An infusion of malt, however, in which the nitrogenised matters (gluten, vegetable albumen, &c.) are absent, or at least present in too small quantities to vigorously excite the vinous fermentation, undergoes a mixed species of decomposition, with the formation of products widely different from those that result from the true vinous fermentation; or, in other words, the liquid becomes spoiled. But if a ferment (yeast) be added to this infusion of malt under the above circumstances, and in the proper proportion to the sugar present, the true vinous fermentation speedily commences, and the liquid becomes converted into beer. This is what actually takes place in the process of brewing, and the scientific brewer endeavours to employ a proper quantity of ferment to decompose the whole of the saccharine matter of his wort; but, at the same time, as equally endeavours to avoid the use of an excess.

The chief product of the vinous fermentation is alcohol, but there are other substances simultaneously produced, and which remain associated with the fermented liquor. Among the principal of these are œnanthic acid, œnanthic ether, fusel oil (oil of potato spirit, oil of grain), &c.; none of which exist previously to fermentation, and are generally supposed to result from the action of the nitrogenised matters of the solution on the sugar. Under certain circumstances these extraneous products are formed in much larger quantities than under others; and as these substances injure the value of the alcohol with which they are associated, a knowledge of the peculiar circumstances favourable and unfavourable to their production is a desideratum to the brewer and distiller.

According to MM. Colin and Thénard, Frémy, Rousseau, and others, the essential condition of a ferment, to be able to excite the pure vinous fermentation, is to be sufficiently acidulous to act on coloured test-paper; and this acidity should arise from the presence of certain vegetable acids and salts, capable of conversion into carbonic acid and carbonates by their spontaneous decomposition. Those acids and salts which are found to pre-exist in fermentable fruits and liquors, as the tartaric, citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their salts should be chosen for this purpose; preference being given to the bitartrate of potassa, on account of its presence in the grape. The addition of any of these substances to a saccharine solution renders its fermentation both more active and complete. The favorable influence of cream of tartar on fermentation was first pointed out by Thénard and Colin, and the addition of a little of this article has been adopted in practice, with manifest advantage, by the manufacturers of British wine.

There is good reason for supposing that each variety of sugar which is susceptible of the alcoholic fermentation is first converted into grape sugar by contact with the ferment, and that this variety of sugar is alone capable of yielding carbonic acid and alcohol.

The circumstances most favorable to this fermentation are, a certain degree of warmth, a sufficient quantity of active ferment, and its due distribution through the liquor. The temperature of from 68° to 77° Fahr. is usually regarded as the most propitious for the commencement and progress of fermentation; but it has been ably shown by Liebig that, at this temperature, the newly formed alcohol slowly undergoes the ‘acetous fermentation,’ forming vinegar, by which the vinous character of the liquor is lessened. This conversion of alcohol into vinegar proceeds most rapidly at a temperature of 95° Fahr., and gradually becomes more languid, until, at about 46° to 50° Fahr. (8 to 10 Cent.), it ceases altogether, while the tendency of the nitrogenous substances to absorb oxygen at this low temperature is scarcely diminished in a perceptible degree. “It is therefore evident that if wort (or any other saccharine solution) is fermented in wide, open, shallow vessels, as is done in Bavaria, which afford free and unlimited access to the atmospheric oxygen, and this in a situation where the temperature does no exceed 46° to 50° Fahr., a separation of the nitrogenous constituents, _i. e._ the exciters of acidification, takes place simultaneously on the surface, and within the whole body of the liquid.” (Liebig.) By this method wine or beer is obtained, which is invariably far superior in quality to that fermented in the usual manner. See FERMENTATION.

The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of malt wort, according to the usual English system with top yeast (_oberhefe_), have been thus described by a well-known practical writer on brewing: 1. A cream-like substance forms round the edges of the gyle tun, which gradually extends itself, and ultimately covers the whole surface of the liquor. 2. A fine curly or cauliflower head in a similar way extends itself over the surface, and indicates to the experienced brewer the probable quality of the fermentation. 3. The ‘stomach,’ or ‘vinous odour,’ is next evolved, and continues to increase with the attenuation of the wort. The peculiar nature of this odour is also an indication of the state of the fermentation.——4. The cauliflower head changes, or rises to a fine ‘rocky’ or ‘yeasty’ head, and ultimately falls down.——5. In this stage the head assumes a peculiar ‘yeasty’ appearance, called by brewers ‘close-yeasty,’ and the gas is evolved in sufficient quantity to blow up little bells or bubbles, which immediately burst, and are followed by others, at intervals depending on the activity and forwardness of the fermentation. These bells should be bright and clear; as, if they appear opaque or dirty, there is something the matter with the wort. (Black.)

It is often of the utmost importance to brewers, wine merchants, sugar refiners, druggists, &c., to be able to lessen the activity of the vinous fermentation, or to stop it altogether, or to prevent its accession to syrups and other saccharine and vegetable solutions. Whatever will still the motion of the molecules of the nitrogenous matter forming the ferment will render them inoperative as exciters of fermentation. Among the simplest means of effecting this object, and such as admit of easy practical application, may be mentioned exposure to either cold or heat. At a temperature below about 50° Fahr., the acetous fermentation is suspended, and the alcoholic fermentation proceeds with diminished activity as the temperature falls, until at about 38° Fahr. it ceases altogether. In like manner, the rapid increase of the temperature of a fermenting liquid arrests its fermentation, and is preferable to the action of cold, as it is of easier application, and perfectly precipitates the ferment in an inert state. For this purpose a heat of about 180° Fahr. is sufficient: but even that of boiling water may be employed with advantage. In practice fluids are commonly raised to their boiling point for this purpose, or they are submitted to the heat of a water bath (207-1/2° Fahr.). In this way the fermentation of syrups and vegetable solutions and juices is commonly arrested in the pharmaceutical laboratory.

Among substances that may be added to liquids to arrest fermentation the most active are——the volatile oil of mustard, coarsely powdered mustard seed, or pure flour of mustard, sulphurous acid or the fumes of burning sulphur, sulphuric acid, sulphite of lime, tincture of catechu, strong spirit, strong acetic acid, chlorate of potassa, sugar of milk, bruised horseradish, garlic, and cloves, and their essential oils, and all the other volatile oils that contain sulphur, and most of the salts that readily part with their oxygen. These substances arrest fermentation by rendering the yeast inoperative, and they possess this power nearly in the order in which they stand above. In practice, mustard, the fumes of burning sulphur, sulphite of lime, and chlorate of potassa, are those most adapted for beer, cider, wines, syrups, &c.; but some of the others are occasionally used, though less active. For arresting or preventing the fermentation of the vegetable juices and solutions, and the medicated syrups employed in pharmacy, mustard seed, either alone or combined with a little bruised cloves, may be safely used, as the addition of acids or salts would lead to the decomposition of their active principles. For this reason such liquids should be kept in a sufficiently low temperature to prevent fermentation; and should they pass into that state it should be preferably arrested by the application of heat or cold, as above explained. Sugar of milk is also very effective for certain syrups, if not all of them.

To prevent, or rather to lessen, the production of fusel oil, it has been proposed to add a certain quantity of tartaric acid or bitartrate of potassa to the wort, or to arrest the fermentative process somewhat before the liquid has reached its utmost degree of attenuation. The best means of depriving the spirit of this and other substances of a similar nature is to largely dilute it with water, and to redistil it at a gentle heat. Agitation with olive oil, decantation, dilution with a large quantity of water, and redistillation, have also been recommended. An excellent method is filtration through newly burnt and coarsely powdered charcoal. This plan succeeds perfectly with moderately diluted spirit. On the Continent, the addition of about 10% of common vinegar, and a very little sulphuric acid, followed by agitation, repose for a few days, and redistillation is a favourite method. A solution of chloride of lime is also employed for the same purpose, and in the same way. In both these cases a species of ether is formed, which possesses a very agreeable odour. In the first, acetate of oxide of amyl (essence of jargonelle) is produced; and in the other, chloride of amyl, which also possesses a pleasant ethereal smell and taste. The affinity of the hydrated oxide of amyl (fusel oil) for acetic acid is so great, that they readily unite without the intervention of a mineral acid. (Doebereiner). Thus, the oil of vitriol mentioned above, though always used in practice, might be omitted without any disadvantage.

According to Messrs Bowerbank, the distillers quoted by Dr Pereira, 500 galls. of corn-spirit yield about one gall. of corn-spirit oil. See ACETIFICATION, ALCOHOL, BREWING, DISTILLATION, FERMENTATION, FUSEL OIL, SPIRIT, VINEGAR, VISCOUS FERMENTATION, YEAST, &c.

=VI′OLET.= _Syn._ PURPLE VIOLET, SWEET V.; VIOLA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The recent petals of _Viola odorata_, Linn.” (Ph. L.) It is chiefly used on account of its colour. See SYRUP.

=VIOLET DYE.= Violet, like purple, is produced by a mixture of red and blue colouring matter, applied either together or in succession. The ‘aniline colours’ are now almost exclusively used for obtaining violet on silk and wool (see ANILINE, PURPLE, and TAR COLOURS). With the old dye stuffs, violet may thus be obtained:——A good violet may be given to silk or wool by passing it first through a solution of verdigris, then through a decoction of logwood, and, lastly, through alum water. A fast violet may be given by first dyeing the goods a crimson with cochineal, without alum or tartar, and, after rinsing, passing them through the indigo vat.——Linens and cottons are first galled with about 18% of gall-nuts, next passed through a mixed mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well, then through a madder bath made with an equal weight of root, and, lastly, brightened with soap or soda. Another good method is to pass cloth, previously dyed Turkey red, through the blue vat. Wool, silk, cotton, or linen, mordanted with alum and dyed in a logwood bath, or a mixed bath of archil and Brazil, takes a pretty, but false, violet.

=VIS′COUS FERMENTATION.= _Syn._ MUCILAGINOUS FERMENTATION, MUCOUS F. The peculiar change by which sugar, in solution, is converted into gummy matters, and other products, instead of into alcohol.

When the expressed juice of the beet is exposed to a temperature of 90° to 100° Fahr., for a considerable time, the sugar it contains suffers this peculiar kind of fermentation. Gases are evolved which are rich in hydrogen, instead of being exclusively carbonic acid, and when the sugar has, for the most part, disappeared, mere traces of alcohol are found in the liquid, but, in place of that substance, a quantity of lactic acid, mannite, and a mucilaginous substance, resembling gum Arabic, and said to be identical with gum in composition. By boiling yeast or the gluten of wheat in water, dissolving sugar in the filtered solution, and exposing it to a tolerably high temperature, the viscous fermentation is set up, and a large quantity of the gummy principle generated, along with a ferment of a globular texture, like that of yeast, but which is capable of producing only the viscous fermentation, in saccharine solutions.

The peculiar cloudy, stringy, oily appearance of wine and beer, called by the French ‘graisse,’ and the English ‘ropiness,’ depends on the accession of the viscous fermentation. The mineral acids and astringent substances, especially the sulphuric and sulphurous acids, and tannin, precipitate the viscous ferment, and are, hence, the best cures for this malady of fermented liquors. It is the large amount of tannic acid in the red wines and well-hopped beer which is the cause of their never being attacked with ‘graisse,’ or ‘ropiness.’ See VINOUS FERMENTATION, WINES, &c.

=VI′′SION.= The following means of preserving and restoring the sight may be appropriately inserted here:——

For NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS.——Close the eyes and press the fingers very gently, from the nose outward, across the eyes. This flattens the pupil, and thus lengthens or extends the angle of vision. This should be done several times a day, or at least always after washing the face, until shortsightedness is overcome.

For LOSS OF SIGHT BY AGE, such as require magnifying glasses, pass the fingers or towel from the outer corners of the eyes inwardly, above and below the eyeballs, pressing very gently against them. This rounds them up, and preserves or restores the sight.

It is said that many persons, by this last means, have preserved their sight so as to read fine print at 80 years of age; others, whose sight has been impaired by age, by carefully manipulating the eyes with their fingers, from their external angles inwardly, have restored their sight, and been able to dispense with glasses, and have since preserved it by a continuance of the practice. To be successful, or safe, these practices must be applied with great gentleness and caution. Many persons seriously damage their eyes by forcibly rubbing them when drowsy, especially on awaking in the morning.

The ‘Lancet’ remarks, that “there is good reason to believe that chicory (the coffee of the Londoners), from its narcotic character, exerts an injurious effect on the nervous system. So convinced of this is Professor Beer, of Vienna, a most celebrated German oculist, that he has enumerated chicoried coffee among the causes of amaurotic blindness.”

To strengthen the eyes, to relieve them when swollen or congested, and to remove chronic ophthalmia, purulent discharges, &c., nothing is equal to frequently bathing them with water, at first tepid, but afterwards lowered in temperature to absolute coldness.

=VIT′RIOL.= A common name for sulphuric acid and for several of its salts. (See _below_.)

=Vitriol, Blue.= _Syn._ ROMAN VITRIOL. Commercial sulphate of copper.

=Vitriol, Green.= Commercial sulphate of iron.

=Vitriol, White.= Commercial sulphate of zinc.

=VITTIE VAYR.= _Syn._ VETIVER. The Tamool name of the odorous and fibrous roots of the _Andropogon muricatus_ sold by the perfumers.

=VOLTA′IC ELECTRICITY.= _Syn._ GALVANIC E., GALVANISM, VOLTAISM. That branch of electrical science which has reference to the phenomena attendant on the development of electricity by chemical action. Electricity thus developed may be made to show itself in the ‘static’ condition, so as to produce the effects of frictional electricity, but it is much more easily obtained in the ‘dynamic’ condition——in other words, as a ‘voltaic current’——when it is especially remarkable for its chemical and magnetic effects. If a plate of zinc and a plate of platinum be immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and connected outside the liquid by a wire, a current of electricity will immediately be set up, and will continue as long as the conducting circuit is complete and the action of the acid on the zinc goes on. The current of ‘positive’ electricity passes from the zinc, through the liquid, to the platinum, and thence through the wire to the zinc. The arrangement of two dissimilar metals immersed in a liquid which acts upon one of them is called a voltaic couple. By uniting a number of couples together in regular order, a voltaic pile or battery is formed.

The older forms of the voltaic battery, viz., VOLTA’S PILE, CRUIKSHANK’S TROUGH, and WOLLASTON’S BATTERY, are now but little used. They all consist of a series of couples of zinc and copper, excited by an acid liquid, generally a mixture of water with 1/40th of its bulk of sulphuric acid, and 1/60th of nitric acid.

One of the most useful forms of the voltaic battery is that proposed by the late Prof. Daniell, and commonly known by his name. Its peculiar advantages arise from its action continuing without interruption for a long time; hence the name of ‘constant battery’ that has been applied to it. The foregoing figure will explain the construction of each couple.

One of these couples is sufficient for electro-typing; six of them form a circle of considerable power, and about 20 produce one sufficiently strong for most experiments of demonstration and research.

In arranging these, as well as other batteries, when intensity, or travelling power, is desired, the metallic communication is made between the opposite metals (the zinc of one couple being united with the copper of another); but when simple quantity without intensity is required, the zinc of one battery is united with the zinc of the other, and the copper of the one with the copper of the other——an effect which is equally attainable with a single battery of enlarged dimensions.

Another useful apparatus is GROVE’S BATTERY, in which the positive metal consists of amalgamated zinc immersed in sulphuric acid, diluted with 10 times its bulk of water; and the negative metal of platinum immersed in strong nitric acid. The two liquids are kept separate by the use of porous vessels, as in ‘Daniell’s battery.’ This is an extremely powerful arrangement, but not so constant as Daniell’s, owing to the reduction of the nitric acid to lower oxides of nitrogen. After this battery has been in action for about an hour, copious red nitrous fumes are given off, which cause great annoyance.

In place of platinum, compact charcoal or coke, prepared by a rather troublesome process, may be used, and the arrangement then constitutes a BUNSEN’S BATTERY. Other substitutes for the costly platinum have been proposed, as lead coated with gold or platinum, and iron rendered ‘passive’ by immersion in strong nitric acid. Callan has obtained very good results with amalgamated zinc and cast iron immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, without the use of nitric acid (MAYNOOTH BATTERY).

In SMEE’S BATTERY, which is much used in the arts, pairs of amalgamated zinc and platinised silver (or platinised platinum) are immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 7 parts water). The plates of zinc are usually bent double, and the platinised plates interposed between the two surfaces formed by the bend. See PLATINISING (p. 1337).

In every voltaic combination the passage of the electricity (_i. e._ the positive modification of the force) in the liquid is from the active element to the inactive element; in the case of a simple zinc-and-copper couple, for instance, it is from the zinc to the copper. If this simple fact be borne in mind, it will decide in every case the question which confuses so many, namely, which is the positive, and which the negative end of a battery? The positive is the end where the electricity leaves the battery; the negative where it re-enters it. For further information connected with the subject of voltaic electricity, see articles on ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, ELECTROTYPE, ETCHING, &c.

=VOLUME′TRIC ANALYSIS.= Quantitative chemical analysis by measure. This method of analysis “consists in submitting the substance to be estimated to certain characteristic reactions, employing for such reactions liquids of known strength, and from the quantity of the liquid employed determining the weight of the substance to be estimated by means of the known laws of equivalence.” As an example of this method we give the following from the Introduction in Mr Sutton’s excellent ‘Handbook of Volumetric Analysis,’——“Suppose that it is desirable to know the quantity of pure silver contained in a shilling. The coin is first dissolved in nitric acid, by which means a bluish solution, containing silver, copper, and probably other metals, is obtained. It is a known fact that chlorine combines with silver in the presence of other metals to form chloride of silver, which is insoluble in nitric acid. The proportions in which the combination takes place are 35·46, of chlorine to every 108 of silver; consequently, if a standard solution of pure chloride of sodium is prepared by dissolving 58·46 grains of the salt (_i. e._ 1 equiv. sodium = 23, 1 eq. chlorine = 35·46 = 1 eq. chloride of sodium 58·46) in so much distilled water as will make up exactly 1000 grains by measure; every single grain of this solution will combine with ·108 grain of pure silver to form chloride of silver, which precipitates to the bottom of the vessel in which the mixture is made. In the process of adding the salt solution to the silver, drop by drop, a point is at last reached when the precipitate ceases to form. Here the process must stop. On looking carefully at the graduated vessel from which the standard solution has been used, the operator sees at once the number of grains which have been necessary to produce the complete decomposition. For example, suppose the quantity used was 520 grains; all that is necessary to be done is to multiply ·108 grain by 520, which shows the amount of pure silver present to be 56·16 grains.” The volumetric method is much less troublesome than the ordinary method of analysis (by separating the constituents of a mixture and weighing them), and is admirably adapted for the examination of substances used in arts and manufactures. Most of the processes described under ACIDIMETRY and ALKALIMETRY are examples of this method. See those articles, also EQUIVALENTS, TEST SOLUTIONS, &c.

=WADE’S DROPS.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=WA′FER PAPER.= See WAFERS, in Cookery (_below_).

=WA′FERS.= Thin adhesive discs, used for securing letters or sticking papers together.

_Prep._ 1. (WAFERS, FLOUR W.) The finest; wheaten flour is mixed with water, either pure or coloured, to a smooth pap or batter, which, after being passed through a sieve, to remove clots or lumps, is poured into the ‘wafer-irons’ (previously warmed and greased with butter or olive oil), and in this state exposed to the heat of a clear charcoal fire; the whole is then allowed to cool, when the irons are opened, and the thin cake, which has become hard and brittle, is cut into wafers by mean of sharp annular steel punches made exclusively for the purpose.

