Part 2.

Oxalic acid. Chloroform. Belladonna and its preparations. Essential oil of almonds, unless deprived of its prussic acid. Opium and all preparations of opium or of poppies.

By virtue and in exercise of the powers vested in the council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, the said council do hereby resolve and declare that each of the following articles, viz.——

Preparations of prussic acid, Preparations of cyanide of potassium and of all metallic cyanides, Preparations of strychnine, Preparations of atropine, Preparations of corrosive sublimate, Preparations of morphine, Red oxide of mercury (commonly known as red precipitate of mercury), Ammoniated mercury (commonly known as white precipitate of mercury), Every compound containing any poison within the meaning of ‘The Pharmacy Act, 1868,’ when prepared or sold for the destruction of vermin, The tincture and all vesicating liquid preparations of cantharides,

——ought to be deemed a poison within the meaning of the ‘Pharmacy Act, 1868,’ and also that of the same each of the following articles, viz.——

Preparations of prussic acid, Preparations of cyanide of potassium and of all metallic cyanides, Preparations of strychnine, Preparations of atropine,

——ought to be deemed a poison in the first part of the schedule (A) to the said ‘Pharmacy Act, 1868,’

And notice is hereby also given, that the said Society have submitted the said resolution for the approval of the Lords of Her Majesty’s Council, and that such approval has been given.

By order, ELIAS BREMRIDGE, _Secretary and Registrar of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain._

And whereas the council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain did, on the 17th day of November, 1877, resolve and declare in the words following:——

“That by virtue and in exercise of the powers vested in the council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, the said council does hereby resolve and declare that _Chloral Hydrate and its preparations_ ought to be deemed poisons within the meaning of the ‘Pharmacy Act, 1868,’ and ought to be deemed poisons in the second part of the schedule (A) of the said ‘Pharmacy Act, 1868.’”

And whereas the said Society have submitted the said resolution for the approval of the Privy Council, and the Lords of the Privy Council are of opinion that the said resolution should be approved.

Now, therefore, their Lordships are hereby pleased to signify their approval of the said resolution.

C. L. PEEL.

Tardieu states that of late years the criminal administration of phosphorus has increased considerably in France. For example, from 1851 to 1872, in 793 cases of poisoning, 287 or 36·2 per cent. were due to arsenic, and 267 or 31·1 per cent. to phosphorus; whilst in the years 1872 and 1874, in 141 criminal poisonings by arsenic and phosphorus, only 74 were due to arsenic. The explanation of these facts may reasonably be ascribed to the much greater facility with which phosphorus, in the form of matches or vermin pastes, can be procured than arsenic.

=PHE′NOL.= C_{6}H_{6}O. See CARBOLIC ACID.

=PHE′NYL.= C_{6}H_{5}. The hypothetical compound radical of the phenyl-series. Carbolic acid is said to be its hydrate.

=PHENYL′AMINE.= C_{6}H_{5}H_{2}N. Aniline is sometimes so named on account of its relation to the phenyl series.

=PHIALS.= The ordinary green moulded phials used by the pharmaceutist are made of a glass obtained from common river sand and soapboilers’ waste. In the manufacture of the glass for the white phials purer materials (and these as free from iron and alumina as possible) are used. Decolourising agents are also employed. The following is given as the composition of a white glass for apothecaries’ phials in ‘Chemistry: Theoretical, Practical, and Analytical,’[94]

[Footnote 94: Mackenzie and Co.]

100 lbs. white sand. 30-26 ” potash, impure. 17 ” lime. 110-120 ” ashes. ·25 to ·5 lbs. binoxide of manganese-cullet.

=Phials, Bologna.= Small flasks or phials of unannealed glass, which fly to pieces when their surface is scratched by a hard body. Thus, if a small piece of flint be dropped into them they are shivered; whereas if a bullet be used they remain uninjured.

=PHILO′NIUM.= The ancient name of an aromatic opiate, reputed to possess many virtues, invented by Philo. See CONFECTION OF OPIUM.

=PHILOS′OPHER’S STONE.= _Syn._ LAPIS PHILOSOPHORUM, L. A wonderful substance, the discovery of which formed the day dreams of the alchemists. It was supposed to be capable of converting all the baser metals into gold, and of curing all diseases. Some of the alchemists appear to have laboured under the delusion that they had actually discovered it. The last of these enthusiasts was the talented and unfortunate Dr Price, of Guildford. Speaking of the age of alchemy, Liebig says:——“The idea of the transmutability of metals stood in the most perfect harmony with all the observations and all the knowledge of that age, and in contradiction to none of these. In the first stage of the development of science, the alchemists could not possibly have any other notions of the nature of metals than those which they actually held.... We hear it said that the idea of the philosopher’s stone was an error; but all our views have been developed from errors, and that which today we regard as truth in chemistry may, perhaps, before to-morrow, be regarded as a fallacy.”

=PHILOSOPH′IC CANDLE.= An inflamed jet of hydrogen gas.

=PHILOSOPHIC WOOL.= Flowers of zinc.

=PHIL′TRE.= _Syn._ PHILTRUM, L. A charm or potion to excite love. The ancients had great faith in such remedies. Nothing certain is now known respecting their composition; but there is sufficient evidence that recourse was frequently had to them by the ancients, and that “their operation was so violent that many persons lost their lives and their reason by their means.” The Thessalian philtres were those most celebrated. (Juv., vi, 610, &c.) At the present day the administration of preparations of the kind is interdicted by law.

=PHLORE′TIN.= C_{15}H_{14}O_{5}. A crystallisable, sweet substance, formed along with grape sugar, when phloridzin is acted on by dilute acids.

=PHLORID′ZIN.= C_{21}H_{24}O_{10}. _Syn._ PHLORIZINE; PHLORIDZINUM, L. Prep. By acting on the fresh root-bark of the apple, pear, or plum tree, with boiling rectified spirit; the spirit is distilled off, and the phloridzin crystallises out of the residual liquor as it cools.

_Prop., &c._ Fine, colourless, silky needles, freely soluble in rectified spirit and in hot water, but requiring 1000 parts of cold water for its solution; its taste is bitter and astringent. When its solution is boiled with a little dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, it is changed into grape sugar and phloretin.

Phloridzin bears a great likeness to salicin. It is said to be a powerful febrifuge.——_Dose_, 3 to 15 gr.

=PHOCE′NIC ACID.= See DELPHINIC ACID.

=PHŒNIC′INE.= See INDIGO PURPLE.

=PHO′NOGRAPH.= Some years back Prof. Faber, of Vienna, constructed and exhibited in the chief cities of Europe ‘a talking machine,’ which was able to articulate simple words and sentences with considerable distinctness. The complex mechanism by which this was effected was contrived upon the principles of the human organs of speech, as the machine possessed an india-rubber tongue and lips, and an artificial larynx, made out of a thin vibrating tube of ivory. Faber’s automaton, although of much greater scientific interest than the automatic flute and flageolet players of Vancanson, the trumpeter of Droz, and similar exhibitions of curious workmanship, was, like these, only a mechanical curiosity, without any promise of a useful application.

Entirely distinct from Faber’s machine, not only structurally and in the method by which it produces its effects, but also in the end designed for it by its inventor being an essentially practical one, is the ‘speaking machine or phonograph’ of Mr Edison.

The first impression that will occur to those who having heard Mr Edison’s instrument speak have subsequently made themselves acquainted with its construction, will probably be one of surprise that an effect so apparently startling as that which it has been able to produce should be accomplished by means so simple.

B is a brass cylinder, through whose centre passes a metal shaft, the arms of which rest on upright supports, one of which is shown in the engraving. The arm of the shaft, obscured from view, corresponding in length with the part of it which is visible, is screw-turned, and it works in a nut bored out of the support. Attached to the screw-end of the shaft or axle is a crank C, by turning which a double movement, viz. a rotatory and a horizontal one, may be simultaneously imparted to the cylinder. Round the surface of the cylinder is cut a spiral groove corresponding in dimensions with the threads of the screw part of the shaft. Covering the whole of the cylinder is a sheet of tin-foil, which is secured to its edges by means of shell-lac varnish. In front of the cylinder, resting on a proper support, is a mouth-piece, A, at the bottom of which (the end nearest the cylinder) is a very thin plate or diaphragm of metal, and to this diaphragm is attached a round steel point, which when not in use does not touch the foil. Previously to using the apparatus this steel point has to be accurately adjusted opposite to that part of the foil lying over the spiral groove. If now the lips be applied to the mouth-piece, and any sentence be spoken, the crank being at the same time turned, the vibrations imparted to the metal plate by the voice will cause the steel point to come into contact with that part of the foil overlying the groove in the cylinder, and to make on the foil a number of indentations, as it revolves, and is carried forward laterally before the mouth-piece. Furthermore these indentations will be found to vary in depth and sectional outline according to the nature of the vibrations which have produced them; and as experiment proves, are the specific and infallible caligraphy of those vibrations.

“It might be said that at this point the machine has already become a complete phonograph or sound writer, but it yet remains to translate the remarks made. Now, there is no doubt that by practice and the aid of a magnifier it would be possible to read phonetically Mr Edison’s record of dots and dashes,[95] but he saves us that trouble by literally making it read itself. The distinction is the same, as if, instead of perusing a book ourselves, we drop it into a machine, set the latter in motion, and behold! the voice of the author is heard repeating his own composition. The reading mechanism is nothing but another diaphragm, held in the tube D, on the opposite side of the machine, and a point of metal, which is held against the tin-foil on the cylinder by a delicate spring.

[Footnote 95: According to the ‘Polytechnic Review,’ Mr Edison does not appear to have yet solved the problem of reading the phonograph record by sight. He states that although a specific form exists for each articulated sound, the chief difficulties arise from the varying indentations or marks caused by the same sound. Amongst the circumstances giving rise to these results are: the same sound uttered by different people, the manner in which it is spoken, the distance of the mouth from the instrument, the force with which it is spoken, or the speed with which the barrel is rotated.]

“It makes no difference as to the vibrations produced, whether a nail moves over a file or a file moves over a nail, and in the present instance it is the foil or indented foil-strip which moves, and the metal point is caused to vibrate as it is affected by the passage of the indentations. The vibrations, however, of this point must be precisely the same as those of the other points which made the indentations, and these vibrations transmitted to a second membrane, must cause the latter to vibrate similar to the first membrane, and the result is a synthesis of the sounds, which in the beginning we saw, as it were, analysed.”[96]

[Footnote 96: ‘Scientific American,’ December, 1877.]

In some of the later instruments, that section of the apparatus shown at D is dispensed with, and the reproduction of the spoken words or sentences is effected by bringing the cylinder back to its original starting point, opposite to the little steel projection attached to the metal disc at the end of the mouth-piece A. The steel point is then brought by means of a screw into contact with the foil, and as the cylinder moves onward in its former track, the metal point retraces the indentations on the foil from beginning to end, in doing which it communicates the vibrations it thus receives to the metal diaphragm in precisely the same manner, and with the same results as were shown with D. For the diaphragm, more particularly when employed as a resonator or reproducer of the words which have been spoken into the mouth-piece, other substances than metal have been tried, with, it is said, more satisfactory results. One of these is paper, the sounds given off by which are stated to be more distinct than those from iron.

Dr Clarence Holt, of Boston, in a communication to Mr W. H. Preece, writes that he has “constructed a diaphragm upon the principle of the membrane of the human drum of the ear, to be used as a reproducing disc.” Dr Holt continues “that his object was to employ a membrane which from its structure and shape would reproduce the lighter over-tones representing the quality of the voice, and at the same time cut off the sharper exaggerated over-tones embossed as such by the metal disc upon the tinfoil. He says the results of his experiments with such a membrane were very gratifying, and that the material of which it may be made should be either stout felted paper (to be varnished on the outer surface when used for speaking) or drum head moistened and pressed into a concave form before using.”[97]

[Footnote 97: Published in ‘Nature,’ February 4th, 1878.]

The crank (shown in the figure) by which the cylinder is turned is very frequently supplanted by an apparatus consisting of weights and wheels, or else by clockwork, whereby the cylinder is put in motion. The advantage of the working of these arrangements over that of the crank are, that instead of an inequality a regularity of movement of the cylinder is ensured, and it is thus made to advance at the same rate whilst the words are being reproduced as when they are being spoken.

One of the effects of this uniformity of the rotation of the cylinder under its two modes of action is to reproduce the exact pitch or tone of the voice of the speaker, although a departure from it would in no way affect the delivery of the exact words.

Accordingly, therefore, to the difference in the rate of movement of the cylinder during the reception and reproduction of speech, will be the divergence in tone between the original and the reproduced voice. If the cylinder were moved more quickly in redelivering the words the result would be that they would be in a higher, and, in the opposite case, in a lower key. Probably, as one writer has suggested, the curious effect might be produced of a child’s voice being converted into a man’s deep base, or _vice versâ_.