2. (GELATINE WAFERS, TRANSPARENT W.) Good gelatine or glue is dissolved, by the heat of a water bath, in just sufficient water to form a consistent mass on cooling; it is then poured, whilst hot, upon the surface of a warm plate or mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded with a border of card paper (laid flat); a similar plate, also warmed and oiled, is next laid upon the gelatine, and the two plates pressed into as close contact as is permitted by the card paper; when quite cold the thin sheet of gelatine is removed, and cut into wafers with punches, as before. 1 to 2 oz. of sugar is commonly added to each lb. of gelatine.

3. (MEDALLION WAFERS.) A sheet of metal or glass, having designs sunk in it corresponding to the raised part of seals, being provided, the hollows are filled up with a mixture formed of any appropriate coloured powder, made into a paste with gum water or size, leaving the flat part clear; melted coloured glue is then poured on the plate, and the process is otherwise conducted as before. For use, the paper is wetted where the wafer is to be applied.

_Obs._ Care must be taken that no poisonous colours be employed. For gelatine wafers, transparent colours only can be used. Those noticed under LIQUEURS and STAINS (Confectioner’s) are appropriate. To these may be added plumbago, sesquioxide of iron (crocus martis), smalts, levigated vegetable charcoal, and vermilion.

=Wafers.= (In Cookery.) _Prep._ Make fine flour, dried and sifted, into a smooth thin batter with good milk, or a little cream-and-water; add about as much white wine as will make it thick enough for pancakes, sweeten it with a little loaf sugar, and flavour it with powdered cinnamon. When thus prepared have the wafer-irons made ready, by being heated over a charcoal fire; rub them with a piece of linen cloth dipped in butter; then pour a spoonful of the batter upon them, and close them almost immediately; turn them upon the fire, and pare the edges with a knife, if any of the batter oozes out. A short time will bake them, when the irons are perfectly heated. The wafers must be curled round whilst warm when they are for ornaments. ‘Wafer paper’ is prepared in a similar way to the above; but when intended to be kept for some time, the milk must be omitted. Used by cooks, &c.; and, recently, as an envelope for nauseous medicines.

=Wafers, Da Silva’s.= These nostrums were introduced to the public some time ago, as though they were prepared from the formulæ of a celebrated physician whose name was affixed to them.[256] There are three varieties, which are said to be prepared as follows:

[Footnote 256: For an exposition of the Da Silva quackery, with Or Locock’s letter on the subject, see the ‘Anat. of Quackery,’ or the ‘Med. Cir.,’ ii, 106-126.]

1. APERIENT OR ANTIBILIOUS WAFERS. From sugar and extract of liquorice (Spanish juice), equal parts; senna and jalap, of each in fine powder, about 1/2 dr. to every oz. of sugar employed; made into a mass with a concentrated infusion of senna, and divided into 12-gr. lozenges or squares with the corners rounded off.

2. FEMALE WAFERS. From sugar, horehound candy (or honey), and aperient wafer mass, equal parts; beaten to a proper consistence with weak gum water, to which a little orange-flower water has been added, and divided into 8 gr. tabellæ, as before.

3. PULMONIC WAFERS. From lump sugar and starch, of each in powder, 2 parts; powdered gum, 1 part; made into a lozenge-mass with vinegar of squills, oxymel of squills, and ipecacuanha wine, equal parts, gently evaporated to 1-6th their weight, with the addition of lactucarium in the proportion of 20 to 30 gr. to every oz. of the dry powders, the mass being divided into half-inch squares, weighing about 7-1/2 gr. each (when dry), as before.

=WAL′NUT.= The _Juglans regia_, a tree of the natural order _Juglandaceæ_. The sap yields sugar; the fruit is the walnut; the kernels of the latter are eaten and pressed for their oil; the peel or husks are used for ‘rooting’ or dyeing brown; the unripe fruit is pickled, and its juice is used as a hair dye; the leaves are reputed diaphoretic and antisyphilitic; and the wood is esteemed for cabinet work.

=WARBURG’S FEVER DROPS.= See TINCTURE, WARBURG’S FEVER.

=WARD’S RED DROP.= A strong solution of emetic tartar in wine.

=WARTS.= _Syn._ VERRUCÆ, L. These chiefly attack the hands, and may be removed by the daily use of a little nitrate of silver, nitric acid, or aromatic vinegar, as directed under CORNS. The first of the above applications produces a black stain, and the second a yellow one; both of which, however, wear off after the lapse of some days. Acetic acid scarcely discolours the skin. Erasmus Wilson, the eminent surgeon and talented author of several works on the skin, mentions the case of a gentleman who removed an entire crop of warts from his knuckles and fingers by subjecting them to a succession of sparks from one of the poles of an electrical machine. “He was in the habit, as is usual, of trying the amount of electric fluid collected in his machine by placing his knuckle near the brass knob, and receiving a spark. Observing that an odd sensation was produced whenever the spark struck a wart, he was tempted for amusement to give them a round of discharges. When his attention was next directed to his hands he found, to his surprise and satisfaction, that all the warts had disappeared.” Dr Peez, of Wiesbaden, recommends the internal use of carbonate of magnesia in cases of warts.

The papular eruption which covers the hands of some persons, and which is occasionally called ‘soft warts,’ is best removed by the daily use of Gowlard’s lotion.

=WASH.= The fermented wort of the distiller.

=WASH-BALLS.= See SAVONETTES.

=WASH-BOTTLE.= The principle of this very common and indispensable laboratory utensil, by which precipitates are washed, will be readily understood by reference to No. 1 of the engravings below.

The bottle being two thirds filled with distilled waters by blowing into the shorter tube, _b_, a small jet of water is forced through the nozzle of the longer tube, _c_. We give the following directions for the construction of a WASH-BOTTLE, from Mr Clowes’ excellent little manual, entitled ‘An Elementary Treatise on Practical Chemistry,’[257]——“A thin, flat-bottomed flask is chosen, of 16 or 18 ounces capacity; the neck must not be less than an inch in diameter. Procure a sound cork, which is slightly too large to enter the neck, soften the cork by placing it upon the floor and rolling it backwards and forwards under the foot with gentle pressure; when thus softened the cork must fit tightly into the flask.[258] Two pieces of glass tubing rather longer than would be required for the tubes _a_ and _b_ are then bent into the form shown in Fig. 1. The ends of the tubes are, if necessary, cut off to the right length, and their sharp edges rounded by holding them in the Bunsen flame, or the tip of the blowpipe flame.

[Footnote 257: J. and A. Churchill, New Burlington Street.]

[Footnote 258: “A vulcanized india-rubber stopper is much more durable for this and most other chemical processes. It is perforated by a sharp, well-wetted cork bore, or by a wetted round file.”]

“Two parallel holes are then bored in the cork by means of a round file, or by a proper size cork-borer: the holes must be rather smaller than the glass tubes, and must not run into one another, or to the outside of the cork. They are slightly enlarged, if necessary, by the round file. Into these holes the tubes _a_ and _b_ are then pushed with a twisting motion; if the holes have been made of the proper size the tubes must enter somewhat stiffly, but without requiring much pressure. Upon the upper end of a is fitted a small piece of india-rubber tubing, about an inch and a half in length, and into the other end of this is a finished short jet (_c_) made by drawing out a piece of glass tubing in the flame; its nozzle may be constructed, if necessary, by holding it perfectly dry in the flame for some time. The neck of the bottle should then be bound round with twine, like the handle of a cricket-bat, or tightly covered with a piece of flannel. This prevents the fingers from being burnt when the bottle contains boiling water.”

We append below some varieties of washing bottles. The round-bottomed are in more general requisition than the flat-bottomed description; although this latter presents the advantage of standing more firmly, and, if boiling water be required, of furnishing it more quickly than the bottle with the round base.

In some laboratories earthenware bottles are in use. These are not so easily broken as those made of glass, but, unlike these latter, water cannot be boiled in them, neither can we see whether they be full or empty.

=WASHERWOMAN’S SCALL.= See PSORIASIS.

=WASHES.= The familiar name of lotions, more especially of those employed as cosmetics. See FRECKLES, LOTION, MILK OF ROSES, SKIN COSMETICS, &c., and the following page.

=Washes, Hair.= _Prep._ 1. From rosemary tops, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infused together in a teapot or jug, either with or without the addition of rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. (or rum, 2 fl. oz.) to the cold strained liquor.

2. Box leaves, a small handful; boiling water, 1 pint; digest for an hour, simmer 10 minutes, and strain. Both are used to improve the growth of and to strengthen the hair.

3. To clean the ‘partings,’ remove scurf, &c.——_a._ (ANTIPITYRIENNE.) From sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1/2 pint; rose of elder-flower water, 1-1/2 pint.

_b._ (DETERGENT ESSENCE.) From honey, 2 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; cochineal (bruised), 1/4 oz.; camphor, 1 dr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; soft water, 3/4 pint; oil of rosemary, 20 drops.

_c._ (VEGETABLE EXTRACT.) Take of salt of tartar, 1 oz.; rosemary water, 1 pint; burnt sugar, q. s. to tinge it brown; dissolve, filter, and add of essence of musk, 10 drops.

4. To darken the hair.——_a._ From pyrogallic acid, 1/4 oz.; distilled water, orange-flower water, and rectified spirit, of each 1-1/4 fl. oz.

_b._ (LA FOREST’S COSMETIC LOTION or LIQUID HAIR DYE.) Boil, for a few minutes, chloride of sodium, 1 dr., and sulphate of iron, 2 dr., in red wine, 1 lb.; then add of verdigris, 1 dr.; in 2 or 3 minutes remove it from the fire, and further add of powdered galls, 2 dr.; the next day filter. For use, moisten the hair with the liquid; in a few minutes dry it with a cloth, and afterwards wash the skin with water.

5. To prevent the hair falling off.——_a._ (AMERICAN SHAMPOO LIQUID.) Take of carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, and add the solution to a mixture of tincture of cantharides, 5 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; good rum, 3 quarts. Used to strengthen the hair and to remove dandruff, by moistening it with the mixture, rubbing so as to form a lather, and then washing with cold water.

_b._ (BALM OF COLUMBIA.) As the last, omitting the potash, quadrupling the carbonate of ammonia, and adding some perfume.

_c._ (Eras. Wilson.) Eau de Cologne (strongest), 8 fl. oz.; tincture of cantharides, 1 fl. oz.; oils of rosemary and lavender, of each 1/2 fl. dr.

_d._ (Dr LOCOCK’S LOTION.) From expressed oil of mace (nutmeg), 1 oz., liquefied, at a gentle heat, with olive oil, 1/2 oz.; and, when cold, formed into an emulsion by agitation, with rose water, 1/4 pint; spirit of rosemary, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; stronger liquor of ammonia, 1-1/2 fl. dr. For other formulæ, see BALDNESS, HAIR DYES, LOTION, &c.

=Washes, Medicinal.= See LOTION, &c.

=Washes, Mouth.= _Syn._ TOOTH WASHES; COLLUTORIA, L. _Prep._ 1. Take of camphor (cut small), 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz; dissolve. A few drops to be added to a wine-glassful of water, to sweeten the breath and preserve the teeth.

2. Chloride of lime, 1/2 oz.; water, 2 fl. oz.; agitate well together in a phial for 1/2 an hour, filter, and add, of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; rose or orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz. Used, highly diluted with water, as the last, by smokers and persons having a foul breath.

3. Mastic (in powder), 2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; gum, 2 dr., or q. s.; orange-flower water, 6 fl. oz.; tincture of myrrh, 2 fl. dr.; for an emulsion. In loose teeth, &c.

4. Tannin, 1/2 dr.; tincture of tolu, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of myrrh, 6 fl. dr.; spirit of horseradish, 2 fl. oz.; mix. In spongy gums, scurvy, &c.; diluted with tepid water.

5. (Swediaur.) Borax, 1/4 oz.; water and tincture of myrrh, of each 1 fl. oz.; honey of roses, 2 oz. In tender or ulcerated gums.

6. Balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; camphor, 1/2 dr.; essence of musk and liquor of ammonia, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of myrrh, 3 fl. dr.; spirit of horseradish, 1-1/2 fl. oz. To sweeten and perfume the breath; a teaspoonful in 1/2 wineglassful of tepid water to rinse the mouth with.

=Washes for the Nose.= _Syn._ NASAL DOUCHES, COLLUNARIA. The following formulæ medicinally employed for the purpose of washing or rinsing out the nostrils are from the ‘Pharmacopœia of the Throat Hospital.’

In applying them it is directed that “not more than twenty ounces of fluid should ever be used for a nasal douche, and ten ounces are generally sufficient. If an apparatus on the syphon principle be applied, it should be placed only just above the level of the patient’s head, in order to avoid too great force of current. The temperature of the fluid should be about 90° F.”

NASAL DOUCHE OF TANNIC ACID. _Syn._ COLLUNARIUM ACIDI TANNICI. _Prep._ Tannic acid, 3 grams; water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——_Use._ Astringent

NASAL DOUCHE OF ALUM. _Syn._ COLLUNARIUM ALUMINIS. _Prep._ Alum, 4 grams; water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——_Use._ As a mild astringent.

NASAL DOUCHE OF PERMANGANATE OF POTASH. _Syn._ COLLUNARIUM POTASSÆ PERMANGANATIS. _Prep._ Solution of permanganate of potash (B. P.), 6 minims. Water to 1 oz.; mix.——_Use._ Detergent.

NASAL DOUCHE OF QUININE. _Syn._ COLLUNARIUM QUINIÆ. _Prep._ Sulphate of quinine, 1/2 grain; water, 1 oz. Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.

This solution is occasionally useful in hay-fever. It is generally sufficient to place a little in the palm of the hand and draw it up through the nose.

NASAL DOUCHE OF SULPHO-CARBOLATE OF ZINC. _Syn._ COLLUNARIUM ZINCI SULPHO-CARBOLATIS. _Prep._ Sulpho-carbolate of zinc, 2 grams; water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——_Use._ Antiseptic.

=Washes, Tooth.= See _above_.

=WASHING (as applied in Chemistry).= In the chemical laboratory the washing of precipitates is an operation of constant occurrence, and as the accurate result of the quantitative analysis in which the process of precipitation is had recourse to, essentially depends upon the manner in which the washing has been carried out, we have thought it desirable in the interest of the worker commencing practical chemistry to amplify under the present section the remarks which occur under the article ‘Precipitation.’ In washing a precipitate the object is, of course, to entirely free it from all extraneous matter, so as to ensure, after proper drifting, its being weighed in an absolutely pure and uncontaminated state. To arrive at a correct knowledge as to when a precipitate has been properly washed, the operator must never trust to guesswork, but to _ocular demonstration_, by testing a minute portion, such as a drop or so of the washings, from time to time.

This may be done, either by adding——1. A very minute quantity of the proper precipitant[259] to the washings; or——2. By evaporating a drop of the latter on a platinum knife, or a piece of platinum foil; when, if in the former case no turbidity is caused and in the latter no fixed residue remain, the precipitate may be pronounced perfectly washed. The operator, however, instead of not sufficiently washing his precipitate, is frequently liable to fall into another dilemma, which consists not so much in overwashing it as in washing it with an unsuitable liquid, or one in which the precipitate is, to a greater or lesser extent, soluble.

[Footnote 259: See PRECIPITATE]

It may not unfrequently happen that the best available precipitant may be one in which the precipitate is soluble to some small extent. Under these circumstances, before throwing down the precipitate, the liquid should, as far as practicable, be removed by evaporation.

Many precipitates which are not altogether insoluble in water may, by the addition of some other liquid to the water, be rendered much less so. Thus, the double chloride of platinum and ammonium which is incompletely thrown down in water is perfectly precipitated if alcohol be added to the water, as are also chloride of lead and sulphate of lime, whilst the basic phosphate of magnesium and ammonium may be rendered insoluble in water by the addition of ammonia to the water. The precipitate having subsided to the bottom of the fluid in which it was suspended, the supernatant liquid may be removed from it either by filtration or decantation. In some cases both processes are had recourse to. To wash a precipitate which has been separated by filtration, and which in a moist condition more or less fills the paper-filter inserted in a proper funnel, the wash-bottle described below is employed. In using this apparatus the jet of water that is made to issue from the bottle should be denoted upon the sides of the filter, and never in the centre, since this would cause a splashing and a consequent loss of the precipitate. The same contingency would be liable to follow it the waters were propelled too violently from the bottle. On no account must the wash-water be allowed to reach to the top of the filter. Another precaution to be guarded against is the formation in the precipitate of fissures or channels; if these are not prevented, the water will not permeate all the parts of the precipitate, and it will be only very insufficiently washed. When such channels form, it will be best to stir up the precipitates with a glass rod or a platinum spatula, taking care, however, to avoid tearing or making a hole in the filter.

Precipitates that are washed by decantation ought to consist of such substances as readily subside from the liquid in which they are suspended and are practically insoluble in water, since a very much larger quantity of this menstruum has to be employed than when filtration is had recourse to. The process is generally carried out in deep vessels. The supernatant liquid being removed, the vessel is filled up with water, and the precipitate well stirred up with a glass rod; after it has again fallen down fresh water is added, and the process is continued until the washings cease to show the presence of any soluble matter. The several washings being collected, are let stand some 12 or 24 hours; after which time, should no precipitate show itself, they are thrown away. Should any deposits form in the washing, it is carefully removed either by filtration or decantation, and its amount being determined, the result is added to that obtained from the bulk of the precipitate. Where the nature of the precipitate is in no way influenced by hot water, this latter should always be used in washing precipitates, as it greatly facilitates and expedites the operation. Many precipitates require to stand a long time before they entirely subside from the fluid in which they are suspended. Most gelatinous, pulverulent, and crystalline precipitates are of this nature. The separation of the precipitate should not be attempted until after the liquid containing the precipitate has stood several hours.

=WASHING FLU′IDS.= Solutions of carbonate of soda, rendered caustic with quicklime.

=WASHING POW′DERS.= See POWDERS.

=WATCH′FULNESS.= _Syn._ SLEEPLESSNESS. AGRYPNIA, L. The common causes of watchfulness are thoughtfulness or grief, disordered stomach or bowels, heavy and late suppers, and a deficiency of outdoor exercise. The best treatment, in ordinary cases, simply consists in an attention to these points. The method of producing sleep recommended by a late celebrated hypnotist consists in merely adopting an easy recumbent position, inclining the head toward the chest, shutting the eyes, and taking several deep inspirations with the mouth closed. Another method, recommended by an eminent surgeon, and which appears infallible if persevered in with proper confidence, and which is suitable either to the sitting or recumbent posture, consists in tying a decanter cork with a bright metallic top, a pencil-case, or any other bright object on the forehead, in such a position that the eyes must be distorted or strained to be capable of seeing it. By resolutely gazing in this way for a short time, without winking, with the mind fully absorbed in the effort, the muscles of the eyes gradually relax, and the experimenter falls asleep. Gazing in a similar manner on any imaginary bright spot in the dark, as at night, exerts a like effect. A tumblerful of cold spring water, either with or without a few grains of bicarbonate of potash in it, taken just before lying down, will frequently succeed with the dyspeptic and nervous, when all other means fail.

The following valuable advice to those who suffer from unnatural wakefulness is abridged from the late Dr Tanner’s valuable work on the ‘Practice of Medicine.’[260]

[Footnote 260: ‘The Practice of Medicine,’ by Thos. Hawkes Tanner, M.D., Renshaw, London.]