In view of the results of previous scientific discoveries, we should not be justified in refusing to admit the possibility, at any rate, of the realisation of some of the applications to which its inventor believes the phonograph will, in the course of time, be put.

It must be admitted that these predictions as to its ultimate capabilities are sufficiently wondrous. They are that——the phonograph will be able to record and reproduce at a future time any air sung to it, so that the vocal triumphs of some of our most accomplished singers may be preserved and resung after their death; that by its means may also be conserved and respoken, likewise after death, a speech delivered by a great statesman or orator; that a dying testator by breathing into it his last wishes may have these securely registered, to be expressed after his demise, if need be, in a court of justice; and that the contents of a book or novel may be read to us in the very accents of its author, long after he has passed away.

Although we have no testimony that anything like an approach to the above results has been obtained by this instrument, such statements as we possess of its action are not a little surprising.

“Mr Thomas Edison,” says the ‘Scientific American,’ describing this contrivance, “recently came into our office, placed a little machine on our desk, turned a crank, and the machine inquired as to our health, asked how we liked the phonograph, informed us that it was well, and bid us a cordial good night. These remarks were not only perfectly audible to ourselves, but to a dozen or more persons gathered round.”

At a meeting of the Physical Society of London, held on the 2nd of March, 1878, when the phonograph was exhibited, the sounds it gave out are said to have been remarkably distinct; and when “God Save the Queen” was sung as a duet through a double mouth-piece, the two voices could be clearly distinguished on the air being reproduced.

The writer was at the Royal institution in Albemarle Street a short time previous to the above date, and although sitting in the top gallery, heard it emit very distinctly the line “Come into the garden, Maud,” spoken by Professor Tyndall in compliment to the Laureate, who was present as well as various other vocal reproductions. The secondary sound, however, was less powerful than the original one. The difference between the two is aptly described by a writer in ‘Nature,’ as causing a feeling like that of looking upon a worn print and an early wood engraving.

“The main utility of the phonograph,” says Mr Edison, “being for the purpose of letter-writing, and other forms of dictation, the design is made, with a view to its utility for that purpose.

“The general principles of construction are a flat plate or disc, with spiral groove on the face, operated by clockwork underneath the plate; the grooves are cut very closely together, so as to give a great total length to each inch of surface——a close calculation gives as the capacity of each sheet of foil, upon which the record is had, in the neighbourhood of 40,000 words. The sheets being but 10 inches square, the cost is so trifling that but 100 words might be put upon a single sheet economically.

“The practical application of this form of phonograph for communications is very simple. A sheet of foil is placed in the phonograph, the clockwork set in motion, and the matter dictated in the mouth-piece, without other effort than when dictating to a stenographer. It is then removed, placed in a suitable form of envelope, and sent through the ordinary channels to the correspondent for whom designed. He, placing it upon his phonograph, starts his clockwork, and _listens_ to what his correspondent has to say. Inasmuch as it gives the tone of voice of his correspondent it is _identified_. As it may be filed away as other letters and at any subsequent time reproduced, it is a perfect _record_. As two sheets of foil have been indented with the same facility as a single sheet, ‘the writer’ may thus keep a _duplicate_ of his communication.

“The phonograph letters maybe dictated at home or in the office of a friend, the _presence_ of a stenographer _not being required_. The dictation may be as rapid as the thoughts can be formed, or the lips utter them. The recipient may listen to his letters being read at the rate of 150 to 200 words per minute, and at the same time busy himself about other matters. Interjections, explanations, emphasis, exclamations, &c., may be thrown into such letters _ad libitum_.

“The advantages of such an innovation upon the present slow, tedious, and costly methods are too numerous, and too readily suggest themselves, to warrant their enumeration; while there are no disadvantages which will not disappear coincident with the general introduction of the new method.”[98]

[Footnote 98: ‘North American Review,’ May, 1878.]

=PHOS′GENE GAS.= See CHLOROCARBONIC ACID.

=PHOS′PHATE.= _Syn._ PHOSPHAS, L. A salt of phosphoric acid. See PHOSPHORIC ACID and the respective metals.

=PHOS′PHIDE.= See PHOSPHURET.

=PHOS′PHITE.= _Syn._ PHOSPHIS, L. A salt of phosphorous acid. See PHOSPHOROUS ACID.

=PHOS′PHORUS.= P.

_Prep._ This is now only conducted on the large scale:——Bone-ash (in powder), 12 parts, and water 24 parts, are stirred together in a large tub until the mixture is reduced to a perfectly smooth ‘pap,’ oil of vitriol, 8 parts, is then added in a slender stream, active stirring being employed during the whole time, and afterwards until the combination appears complete; the next day the mass is thinned with cold water, and, if convenient, heated in a leaden pan or boiler until it has entirely lost its granular character; it is now transferred to one or a series of tall casks (according to the extent of the batch), and further diluted with a large quantity of water; after repose, the clear liquid is decanted, the sediment washed with water, and the ‘washings’ and ‘decanted liquor’ evaporated in a leaden or copper boiler until the white calcareous deposit (gypsum) becomes considerable; the whole is then allowed to cool, the clear portion decanted, and the sediment thoroughly drained on a filter; the liquid thus obtained is evaporated in an iron pot to the consistence of a thick syrup (say 4 parts), when dry charcoal (in powder), 1 part, is added, and the desiccation continued until the bottom of the pot becomes nearly red hot, after which it is covered over and allowed to cool; the dry mixture, when cold, is put into one or more earthen retorts well covered with ‘luting’ and properly dried, and heat is applied (sideways rather than at the bottom) by means of a good air-furnace; after a short time the beak of the retort is connected with a copper tube, the other end of which is made to dip about one fourth of an inch beneath the surface of some lukewarm water placed in a trough or wide-mouthed bottle.

The distilled product is purified by squeezing it through chamois leather under warm water, and is then moulded for sale by melting it under water heated to about 145° Fahr., and sucking it up to any desired height in slightly tapering, but perfectly straight, glass tubes, previously warmed and wetted. The bottom of the tube being now closed with the finger, it is withdrawn, and transferred to a pan of cold water to congeal the phosphorus, which will then commonly fall out, or may be easily expelled by pressure with a piece of wire.

_Prop. &c._ Phosphorus in its normal condition is a pale yellow, semi-transparent, and highly combustible solid; soft and flexible at common temperatures; it becomes waxy at about 75° Fahr.; melts at about 111°, and boils at 550° Fahr.; it takes fire in the air at 165°, and oxidates at all temperatures above 32°. Exposed to the air below 60°, its surface is slowly converted into phosphorus acid. It is apparently insoluble in water, but it conveys its peculiar flavour and odour to that fluid when agitated with it; it is slightly soluble in ether, naphtha, and the fixed and volatile oils, and more freely so in bisulphide of carbon. It unites with oxygen, forming oxides, and with oxygen and hydrogen, forming acids, and with the metals, forming phosphides.

Phosphorus is remarkable for assuming several allotropic forms. In one of these forms (amorphous phosphorus) its properties are so altered that they might be those of a distinct element.

_Uses._ The principal consumption of phosphorus is in the manufacture of lucifer matches. When swallowed, it acts as a powerful corrosive poison; but small doses of its ethereal and oily solutions are occasionally administered in cases of chronic debility, extreme prostration of the nervous powers, impotency, &c. Its action is that of a powerful diffusible stimulant and diuretic; it is also aphrodisiac. Its use requires great caution, and the effects must be narrowly watched. The treatment of poisoning by phosphorus consists of the administration of a powerful emetic and the copious use of mucilaginous drinks. The French practitioners recommend oil of turpentine as the most effective antidote. They administer about a teaspoonful of the turpentine every four hours.

_Concluding Remarks._ From the great inflammability of phosphorus it can only be safely preserved under water. In commerce, it is always packed in tin cylinders filled with water, and soldered up air-tight. The leading points to be observed to ensure success in this manufacture are chiefly connected with the firing. The heat of the furnace should be most slowly raised at first, but afterwards equably maintained in a state of bright ignition. After 3 or 4 hours of steady firing, carbonic and sulphurous anhydride are evolved in considerable abundance, provided the materials had not been well dried in the iron pot; then sulphuretted hydrogen makes its appearance, and next phosphuretted hydrogen, which last should continue during the whole of the distillation. The firing should be regulated by the escape of this remarkable gas, which ought to be at the rate of about two bubbles per second. If the discharge comes to be intercepted, it is to be ascribed either to the temperature being too low, or to the retort getting cracked; and if, upon raising the heat sufficiently, no bubbles appear, it is a proof that the apparatus has become defective, and that it is needless to continue the operation. We may infer that the process approaches its conclusion by the increasing slowness with which the gas is disengaged under a powerful heat; and when it ceases to come over we may cease firing, taking care to prevent reflux of water into the retort (and consequent explosion), from condensation of its gaseous contents, by admitting air into it through a recurved glass tube, or through the tube of the copper adapter. The usual period of the operation, upon the great scale, is from 24 to 30 hours.

=Phosphorus, Amor′phous.= _Syn._ RED PHOSPHORUS, ALLOTROPIC PHOSPHORUS; PHOSPHORUS FUSCUS, P. RUBER. L. This is phosphorus in that peculiar condition to which Berzelius has applied the term “allotropic.” The honour of its discovery is due to Dr Shrötter, of Vienna.

_Prep._ The ordinary phosphorus of commerce, rendered as dry as possible, is placed in a shallow vessel of hard and well-annealed Bohemian glass, fitted with a safety tube just dipping beneath the surface of a little hot water contained in an adjacent vessel; heat is then applied by means of a metallic bath (a mixture of lead and tin), the temperature of which is gradually raised until it ranges between 464 and 482° Fahr., and bubbles of gas escape from the end of the safety tube and catch fire as they come in contact with the air; this temperature is maintained until the amorphous condition is produced, the length of the exposure being regulated by a miniature operation with tubes conducted in the same bath; as soon as this point is reached, the apparatus is allowed to cool, and the amorphous phosphorus, which still contains some unconverted phosphorus, detached from the glass; it is then reduced to powder by careful trituration under water, drained on a calico filter, and, whilst still moist, spread thinly on shallow trays of iron or lead; in this state it is exposed, with frequent stirring, to heat in a chloride of calcium bath, at first gentle, and then gradually increased to its highest limit, and the heat continued until no more luminous vapour escapes; the residuum on the trays is then cooled, washed with water until this last ceases to affect test paper, and is, lastly, drained and dried. To render it absolutely free from unaltered phosphorus, it may be washed with bisulphide of carbon.

On the small scale, common phosphorus may be converted into amorphous phosphorus by simply exposing it for 50 or 60 hours to a temperature of about 473° Fahr., in any suitable vessel from which the air is kept excluded by a stream of carbonic acid, or any other gas which is unable to act chemically on the phosphorus.

By keeping common phosphorus fused at a high temperature, under the above conditions, for fully 8 days, compact masses of amorphous phosphorus may be obtained.

_Prop., &c._ A reddish brown, infusible, inodorous, solid substance, which is reconverted into ordinary phosphorus by simply exposing it to a heat a little above 500° Fahr. It is unaltered by atmospheric air; is insoluble in bisulphide of carbon, alcohol, ether, or naphtha; is non-luminous in the dark below about 390° Fahr.; and does not take fire at a lower temperature than that necessary for its reconversion into the common or crystalline form. The sp. gr. ranges between 2·089 to 2·017, according to the method of preparing it. Its properties render it an admirable substitute for the common phosphorus in the composition for tipping matches, both as regards security from spontaneous ignition and the health of the manufacturers, who when exposed to the fumes of ordinary phosphorus, were very liable to be attacked with caries of the lower jaw.

=Phosphorus, Trichloride of.= PCl_{3}. _Syn._ PHOSPHORUS TERCHLORIDE, PHOSPHORUS CHLORIDE. By gently heating phosphorus, in excess, in dry chlorine gas; or by passing the vapour of phosphorus through a stratum of powdered mercuric chloride, strongly heated in a glass tube. It is limpid, colourless, highly fetid, fumes in the air, and is slowly resolved by water into phosphorus acid and hydrochloric acid. Sp. gr. 1·45.

=Phosphorus, Pentachloride of.= PCl_{5}. _Syn._ PHOSPHORIC CHLORIDE, PERCHLORIDE OF PHOSPHORUS.

_Prep._ By the spontaneous combustion of phosphorus in an excess of dry chlorine; or by passing a stream of dry chlorine into the liquid terchloride. By the first method it is obtained as a white crystalline sublimate; by the second, as a solid crystalline mass. It is volatile; water resolves it into phosphoric acid and hydrochloric acid.