As his starting point Dr Tanner enjoins the practice of taking a proper amount of exercise daily. A digestible diet, such as is not liable to cause acidity or flatulence, must also be adopted, and tea and coffee must be abstained from in the after part of the day. Early dinners and light suppers are also recommended. The reading of any thrilling work of fiction previous to retiring to rest is also prohibited. The patient is advised to seek his bed at an early and regular hour, and it is desirable to have his sleeping chamber well ventilated, and if the weather be chilly the bedroom fire should be lighted. Feather beds should be abandoned for mattresses; there should not be too many blankets on the bed, the pillows should be firm and high, and no curtains or hangings should be allowed. Should the above means fail to produce the required sleep, before going to bed the patient is advised to try a tumbler of port-wine negus, or of mulled claret, or of white-wine whey, the last thing. The aged are recommended (should the above methods be unsuccessful) to imbibe a glass of spirit and water, which is said to be all the more effective if drunk when in bed. In some cases, attended by a hot or dry skin, a glass of cold water has been found useful. Another remedy is the use of a bath, for about three or five minutes, just before getting into bed, at a temperature varying from 90° to 96° F.

Rapid sponging of the body with tepid water is also recommended, as also the use of a warm foot bath, at a temperature of 100° F., or of a hot-water bottle in the bed, or putting the feet in cold water for a minute, and then vigorously rubbing them.

For those whose sleeplessness is caused by their prosecuting literary work till a late hour a short brisk walk, just before retiring to bed, is recommended.

If the wakefulness can be traced to any bodily ailment, this, of course, must be removed by the proper means. Constipation, which is not at all an unfrequent cause of insomnia, must be combated by the methods described under that article. If there be headache it will be best removed by applying a rag dipped in cold water to the scalp, or a bladder containing ice.

Should the adoption of any of the above suggestions fail all kinds of mental labour and excitement during the day must be greatly diminished, and physical exercise must replace them. Sedatives should be had recourse to with great caution, and under medical supervision only. Because of the hazard attending their use, and of the ready tendency their adoption has to degenerate into a pernicious ineradicable habit, we have forebore to specify the medicinal agents Dr Tanner prescribes for sleeplessness, strongly recommending the patient, before he has recourse to them, to exhaust the category of suggestions given by Dr Tanner, and, should these unhappily be found to fail, and he is drawn to soporifics, we again reiterate, let him take them only under medical supervision.

Another method, adopted by professional hypnotists, consists in gently moving, in opposite directions, a finger of each hand over the forehead, just above the eyebrows. A soothing and drowsy effect is said to be thereby produced, which ends in tranquil slumber.

Dr Ainslie Hollis contributes some excellent hints on the treatment of wakefulness to the practitioner. He classifies the treatment under two heads——first, the induction of natural sleep, and, secondly, the production of narcosis or artificial rest. The application of mustard plasters to the abdomen generally brings about the first result, producing, according to Schuler, first dilatation, and subsequently contraction of the vessels of the pia mater. Dr Pleyer, of Jena, on the supposition that sleep may be induced by the introduction of the fatigue products of the body, advocates the administration of a solution of lactate of soda. When sleeplessness is the result of brain exhaustion Dr Hollis advocates a tumbler of hot claret negus. The alkalies and alkaline earths, says the ‘Boston Journal of Chemistry,’ are useful when acid dyspepsia is associated with the insomnia. In hot weather, sprinkling the floor of the sleeping apartment with water lessens the irritant properties of the air, adding much to the comfort of the sleepers; possibly the quantity of ozone is at the same time increased. When sleep is broken by severe pain, opium or morphia is of value, bringing not only relief, but producing anæmia of the cerebral vessels; when neuralgia is the cause an injection of morphia under the skin, near the branch of the affected nerve, will have more effect than by administering it by the mouth. Again, when wakefulness is due to defective cardiac power, digitalis may be useful. Chloral hydrate is supposed to owe its hypnotic effect to its power of diminishing the amount of blood in the brain, and therefore it may be used when sleeplessness arises from the pains of muscular spasm. The bromides, although undoubtedly sedatives, possess very doubtful hypnotic properties. See SUPPER, &c.

=WA′TER.= H_{2}O. _Syn._ OXIDE OF HYDROGEN, PROTOXIDE OF H.; AQUA, L.; EAU, Fr.; WASSER, Ger.; ὑδωρ, Gr. The ancients regarded water as a simple substance, and as convertible into various mineral and organic products. Earth, air, fire, and water were at one time conceived to be the elementary principles or essences of matter from which all form and substance derived their existence. The true constitution of water was not discovered until about the year 1781, when Cavendish and James Watt, independently and nearly simultaneously, showed it to be a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Five years, however, before this time (1776), the celebrated Macquer, assisted by Sigaud de la Fond, obtained pure water by the combustion of hydrogen in the air. It has since been satisfactorily demonstrated that hydrogen and oxygen exist in water in the proportion of 1 to 8 by weight, or 2 to 1 by volume; the sp. gr. of hydrogen being to that of oxygen as 1 to 16. One cubic inch of perfectly pure water at 62° Fahr., and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 gr.; by which it will be seen that it is 770 times heavier than atmospheric air. Its sp. gr. is 1·0, it being made the standard by which the densities of all solid and liquid bodies are estimated. The sp. gr. of frozen water (ice) is ·9175, water being 1·0 (Dufour); that of aqueous vapour (steam), ·6252, air being 1·0. Water changes its volume with the temperature; its greatest density is about 39-1/2° Fahr., and its sp. gr. decreases from that point, either way. Water is nearly incompressible. By subjecting water to a pressure of 705 atmospheres, Cailletet found the compressibility to be at the rate of ·0004451 for each atmosphere. Water evaporates at all temperatures; but at 212° under ordinary circumstances, this takes place so rapidly that it boils, and is converted into vapour (steam), whose bulk is nearly 1700 times greater than that of water.

_Var._ Of these the following are the principal:

DISTILLED WATER; AQUA DESTILLATA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Obtained by the distillation of common water through a block-tin worm, rejecting the first and last portions that come over. The still employed for this operation should be used for no other purpose; and when great nicety is required, the distillation should be performed in glass or earthenware. It remains limpid on the addition of lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonium, or hydrosulphuric acid. It is the only kind of water that should be employed in chemical and pharmaceutical operations. When distilled water is not at hand, clean filtered or clarified rain water is the only kind that can be successfully substituted.

NATURAL WATERS. In respect of wholesomeness, palatability, and general fitness for drinking and cooking, natural waters may be classified in orders of excellence as follows (‘Rivers Pollution Commissioners’ Sixth Report’):——

{1. Spring water } Very palatable. _Wholesome_ {2. Deep-well water } {3. Upland surface water } Moderately palatable. {4. Stored rain water } _Suspicious_ {5. Surface water from cultivated lands } {6. River water to which sewage gains } Palatable. _Dangerous_ { access } {7. Shallow well water }

The average composition of the four classes of unpolluted waters is given by the same authorities as follows. Their estimations are in parts per 100,000, but may be converted in grains per gallon by multiplying by 7 and dividing by 10:

--------------+------+-------+--------+-----+--------+-------- | | | | |Nitrogen|Total |Total |Organic|Organic |Ammo-| as |combined |solid |Carbon |Nitrogen| nia |nitrates|nitrogen |im- | | | | and | |purity| | | |nitrites| --------------+------+-------+--------+-----+--------+-------- Rain water | 2·95| ·070 | ·015 | ·029| ·003 | ·042 Upland surface| | | | | | water | 9·67| ·322 | ·032 | ·002| ·009 | ·042 Deep-well | | | | | | water | 43·78| ·061 | ·018 | ·012| ·495 | ·522 Spring water | 28·20| ·056 | ·013 | ·001| ·383 | ·396 --------------+------+-------+--------+-----+--------+--------

--------------+---------+--------+----------------- |Previous | | Hardness |sewage | +-----+-----+----- |or animal|Chlorine|Temp-|Perm-|Total |contamin-| |orary|anent| | ation | | | | --------------+---------+--------+-----+-----+----- Rain water | 42 | ·22 | ·4| ·5 | ·3 Upland surface| | | | | water | 10 | 1·13 | 1·5| 4·3 | 5·4 Deep-well | | | | | water | 474 | 5·11 | 15·8| 9·2 |25· Spring water | 3559 | 2·49 | 11·0| 7·5 |18·5 --------------+---------+--------+-----+-----+-----

RAIN WATER contains, among natural waters, the smallest amount of solid matter in solution. From the columns headed “Organic Carbon” and “Organic Nitrogen” it will be seen that even rain collected with special precautions, away from any large town, is by no means free from organic matter. Rain water collected from roofs and stored in underground tanks is often very impure.

SURFACE WATERS form the main supply of rivers. If collected from high uncultivated districts they are usually unpolluted with animal matter. The organic matter is usually peaty, is sometimes very small, but is liable to considerable variations with the season, and is occasionally present in excessive quantities, discolouring the water and rendering it unpalatable. From their softness these waters are admirably adapted for manufacturing purposes. The amount of solid matter in solution ranges from 2 to 7 grains per gallon.

SURFACE WATER from _cultivated land_, contains on an average less organic matter than upland surface water, but the pollution, being derived from manure and other objectionable matter, is more harmful.

RIVER WATER consists of the above, aided by springs, and most frequently the drainage of towns on its banks. The amount of solid matter varies from 10 to 30 grains per gallon. In Thames water there are on the average about 20 grains.

WELLS, if _shallow_, are usually a most undesirable supply. Unless far from any house they are contaminated by drainage, and sometimes, from proximity to cesspools, contain more animal matter than ordinary town sewage. They are, as a class, hard waters, the polluted ones excessively so.

Wells of 100 feet deep and upwards are, as a class, very superior waters, the filtration and oxidation of so great a depth of soil having removed the greater part of the organic matter. The hardness varies with the strata, but, as a class, the deep wells are softer than the shallow.

SPRING WATER greatly resembles deep well water, possessing all its good qualities in a higher degree. Spring and deep well water are very uniform in quality, and little affected by climatic changes.

SEA WATER. The characteristic of this variety is its saltness. Its density is about 1·0274, and the average quantity of saline matter which it contains is about 3-1/2 per cent., of which about 27/35 are chloride of sodium, and the remainder chiefly chloride of magnesium and sulphate of magnesium.

The average proportion of organic carbon and nitrogen in 23 samples of sea water was ·278 carbon, ·165 nitrogen, as compared with Thames water averages of ·203 parts carbon, ·033 nitrogen, in 100,000 parts of water.

_Analysis of sea water_ (British Channel), by Dr Schweitzer, of Brighton:——

1000 gr. contained—— Grains Water 963·745 Chloride of sodium 28·059 Chloride of potassium 0·766 Chloride of magnesium 3·666 Bromide of magnesium 0·029 Sulphate of magnesium 2·296 Sulphate of calcium 1·406 Carbonate of calcium 0·033 ———————— 1000·

_Pur._ Pure water is perfectly transparent, odourless, and colourless, and evaporates without residue, or even leaving a stain behind. The purest natural water is that obtained by melting snow or frozen rain, that has fallen at some distance from any town. Absolutely pure water can only be obtained by the union of its gaseous constituents; but water sufficiently pure for all purposes may be procured by the careful distillation of common water.

Among the methods adopted for improving the quality of water are:

(_a_) _For reducing the amount of organic and suspended matter._——1. Filtration through or agitation with coarsely powdered, freshly burnt charcoal, either animal or vegetable, but preferably the former. When in good condition a filter of animal charcoal will not only remove suspended matter in water, but will considerably reduce the amount of organic matter, and also the calcareous and gaseous impurities held in solution; but it, however, loses its power of removing lime in a week or two, and of abstracting the organic matter in about three to four months, and then becomes foul, and requires to be recharged. Spongy metallic iron is more energetic in its action than charcoal, and remains serviceable for a twelvemonth. 2. Free exposure to the action of the air, by which the organic matters become oxidised and insoluble, and speedily subside. This may be easily effected by agitating the water in contact with fresh air, or by forcing air through it by means of bellows. 3. The addition of a little sulphuric acid has a like effect; 15 or 20 drops are usually sufficient for a gallon. This addition may be advantageously made to water intended for filtration through charcoal, by which plan at least 2/3 of the latter may be saved. (Lowitz.) 4. An ounce of powdered alum (dissolved), well agitated with a hogshead or more of foul water, will purify it in the course of a few hours, when the clear portion may be decanted. When the water is very putrid about 1/2 dr. (or even 1 dr. per gall.) may be employed; any alum that may be left in solution may be precipitated by the cautious addition of an equivalent proportion of carbonate of sodium. 5. A solution of ferric sulphate acts in the same way as alum; a few drops are sufficient for a gallon. 6. Agitation with about 1/2 to 1 per cent. of finely powdered black oxide of manganese has similar effect to the last. 7. The addition of a little aqueous chlorine, or chlorine gas, to foul water, cleanses it immediately. This method has the advantage of the water being perfectly freed from any excess of the precipitant by heat.

(_b_) _For reducing amount of inorganic matter._——1. Distillation separates all non-volatile matter, including organised bodies. It is used to obtain a potable water from sea water. The waste heat of the cook’s galley is amply sufficient for this purpose. There are several patent contrivances for the distillation of water on ship board. 2. Hard water may be softened by adding carbonate of soda to the water so long as it turns milky. The precipitation of the hardening ingredients, lime and magnesia, is most rapid when the water is heated. The water cannot be used for drinking purposes, from the unpleasant flavour of the carbonate of soda. When used on a hard water intended for washing, it effects a saving of soap equal to about fifteen times its own cost. Sea water can be made fit for washing by this means. It removes both the “temporary” hardness, due to carbonates of calcium and magnesium, and the “permanent,” due to the sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of these metals. 3. Hard water may be both aerated and softened by the addition of a few grains of bicarbonate of potassium per gallon, followed by half as much lime juice or tartaric acid as is sufficient to saturate the alkali in the carbonate thus added. 4. The “temporary” hardness may be nearly removed by ebullition, or, as recommended by Professor Clarke, by mixing the hard water with lime water, when the calcium combines with the excess of carbonic acid, which previously rendered the carbonate of calcium soluble, and is precipitated as carbonate (chalk), together with the carbonate originally present. This method removes, at the same time, much of the organic matter, and carries down suspended matter. The water is often made more palatable than before. The directions are:——For every degree of hardness on Clarke’s scale each 1000 gallons of water to be softened requires one ounce of quicklime. Slake the lime and work up to a thin cream with water and pour into the cistern, which already contains at least 50 gallons of water to be softened. Then add the remainder of the 1000 gallons in such a way as to stir up and mix uniformly with the contents of the cistern. In about three hours the milky water is clear enough for washing. After twelve hours’ rest the water is fit to drink. If the exact hardness of the water is not known, water may be added to the milk of lime till, on adding a drop of nitrate of silver to a cupful of the cistern water, the brown tint indicative of an excess of lime is replaced by a very faint yellow. 5. To save boilers from scaling, water intended for steam purposes is sometimes treated with lime to remove carbonates, and then the sulphate of calcium (which forms a very tenacious scale) is decomposed with baric chloride (Haen’s process). The precipitated mineral matter may also be prevented from forming a scale or fur by adding organic substances, such as potatoes, sound or otherwise, swedes, mangolds, or other vegetable. Oak bark, spent tan, sawdust; and their decoctions are efficacious on account of the tannic acid they contain, but they attack the boiler plates at the same time. Zinc suspended in the water is said to answer well. It has been recommended to polish the inside of the boiler plates with black lead or coat it with linseed oil and dissolved india rubber. Numerous chemical preparations, most of which do more harm than good, are also sold.

_Tests (Physical)._——1. To observe colour, stand in tall colourless glass cylinder on white ground. If very turbid allow to settle, and examine sediment by microscope for evidence of sewage contamination (linen fibres, hairs, epithelium) and for moving organisms. Slight turbidity is best noted by filling a clean quart flask and holding it towards the light with some dark object as a window pane between. Taste and odour most marked when the water is made lukewarm. 2. For poisonous metals add one drop of strong colourless ammonium sulphide to about 1000 grains of water in glass cylinder, and observe if liquid darkens. If the coloration or precipitate disappears on adding acid, it is iron; if it remains, lead or copper is present, either of which condemns the water. 3. For chlorine add couple of drops of nitric acid to a little of the water and a crystal or drop of solution of nitrate of silver. If the water turns very milky it is a bad sign; make, if possible, a comparative experiment with water of known composition. 4. The residuum, if any, of evaporation is impurity; if it be organic matter, smoke and a peculiar odour will be evolved, as the residue becomes dry and charred. 5. Neither litmus, syrup of violets, nor turmeric are discoloured or affected when moistened with pure water; if the first two are reddened it indicates an acid; if the litmus is turned blue or the turmeric is turned brown, an alkali is present. 6. If a precipitate is formed or a fur or crust deposited on the vessel during ebullition it indicates the presence of carbonates of calcium, magnesium, or iron. 7. Calcium salts produce a white precipitate with oxalate of ammonium. 8. The liquid filtered off from 7, on standing with phosphate of sodium and ammonium (microcosmic salt), gives a white precipitate if magnesium be present. 10. Tincture or infusion of galls turns water containing iron black. When this takes place both before and after the water has been boiled, the metal is present under the form of sulphate; but if it only occurs before boiling, then ferrous carbonate may be suspected, and it will be precipitated as a reddish powder by exposure to air and heat. 11. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a dark blue precipitate in water containing a ferric salt; and a white one, turning blue by exposure to the air, in water containing a ferrous salt. 12. If sulphuric acid be run into water and allowed to cool, and a crystal of sulphate of iron dropped into the water, a dark brown cloud round the crystal indicates nitrates; the bleaching of indigo added to the hot mixture of equal parts water and pure oil of vitriol also indicates the presence of these salts. 13. Sulphuric acid or sulphates is indicated by a soluble salt of barium throwing down a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.

_Water, Quantitative Analysis of._——The quantitative analysis of potable water is confined to the following: total residue, hardness temporary and permanent, chlorine, ammonia, nitrates and nitrites, and organic matter.

Of these, all but the first two are intended to throw light on the organic contamination of the water. Chlorine, ammonia, and nitrates and nitrites are in themselves innocuous substances, but are estimated because they supplement the somewhat imperfect information obtained from the organic matter itself. A sewage-polluted supply being an agent in propagating zymotic diseases, a knowledge of the source of the organic matter in a water is of the highest importance.

Before passing to the mode of estimating the above items it may be desirable to explain the object of each analysis and the interpretation which may be placed on the results.

_Total solid residue_ includes all the substance, organic or mineral, dissolved in the water. Everything beyond the two gases which enter into the combination of the water being useless, the ‘residue’ of a water is sometimes called the ‘total solid impurity.’ The less residue left by a water on evaporation the better, but a water need not be objected to for drinking purposes till the residue reaches 40 grains per gallon. For raising steam a water should not contain more than 20 grains, and should be, if possible, much less.

_The hardness_, or soap-wasting power of a water, is chiefly determined on economic grounds. Unless the hardness is very excessive, the hardness or softness of the water does not appear to materially affect the health of the consumer. Hardness is caused by salts of lime and magnesia. If the property of hardness be caused by the presence of bicarbonates of the above substances, the water is said to be ‘temporarily’ hard, for by boiling or adding lime as above described, the hardness may be reduced without affecting the potability of the supply; but when the hardness is due to calcium or magnesium sulphates it is called ‘permanent’ hardness, for it is not then practicable to remove the hardening ingredients without adding some more objectionable substance. The average hardness of the four classes of pure water is shown in the analyses given above. Thames water has a total hardness of 15°, Loch Katrine water, as supplied to Glasgow, 0·70, on Clarke’s scale.