=Phosphorus, Oxychloride of.= PCl_{3}O. _Syn._ PHOSPHORIC OXYCHLORIDE, PHOSPHORIC MONOXYCHLORIDE.

_Prep._ By heating pentachloride of phosphorus with a quantity of water insufficient to convert it into phosphoric acid. It is a colourless, fuming liquid, having the sp. gr. 1·7.

=Phosphorus, Hydride of.= PH_{3}. _Syn._ PHOSPHORETTED HYDROGEN, PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN.

_Prep._ 1. Phosphorus acid is gently heated in a retort, and the first portion of the gas collected.

2. From phosphorus (in small lumps) boiled in a solution of hydrate of potassium or milk of lime, contained in a small retort, as before. Take a very small thin retort, capable of holding not more than 1 oz. or 1-1/2 oz. of water; place in this 3 or 4 fragments of the sticks of fused hydrate of potassium, each being about 1/2 inch in length; add as much water as will barely cover them, and then drop in a small fragment of phosphorus, about the size of a horse-bean; apply a very gentle heat with the small flame of a spirit lamp, agitating the retort continually. A pale lambent flame will first appear in the interior, and when this reaches the orifice, and burns in the open air, the retort should be placed on the stand with its beak about an inch under water. Care must be taken not to withdraw the flame of the lamp. When the bubbles of the gas rise to the surface they spontaneously inflame.

3. From phosphide of calcium and dilute hydrochloric acid, as above; or simply from the phosphide thrown into the water.

_Obs._ The gas obtained by methods 2 and 3 is contaminated with the vapour of a liquid phosphide of hydrogen, PH_{2}, which gives to it the property of spontaneous inflammability.

_Prop., &c._ Colourless; very fetid; slightly soluble in water; burns with a white flame; decomposed by light, heat, and strong acids; as commonly prepared, inflames on contact with air, at ordinary temperatures, but when pure, only at the heat of boiling water. Sp. gr. 1·24. It is rendered quite dry by standing over fused chloride of calcium.

=Phosphorus, Suboxide of.= P_{4}O. (Odling.) A reddish-brown powder, formed when a stream of oxygen is forced upon phosphorus, melted beneath the surface of hot water. To purify it from phosphoric acid and free phosphorus, it is washed on a filter with water, then dried by bibulous paper, and finally digested with bisulphide of carbon.

=Hypophosphorous Acid.= H_{3}PO_{2}. By cautiously decomposing a solution of hypophosphite of barium with sulphuric acid, filtering from the precipitate (sulphate of baryta), and evaporating. Dissolve hypophosphite of calcium, 480 gr. in distilled water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve crystallised oxalic acid, 350 gr., in another portion of distilled water, 3 fl. oz.; mix the solutions and filter the mixture through white filtering paper. Add distilled water carefully to the filtrate till it measures 10 fl. oz., and evaporate this to 8-1/2 fl. oz. The solution thus prepared contains about 10% of terhydrated hypophosphorous acid.

_Prop._ A viscid, uncrystallisable liquid having a strongly acid reaction. It is a powerful drying agent, and forms salts called hypophosphites.

=Ammonium, Hypophosphite of.= (NH_{4})_{3}PO_{2}. _Prep._ Dissolve hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., in water, 4 pints; and dissolve translucent sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 7·23 oz. (barely 7-1/4), in water, 2 pints; mix the solutions; filter, washing out the solution retained by the carbonate of lime with water, q. s.; evaporate the filtrate to dryness with great care; dissolve it in alcohol, q. s.; filter, evaporate, and crystallise. Very soluble in both alcohol and water.

=Barium, Hyperphosphite of.= Ba_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}. _Prep._ Boil phosphorus in a solution of hydrate of barium (baryta water) till all the phosphorus disappears and the vapours have no longer a garlic odour. Filter, evaporate, and set aside to crystallise.

=Calcium, Hypophosphite of.= Ca_{3}(PO_{2})_{2}.

_Prep._ Slack recently burnt lime, 4 lbs., with water, 1 gall., and mix it with water, 4 galls., just brought to the boiling temperature in a deep open boiler, stirring until a uniform milk of lime is formed; then add phosphorus, 1 lb., and keep up the boiling constantly, adding hot water from time to time, so as to preserve the measure as nearly as may be until all the phosphorus is oxidised and combined, and the strong odour of the gas has disappeared; then filter the solution through muslin, wash out that portion retained by the calcareous residue with water, and evaporate the filtrate till reduced to 6 pints; re-filter, to remove a portion of carbonate of calcium resulting from the action of the air upon the solution; evaporate again until a pellicle forms, and set aside to crystallise——or continue the heat with constant stirring until the salt granulates.

_Obs._ As spontaneously inflammable phosphuretted hydrogen is given off during the boiling, the process must be conducted under a hood, with a strong draught or in the open air. Smaller proportions than those given may be used.

_Prop._ Hypophosphite of calcium is a white salt, with pearly lustre, crystallising in flattened prisms; soluble in 6 parts of cold water, and slightly soluble in dilute alcohol. It is the most important of these compounds, and when introduced into the stomach it is supposed to be converted into phosphate of calcium. It has been termed ‘chemical food.’ By decomposition it readily furnishes the other hypophosphites.

=Ferric, Hyperphosphite of.= FePO_{2}. _Prep._ By precipitating a solution of hypophosphite of sodium or ammonium, with solution of ferric sulphate, washing the gelatinous precipitate with care (it being somewhat soluble); and, finally, drying it into an amorphous white powder. This is freely soluble in hydrochloric and hypophosphorous acids.

=Potassium, Hypophosphite of.= K_{3}PO_{2}. _Prep._ From hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dissolved in water, 4 pints; and granulated carbonate of potassium, 5-3/4 oz., dissolved in water, 1/2 pint. Mix, filter, and wash the precipitate till the filtrate measures 5 pints. Evaporate till a pellicle forms, then stir constantly, continuing the heat till the salt granulates. A white, opaque, deliquescent body, very soluble in water and alcohol.

=Quinine, Hypophosphite of.= Dissolve sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., in water, by the aid of diluted sulphuric acid; precipitate the alkaloid with ammonia; wash the precipitated quinine and digest it in hypophosphorous acid with heat (the quinine being in excess); after filtering the solution, allow it to evaporate spontaneously till the required salt crystallises. It forms elegant tufts of soft, feathery crystals, which are soluble in 60 parts of water.