_Chlorine._——Except in places near the sea, or in salt-bearing strata, an unpolluted water does not contain more than the merest trace of chlorine. Sewage, however, contains a large quantity of chlorine as sodic chloride (common salt) derived from the salt used in cooking, &c. Hence a mixture of sewage with water becomes known by the quantity of chlorine present. It is not safe to drink a water containing such an excessive quantity of chlorine as 4 grains per gallon. The chlorine in Ullswater and Thames water is ·7 and 1·1 grains per gallon respectively. Sewage has about 8 grains on the average.

_Ammonia._——This determination acquires significance because it is one of the early substances produced by the decomposition of animal matter. It therefore indicates, when present in large quantities, _recent_ contamination by sewage. Rain always contains a small amount of ammonia, and deep wells occasionally show ammonia derived from the reduction of nitrates by the oxygen-seeking organic matter. The above inferences must, therefore, be applied with caution.

_Nitrates and Nitrites_ result from the oxidation of animal matter. Vegetable substances, under like conditions, yield none or but mere traces of these compounds. The presence of nitrates is a most unfavorable sign in a shallow well or river water, because the conditions to which these waters are subjected are so variable that there is a constant liability of the purifying processes diminishing, and allowing the sewage, now only represented by innoxious nitrates, to appear in its dangerous, unoxidised condition.

Dr Frankland takes the sum of the nitrogen existing in the water as ammonia and as nitrites and nitrates, as a sort of measure of the minimum amount of animal or sewage matter destroyed. The amount due to sewage or animal matter is considered to be all over ·032 part per 100,000 (or ·022 gr. per gallon), which is the average of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ natural to unpolluted rain water. Dr Frankland also expresses this ‘previous sewage or animal contamination,’ in terms of London sewage containing 10 parts of nitrogen in 100,000 parts of liquid, by multiplying the above-named corrected sum by 10,000. Thus, a water containing 1 part per 100,000 (·7 gr. per gall.) of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ would have a ‘previous sewage or animal contamination’ of 9680 parts per 100,000, for it would have required 100,000 {(1 - ·032)/10} = 9680 parts of London sewage to produce an amount of nitrogen equal to that found by analysis. A water which contains over 20,000 parts of previous sewage contamination (1·5 grains of inorganic nitrogen) is said to be dangerous. All other waters containing more inorganic nitrogen than in rain are said to be ‘doubtful’ except springs and deep well waters containing less than 10,000 parts of previous sewage contamination per 100,000, and such shallow wells and running water which from their source may be taken to be free from sewage.

_Organic matter._——There is no method by which the actual weight of organic matter can be determined, still less is it possible to say how much is likely to be actually injurious organic matter, but there are several means of measuring the proportionate amount of organic contamination.

Dr Frankland determines the amount of carbon and nitrogen in the organic matter. The smaller the amount of these elements the better the water, and the less the amount of nitrogen, especially in proportion to organic carbon, the less chance of _animal_ matter. A good drinking water will not have more than ·2 parts in 100,000 (·14 gr. per gall.) of carbon, or ·03 part of organic nitrogen in 100,000 parts (·02 gr. per gall.) of the water. The amount of putrescent matter may be estimated by the amount of oxygen consumed in destroying it. Dr Tidy (‘Chem. Soc. Jour.,’ January, 1879) considers that, speaking generally, waters requiring ·05 part per 100,000 (·035 gr. per gall.) to be of great organic purity; ·15 part (·1 gr. per gall.) waters of medium purity; waters of doubtful purity, from ·15 to ·21 part per 100,000 (·15 gr. per gallon). Impure waters, all above ·15 gr. per gall.

The proportion of albuminous substances present is measured by Mr Wanklyn by the amount of ammonia set free by alkaline permanganate. A water containing over ·15 part per million albuminoid ammonia condemns a water absolutely (‘Wanklyn’s Water Analysis,’ 4th edit., p. 54); ·10 part per million with little free ammonia, or ·05 part albuminoid ammonia with much free ammonia, is ‘suspicious.’ A water with less than ·05 part albuminoid ammonia belongs to the class of very pure waters.

Of course the above data are not hard and fast lines, but serve as aid to a judgment which may be modified by other circumstances connected with the analysis, and the source of the water.

_Methods of Analysis. Total solid residue._——1000 grains are evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish over a water bath and residue dried in an oven at 212° F. for an hour, or until the weight is constant. The increase in weight of the platinum vessel multiplied by 70 gives the number of grains of total solid residue per gallon.

_Hardness_ is determined by a solution of soap of which 320 grain-measure will soften a water of 16° of hardness. Each degree of hardness represents an amount of soap-destroying matter equivalent to 1 grain of chalk per gallon. 1000 measured grains of the water are measured into a narrow-mouthed six or eight ounce stoppered bottle, then well shaken, and the air sucked out by means of a piece of glass tube. The standard soap solution is now run in 10 grains at a time, shaking well between each addition until there is formed over the whole surface a lather which, when the bottle is placed upon its side, shall last just five minutes. The number of grain-measures used will indicate the hardness of the water by reference to Table A. Should, however, the permanent lather not be formed before 320 measures of soap solution have been added, a second trial must be made, in which only 500 grain-measures of the water are taken, to which a like amount of recently-boiled distilled water is added. The degree of hardness now obtained must be multiplied by 2. With very hard waters it is necessary to dilute still further, say 250 grains to 750 of distilled, and multiplying the result by 4. If the number of soap-measures does not correspond with any degree on the table, observe which numbers it falls between. The degree corresponding to the lower of these soap volumes will be the whole number in the answer; the fraction will be the difference between the observed number of measures and the next lower on the table, divided by the difference (given in column 3) between the figure above and below it. Thus, if 14 measures were used the hardness would be 6·2°, 13·6 measures being equivalent to 6 degrees, and the fraction being {14 - 13·6}/{13·6 - 11·6} = 4/20 = ·2.

The hardness of the water in the natural state is the ‘total hardness.’ By boiling for an hour and making up loss by evaporation with boiled distilled water and again determining the hardness, the ‘permanent hardness’ is found. That which has been removed by the boiling is the temporary hardness.

TABLE A.

Soap test measures corresponding to one thousand measures of water of each degree of hardness.

Degree of Soap test Difference. hardness. measures.

0 14 18 1 32 22 2 54 22 3 76 20 4 96 20 5 116 20 6 136 20 7 156 19 8 175 19 9 194 19 10 213 18 11 231 18 12 249 18 13 267 18 14 285 18 15 303 17 16 320 ——

The standard water of 16° of hardness is thus made:——Pure carbonate of calcium (Iceland spar) is weighed out into a porcelain or platinum dish in the proportion of 16 grains for a gallon of solution. It is dissolved in weak hydrochloric acid, and the whole cautiously evaporated to dryness over a water bath, then re-dissolved in water and again evaporated to drive off any excess of acid. The dish is covered with a glass during the operation to prevent loss by spirting. The resulting neutral chloride of calcium is dissolved in a gallon of pure distilled water if 16 grains were weighed out, or a proportionate quantity in other cases. The soap solution can be made by dissolving good curd soap in weak methylated spirit in the proportion of one ounce of soap to the gallon. A potash soap made as follows is, however, less liable to change: 150 grains of lead plaster (Emplastrum plumbi, B. P.) and 40 grains of dry potassic carbonate are rubbed together in a mortar and repeatedly extracted with small portions of methylated spirit, triturating the mass meanwhile, till about a pint of spirit has been used; filter and add an equal bulk of recently boiled distilled water. Whichever method is followed the clear solution has now to be standardised by the ‘water of 16° of hardness.’ 1000 grains of the water of 16° of hardness are placed into a bottle, and this soap solution is run in from a burette until a permanent lather is formed. The soap solution must be fortified by strong soap solution or diluted with alcohol till 320 measures produce a lather permanent for five minutes in 1000 grain-measures of water of 16° of hardness.

_Chlorine._ To 1000 grains of the water add a drop or two of neutral chromate of sodium, so as to tinge the water yellow; run in standard nitrate of silver till the liquid acquires a very faint red tinge, showing that all the chlorine has been precipitated and that red silver chromate is beginning to be formed. The number of grains of standard solution divided by 100 will give the grains of chlorine in one gallon of the water.

The standard solution is prepared by dissolving pure nitrate of silver in the proportion of 47·90 grains to one gallon of distilled water.

_Ammonia_ is always carried out as described in the account of Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s process.

_Nitrate and Nitrites._——These substances can be most expeditiously estimated by the indigo process as follows: 200 grain-measures of the water are placed in a flask and a little of a standard solution of indigo added thereto; twice the volume of pure sulphuric acid is then suddenly poured in from a measuring cylinder, and the whole shaken. The temperature rises immediately to about 270° Fahr., and the blue colour will probably be immediately discharged; more indigo, therefore, must be rapidly run in till a brown-green tint shows itself. This gives the trial estimation, but the maximum amount of indigo is only used up when all the indigo is added previous to the addition of acid; hence a second experiment is now started, and an amount equal to that previously used run in at once, and on it is poured exactly twice as much sulphuric acid as there is water and indigo in solution. The second result will be somewhat higher than the first. If the solutions below mentioned be used, the amount of indigo required by the 200 grains of water divided by the number of grains of indigo required to bleach 200 c.c. of standard nitre represents the grains per gallon of nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites. The standardising of the indigo with the nitrate solution is performed exactly as for an actual water. The requisites are a solution of pure potassium nitrate of known strength, say 14·442 gr. of nitre (equivalent to 2 gr. of nitrogen or 9 gr. of nitric acid) in a gallon of distilled water. 2. A solution of indigo made by dissolving soluble indigo carmine in distilled water in such a proportion that 200 gr. is about equal to 200 gr. of nitre solution. 3. Strong pure oil of vitriol; it must be free from nitrous compounds, not become turbid when diluted, and its specific gravity not be less than 1·84. It is important to maintain the same proportion of acid, and not to allow the temperature to fall below 250° F. throughout the experiment.

Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s aluminium method is also a very convenient process. 2000 grains of the water are placed in a retort and half as much of a solution of 10 per cent. soda added. The soda solution is made from sodium soda and the absence of nitrates is secured by boiling the liquid with a piece of aluminium. Half the contents of the retort are distilled over and the residue cooled. A piece of aluminium foil of about six square inches area is tied to a piece of clean glass rod and sunk in the liquid. The neck of the retort is guarded by a tube containing fragments of glass moistened with hydrochloric acid; it is sloped, so that any liquid spurted into the neck will flow back into the retort. After resting several hours the neck of the retort is washed down with pure water, the contents of the tube are transferred to the retort, and the contents distilled over, down to about an ounce in two or three ounces water placed as a receiver. The contents of the receiver are made up to 200 grains and the ammonia is estimated in one half by Nessler’s test as below described.

An exceedingly accurate eudiometric method has also been devised by Dr Frankland, based on Crum’s observations, that a highly concentrated solution of nitrates, when vigorously agitated with mercury and an excess of concentrated pure sulphuric acid, yields all its nitrogen from the nitrates and nitrites, as nitric oxide, a compound occupying twice the volume of the nitrogen as nitrates. The weight of gas is easily calculated from the volume measured (‘Journal Chem. Soc.,’ March, 1868).

_Organic Contamination; means of estimating._——Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s method is most generally employed. It depends on the conversion of the nitrogen of the organic matter into ammonia and the employment of Nessler’s test to estimate this ammonia.

_Nessler’s Test._ 500 gr. of iodide of potassium are dissolved in a small quantity of hot distilled water, and to this is gradually added a cold saturated solution of mercuric chloride till the precipitate produced ceases to be dissolved upon stirring. To render this alkaline, add 2000 gr. of potassic hydrate and dilute the volume to 10,000 grain measures. A little more saturated mercuric chloride is added, and the whole allowed to settle, and the clear liquid decanted off. The test should have a slightly yellowish tint. If colourless, it is not sensitive, and more mercuric chloride must be added.

_Standard Ammonia Solution._——Dissolve 27·164 gr. of pure sulphate of ammonium in 1 gall. of distilled water. For use dilute 100 gr. to 1000 gr. It will then contain 1 gr. of ammonia in 100,000 of water.

In order to estimate ammonia several six-ounce tall glass cylinders, free from colour, are graduated at 1000 grains. One of these is filled up to the graduation mark with the ammonia to be estimated, and about 30 gr. of Nessler’s reagent added from a pipette. The coloration produced is noted, a second cylinder is filled nearly to the mark with distilled water, and what is thought sufficient ammonia to produce a similar colour to the first run in, and the whole made up to 1000 gr., and 30 gr. of Nessler added; if after standing five minutes the colour in the second is the same as in the water examined, the quantity of ammonia they contain will be equal; but if this is not the case a second trial must be made, using more or less standard ammonia as the intensity of colour is greater or less than the first. After a little experience, more than two trials are rarely necessary.

_Examination._ (_a_) _Free Ammonia._ 7000 grains (a deci-gallon) of the water to be analysed is placed in a tabulated retort, and to it is added half an ounce of a supersaturated solution of carbonate of soda, made by dissolving ignited carbonate of soda in water free from ammonia. The contents are distilled over in two portions of 1000 grains each, and the second Nesslerised; if it contains no ammonia, the distillation may be stopped; if it does, the distillation must be continued and tested in portions of 500 grains till the ammonia no longer can be detected. If there is much ammonia in the cylinder of the second 1000 grains the first will probably contain too much to be conveniently estimated, and therefore an aliquot part diluted to 1000 grains with distilled water free from ammonia should be used. The sum of the ammonia in these different portions multiplied by 10 gives grains per gallon.

(_b_) _Albuminoid Ammonia._ To the retort, after all the free ammonia has been driven off, one ounce of a solution of hydrate and permanganate of potassium of a strength of 2000 gr. of hydrate of potassium and 80 gr. of permanganate to 10,000 gr. of water is added, and the distillation continued until no more ammonia comes over, collecting the distillate in portions of 1000 c.c. as before. The sum is the albuminoid ammonia derived from the nitrogenous organic matter.

It is of course essential that the utmost care be taken to remove by rinsing or distillation all traces of ammonia from apparatus employed. Water which has been distilled till free from ammonia should alone be used in estimations and preparations of solutions, and the alkaline permanganate should lie boiled for a short time when made to expel ammonia.

_“Oxygen” Process._ This is a useful process when comparing waters of similar origin. It is probably a more reliable measure of the _putrescent_ matter present than the _total_ organic contamination. It is essential that the oxidizing agent potassium permanganate be added in excess and allowed to stand three hours. The following method is very delicate (_vide_ Dr Tidy on Potable Waters, ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ January, 1879.)

Cleanse with sulphuric acid and with tap water two flasks and place in one 500 septems (1/20 gall.) of the water, in the other an equal quantity of distilled water. Add to each 20 septems (140 gr.) of sulphuric acid (1 part pure acid to 3 of distilled water) and 20 septems of potassium permanganate and allow to rest for 3 hours. Then add to each flask a couple of drops of an aqueous solution of potassic iodide (1 in 10) when iodine is liberated equivalent to the amount of permanganate unacted on by the waters. Observe the amount of a sodic hyposulphite solution (5·4 gr. in 7000 gr.) which must be added to each to remove this free iodine (judging of the exact spot by adding towards the end of the experiment a few drops of starch).

The strength of the potassic permanganate solution is 2 gr. of the salt in 7000 gr. to 1/10 gall.; therefore the 20 septems will contain ·04 gr. permanganate, equivalent to ·01 of available oxygen. The experiment (A) with the amount of hyposulphite used up for the blank distilled water shows the amount of hyposulphite equivalent to 20 septems or ·01 gr. of oxygen. Therefore the amount of oxygen unconsumed in the water (B) to be examined was (B/A) × ·01 and the amount (C) actually used up was (A - B)/A × ·01 for 500 septems (1/20th gall). Then the oxygen consumed per gallon would be A-B x ·2 / A. It is necessary to perform this standardising of hyposulphite with every series of experiment on account of its tendency to change. Dr Tidy recommends that in addition to the three hours’ experiment one of a single hour duration be executed. The higher the proportion of oxygen consumed in one hour to the oxygen consumed in three hours the worse the water.

Nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ferrous salts interfere with this test, and there appears to be a different ratio between the oxygen consumed and the amount of organic matter according to the amount of oxidation that has already taken place. The organic matter of deep wells is proportionately least acted upon.

_Combustion methods._——The “Frankland and Armstrong process” consists in burning with oxide of copper in vacuo the residue left on evaporating the water, and collecting and measuring in a suitable gas apparatus the carbonic acid, and nitrogen, and nitric oxide proceeding from the organic matter. From these estimations are calculated the organic carbon and nitrogen.

This method, though forming the most accurate means of measuring organic contamination, is not in general use in consequence of the difficulties attending Dr Frankland’s method of analysis. Professor Dittmar and Drs Dupré and Hake have lately introduced processes by which the same results may be obtained without necessitating the use of expensive gas apparatus.

_Dittmar’s Carbon._——Concentrate a suitable quantity (say 10,000 gr.) in a pear-shaped flask, and, after adding some saturated solution of sulphurous acid to expel carbonates and nitrates, evaporate to dryness in a glass dish on a water bath. Transfer the residue from the dish to a porcelain or platinum boat, and introduce it into the tail end of a combustion tube, filled three fourths of its length with oxide of copper, and having a roll of silver gauze in the front part of the tube. Previous to the boat being put in, this tube is heated to redness, and a stream of air, freed from carbonic acid, passed through it till the gas which comes out no longer renders clear baryta water turbid. The combustion tube has attached in front a small V-Shaped tube charged with chromic acid, dissolved in 60 per cent. sulphuric acid. To it is permanently fixed a small tube filled with calcic chloride, and in front of all is a small-weighed U-tube the first three fourths of which is filled with soda lime, and the other fourth with calcic chloride. On turning the gas on gradually from the front to the tail the residue is at last reached, and burnt in the stream of pure air. The carbonic acid given off, after being freed from sulphurous anhydride by passing through the chromic acid solution and of moisture by the calcic chloride, passes into the soda lime tube and is absorbed. The increase in weight multiplied by 3/11 gives the amount of carbon in the amount of water taken.

_Dittmar’s Nitrogen._ An amount of water, about half that taken for the carbon, is evaporated in a similar way. The residue is transferred to a large copper or silver boat, and mixed with about 50 grains of soda made from pure sodium, or with a mixture of soda and baryta, and burnt in a stream of hydrogen in a short combustion tube, which is closed in front by a nitrogen absorption bulb charged with exceedingly weak acidulated water. The amount of ammonia given off is estimated by the Nessler test as described under “Ammonia.” Subtracting the amount of inorganic ammonia the residue multiplied by 14/17 yields the quantity of organic nitrogen in that volume of water.

A few blank experiments must be made to observe and allow correction for the amount of experimental error.

_Carbon method of Drs Dupré and Hake._[261]——This method appears to be very accurate, but it necessitates a number of minute precautions, which cannot here be particularised. A residue is obtained by evaporating the water either in the ordinary hemispherical glass dish, or in an exceedingly thin silver one, which after being ignited is supported in a platinum hemisphere of convenient size. At the close of the evaporation this dish is crumpled up without being handled and introduced into a combustion tube, similar to that described under Dittmar’s process. The carbonic acid is absorbed in bright baric hydrate solution, and the precipitated baric carbonate is, with suitable precautions to prevent access of impure air, collected on a filter and washed. It is dried and weighed. The result divided by 19·4 gives the weight of organic carbon. As another method of estimating the carbon the authors propose to compare the turbidity produced by the carbonic acid evolved from the combustion of the residue in solutions of basic acetate of lead with that produced by known quantity of carbonic acid.

[Footnote 261: ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ March, 1879.]