=Sodium, Hypophosphite of.= Na_{3}PO_{2}. _Prep._ From hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dissolved in water, 4 pints; and crystallised carbonate of sodium, 10 oz., dissolved in water, 1-1/2 pint. Proceed as in making hypophosphite of potassium, but allowing 6 pints as the measure of the filtrate. If required in crystals, the granulated salt may be dissolved in alcohol sp. gr. ·835, evaporated till syrupy, and set by in a warm place. Crystallises in rectangular tables, with a pearly lustre; is very soluble in water and ordinary alcohol, and deliquesces when exposed to the air.

=Phosphorus, Trioxide of.= P_{2}O_{3}. _Syn._ PHOSPHOROUS ANHYDRIDE; ANHYDROUS PHOSPHORIC ACID.

_Prep._ By burning phosphorus in a limited supply of air. White flaky powder, with an odour of garlic, and rapidly absorbing water to form phosphorous acid.

=Phosphorous Acid.= H_{3}PO_{3}. _Syn._ HYDRATED PHOSPHOROUS ACID. Pure phosphorus is volatilised through a layer of powdered mercuric chloride, contained in a glass tube; terchloride of phosphorus comes over, which, on being mixed with water, is resolved into hydrochloric acid and phosphorous acid; by evaporating the mixed liquid to the consistence of a syrup, the first is expelled, and the residuum forms a crystalline mass of hydrated phosphorous acid on cooling.

_Prop., &c._ It is a powerful deoxidising agent. Heated in a closed vessel, it is resolved into hydrated phosphoric acid and pure phosphuretted hydrogen gas. With the bases it forms salts, called phosphites, which possess little practical importance.

=Phosphorous Pentoxide Acid.= P_{2}O_{5}. _Syn._ ANHYDROUS PHOSPHORIC ACID; PHOSPHORIC ANHYDRIDE; PHOSPHORIC OXIDE. By the vivid combustion of phosphorus in a stream of dry atmospheric air, or under a bell-jar, copiously supplied with dry air. The product is pure anhydrous phosphoric acid under the form of snow-like flakes. It must be immediately collected and put into a warm, dry, well-stoppered bottle. In this state it exhibits an intense attraction for water, and when thrown into it combines with explosive violence; exposed to moist air for only a few seconds, it deliquesces to a syrupy-looking liquid.

=Phosphoric Acid.= There are three distinct acids usually grouped under this head, namely, METAPHOSPHORIC ACID, HPO_{3}; PYROPHOSPHORIC ACID, H_{4}P_{4}O_{7}; and ORTHOPHOSPHORIC ACID, H_{3}PO_{4}.

=Metaphosphoric Acid.= HPO_{3}. _Syn._ MONOBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID; GLACIAL PHOSPHORIC ACID.

_Prep._ Bones (calcined to whiteness and powdered), 3 parts, are digested for several days in oil of vitriol, 2 parts, previously diluted with water, 6 parts, the mixture being frequently stirred during the time; a large quantity of water is next added, the whole thrown in a strainer, and the residual matter washed with some hot water; the mixed liquors are then precipitated with a solution of carbonate of ammonium, in slight excess, filtered from the insoluble, finally ignited in a platinum crucible.

By acting upon the anhydride with cold water.

When phosphoric acid is added to a strong solution of phosphate of zirconium, and the mixture, after concentration, is exposed to a low temperature, prismatic crystals are deposited. These, after being strongly heated to expel their basic water, are pure metaphosphate of sodium. From the solution of this salt in cold water, a solution of pure metaphosphoric acid may be obtained, as above, by means of nitrate or acetate of lead and sulphuretted hydrogen.

_Obs._ This acid precipitates the salts of silver white, and is distinguished from the other modifications of phosphoric acid by the property which its solution possesses of coagulating albumen.

=Pyrophosphoric Acid.= H_{4}P_{2}O_{7}. _Syn._ DIBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID. By strongly heating common orthophosphate of sodium. The water of crystallisation only is at first expelled, and the salt becomes anhydrous; but as the temperature reaches that of redness the salt loses water and is decomposed. By solution of the altered salt in water, crystals of pyrophosphate of sodium may be obtained. A solution of this last compound, treated with nitrate of lead, and the resulting precipitate, suspended in cold water, and decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen, yields a solution of pure pyrophosphoric acid.

_Obs._ Heat resolves this into a solution of the ordinary acid. Pyrophosphoric acid precipitates the salts of silver of a white colour. The salts of this acid are called pyrophosphates.

=Orthophosphoric Acid.= H_{3}PO_{4}. _Syn._ TRIHYDRIC PHOSPHATE, TRIBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID. Ordinary nitric acid is heated in a tubulated retort connected with a receiver, and small fragments of phosphorus are dropped into it, singly and at intervals; as soon as the oxygenation of the phosphorus is complete, the heat is increased, the undecomposed acid distilled off, and the residuum evaporated to the consistence of a syrup. In this state it forms the phosphoric acid of the shops. Commercial phosphate of sodium is dissolved in water and the solution precipitated with another of acetate of lead; an abundant white precipitate (phosphate of lead) falls; this is collected on a filter, well washed, and, whilst still moist, is suspended in distilled water, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas passed into it, in excess; a black insoluble precipitate forms, while pure tribasic phosphoric acid remains in solution, and is easily deprived of the residual sulphuretted hydrogen by a gentle heat. By concentration _in vacuo_ over sulphuric acid, it may be obtained in thin crystalline plates.

The solution of this acid may be boiled without change, but when concentrated and heated to about 400° Fahr. it is converted into pyrophosphoric acid, and at a red heat into metaphosphoric acid. Its salts are the ordinary phosphates, or orthophosphates, and they give a yellow precipitate with nitrate of silver.

_Tests._ The following reactions characterise the ordinary or other phosphates:——1. Chloride of barium produces in aqueous solutions of the neutral and basic phosphates a white precipitate, which is insoluble in either hydrochloric or nitric acid, and with difficulty soluble in a solution of chloride of ammonium.——2. Solution of sulphate of calcium produces in neutral and alkaline solutions of the phosphates a white precipitate, freely soluble in acids, even the acetic.——3. Sulphate of magnesium produces in solutions of the phosphates, to which some chloride of ammonium and free ammonia has been added, a white, crystalline, and quickly subsiding precipitate of the phosphate of ammonium and magnesium, which is insoluble in a solution of either ammonia or chloride of ammonium, but readily soluble in acids, even the acetic.——4. Nitrate of silver, with neutral and basic alkaline phosphates, gives a light yellow precipitate. If the fluid in which the precipitate is suspended contained a basic phosphate, it does not affect test paper; if it contained a neutral phosphate, the reaction will be acid. If the phosphate examined has been heated to redness before solution, it then, as a metaphosphate, gives a white precipitate with nitrate of silver.——5. Hydrochloric acid is added to the solution to acid reaction, and afterwards 1 or 2 drops of a concentrated solution of ferric chloride; a solution of acetate of potassium is next added in excess, when a flocculent, gelatinous, white precipitate will be formed if phosphoric acid or any phosphate was present in any form or combination in the original liquor. This test is highly characteristic, and of general applicability.

_Obs._ The insoluble phosphates must be first treated with diluted hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and the resulting solution filtered and neutralised with an alkali, before applying the reagents. When the substance under examination consists of a very small quantity of phosphoric acid or phosphate, with a large quantity of sesquioxide of iron, it should be fused with some carbonate of sodium, the residuum of the ignition exhausted with water, and the tests applied to the filtered solution. Arsenious acid, if present, should be removed by sulphuretted hydrogen before applying the tests. When phosphate of aluminum, the solution in hydrochloric acid is neutralised with carbonate of sodium; carbonate of barium is next added in excess, followed by the addition of hydrate potassium, also in excess, after which the whole is boiled. An insoluble phosphate of barium is formed, which may be decomposed by sulphuric acid, as before. See MOLYBDATE OF AMMONIUM.

_Estim._ Pure solutions of phosphoric acid may be tested by the common methods of acidimetry. When in a state of combination, it may be separated and weighed in either of the forms noticed under GUANO.

_Uses, &c._ This acid is the common form, and is the compound alluded to when ‘phosphoric acid’ is spoken of. It is extensively employed by the bleacher, dyer, calico-printer, and enameller. Unlike sulphuric acid and the other strong acids, it does not coagulate albumen nor injure vegetable fibre, and is not decomposed by contact with organic matter. In combination with alumina and a large boracic acid, it is said to be capable of producing a glaze for earthenware of extreme beauty and durability, and perfectly innocuous. It is also used in medicine.

PHOSPHORIC ACID, DILUTED. (B. Ph.) Put 6 fl. oz. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), diluted with 8 oz. of distilled water, into a tubulated retort connected with a Liebig’s condenser, and having added 413 gr. of phosphorus, apply a very gentle heat until 5 fl. oz. of liquid have distilled over. Return this to the retort, and renew and continue the distillation until the phosphorus has entirely dissolved.

Transfer the contents of the retort to a porcelain capsule and evaporate the liquid until it is reduced to 4 fl. oz. Transfer to a platinum vessel and evaporate to about 2 fl. oz., and until orange vapours cease to form. Mix when cool in such an amount of distilled water that the volume shall become one pint. (It contains 10 per cent. by weight of anhydrous acid. Sp. gr. 1·08.)——_Dose_, 10 to 30 minims properly diluted.

=PHOSPHORUS, BALDWIN′S.= Recently fused nitrate of calcium. For this purpose it must be broken into fragments whilst still warm, and at once placed in dry and well-stopped phials. After exposure for some time to the direct rays of the sun it emits sufficient light in the dark to render visible the figures on the dial-plate of a watch.

=PHOSPHORUS, BOLOGNIAN.= _Syn._ KERCHER’S PHOSPHORUS, BOLOGNIAN STONE. This substance was accidentally discovered by a shoemaker of Bologna, and excited much interest about the middle of the 17th century. The following is said to have been the formula employed by the Logani family, who were particularly successful in its preparation, and acquired wealth by its sale to the curious throughout Europe.

_Prep._ Reduce recently calcined native sulphate of barium to powder, make it into a paste with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and roll the mass into pieces about 1/4 inch thick and 1 to 2 inches long; dry these slowly by a moderate heat, and then expose them to ignition in a wind furnace, by placing them loosely among the charcoal; lastly, allow them to cool slowly, and at once place the pieces in well-stopped phials. Like the preceding substance, it phosphoresces in the dark after exposure to the sun’s rays.

=PHOSPHORUS, CANTON′S.= _Prep._ From calcined oyster shells, 3 parts; flowers of sulphur, 1 part; placed in alternate layers in a covered crucible, and exposed to a strong heat for about an hour. It is preserved and used like the above.

=PHOSPHORUS, HOMBERG′S.= Recently ignited chloride of calcium.

=PHOSPHORUS BOTTLES.= _Prep._ 1. Phosphorus, 12 gr.; olive oil, 1/2 oz.; mix in an oz. phial, and place the latter, loosely corked, in a basin of hot water; as soon as the phosphorus is melted, remove the phial, cork it securely, and agitate it until nearly cold. On being uncorked it emits sufficient light in the dark to see the time by a watch, and will retain this property for some years if not too frequently employed. These are frequently called ‘luminous phials.’

2. (BRIQUETS PHOSPHORIQUES.)——_a._ From phosphorus, 3 parts; white wax, 1 part; cautiously melted together by the heat of hot water; as the mixture begins to cool, the bottles are turned round, so that it may adhere to the sides.

_b._ (Bendix.) Cork (rasped small, and dry) and yellow wax, of each 1 part; phosphorus, 4 parts; petroleum, 8 parts; mixed, by fusion, as the last.

Used as instantaneous-light bottles. A sulphur match rubbed against the composition immediately inflames on exposure to the air. They should be only unstoppered at the instant of introducing the match, and should be handled with caution.

=PHOSPHORUS MATCHES.= See MATCHES, and _above_.

=PHOSPHORUS PASTE.= _Syn._ ANTI-ARSENICAL RAT-POISON, PHOSPHOR-PASTE. _Prep._ 1. Phosphorus, 1 oz.; warm water, 1 pint; place them in a bottle, cork it, and agitate them well together, until the phosphorus is reduced to a minute state of division, adding towards the end moist sugar, 1/2 lb.; next add of lard (melted by a gentle heat), 1 lb., and repeat the agitation until the whole is nearly cold; when cold, form it into a stiff dough with oatmeal or barley meal, and make this into small balls or cakes; lastly, dry these in the air, without artificial heat.