_Pres._ The preservation of rain water in a state of purity necessitates the greatest care in constructing the tanks, especially if the latter are underground. Of eight samples of stored rain water examined by the River Commissioners only one was fit for domestic use, the others were all polluted by animal matter. Storage room sufficient to hold 120 days’ supply will be found sufficient for the driest district. The small cisterns for service water should not be placed in positions where it can receive the emanation of water closets or sleeping apartments. They should be frequently cleaned out. The best are made of enamelled slate or properly painted iron. Wherever possible a water service should be on the constant supply system.

For wells the chief precaution necessary is to keep out surface and drainage water by maintaining the walls water-proof for a considerable depth. On shipboard water is preserved in iron tanks or in casks well charred on the inside. Water cannot be safely kept in copper or leaden vessels, and it receives a calcareous impregnation by contact with lime, mortar, slate, or stone containing lime. The addition of 1/2 to 1 per cent. of finely powdered binoxide of manganese materially promotes preservation, especially at sea, where the motion of the vessel and the subsequent agitation of the water increases the points of contact. Water never putrefies in iron vessels or when some fragments of metallic iron are immersed in it. Distilled water should be preserved in glass bottles or carboys. See LOTION, SPIRITS, WATER, DISTILLED EYE WATER, PERFUMED WATER, and the articles below.

=Water, Soda.= Each bottle of this liquid should contain at least 15 grains of carbonate of sodium, but that of the shops is usually nothing else but water highly charged with carbonic anhydride. Not a particle of soda enters into its composition, on which account it cannot be substituted for the preparation of the Pharmacopœias.

To produce a superior article of soda water, the possession of a powerful aërating and bottling machine is absolutely necessary. The water employed must also be of the purest quality, the carbonic anhydride well washed with water, and the corks so prepared that they will not impart their peculiar flavour to the beverage. See POWDERS, SOLUTION, WINES, and LEAD IN AERATED WATER.

=Water, Tar.= See INFUSION OF TAR.

=WATERS (Distilled).= _Syn._ AROMATIC WATERS, ODORIFEROUS W., PERFUMED W.; AQUÆ (Ph. L.), AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. Pure water, charged, by distillation, with the volatile, odorous, and aromatic principles of plants.

_Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.)——_a._ 2 galls, of water are put into the still along with the vegetable matter (bruised, if necessary), but only 1 gall. is drawn over. In the Ph. L. 1836, 7 fl. oz. of proof spirit were added before distillation.

_b._ Take of the essential oil of the plant, 2 fl. dr.; powdered silex, 2 dr.; triturate them diligently together, and then with distilled water, 1 gall., gradually added; lastly (after briskly agitating the whole for some time), strain the solution.

2. (Ph. E.) As 1, _a_, but adding of rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz., before distillation.

3. (Ph. D.). From the respective essences (Ph. D), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; agitated well together, and then filtered through paper.

The following are the AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ of the British Colleges, with some others, the quantities referring to a product of 1 gall., to be prepared as above when not otherwise directed.

ANGELICA WATER; AQUA ANGELICÆ (P. Cod.). Bruised seed, 1 lb.; water, q. s., distil 4 lbs.

ANISEED WATER; AQUA ANISI (P. Cod.). From seeds, as AQUA ANGELICÆ.

BALM WATER; AQUA MELISSÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

BERGAMOT WATER; AQUA BERGAMII (L. 1746). Bergamot peel, 5 oz.

BITTER-ALMOND WATER; AQUÆ AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ, AQUA AMYGDALARUM AMABARUM (P. Cod.), L. Bitter-almond cake (from which the oil has been expressed), 5 lbs.; macerate for 24 hours, and filter the distilled product through paper previously wetted with pure distilled water. Poisonous.——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid.

BLACK MUSTARD-SEED WATER; AQUA SINAPIS NIGRÆ (Guibourt). Mix 1 part of ground black mustard seed with 8 of water; macerate for 12 hours, and distil 4 parts, by means of steam conducted by a tube from a boiler to the bottom of the still. Filter through moistened paper to separate the oil. Used externally as a rubefacient.

BORAGE WATER; AQUA BORAGINIS (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs.

CAMPHOR WATER; AQUA CAMPHORÆ (B. P.) MISTURA CAMPHORÆ. Enclose 1/2 oz. of camphor, broken into pieces, in a muslin bag, and attach this to one end of a glass rod, to keep it at the bottom of a bottle containing 1 gall, of distilled water. Macerate for 2 days, then pour off the solution as required.

CARAWAY WATER; AQUA CARUI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.). Caraway, bruised, 1; water, 20; distil 10.

CASCARILLA WATER; AQUA CORTICIS CASCARILLÆ (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla, bruised, 3 lbs.

CASSIA WATER; AQUA CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Cassia, bruised, 1-1/2 lb.

CASTOR WATER; AQUA CASTOREI. Castor, 4 oz.

CHAMOMILE WATER; AQUA ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. G.). Dried chamomile flower, 2 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 20 lbs.

CHERRY-LAUREL WATER; AQUA LAURO-CERASI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Fresh leaves of common laurel, 16, water, 50; chop the leaves, crush them in a mortar, and macerate them in the water for twenty-four hours; distil 20 of the liquid, shake the product, filter through paper, and preserve in a stoppered bottle——2. (Ph. E.) Fresh leaves, chopped, 10 lbs. (10 lbs.——Ph. D.). To the product add of compound spirit of lavender, 8 fl. oz,; agitate well, and, if milky, filter it (through wet paper——Ph. D.& P. Cod.).——_Dose_, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. It is commonly imitated in trade by dissolving 75 drops (minims) of the oil of bitter almonds in 2-1/2 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, agitating the mixture with warm distilled water, 1 gall., and filtering.

CINNAMON WATER; AQUA CINNAMOMI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 1. Cinnamon, bruised, 18 oz.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1; water, 16; distil 8.

CLOVE WATER; AQUA CARYOPHYLLI (P. Cod.), L. Cloves, bruised, 3 lbs.

CORIANDER WATER; AQUA CORIANDRI. As Angelica water.

DILL WATER; AQUA ANETHI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Bruised seed, 1-1/2 lb.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Bruised fruit, 1; water, 20; distil 10.

DISTILLED WATER; AQUA DESTILLATA (B. P.). Take of water, 10 galls, distil from a copper state, connected with a block-tin worm; reject the first 1/2 gall., and preserve the next 8 galls. It should remain clear on the addition of either lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, or hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen).

ELDER-FLOWER WATER; AQUA SAMBUCI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Fresh elder flowers, 10 lbs.——2. (B. P.) Fresh elder flowers, separated from the stalks, 1; water 2; distil 1.

FENNEL WATER; AQUA FŒNICULI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) L. As DILL WATER.

HYSSOP WATER; AQUA HYSSOPI (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

EUCALYPTUS WATER. _Syn._ AQUA EUCALYPTI. _Prep._ Dry leaves, 1 part; add sufficient water to yield 4 parts of product.

HYSTERIC WATER; AQUA HYSTERICA. Compound of spirit of bryony, omitting the bryony.

JUNIPER WATER; AQUA BACCÆ JUNIPERI (P. Cod.), L. Berries, bruised, 3 lbs.

LAVENDER WATER; AQUA LAVENDULÆ (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs.

LEMON-PEEL WATER; _Aqua limonis_ (E., 1817). Fresh lemon peel, 2 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 10 lbs.

LETTUCE WATER; AQUA LACTUCÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs.

LIME-TREE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA TILLIÆ. From lime flowers, as melilot water.

LILY WATER; AQUA LILIORUM CONVALLIUM (Ph. Bruns.). Flowers of lily of the valley, 1 lb.; water, 4 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

MELILOT WATER; AQUA MELLIOTI (P. Cod.), L. Dried flower, 3 lbs.

MINT WATER, SPEARMINT W.; AQUA MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Dried herb, 2 lbs.; or fresh herb, 4 lbs.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) English oil of spearmint, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 gall.; distil 1 gall.

MYRTLE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA MYRTI. Myrtle flowers, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 1 gall.

OPIUM WATER; AQUA OPII (Ph. G). Opium, sliced and dried, 1 oz. Put into a glass retort with 10 oz. of. water, and distil 5 oz.

ORANGE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA AURANTII FLORIS (B. P., Ph. L.), A. FLORUM AURANTII, L. “Water distilled from the flowers of _Citrus Bigaradia_, Risso, and _Citrus Aurantium_, D. C.” (Ph. L.) Orange flowers, 10 lbs.; proof spirit, 7 fl. oz. (Ph. L. 1836.)

ORANGE-PEEL WATER; AQUA CORTICIS AURANTII (L. 1746). Rind of oranges, 5 oz.

ORIGANUM WATER; AQUA ORIGANI (P. Cod.), L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs.

PEACH WATER; AQUA PERSICÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12 lbs.; as CHERRY-LAUREL WATER.

PEACH-LEAF WATER; AQUA PERSICÆ (P. Cod.). Fresh peach leaves, cut small, 2 lbs.; water, 4 lbs. Distil gently 3 lbs.

PARSLEY-SEED WATER; AQUA PETROSELINI (P. Cod.). From parsley seed, as angelica water.

PENNYROYAL WATER; AQUA PULEGII (Ph. L. & E.), AQUA MENTHÆ PULEGII (Ph. D.), L. As MINT WATER (_above_).

PEPPERMINT WATER; AQUA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. As MINT WATER (_above_).

PIMENTO WATER; AQUA PIMENTÆ: (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Pimento, bruised, 1 lb.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Pimento, bruised, 1; water, 23, nearly; distil one half.

PLANTAIN-LEAF WATER; AQUA PLANTAGINIS (P. Cod.). From fresh plantain leaves, as lettuce water.

RASPBERRY WATER. Fresh raspberries, 6 lbs.

RED-ANT WATER; AQUA FORMICARUM. Distilled from red ants with water, q. s.

RHODIUM WATER; AQUA RHODII. Rhodium wood, 1 part; water, 8; macerate, and distil 4 parts.

ROSEMARY WATER; AQUA ROSMARINI, AQUA ANTHOS. Rosemary, in flower, 1 lb.; infuse 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

ROSE WATER; AQUA ROSÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Damask or hundred-leaved rose, 10 lbs. (Ph. L. & E.).——Otto 40 drops. (Ph. D.)——Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1; water, 2; distil 1 (B. P.).

RUE WATER; AQUA RUTÆ. Fresh rue, 1 lb.; macerate 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

SAGE WATER; AQUA SALVIÆ (P. Cod.), L. As LAVENDER WATER (_above_).

SASSAFRAS WATER; AQUA LIGNI SASSAFRAS (P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 3 lbs.

SASSAFRAS WATER; AQUA SASSAFRAS (P. Cod.). From sassafras, as melilot water.

SCURVY-GRASS WATER; AQUA COCHLEARIÆ (P. Cod.). Fresh scurvy grass, 8 lbs.

SPEARMINT WATER. See MINT WATER.

SPIRITUOUS WATERS. Many of the distilled spirits were formerly termed waters.

SPRUCE FIR WATER; AQUA ABIRTIS (P. Cod.). Bruised buds of spruce fir, 2 lbs.

STINKING GOOSE-FOOT WATER; AQUA CHENOPODII VALVARIÆ. Stinking goose-foot, 1 lb.; water, 6 lbs.; distil 3 lbs.; 1 to 2 oz. in hysteria.

STRAWBERRY WATER; AQUA FRAGARIÆ. Strawberries, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 3 lbs.

TANSY WATER; AQUA TANACETI (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 6 lbs.

THYME WATER; AQUA THYMI (P. Cod.), L. As the last.

VALERIAN WATER; AQUA VALERIANÆ, A. RADICIS V. (P. Cod.), L. Root bruised, 3 lbs.

VANILLA WATER; AQUA VANILLÆ, L. Vanilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb.; salt, 5 lbs.; water 2-1/2 galls.; macerate for 24 hours in a covered vessel, then distil 1 gall.

VIOLET WATER; AQUA VIOLÆ. Violets, 1 part; water, 4; after 6 hours distil 2 parts.

WORMWOOD WATER; AQUA ABSINTHII (P. Cod.). Wormwood tops, 4 lbs.

_Uses, &c._ Distilled waters are mostly employed as vehicles or perfumes. A few, as bitter-almond, cherry-laurel, and peach water, are poisonous in doses larger than a few drops. The dose of the aromatic or carminative waters, as those of dill, caraway, peppermint, pennyroyal, &c., is a wine-glassful, _ad libitum_.

_Concluding Remarks._ In the preparation of distilled waters for medical purposes the utmost care should be taken to prevent contamination from contact with either copper, lead, or zinc, since these metals are gradually oxidised and dissolved by them. In preparing them from the essential oils, silica, in impalpable powder, is the best substance that can be employed to promote the division and diffusion of the oil, as directed in the Ph. L. Magnesia and sugar, formerly used for the purpose, are objectionable; as the first not; only decomposes a portion of the oil, but the water is apt to dissolve a little of it, and is hence rendered unfit to be used as a solvent for metallic salts, more especially for corrosive sublimate and nitrate of silver; whilst the other causes the water to ferment and acetify.

In the distillation of waters intended for perfumery the utmost care is requisite to produce a highly fragrant article. The still should be furnished with a high and narrow neck, and the heat of steam, or a salt-water bath, should alone be employed. The first 2 or 3 fl. oz. of the runnings should be rejected, except when spirit is used, and the remainder collected until the proper quantity be obtained, when the whole product should be mixed together, as distilled waters progressively decrease in strength the longer the process is continued. When a very superior article is desired, the waters may be redistilled by a gentle heat, the first two thirds only being preserved. The herbaceous odour of recently distilled waters is removed by keeping them for some months, loosely covered in a cold cellar.

When distilled waters have been carefully prepared, so that none of the liquor in the still has ‘spirted’ over into the condensing worm, they keep well, and are not liable to change; but when the reverse is the case, they frequently become ropy and viscid. The best remedy for this is to redistil them. Waters which have acquired a burnt smell in the ‘stilling’ lose it by freezing. Distilled waters may be prevented from turning sour by adding a little calcined magnesia to them, and those which have begun to spoil may be recovered by adding 1 gr. each of borax and alum to the pint. The doctoring is not, however, to be recommended, and should never be adopted for those used in medicine. A drop of solution of terchloride of gold added to these waters shows whether they contain any uncombined essential oil, by forming, in that case, a fine metallic film on the surface. After distilled waters have acquired their full odour, they should be carefully preserved in well-stopped bottles. Such houses keep a separate still for each of the more delicate perfumed waters, as it is extremely difficult to remove any odour that adheres to the body of the still and worm. The addition of the small quantity of spirit ordered in the Ph. E. and Ph. L. 1836, in the preparation of their waters, in no way tends to promote their preservation.

In general, the druggist draws off 2 galls., or more, of water from the quantities of the herbs, barks, seeds, or flowers, ordered in the Pharmacopœias; hence the inferior quality of the waters of the shops. They do, however, very well for vehicles. The perfumers, on the contrary, use an excess of flowers, or at least reserve only the first and stronger portion of the water that distils over, the remainder being collected and used for a second distillation of fresh flowers.

The most beautiful distilled waters are those prepared in the south of France, and which are imported into England under the French names. Thus eau de rose, eau de fleurs d’oranges, &c., are immensely superior to the best English rose or orange-flower water, &c. The water that distils over in the preparation of the essential oils is usually of the strongest and finest class. See ESSENCE, OILS (Volatile), SPIRITS (Perfumed), VEGETABLES, &c.

=WATERS (Eye).= _Syn._ COLLYRIA, L. _Prep._ 1. From distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water 1/2 pint. Half a fl. oz. of rectified spirit, or 1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple chronic ophthalmia, blear eyes, &c., also to remove particles of lime from the eyes.

2. Sugar of lead, 10 gr.; pure vinegar, 1/2 teaspoonful; distilled water, 1/2 pint. In ophthalmia, as soon as active inflammation ceases; also as the last.

3. Wine of opium, 2 fl. dr.; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint. Astringent and anodyne; in painful ophthalmia and extreme irritability.

4. Opium, 15 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; when cold, add of solution of acetate of ammonia, 2-1/2 fl. oz., and filter. As the last.

5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint; dissolve. Au excellent astringent water in chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable, eyes, &c.

6. Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; camphor mixture (julep), 1/2 pint; dissolve. In the purulent ophthalmia of infants.

I. TABLE _exhibiting the Composition of several of the more celebrated_ MINERAL WATERS.

16 fl. oz. in the following Ingredients:——

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» | |Nitrogen|Carbonic |Sulphuretted |Carbonate|Carbonate|Carbonate|Sulphate|Sulphate | |in cubic|anhydride|hydrogen in |of |of |of |of |of mag- | WATERS. |inches. |in |cubic inches.|sodium |magnesium|calcium |sodium |nesium in | | |cubic | |in |in |in |in |grains. | | |inches. | |grains. |grains. |grains. |grains. | +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |CARBONATED. | | | | | | | | |Seltzer | | 17· | | 4· | 5· | 3· | | |Pyrmont | | 26· | | | 10· | 4·5 | | 5·5 |Spa | | 13· | | 1·5 | 4·5 | 1·5 | | |Carlsbad | | 5· | | 5· | | 1·5 | 8·5 | |Pouges | | 30· | | 10· | 1·2 | 12· | | |Saint Parize | | 22· | | | 0·5 | 11·5 | | +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |CHALYBEATE. | | | | | | | | |Tunbridge | 0·59 | 1· | {trace } | | | 0·03 | | |Cheltenham | | | { of } | | | | | | Chalybeate | | 2·5 | {oxygen} | 0·5 | | | 22·7 | 6· |Brighton | | 2·2 | | | | | | +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |SALINE. | | | | | | | | |Seidlitz | | | | | 2·5 | 0·8 | | 180· |Cheltenham | | | | | | | 15· | 11· | Pure Saline | | | | | | | | |Bristol | | 3·5 | | | | 1·5 | 1·5 | |Buxton | 0·2 | | | | | 1·3 | | |Bath | | 1·2 | | | | 0·8 | 1·5 | |Scarborough | | | | | |a trace | 20· | |Barèges | | | uncertain | 2·5 | | ditto | | |Plombières | | | | 2·2 | | 0·3 | 2·3 | |Kilburn | | 3·5 | 8·54? | | 0·5 | 1· | 12· | 37· |Leamington | | | | | | | | | New Bath | 0·4 | a trace | a trace | | | | 19· | |Leamington | | | | | | | | | Old Bath | 0·3 | ditto | | | | | 7·5 | 7· +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |SULPHUROUS. | | | | | | | | |Harrogate | 0·8 | 1· | 2·3 | | 0·7 | 2·5 | | 1·3 |Moffat | 0·5 | 0·6 | 1·2 | | | | | |Aix-la-Chapelle| | | 5·5 | 12· | | 4·2 | | |Cheltenham | | | | | | | | | Sulph. Spring| | | 1·5 | | | | 23·5 | 5· +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ | |Sulphate|Chloride|Chloride |Chloride |Ferric |Silica.|Temper-|Total of |AUTHORITY. | | |of |of |of magne-|of calcium|Oxide. | |ature. |saline | | | WATERS. |calcium |sodium |sium in |in | | | |contents.| | | (Repeated.) |in |in |grains. |grains. | | | | | | | |grains. |grains. | | | | | | | | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |CARBONATED. | | | | | | | | | | |Seltzer | | 17· | | | | | Cold | 29· |Bergman. | |Pyrmont | 8·5 | 1·5 | | | 0·6 | | ditto | 30·6 | Ditto. | |Spa | | 0·2 | | | 0·6 | | ditto | 8·3 | Ditto. | |Carlsbad | | 4·5 | | |a trace| 0·3 | 165° | 19·8 |Klaproth. | |Pouges | | 2·2 | | | 2·5 | 0·5 | Cold | 28·4 |Hassentratz.| |Saint Parize | 13·5 | | | | | | ditto | 25· | Ditto. | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |CHALYBEATE. | | | | | | | | | | |Tunbridge | 0·17 | 0·30 | 0·03 | 0·05 |0·28 | | ditto | 0·86 | Scudamore. | |Cheltenham | | | | | | | | | Parkes | | Chalybeate | 2·5 | 41·3 | | |0·8 | | ditto | 73·8 | & Brande.| |Brighton | 4· | 3· | 0·75 | |1·4 | 0·14 | ditto | 9·29 | Marcet. | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |SALINE. | | | | | | | | | | |Seidlitz | 5· | | 4·5 | | | | ditto |192·8 | Bergman. | |Cheltenham | 4·5 | 50· | | | | | | | Parkes | | Pure Saline | | | | | | | ditto | 80·5 | & Brande.| |Bristol | 1·5 | 0·5 | 1· | | | | 74° | 6· | Carrick. | |Buxton | 0·3 | 0·2 | | | 0·03 | | 82° | 1·83 | Pearson. | |Bath | 9· | 3·3 | | |a trace| 0·2 | 116° | 14·8 | Phillips. | |Scarborough | 9· | | | | ditto | | Cold | 29· | Saunders. | |Barèges |a trace | 0·5 | | | | | 120° | 3· | Ditto. | |Plombières | | 1·5 | | | | 0·3 | ? | 6·6 | Vanquelin. | |Kilburn | 5·5 | 2·5 | 5·5 | 0·2 |a trace| | Cold | 64·2 | Schmeisser.| |Leamington | | | | | | | | | | | New Bath |14· | 53· | 1·5 | | 0·8 | | ditto | 88·3 | Lambe. | |Leamington | | | | | | | | | | | Old Bath |18· | 41· | | | | | ditto | 73·5 | Ditto. | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |SULPHUROUS. | | | | | | | | | | |Harrogate | | 77· | 11· | 1·5 | | | ditto | 94· | Garnet. | |Moffat | | 4·5 | | | | | ditto | 4·5 | Ditto. | |Aix-la-Chapelle| | 5· | | | | | 143° | 21·2 | Bergman. | |Cheltenham | | | | | | | | | Parkes | | Sulph. Spring| 1·2 | 35· | | | 0·3 | | Cold | 65· | & Brande.| »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

II. TABLE _exhibiting the Composition of the principal_ MINERAL WATERS of GERMANY, _and of the_ SARATOGA CONGRESS SPRING _of_ AMERICA, _re-arranged expressly for this work._

+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------» | Grains of anhydrous |Adelheids-Quelle. | | |Fachingen. | | ingredients in | |Auschowitz. Ferdinands-Brunnen.| |Kissengen. Ragozi. | one pound troy. | | |Carlsbad. | | | |Krenznach. | | | | |Eger. Franzens-Brunnen.| |Elizen- | | | | | |Ems. | | |Brunnen. +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------» | | | | | | | | | |Carbonate of Soda | 5·2443| 4·5976| 7·2712| 3·8914| 8·0625|12·3328| ... | ... |Carbonate of Lithia | 0·0902| 0·0507| 0·0150| 0·0282| 0·0405| ... | ... | ... |Carbonate of Baryta | 0·0024| ... | ... | ... | 0·0022| ... | ... | ... |Carbonate of Strontia | 0·0387| 0·0040| 0·0055| 0·0023| 0·0080| ... | 0·0592| ... |Carbonate of Lime | 0·4703| 3·0085| 1·7775| 1·3501| 0·8555| 1·8667| 4·8180| 0·2058 |Carbonate of Magnesia | 0·2980| 2·2867| 1·0275| 0·5040| 0·5915| 1·2983| 1·3185| 1·1812 |Carbonate (Proto) Manganese 0·0012| 0·0692| 0·0048| 0·0322| 0·0028| ... | 0·0121| 0·0072 |Carbonate of (Proto) Iron | 0·0121| 0·2995| 0·0208| 0·1762| 0·0120| ... | 0·1397| 0·1495 |Sub-Phos. of Lime | ... | ... | 0·0012| 0·0172| ... | 0·0061| ... | ... |Sub-Phos. of Alumina | ... | 0·0040| 0·0019| 0·0092| 0·0014| ... | ... | ... |Sulphate of Potassa | 0·0066| ... | ... | ... | 0·4050| ... | 1·2540| ... |Sulphate of Soda | ... |16·9022|14·9019|18·3785| ... | 0·1267| ... | ... |Sulphate of Lithia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Sulphate of Lime | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5·5485| ... |Sulphate of Strontia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Sulphate of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Nitr. of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Chlor. of Ammonium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0364| ... |Chlor. of Potassium | 0·1845| ... | ... | ... | 0·0338| ... | ... | 0·7287 |Chlor. of Sodium |28·4608| 6·7472| 5·9820| 6·9229| 5·7255| 3·2337|39·3733|54·6917 |Chlor. of Lithium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0562 |Chlor. of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 9·7358 |Chlor. of Magnesium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 3·6599| ... |Chlor. of Barium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·2366 |Chlor. of Strontium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·5494 |Bromide of Sodium | 0·3060| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·3331| 0·2304 |Iodide of Sodium | 0·1500| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0024 |Fluoride of Calcium | ... | ... | 0·0184| ... | 0·0014| ... | ... | ... |Alumina | 0·0166| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0086 |Silica | 0·1922| 0·5023| 0·4329| 0·3548| 0·3104| 0·0657| 0·1609| 0·2355 +----------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------» |Total Saline contents |35·4739|34·4719|31·4606|31·6670|16·0525|18·9300|56·7136|68·0190 |Carbonic Acid Gas in 100} | 10 | 154 | 58 | 154 | 51 | 135 | 96 | 12 | cubic inches } | | | | | | | | | { | | Spru. 165° | | | | | { | | Neub. 138° Kess. 117° | | |Temperature, Fahr. { | 58 | 49° Mühl. 128° 54° Krán. 84° 50° | 53°| 47° | { | | Ther. 122° | | | | |Authorities | A | B | C | C | A | D | A | A +----------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------+-------»

»--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Grains of anhydrous | | | Pyrmont. | | | |Spa Pouhon. | ingredients in | | | |Saratoga Congress Spring. | | | one pound troy. | | | | |Schlesischer. Obersalz-Brunnen.| | |Marienbad. Kreuzbr. | | |Seidschutz. | | | | |Püllna.| | | | |Selters. | »--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | | | | | | | | |Carbonate of Soda | 5·3499| ... | ... | 0·8261| 7·6211| ... | 4·6162| 0·5531| |Carbonate of Lithia | 0·0858| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Carbonate of Baryta | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0014| ... | |Carbonate of Strontia | 0·0028| ... | ... | 0·0672| 0·0170| ... | 0·0144| ... | |Carbonate of Lime | 2·9509| 0·5775| 4·7781| 5·8531| 1·5464| 5·1045| 1·4004| 0·7387| |Carbonate of Magnesia | 2·0390| 4·8045| ... | 4·1155| 1·5496| 0·8235| 1·5000| 0·8421| |Carbonate (Proto) Manganese 2·0288| ... | 0·0364| 0·0202| 0·0026| 0·0032| ... | 0·0389| |Carbonate of (Proto) Iron | 0·1319| ... | 0·3213| 0·0173| 0·0356| 0·0095| ... | 0·2813| |Sub-Phos. of Lime | ... | 0·0026| ... | ... | ... | 0·0117| 0·0007| 0·0102| |Sub-Phos. of Alumina | ... | ... | 0·0110| ... | ... | 0·0088| 0·0020| 0·0064| |Sulphate of Potassa | ... | 3·6000| 0·0314| 0·1379| 0·3160| 3·6705| 0·2978| 0·0593| |Sulphate of Soda |28·5868|92·8500| 1·6092| ... | 2·5106|17·6220| ... | 0·0281| |Sulphate of Lithia | ... | ... | 0·0067| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Sulphate of Lime | ... | 1·9500| 5·0265| ... | ... | 1·1287| ... | ... | |Sulphate of Strontia | ... | ... | 0·0154| ... | ... | 0·0347| ... | ... | |Sulphate of Magnesia | ... |69·8145| 2·3684| ... | ... |62·3535| ... | ... | |Nitr. of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | 0·1004| ... | 5·9302| ... | ... | |Chlor. of Ammonium | ... | ... | ... | 0·0326| 0·0164| ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Potassium | ... | ... | ... | 1·6256| ... | ... | 0·2685| ... | |Chlor. of Sodium |10·1727| ... | ... |19·6653| 0·8682| ... |12·9690| 0·3371| |Chlor. of Lithium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Magnesium | ... |14·7495| 0·8450| ... | ... | 1·2223| ... | ... | |Chlor. of Barium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Strontium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Bromide of Sodium | ... | ... | ... | 0·1613| 0·0051| ... | ... | ... | |Iodide of Sodium | ... | ... | ... | 0·0046| ... | ... | ... | ... | |Fluoride of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0013| ... | |Alumina | 0·0023| ... | ... | 0·0069| ... | ... | ... | ... | |Silica | 0·2908| 0·1320| 0·3727| 0·1112| 0·2423| 0·0900| 0·2265| 0·3739| »--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |Total Saline contents |51·6417|88·4806|15·4221|32·7452|14·7309|98·0133|21·2982| 3·2691| |Carbonic Acid Gas in 100} | 105 | 7 | 160 | 114 | 98 | 20 | 126 | 136 | | cubic inches } | | | | | | | | | | { | | | | | | | | | | { | | | | | | | | | |Temperature, Fahr. { | 53°| 58°| 56°| 50°| 58° | 58°| 58°| 58°| | { | | | | | | | | | |Authorities | C | A | A | E | A | A | A | A | »--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ Authorities: A Struve. B Steinm. C Berzelius. D Bischoff. E Schweitz.

7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. oz.; solution of acetate of ammonia and rose water, of each 2-1/2 fl. oz.; mix. For weak or swollen eyes, particularly after ophthalmia.

8. Chloride of barium, 30 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint. In the ophthalmia of scrofulous and syphylitic habits.

9. (Bate’s.) From blue vitriol, 15 gr.; camphor, 4 gr.; hot water, 1/4 pint; agitate in a corked bottle, and, when cold, make it up to 4 pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia and blear eyes.

10. (Goulard’s.) From solution of diacetate of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, 1/2 pint; mix. As No. 2.

11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops; mucilage, 1 dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. To remove particles of iron or lime from the eye.

12. (Marshall’s ‘EYE-DROPS,’) Nitrate of silver, 2 gr.; dilute nitric acid, 2 drops; pure soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve; add powdered gum, 15 gr.; agitate until dissolved, and the next day decant the clear portion.

13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolved. In painful ophthalmia.

=WATERS (Mine′ral).= _Syn._ SALINE WATERS; AQUÆ MINERALES, L. Our space will not permit a description of these individually. The tables given on pages 1746-7, exhibiting their composition, will, however, enable the reader, with a little attention, to produce artificial waters more closely resembling the natural ones than can be done by adopting any of the numerous formulæ published for the purpose. The ‘aerated waters’ are charged with 5 or 6 times their volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of the apparatus employed by the soda-water manufacturers. On the small scale the gas is often produced by the reaction of the ingredients on each other, in which case, on the introduction of the latter, the bottle must be instantly closed and inverted. Distilled water, or filtered rain water, should alone be employed in their composition; and for the chalybeated and sulphuretted waters it should be first boiled, and allowed to cool out of contact with the air.

In addition to the tables it may be remarked that traces of iodine have been found in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces of bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both bromine and iodine in that of Leamington (royal pump). Manganese has been found in the waters of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschüts, &c. Traces of phosphoric and fluoric acid have also been found in some mineral waters. It is the opinion of many high authorities that the medicinal virtues of these waters depend more on the minute quantities of the above substances, and the high state of dilution in which they are held, than on their more abundant saline ingredients.

=WATER (Perfumed′).= _Syn._ AQUÆ ODORIFERÆ, L. The simple distilled waters of the perfumer have been already noticed (see page 1745). They may be prepared from any substances which imparts its fragrance to water by distillation. The compound waters (eaux) employed as perfumes consist of very pure rectified spirit, holding in solution essential oils, or other odorous matter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and spirits, before noticed. They differ from extraits in being mostly colourless, or nearly so, and in being generally prepared by distillation, or by the addition of the pure essential oils or essences to carefully rectified and perfectly scentless spirit; whereas the extraits are mostly and preferably prepared by macerating the flowers, &c., in the spirit, or by digesting the spirit with the oils, in the manner noticed under SPIRITS (Perfumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux and esprits as the basis of good perfumery, where the colour is not objectionable.

The following are a few additional formulæ and remarks:——

ANGEL WATER, PORTUGAL W. From orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 pint; myrtle water, 1/2 pint; essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 1/4 fl. oz.; shake them well together for some hours, then filter the mixture through paper.

EAU D’ANGE, Fr.; AQUA MYRTI, L. From myrtle flowers, 3-1/2 lbs.; water, 2 galls.; distil a gallon. A pleasant perfume.

EAU D’ANGE BOUILLÉE, Fr. From rose water and orange-flower water, of each 3 pints; benzoin, 1/2 lb.; storax, 1/4 lb.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; 3 fresh-emptied musk bags; digest in a securely covered vessel, at nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then allow it to cool; strain off the clear, press the remainder, and filter for use. Very fragrant.

EAU D’ANGE DISTILLÉE, Fr. From benzoin, 4 oz.; storax, 2 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; calamus and cinnamon, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seeds, 1 dr. (all bruised); water, 3 quarts; distil 2 quarts. Eau d’Ange distillée et musquée is made by adding a little essence of musk to the distilled product. Both are highly fragrant.

EAU DE LAVANDE, LAVANDER WATER. See SPIRITS (Perfumed).

EAU DE NAPHRE, EAU LE NAPHE, Fr.; AQUA NAPHÆ, L. This article is distilled in Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or bitter-orange tree, but the preparation sold in England under this name is often prepared as follows:——Orange flowers, 7 lbs.; fresh yellow peel of the bigarade or Seville orange, 1/2 lb.; water, 2 galls.; macerate 24 hours, and distil 1 gall. In many cases ordinary orange-flower water is sold for eau de naphe.

ROSE WATER. From otto of roses, 3 dr.; rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint; dissolve, add of hot water, 10 galls.; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork, and well agitate the whole until quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose water of the shops, and is really excellent, but it is better for distillation. See WATERS (Distilled).

UNPARALLELED WATER; EAU INCOMPARABLE, Fr. From oil of lemon, 4 dr.; oil of bergamot, 2-1/2 dr.; oil of cedrat, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 3-1/2 pints; Hungary water, 1/2 pint; mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Guibourt.)

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE OF MINERAL WATERS.

APOLLINARIS BRUNEN.

Carbonate of soda 9·65 grains. Carbonate of magnesia 3·39 ” Carbonate of lime 0·45 ” Chloride of sodium 3·57 ” Sulphate of soda 2·30 ” Oxide of iron }0·15 ” Alumina } Silica 0·06 ” —————— 19·59 Carbonic acid 47·04 (BISH.)

The above are the contents of 16 oz. Temp. Fahr. 70°.

BADEN-BADEN. In 16 oz.

Chloride of sodium 16·520 gr. Bicarbonate of lime 1·273 ” Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·042 ” Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·037 ” Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese traces Bicarbonate of ammonia 0·050 ” Sulphate of lime 1·556 ” Sulphate of potash 0·017 ” Phosphate of lime 0·021 ” Arseniate of iron traces Chloride of magnesium 0·097 ” Chloride of potassium 1·258 ” Bromide of sodium traces Silica 0·914 ” Alumina 0·008 ” Nitrates traces ———————— 22·093 gr. Free carbonic acid 0·299 ” (Bunsen.)

FRIEDRICHSHALL. In 16 oz.

Sulphate of soda 46·51 gr. Sulphate of magnesia 39·55 ” Chloride of sodium 61·10 ” Chloride of magnesium 30·25 ” Bromide of magnesium 0·37 ” Sulphate of potash 1·52 ” Sulphate of lime 10·34 ” Carbonate of lime 0·11 ” Carbonate of magnesia 1·16 ” Silica 0·33 ” —————— 190·25 gr. Carbonic acid 5·32 c. i. (LIEBIG.)

TOEPLITZ. 16 oz. Temp., 14° Fahr.

Sulphate of potash 0·098 gr. Sulphate of soda 0·290 ” Carbonate of soda 2·635 ” Phosphate of soda 0·014 ” Floride of silicium 0·351 ” Chloride of sodium 0·433 ” Carbonate of lime 0·330 ” Carbonate of strontia 0·027 ” Carbonate of magnesia 0·088 ” Carbonate of protoxide of iron 0·019 ” Carbonate of protoxide of manganese 0·021 ” Sulphate of alumina 0·020 ” Silica 0·443 ” Crenic acid 0·034 ” —————— 4·804 (WOLF.)

VICHY (Grand Grille). Temp. 106° Fahr. In a litre.

Carbonic acid 0·908 Bicarbonate of soda 4·883 Bicarbonate of potash 0·352 Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·303 Bicarbonate of strontia 0·003 Bicarbonate of lime 0·434 Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·004 Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese a trace Sulphate of soda 0·291 Phosphate of soda 0·130 Arseniate of soda 0·002 Borate of soda a trace Chloride of sodium 0·534 Silica 0·070 Organic matter, bituminous a trace ———————— grammes 7·914

WOODHALL (Lancashire).

Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium; more than 1/2 grain of bromide of sodium and 1/4 grain of iodine of sodium.

190 grains in 20 oz. Strongly impregnated with carbonic acid.

=WATERBRASH.= See PYROSIS.

=WATER-CLOSET.= There are a number of conditions necessary to be observed in the construction and arrangement of the water-closet if we wish to prevent its becoming a nuisance and a source of danger to the health of the inmates of a dwelling-house. 1. As regards situation there can be no doubt that, upon strict sanitary principles, the closet, instead of forming part of the house, should, whilst within easy access to it, be entirely detached. Owing to various causes, however, this isolation is frequently impossible.

Under such circumstances the closet, whilst forming part of the dwelling, should be built out from it, so as to have as little connection as possible with the rooms, corridors, &c. To still further accomplish this end the approach to the closet should be through a small vestibule or passage connecting the closet with the corridor, and opening into the latter by means of a door. Where there are more than one closet, they should be built upon the plan just proposed, and one over the other. The basement of a house is a particularly objectionable locality for a water-closet, since the warm house acts as an aspirator, and thus draws any fetid and poisonous gases there may be in the closet into the house, and causes them to be diffused throughout it. The water-closet should, therefore, always be placed in the higher parts of a building. 2. As regards construction, &c., it would be impossible for us to attempt to canvass the merits or the reverse of the numerous designs, patents, &c., that relate to this part of our subject. We shall indicate, therefore, only the more important desiderata, which are——That the pan should be nearly cone-shaped, and not round, like a half-circle. It is mostly made of earthenware, sometimes of metal and occasionally of enamelled iron. The preferable substance is earthenware: the pan should always be ventilated, and there should likewise be a sufficient flow and force of water to sweep everything out of it, and thoroughly cleanse it.

The cistern supplying the closet should be kept solely for this purpose, and not, as is sometimes the case, be taken from the house cistern, as this latter practice may lead to the contamination of the drinking water, owing to the gases rising from the closet.

The bottom of the pan is attached to the soil-pipe which discharges into the drain. The soil-pipe is mostly trapped by means of a syphon valve; and it is important that the points of junction between the pipe and the syphon valve and the pipe and the main drain should be thoroughly secure and air-tight. Furthermore it is imperative, if we wish to prevent an influx into the pan of the gases and foul air which rise through the syphon as the water runs off, that the soil-pipe should be ventilated. This may be effected by attaching a small pipe having connection with the outer air to the discharge-pipe just below the syphon, and carrying it up to the top of the house. Another advantage arising from ventilating the soil-pipe, besides the prevention of the escape of sewer-gas into the house, is that there is no danger of its corrosion (if it be of lead) by the action of the pent-up sulphuretted vapours. The seat, which is mostly of wood, should be so arranged as to be easily movable, and thus allow of easy inspection of the different parts should they get out of order.

The seat as well as the closet should always be ventilated. A good and simple method for the ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube from the top of the closet into the outer air. “If the closet is in a bad situation it should be heated by a gas jet.”[262]

[Footnote 262: Parkes.]

The lid attached to the seat should have a hole cut in it, so as to allow of the handle being pulled up when the pan is covered, which, strange to say, in perhaps ninety-nine cases out of every hundred it never is, after being used. Of course, in the absence of the ventilation of the pan and soil-pipe, the result of keeping the seat covered over would only be to fill the pan with malodorous and more or less dangerous gases, which would escape into the closet when the lid was again raised.

3. Precautions.——The use of unduly large pieces of paper, such as cause stoppage and obstruction in the discharge-pipe, should be particularly avoided. Any defect or impediment in the working of the closet should be remedied at once. As a general rule, servants are very careless in all matters connected with the water-closet; so much so that the masters of many houses are themselves compelled to exercise supervision over it.

During very hot weather, or the prevalence of an infectious disease in a dwelling-house or in the neighbourhood of the house, some disinfectant should be added to the water that supplies the closet. A substance that will very satisfactorily answer this purpose is the commercial sulphate of iron known as green vitriol. A pound of it should be put into the tank when filled with water.

The same disregard of sanitary obligations so frequently shown in the construction, site, &c., of water-closets is more obvious in the case of privies. The Public Health Act not only renders unlawful the erection or rebuilding of any dwelling-house without “a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ash-pit, furnished with proper doors and coverings;” but also requires that, “If a house within the district of a local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be without a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and ashpit, furnished with proper doors and coverings, the local authority shall, by written notice, require the owner or occupier of the house within a reasonable time therein specified, to provide a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ashpit furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as the case may require.”

Although in many large towns and cities a more or less effectual supervision may be exercised by the sanitary inspector in the above direction, as every one’s experience of the usual outdoor privy of a small English country town or village, will suggest to them the extreme toleration prevailing amongst the sanitary authorities in many provincial and rural districts in this particular. Ventilation is as essential for the privy as the water-closet, so also is the thorough trapping of the exit-pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing and flushing of this latter by water directly after it has been used. Yet how rarely do we find not only all, but not even one of these conditions fulfilled in the arrangement of the ordinary privy; but instead an untrapped, immovable pan (and in some cases even this is wanting) covered with filth, and no contrivance of any kind for a constant water supply.

No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere of an ordinary privy should be so foul and noisome as it invariably is.

The following specification for a useful description of privy is published by Messrs Knight & Co., 90, Fleet Street, London:——

_Specification._——The privy and dust-bin to be built of 4-1/2-inch brickwork, in well-ground mortar of approved quality. Two rows of 4-1/2 and 3-inch bond timber to be built in at back of privy for securing ventilating-shafts. The ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4-1/2 inches, inside measurement, of best red deal boards 1 inch thick, closely put together with strong white lead paint, and well nailed and carefully seamed to the 4-1/2 inch and 3 inch bond timber. These shafts to have coats of boiled tar both inside and out.

The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-inch red deal boards, with two strong ledges or battens across them; to be hung with three strong band-hinges to the sides of the ventilating-shafts, and the making-up piece between the same. A circular orifice to be made in centre of lid, between the battens 10 inches wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled tar both inside and out. A 4-1/2-inch and 3-inch frame of red deal to be securely fixed on top of the dust-bin, as a seat for the lid. A lid over the privy seat to be hinged on at the back, with a child’s seat over centre of large one. The larger seat to be provided with an earthenware circular rim beneath. The earth-compartment to be without lid, and provided with a pint scoop for each occupant to throw in a pint of the stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat into the galvanised iron pail, the contents of which must be scattered over the garden or put in the dust-bin before the pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be furnished where there are young children.[263]

[Footnote 263: The Earth-closet is described under “Sewage Removal of.”]

The dust-bin may be placed at side of the privy if required. The floor of dust-bin to be at the ground level, slightly inclined outwards, and paved with brick. See SEWAGE, REMOVAL AND DISPOSAL OF, DRAINS, TANKS, CESSPOOLS.

=WATER-COLOUR CAKES.= These are prepared from any of the ordinary pigments that work well in water, made into a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with gum water, or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then compressed in polished steel moulds, and dried. See PAINTING, and the respective pigments.

=WATERCRESS.= The _Nasturtium officinale_, a well-known plant of the natural order _Cruciferæ_. It is alterative and antiscorbutic, and was formerly used in medicine, but now chiefly as a salad, or a refreshing relish at breakfast.

=WATER-GAS.= By forcing steam through fireclay, or iron retorts filled with red-hot charcoal or coke, the steam is decomposed into a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic anhydride.[264]

[Footnote 264: Possibly a small quantity of marsh gas is also present.——ED.]

To this mixture, after it has been purified, the name of “water-gas,” owing to the source from whence it has been derived, has been given.

According to some chemists the purified gas (obtained by passing the crude gaseous product sometimes over lime, sometimes over crystallised carbonate of soda) consists solely of hydrogen gas. Langlois’ analysis, however, has led to the conclusion that it is a compound of hydrogen and carbonic oxide gases. Water gas, obtained as above, possesses no illuminating power. This is imparted to it, by impregnating the gas with the vapour of certain hydrocarbons, a plan suggested by Jobbard, of Brussels, in 1832. Another, but less usual method, originating with Gengembre and Gillard, is to place on the burners which consume the gas small platinum cylinders. When these become white hot a strong and brilliant light is produced. See PLATINUM GAS.

=WATER-POX.= See (POX). CHICKEN-POX.

=WATERPROOF′ING.= Cloth is ‘waterproofed’ as follows:——

1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, first with a weak solution of isinglass, and, when dry, with an infusion of nut-galls.

2. As the last, but substitute a solution of soap for isinglass, and another of alum for galls.

3. (Hancock’s Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the inner surface of the goods, and allowing them to dry in the air. Absolutely chimerical.

4. (Potter’s Patent.) The cloth is first imbued on the wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a brush; when dry, it is brushed on the same side against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped in water. Impervious to water, but not to air.

5. (Sievier’s Patent.) By applying first a solution of India rubber in oil of turpentine, and afterwards another india rubber varnish, rendered very dry by the use of driers. On this, wool or other material of which the fabric is made, cut into proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap or pile.

6. A simple method of rendering cloth waterproof, without being airproof, is to spread it on any smooth surface, and to rub the wrong side with a lump of bees wax (perfectly pure and free from grease), until it presents a light, but even, white or greyish appearance; a hot iron is then to be passed over it, and the cloth being brushed whilst warm, the process is complete. When the operation has been skilfully performed, a candle may be blown out through the cloth, if coarse, and yet a piece of the same, placed across an inverted hat, may have several glassfuls of water poured into the hollow formed by it, without any of the liquid passing through. Pressure or friction will alone make it do so. “We have shown this to numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers, tailors, and others, several of whom have adopted the method very extensively, and with perfect success.” (Cooley.)

7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken out by Dr Stenhouse for employing paraffin as a means of rendering leather waterproof, as well as the various textile and felted fabrics; and in August, 1864, an additional patent was granted to him for an extension of and improvement on the previous one, which consisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with various proportions of drying oils, it having been found that paraffin alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became to a considerable extent detached from the fibre of the cloth after a short time, owing to its great tendency to crystallise. The presence, however, of even a small quantity of drying oil causes the paraffin to adhere much more firmly to the texture of the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming converted into a tenacious resin by absorption of oxygen.

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing purposes it is first melted along with the requisite quantity of drying oil and cast into blocks. This composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed, or the mixture may be melted and laid on with a brush, the complete impregnation being effected by subsequently passing it between hot rollers. When this paraffin mixture has been applied to cloth such as that employed for blinds or tents, it renders it very repellant to water, although still pervious to air.

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an excellent basis for such articles as capes, tarpaulins, &c., which require to be rendered quite impervious by subsequently coating them with drying oil, the paraffin in a great measure preventing the well-known injurious effect of drying oil on the fibre of the cloth. The paraffin mixture can also be advantageously applied to the various kinds of leather. One of the most convenient ways of effecting this is to coat the skins or manufactured articles, such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets, &c., with the melted composition, and then to gently heat the articles until it is entirely absorbed. When leather is impregnated with the mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly waterproof, but also stronger and more durable. The beneficial effects of this process are peculiarly observable in the case of boots and shoes, which it renders very firm without destroying their elasticity. It therefore not only makes them exceedingly durable, but possesses an advantage over ordinary dabbing in not interfering with the polish of these articles, which, on the whole, it rather improves.

The superiority of paraffin over most other materials for some kinds of waterproofing consists in its comparative cheapness, in being easily applied, and in not materially altering the colour of fabrics, which in the case of light shades and white cloth is of very considerable importance.

8. A waterproof packing cloth which does not break may be made by covering the fabric with the following varnish:——2 lbs. of soft (potash) soap is dissolved in water and mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphate of iron. The washed and dried soap is dissolved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil, in which 1/5 lb. of caoutchouc has been previously dissolved.

=WATERPROOF LIQUID.= _Prep._ 1. India rubber, in fragments, 1 oz.; boiled oil, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in of hot boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel from the fire.

2. Boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and yellow resin, of each 2 oz.; melt them together.

3. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton suet, 1/4 lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz.; as the last. For ‘ladies’ work.’

4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz.; gutta percha, 1/2 oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.; brown amber, 1/2 oz.; linseed oil, 1 oz. Mix. Dissolve the gutta percha in the bisulphide of carbon, the asphalte and amber in the oil, and mix well.

_Obs._ The above are used for boots, shoes, harness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c., applied warm before the fire.

=WAX.= _Syn._ BEESWAX, YELLOW W.; CERA (Ph. L.), CERA FLAVA (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. The substance which forms the cells of bees; obtained by melting the comb in water, after the honey has been removed, straining the liquid mass, remelting the defecated portion, and casting it into cakes.

Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceous odour, a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the sp. gr. ·960 to ·965. It is brittle at 32°, softens and becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. “It becomes kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour while worked between finger and thumb is characteristic. A piece the size of a pea being worked in the hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and forcibly stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, following the finger, and is marked by it with longitudinal streaks.” (B. S. Proctor.) It is very frequently adulterated with farina, resin, and mutton suet or stearin. Dr Normandy met with a sample containing 23% of effloresced sulphate of soda. The first may be detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only the wax,——the second, by its solubility in cold alcohol, and by its terebinthinate taste,——the third and fourth, even when forming less than 2% of the wax, may be detected by it affording sebacic acid on distillation. When greasy matter is present in any considerable quantity, it may also be detected by the suspected sample having an unctuous feel and a disagreeable taste. A spurious beeswax met with in the American markets, is described in ‘New Remedies’ for 1877, and is said to have been a very clever imitation externally of the genuine substance, which it closely resembled in appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, pliability, and odour. Upon analysis it was found to be composed of 60 parts of paraffin and 40 parts of yellow resin covered with a thin coating of true beeswax. The specific quantity of the counterfeit article was identical with that of many samples of genuine beeswax. Saline matter may be detected by the loss of weight, when a weighed quantity of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy substances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white lead, oxide of zinc, &c., may also be thus separated, since they subside, owing to their superior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. The rough mealy fracture of pure wax is rendered finer grained, smoother, and duller, by the addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes sparkling and more granular by the addition of resin. (Proctor.)

[Note: ‘Chem. Central,’, 1872, No. 29.]

[Transcriber’s Note: The publisher omitted the corresponding tag in the text.]

=Wax, Bleached.= See WAX, WHITE (_below_).

=Wax, Carnauba.=[265] The leaves of the Carnauba tree (_Copernicia cerifera_), a South American palm, have lately become a very important source for the supply of large quantities of vegetable wax. Carnauba wax is extensively used in the manufacture of candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a paper laid before Parliament in 1876, on the trade and commerce of Brazil, states “that the exportation of this wax is calculated at 871,400 kilos; exceeding in value reis 1,500,000, or £162,500.”

[Footnote 265: ‘Ph. Journal,’ vol. vi, 3rd series, p. 745.]

=Wax, Etching.= See ETCHING GROUND and VARNISH.

=Wax, Facti′′tious.= _Syn._ CERA FLAVA FACTITIA, L. A spurious compound, sold by the farriers’ druggists for veterinary purposes.

_Prep._ 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs.; hard mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs.; palm oil, 2-1/2 lbs.; melted together.

2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., for the palm oil.

3. Best annotta, 6 oz., or q. s.; water, 1 gal.; boil; add, of hard mutton suet or stearin, 35 lbs.; yellow resin, 70 lbs.; again boil, with constant agitation, until perfectly mixed and of a proper colour, and, as soon as it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins to cool. When cold, rub each cake over with a little potato starch.

=Wax, Gilder’s.= See GILDING.

=Wax, Mod′eling.= _Prep._ Take of beeswax, lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, equal parts; whiting, q. s. to form a paste; mix well, and roll it into sticks. Colours may be added at will.

=Wax, Refined.= Crude wax, especially that imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, and other foreign matter. To free it from these substances, it undergoes the operation of ‘refining.’ This is done by melting the wax along with about 4 or 5% of water in a bright copper or stone-ware boiler, preferably heated by steam, and, after the whole is perfectly liquid, and has boiled for some minutes, withdrawing the heat, and sprinkling over its surface a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of about 5 or 6 fl. oz. to every cwt. of wax. This operation should be conducted with great care and circumspection; as, when done carelessly, the melted wax froths up, and boils over the sides of the pan. The acid should also be well scattered over the whole surface. The melted wax is next covered over, and left for some hours to settle, or until it becomes sufficiently cool to be drawn off for ‘moulding.’ It is then very gently skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or decanted into hot tin ‘jacks,’ and by means of these poured into basins, where it is left to cool. Great care must be taken not to disturb the sediment. When no more clear wax can be drawn off, the remainder in the melting-pan is allowed to cool, and the cake, or ‘foot,’ as it called, is taken out, and the impurities (mostly bees) scraped from its under surface. The scraped cake is usually reserved for a second operation; but if required, it may be at once remelted, and strained through canvas into a mould.

Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirty colour, which renders it, no matter however pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser. Such wax undergoes the operation of ‘colouring’ as well as ‘refining.’ A small quantity of the best roll annotta, cut into slices (1/4 lb., more or less, to wax, 1 cwt., depending on the paleness of the latter), is put into a clean boiler with about a gallon of water, and boiled for some time, or until it is perfectly dissolved, when a few ladlefuls of the melted wax are added, and the boiling continued until the wax has taken up all the colour, or until the water is mostly evaporated. The portion of wax thus treated has now a deep orange colour, and is added, in quantity as required, to the remainder of the melted wax in the larger boiler until the proper shade of colour is produced when cold; the whole being well mixed, and a sample of it cooled now and then, to ascertain when enough has been added. The copper is next brought to a boil, and treated with oil of vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add palm oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets sufficient colour, but this plan is objectionable from the quantity required for the purpose being often so large as to injure the quality of the product; besides which the colour produced is inferior, and less transparent and permanent than that given by annotta.

Another method of refining crude wax, and which produces a very bright article, is to melt it in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by steam or a salt-water bath, then to cautiously add to it about 1% of concentrated nitric acid, and to continue the boiling until nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after which the whole is allowed to settle, and is treated as before.

_Obs._ The great art in the above process is to produce a wax which shall at once be ‘bright,’ or semi-translucent in thin places, and good coloured. The former is best ensured by allowing the melted mass to settle well, and by carefully skimming and decanting the clear portion without disturbing the sediment. It should not be poured into the moulds too warm, as, in that case, it is apt to ‘separate,’ and the resulting cakes to be ‘streaky,’ or of different shades of colour. Again, it should be allowed to cool very slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if a current of air fall upon its surface, it is apt to crack, and to form cakes full of fissures. Some persons, who are very nice about their wax, have the cakes polished with a stiff brush when quite cold and hard. It is absolutely necessary that the ‘jacks’ or cans, ladles, and skimmers, used in the above process, be kept pretty hot, as without this precaution the wax cools, and accumulates upon them in such quantity as to render them inconvenient, and often quite useless, without being constantly scraped out.

=Wax, Seal′ing.= _Prep._ 1. (RED.)——_a._ Take of shell-lac (very pale), 4 oz.; cautiously melt it in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire, and when fused, add of Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 oz.; mix, and further add of vermilion, 3 oz.; remove the pan from the fire, cool a little, weigh it into pieces, and roll them into circular sticks on a warm marble slab by means of a polished wooden block; or it may be poured into moulds whilst in a state of fusion. Some persons polish the sticks with a rag until quite cold.——_b._ From shell-lac, 3 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 lb.; finest cinnabar, 2 lbs.; mix as before Both the above are ‘fine,’——_c._ As the last, but using 1/2 less of vermillion. Inferior.——_d._ Resin, 4 lbs.; shell-lac, 2 lbs.; Venice turpentine and red lead, of each 1-1/2 lb.; as before. Common.

2. (BLACK.)——_a._ From shell-lac, 60 parts; finest ivory black, reduced to an impalpable powder, 30 parts; Venice turpentine, 20 parts. Fine.——_b._ Resin, 6 lbs.; shell-lac and Venice turpentine, of each 2 lbs.; lampblack, q. s. Inferior.

3. (GOLD-COLOURED.) By stirring gold-coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum musivum, into the melted resins just before they begin to cool. Fine.

4. (MARBLED.) By mixing 2 or 3 different coloured kinds just as they begin to grow solid.

5. (SOFT.)——_a._ (Red.) Take of beeswax, 8 parts; olive oil, 5 parts; melt, and add, of Venice turpentine, 15 parts; red lead, to colour.——_b._ (Green.) As the last, but substituting powdered verdigris for red lead. Both are used for sealing official documents kept in tin boxes; also as a cement.

6. (BOTTLE WAX.)——_a._ (Black.) From black resin, 6-1/2 lbs.; beeswax, 1/2 lb.; finely powdered ivory black, 1-1/2 lb.; melted together.——_b._ (Red.) As the last, but substitute Venetian red or red lead for ivory black.

_Obs._ All the above forms for ‘fine’ wax produce ‘superfine’ by employing the best qualities of the ingredients; and ‘extra superfine,’ or ‘scented,’ by adding 1% of balsam of Peru or liquid storax to the ingredients when considerably cooled. The ‘variegated’ and ‘fancy coloured kinds,’ are commonly scented with a little essence of musk or ambergris, or any of the more fragrant essential oils. The addition of a little camphor, or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. Sealing-wax containing resin, or too much turpentine, runs into thin drops at the flame of a candle.

=Wax, White.= _Syn._ BLEACHED WAX; CERA ALBA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ From pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently changing the surface thus exposed, by remelting it, and reducing it again to thin flakes. Used in making candles, and in white ointments, pommades, &c., for the sake of its colour. Block white wax (CERA ALBA IN MASSIS) is the above when cast into blocks; the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin wax (CAKE WHITE WAX; CERA ALBA IN OFFIS) should be the last made into round flat cakes; but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold under the name generally containing from 1-3rd to 1-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The ‘white wax’ supplied by certain wholesale druggists to their customers is often totally unfit for the purposes to which it is applied. Spermaceti is constantly added to the white wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of the highest reputation supply an article, as white cake wax, which is in many cases half spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds spermaceti to one of wax.[266]

[Footnote 266: See articles on “Adulteration of Wax,” and “Substitutes for Wax,” in ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. iv, 1863.]

=WEATHER, Effects of, on Health.= The ‘Medical Press and Circular’ says:——“We are in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as hygiene is the order of the day, we cannot be too particular in impressing upon the public certain facts which are too often disregarded. Few are aware of the killing powers of intense cold and great heat, even in this comparatively temperate climate. Those who have been in the habit, as we have, of watching the returns of the Registrar-General, well know how quickly the death-rate rises during even a short continuance of cold weather. Now that the increase in the mortality affects chiefly the young and the old, as well as those who are either suffering from, or are predisposed to, affections of the chest and throat, indicates the class of people who should be especially careful to protect themselves against the inclemency of the weather. With regard to children, the system of ‘hardening’ them, by allowing them to go thinly clad, and exposing them to all sorts of weather, is a delusion from which the minds of some parents are even now not altogether free. It is thought that if their chest is kept warm, there is no need of caring about their arms and legs. But that is a great mistake. In proportion as the upper and lower extremities are well clothed will the circulation be kept up and determined to the surface of those parts, and in proportion to the quickness and equable distribution of the circulation will be the protection against those internal congestions which are but the first stage of the most fatal diseases of infancy and childhood. The same observation holds good with respect to grown-up people who are predisposed to pulmonary complaints. There is no exaggeration in saying that the mortality from these and other affections would be considerably diminished were people to avoid that ‘catching cold,’ of which they so often and so lightly speak; and it is a matter of surprise to us that this fact, of which most of us are aware, does not lead to more precautions being taken by those who are anxious about either their own health or that of others. To take care that the body is thoroughly warm and well-clothed just before going out in very wet or very cold weather——to keep up the circulation and warmth of the body rather by exercise of some kind than by sitting over great fires or in overheated rooms——to be sure that the temperature of the sleeping apartments is not ever so many degrees below that of the sitting-room——these are three golden maxims, attention to which would prevent thousands from catching that ‘chill’ or ‘cold’ to the results of which so many valuable lives have been prematurely sacrificed.”

=WEIGHT.= The quantity of a body determined by means of a balance, and expressed in terms having reference to some known standard; the measure of the force of gravity, from which the relative quantity of a body is inferred. The relation between the weight and volume of a body, compared to a given standard taken as unity, constitutes its specific gravity.

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever is required, which, when accurately suspended in a state of equilibrium, will be affected, in precisely an equal manner, by like weights applied to its extremities. Hence, the construction of such an instrument is not more difficult than its application is important in chemical and philosophical research. Oertling, the most celebrated maker of the chemical balance, constructs this important instrument in seven different varieties, more or less elaborate. The largest of these, with a 16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in each pan, and yet turn with 1/100th of a grain. A balance with arms of unequal length or weight will weigh as accurately as another of the same workmanship with equal arms, provided the substance weighed be removed and standard weights placed in the same scale until the equilibrium be again restored, when the weights so employed, being exactly in the same condition as the substance previously occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact is useful, as it enables any one to weigh correctly with unequal scales, or with any suspended lever.

Small weights may be made of thin leaf brass, or, preferably, of platinum foil. Quantities below the 100th of a grain may be either estimated by the position of the index, or shown by actually counting rings of wire, the value of which has been previously determined. The readiest way to subdivide small weights consists in weighing a certain quantity of very fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into such parts, by measure, as are desired; or the wire may be wrapped close round two pins, and then cut asunder with a knife. By this means it will be divided into a great number of equal lengths, or small rings.[267]

[Footnote 267: An elaborate essay on the BALANCE, in Watt’s ‘Dict. of Chemistry,’ gives minute directions for weighing, with rules for the elimination of errors. See BALANCE.]

The following tables represent the values of the weights legally employed in this country for the sale of gold, silver, and articles made thereof, as well as platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals and stones; also for drugs when sold by retail (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1879; and MEASURES).

1. _Troy Weight._

+---------+---------------+----------+----------+ | Grains. | Pennyweights. | Ounces. | Pound. | | gr. | dwt. | oz. |lb. or ℔ | +---------+---------------+----------+----------+ | 24 | 1 | | | | 480 | 20 | 1 | | | 5760 | 240 | 12 | 1 | +---------+---------------+----------+----------+

⁂ The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water, which, at 62° Fahr. and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 troy grains.

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3-1/6 grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified form, in prescribing and dispensing medicines. (See _below_.)

2. _Apothecaries’ Weight._

(Modified Troy Weight.)

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ | | | | | | | Grains |Scruples.|Drachms.| Ounces. | Pounds. | |(_Troy_).| ℈ | ʒ | ℥ | ℔ | | gr. | | | | | +---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ | | | | | | | 1· | ·05 | ·01666| ·002083| ·0001736| | 20· | 1· | ·3333 | ·0416 | ·003472 | | 60· | 3· | 1· | ·1250 | ·0104166| | 480· | 24· | 8· | 1· | ·0833333| | 5760· | 288· |96· |12· |1· | +---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+ | | |Equiv. in| | | | Grains | Eqiv. in|Minims or| Equiv. in | Equiv. in | |(_Troy_).| French |measured | cubic |Avoirdupois.| | gr. | grammes.| drops. | inches. | weight. | +---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+ | | | | | | | 1· | ·06475| 1·09 | ·003961055| 1· gr.| | 20· | 1·295 | 21·94 | ·07922109 | 20· gr.| | 60· | 3·885 | 65·82 | ·23766329 | 60· gr.| | 480· | 31·08 | 526·62 | 1·90130635 |1 oz 42·5 gr.| | 5760· |372·96 | 6319·54 |22·81567609 |13 oz 72·5 gr.| +---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+

⁂ Apothecaries’ weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines according to the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new Brit. Ph. it has been superseded by avoirdupois weight.

Troy _Avoirdupois._

1 ℔ is equivalent to 0·822857 lb. 1 oz. ” 1·097143 oz.

=WEIGHTS, FOREIGN.=

_Binary Weights._ (Système usuel.) _French._

+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+ | | | | | | | |French | | | | | Kilo- | |Grain. |Scruple.|Gros.|Once.|Livre.|gramme.| +-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+ | | | | | | | | 1·| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | | 24·| 1· | ... | ... | ... | ... | | 72·| 3· | 1·| ... | ... | ... | | 576·| 24· | 8·| 1· | ... | ... | | 9216·| 384· | 128·| 16· | 1· | ... | | 18432·| 768· | 256·| 32· | 2· | 1· | +-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+

+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+ | |Equiv. in|Round number| Equiv. in | |French | grammes |of the Codex| Avoirdupois | |Grain. |metrique.| in grammes.| weight. | +-------+---------+------------+-------------------+ | | | |_lb._ _oz._ _gr._ | | 1·| ·0542| ·05 | ... ... 0·837| | 24·| 1·30 | 1·30 | ... ... 20·1 | | 72·| 3·906 | 4· | ... ... 60·284| | 576·| 81·25 | 32· | ... 1 45· | | 9216·| 500· | 500· | 1 1-1/2 61· | | 18432·|1000· | 1000· | 2 3-1/4 13· | +-------+---------+------------+-------------------+

⁂ The old French grain is equal to ·820 of an imperial troy grain; hence 1 troy grain is equal to 1·21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of course, proportionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to ·0542 gramme, or ·8365228 gr. troy. It is said, in some works, to be equal to ·878 gr. troy, or, in round numbers, ·9, but this is much too high.

CONTINENTAL MEDICINAL WEIGHTS, _in Troy Grains_. (From Dr Christison’s ‘Dispensatory.’)

+-----------+------+------+-------+---------------------+-------+ | | | | |Scruple consisting of| | | Country. |Pound.|Ounce.|Drachm.+----------+----------+ Grain.| | | | | | 24 med. | 20 med. | | | | | | | grs. | grs. | | +-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+ |French |5670·5|470·50| 59·10 | 19·7 | ... | 0·820 | |Spanish |5326·3|443·49| 55·14 | 18·47 | ... | 0·769 | |Tuscan |5240·3|436·67| 54·58 | 18·19 | ... | 0·758 | |Roman |5235·0|436·25| 54·58 | 18·17 | ... | 0·757 | |Austrian |6495·1|541·25| 67·65 | ... | 22·5 | 1·127 | |German |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 | |Russian |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 | |Prussian |5415·1|451·26| 56·40 | ... | 18·80 | 0·940 | |Dutch |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 | |Belgian |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 | |Swedish |5500·2|458·34| 57·29 | ... | 19·09 | 0·954 | |Piedmontese|4744·7|395·39| 49·45 | ... | 16·48 | 0·824 | |Venetian |4661·4|388·45| 48·55 | ... | 16·18 | 0·809 | +-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+

=WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1878.= On the 1st of January, 1879, there came into force an act to consolidate throughout the United Kingdom the law relating to weights and measures. Legislation on this subject had been long rendered necessary from the extreme inconvenience and friction to commerce of all kinds arising from the adherence to local standards of weight or measurements; and from the divergent values in different parts of the kingdom, and in places more or less contiguous to each other, of weights and measures often bearing the same name. Thus, previous to the passing of the above Act, there were twelve different markets in this country in which when corn was sold by the bushel, the weight of the bushel varied in each; and six different localities in which the same thing occurred when vended by the quarter and the load. In some places a score of grain would imply 20 lbs. but often less, whilst in others it was not an infrequent transaction for wheat to be sold by one measure, delivered by another, and eventually paid for by weight. And the same perplexing and arbitrary conditions attached to the sale of numberless other commodities.

We give below the most important sections of the Weights and Measures Act of 1878:

LAW OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

_Uniformity of Weights and Measures._

The same weights and measures shall be used throughout the United Kingdom.

_Standards of Measure and Weight._

The bronze bar and the platinum weight, more particularly described in the first part of the First Schedule of this Act, and at the passing of this Act, deposited in the Standards Departments of the Board of Trade, in the custody of the Warden of the Standards, shall continue to be the imperial standard of measure and weight, and the said bronze bar shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard for the United Kingdom, and the said platinum weight shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound for the United Kingdom.

_Imperial Measures of Length._

The straight line or distance between the centres of the two gold plugs or pins (as mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),[268] in the bronze bar by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard, measured when the bar is at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and when it is supported on bronze rollers placed under it in such a manner as best to avoid flexure of the bar, and to facilitate its free expansion and contraction from variations of temperature, shall be the legal standard measure of length, and shall be called the imperial standard yard, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of extension from which all measures of extension, whether linear, superficial, or solid shall be ascertained.

[Footnote 268: See further on.]

One third part of the imperial standard yard shall be a foot, and the twelfth part of such foot shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, or perch in length shall contain five such yards and a half, and the chain shall contain twenty-two such yards, and the furlong two hundred and twenty such yards, and the mile one thousand seven hundred and sixty such yards.

The rood of land shall contain one thousand two hundred and ten square yards according to the imperial standard yard, and the acre of land shall contain four thousand eight hundred and forty such square yards, being one hundred and sixty square rods, poles or perches.

_Imperial Measures of Weight and Capacity._

The weight in vacuo of the platinum weight (mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act), and by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound, shall be the legal standard measure of weight, and of measure having reference to weight, and shall be called the imperial standard pound, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of weight from which all other weights and all measures having reference to weight shall be ascertained.

One sixteenth part of the imperial standard pound shall be an ounce, and one-sixteenth part of such ounce shall be a dram, and one seven thousandth part of the imperial standard pound shall be a grain.

A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial standard pounds, and a hundred weight shall consist of eight such stones, and a ton shall consist of twenty such hundredweights.

Four hundred and eighty grains shall be an ounce troy.

All the foregoing weights except the ounce troy shall be deemed to be avoirdupois weights.

The unit or standard measure of capacity from which all other measures of capacity, as well as for liquids as for dry goods, shall be derived, shall be the gallon containing ten imperial standard pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and with the barometer at thirty inches.

The quart shall be one fourth part of the gallon, and the pint shall be one-eighth part of the gallon.

Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gallons shall be a bushel, and eight such bushels shall be a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels shall be a chaldron.

A bushel for the sale of any of the following articles, namely, lime, fish, potatoes, fruit, or any other goods and things which before (the passing of the Weights and Measures Act, 1835, that is to say) the ninth day of September, one thousand eight hundred and thirty five, were commonly sold by heaped measure, shall be a hollow cylinder having a plane base, the internal diameter of which shall be double the internal depth, and every measure used for the sale of any of the above-mentioned articles which is a multiple of a bushel, or is a half bushel or a peck, shall be made of the same shape and proportion as the above-mentioned bushel.

In using an imperial measure of capacity, the same shall not be heaped, but either shall be stricken with a round stick or roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end to end, or if the article sold cannot from its size or shape be conveniently stricken, shall be filled in all parts as nearly to the level of the brim as the size and shape of the article will admit.

_Metric Equivalents of Imperial Weights and Measures._

The table in the Third Schedule to this Act shall be deemed to set forth the equivalents of imperial weights and measures and of the weights and measures therein expressed in terms of the metric system, and such table may be lawfully used for computing and expressing, in weights and measures, weights and measures of the metric system.

_Use of Imperial Weights and Measures._

Every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing, made or had in the United Kingdom for any work, goods, wares, or merchandise, or other thing which has been or is to be done, sold, delivered, carried, or agreed for by weight or measure, shall be deemed to be made and had according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof, and if not so made or had shall be void; and all tolls and duties charged or collected according to weight or measure shall be charged and collected according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof.

Such contract, bargain, sale, dealing, and collection of tolls and duties as is in this section mentioned is in this Act referred to under the term ‘trade.’

No local or customary measures, nor the use of the heaped measure, shall be lawful.

Any person who sells by any denomination of weight or measure other than one of the imperial weights or measures, or some multiple or part thereof, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding forty shillings for every such sale.

All articles sold by weight shall be sold by avoirdupois weight; except that——

(1) Gold and silver, and articles made thereof, including gold and silver thread, lace, or fringe, also platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals or stones, may be sold by the ounce troy or by any decimal parts of such ounce; and all contracts, bargains, sales, and dealings in relation thereto shall be deemed to be made and had by such weight, and when so made or had shall be valid; and

(2) Drugs, when sold by retail, may be sold by apothecaries’ weight.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds.

A contract or dealing shall not be invalid or open to objection on the ground that the weights or measures expressed or referred to therein are weights or measures of the metric system, or on the ground that decimal sub-divisions of imperial weights and measures, whether metric or otherwise, are used in such contract or dealing.

Nothing in this act shall prevent the sale, or subject a person to a fine under this Act for the sale, of an article in any vessel, where such vessel is not represented as containing any amount of imperial measure, nor subject a person to a fine under this Act for the possession of a vessel where it is shown that such vessel is not used nor intended for use as a measure.

Any person who prints, and any clerk of a market or other person who makes, any return, price list, price current, or any journal or other paper containing price list or price current, in which the denomination of weights and measures quoted or referred to denotes or implies a greater or less weight or measure than is denoted or implied by the same denomination of the imperial weights and measures under this Act, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ten shillings for every copy of every such return, price list, price current, journal, or other paper which he publishes.

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade a weight or measure which is not of the denomination of some Board of Trade standard, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight or measure shall be liable to be forfeited.

_Unjust Weights and Measures._

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade any weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine which is false or unjust, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing made by the same shall be void, and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

Where any fraud is wilfully committed in the using of any weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine, the person committing such fraud, and every person party to the fraud, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

A person shall not wilfully or knowingly make or sell, or cause to be made or sold, any false or unjust weight, measure, scale, balance, or weighing machine.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ten pounds, or in the case of a second offence fifty pounds.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Every inquisition which, in pursuance of any Act hereby repealed, has been taken for ascertaining the amount of contracts to be performed or rents to be paid in grain or malt, or in any other commodity or thing, or with reference to the measure or weight of any grain, malt, or other commodity or thing, and the amount of any toll rate or duty payable according to any weight or measure in use before the passing of the said Act, and has been enrolled of record in Her Majesty’s Court of Exchequer, shall continue in force, and may be given in evidence in any legal proceeding, and the amount ascertained by such inquisition shall, when converted into imperial weights and measures, continue to be the rule of payment in regard to all such contracts, rents, tolls, rates, or duties.

_Standards and Definitions._

Nothing in this Act shall affect the validity of the models of gas holders verified and deposited in the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, in pursuance of the Act of the session of the twenty-second and twenty-third years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter sixty-six, entituled “An Act for regulating measures used in sales of gas,” and of the Acts amending the same, and the provisions of this Act with respect to Board of Trade standards shall apply to such models; and the provisions of this Act with respect to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in local standards when verified or reverified, shall apply to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in such copies of the said models of gas holders as are provided by any justices, council commissioners, or other local authority in pursuance of the said Acts.

Nothing in this Act shall extend to prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights granted by charter to the master, wardens, and commonalty of the mystery of the Founders of the City of London.

Nothing in this Act shall prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights of the mayor and commonalty and citizens of the City of London, or of the Lord Mayor of the City of London for the time being, with respect to the stamping or sealing of weights and measures, or with respect to the gauging of wine or oil, or other gaugeable liquors.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO SCOTLAND.

This Act shall apply to Scotland with the following modifications:

In the application of this Act to Scotland the expression ‘rents and tolls’ includes all stipends, feu duties, customs, casualties, and other demands whatsoever, payable in grain, malt, or meal, or any other commodity or thing.

The fair’s prices of all grain in every county shall be struck by the imperial quarter, and all other returns of the prices of grain shall be set forth by the same, without reference to any other measure whatsoever.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO IRELAND.

This Act shall apply to Ireland with the following modifications:

In Ireland every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing——

For any quantity of corn, grain, pulses, potatoes, hay, straw, flax, roots, carcasses of beef or mutton, butter, wool, or dead pigs, sold, delivered, or agreed for:

Or for any quantity of any other commodity sold, delivered, or agreed for by weight (not being a commodity which may by law be sold by the troy ounce or by apothecaries’ weight), shall be made or had by one of the following denominations of imperial weight; namely, the ounce avoirdupois; the imperial pound of sixteen ounces; the stone of fourteen pounds; the quarter hundred of twenty-eight pounds; the half hundred of fifty-six pounds; the hundredweight of one hundred and twelve pounds; or the ton of twenty hundredweight; and not by any local or customary denomination of weight whatsoever, otherwise such contract, bargain, sale, or dealing shall be void:

Provided always, that nothing in the present section shall be deemed to prevent the use in any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing of the denomination of the quarter, half, or other aliquot part of the ounce, pound, or other denomination aforesaid, or shall be deemed to extend to any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing relating to standing or growing crops.

In Ireland every article sold by weight shall, if weighed, be weighed in full net standing beam; and for the purposes of every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing the weight be ascertained shall be deemed the true weight of the article, and no deduction or allowance for tret or beamage, or on any other account, or under any other name whatsoever, the weight of any sack, vessel, or other covering in which such article may be contained alone excepted, shall be claimed or made by any purchaser on any pretext whatever under a penalty not exceeding five pounds.

SCHEDULES.

FIRST SCHEDULE.