2. (Simon.) Phosphorus, 8 parts; water (lukewarm), 180 parts; mix in a mortar, and add of rye meal, 180 parts; when cold, further add of butter or lard, 180 parts; sugar, 125 parts; and mix the whole thoroughly together. This is the formula authorised by an ordinance of the Prussian Government, dated April 27th, 1843.

_Obs._ Rats, mice, &c., eat the above composition with avidity, after which they soon die. It is said that the best method of using it is to place small pieces of it in and about the holes, with some water in a shallow vessel for them to drink. It has the advantage of retaining its efficacy for many years, and is less dangerous to human beings than compositions containing arsenic, whilst it is even more effective for the purpose for which it is employed. Some persons recommend the addition of a little oil of rhodium or oil of aniseed. See RATS, &c.

=PHOS′PHURET.= _Syn._ PHOSPHIDE; PHOSPHORETUM, PHOSPHIDUM, L. A compound of phosphorus with a metal or other basic radical. See the respective METALS, &c.

=PHOSPHURETTED HY′DROGEN.= _Syn._ PHOSPHORETTED HYDROGEN. See HYDROGEN.

=PHOSPHATIC DIATHESIS.= _Syn._ WHITE GRAVEL. A morbid condition of the system, characterised by the deposition in the urine of certain salts of phosphoric acid or phosphates. In this affection the urine, contrary to its normal condition, is always alkaline, and the nature of the phosphatic deposit is influenced by the source of the alkalinity. If, as most frequently happens, this is owing to the presence of carbonate of ammonia (formed by the decomposition of the urea by the bladder mucus), the deposit will be found to consist of the triple phosphate, or phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, almost always associated with a small quantity of amorphous phosphate of lime. Under these circumstances the urine is pale in colour, and upon standing soon decomposes, in doing which it gives off a strong ammoniacal odour. Phosphatic diathesis is a frequent accompaniment of spinal affections and of chronic inflammation of the mucous lining of the bladder.

In mild attacks the best treatment consists in living rather generously, and in the administration of vegetable tonics combined with proper doses of the mineral acids.

=PHOTOG′RAPHY.= _Syn._ HELIOGRAPHY. The art of producing images on prepared surfaces by means of the actinic or chemical rays of the sun’s light. The principal photographic processes now in use are the positive-, negative-, and dry-collodion processes, in each of which a thin film or skin of iodised collodion forms the sensitive surface, a plate of glass being generally used as the foundation of the film. In a positive picture the ‘lights’ are silvery white by reflected light, and the ‘shades’ are produced by a ‘backing’ of black varnish or velvet, showing through the glass plate. In a negative picture the ‘lights’ are of a dirty yellow or brown by reflection, and being formed by opaque deposits, appear dense black by transmitted light. Negatives are used in the various paper-printing processes; they are placed upon prepared paper and exposed to direct light, which darkens those parts of the paper not protected by the opaque ‘lights,’ and thus produces positive prints with natural lights and shades. In this way the portrait ‘cartes de visite’ and other paper photographs are formed.

Of late years there have been devised a great variety of new photographic processes, some of which are given below, together with modern formulæ for the principal solutions, &c., in general request by the photographer.

The Daguerreotype process, discovered by M. Daguerre in 1839, has been entirely superseded by the easier, healthier, and less expensive collodion processes described further on. It consists in submitting a plate of silver or silvered copper to the vapour of iodine and bromine in the dark. A sensitive film of iodide and bromide of silver is thus formed on the plate, which is immediately exposed to the image of an object in the camera obscura. The latent image impressed on the plate is brought out or developed by exposing the plate to the action of the vapour of mercury.

It is to be noted that in all English photographic formulæ the solid and fluid measures of apothecaries weight are used; but in buying or selling chemical articles, the avoirdupois weight is employed.

_Nitrate of Silver Bath_ (_for Positives_). Recrystallised nitrate of silver, 5 dr., dissolved in 10 oz. of distilled water. Filter the solution until it is quite clear, then add 3 drops of nitric acid and 10 drops of collodion. Shake well together and filter. Blue litmus paper should slightly redden in this bath; should it turn very red, add a little ammonia, or oxide of silver; should it not redden at all, add a little acid carefully drop by drop. It is preferable to have a slight excess of acid.

_Developing Solution_ (_for Positives_). Protosulphate of iron, 2 dr., dissolved in 8 oz. of distilled water; add 2-1/2 dr. of glacial acetic acid, 2-1/2 dr. of alcohol, and 5 minims of nitric acid, filter, and pour into a well-stoppered bottle; do not expose to the air.

_Fixing Solution_ (_for Positives_). 50 gr. of cyanide of potassium dissolved in 5 oz. of distilled water; that is to say, for every fluid ounce of solution required, mix 10 gr. of cyanide of potassium in 1 oz. of distilled water. Filter and keep in a well-stoppered bottle, and label “Poison.”

_Positive Paper._ Plain paper requires preparing or salting before it is ready for use, or it may be purchased already salted.

Procure some sheets of plain Saxe paper, and immerse them for five minutes (removing air-bubbles) in the following solution:——

Chloride of ammonium 100 gr. Chloride of barium 100 gr. Citrate of soda 20 gr. Water 20 oz.

Hang the sheets up to dry. For portraits and most other uses the paper is albuminised on one side. When photographs are printed to be afterwards coloured, unalbuminised paper is used.

_Albuminised Paper._ There are several well-known papers sold; _Rive’s_, which is a French paper, has a high glaze and fine surface; the _Saxe_, which is more uniform in its texture, is made in Germany. Another maker is _Towgood_. Positive paper is albuminised by placing it in a mixture composed of white of eggs and salt. To the white of each moderate-sized egg use 15 gr. of common salt reduced to a fine powder; whisk until the albumen is all white froth. Leave this froth in a glazed earthen pan for about 12 hours, by which time most of it has settled into clear albumen; pour the clear portion into a flat porcelain tray. This tray should be somewhat larger than the sheets of paper to be albuminised. Lift the paper up by the ends and lay it carefully on the albumen, keeping the side marked as “inferior” uppermost and dry.

The paper should be slightly damp before it is thus treated, as it then takes the albumen more regularly, and is not so liable to air-bubbles. The paper must be lifted at each end, and should any air-bubbles appear, brush them off with a card or small brush, replacing the paper in the bath. Wherever the albumen does not come into actual contact with the paper, a white mark will appear in the print. Remove the paper from the bath and place it to dry on a cardboard frame, or suspend it at the corners by clips. Paper glazed with pure albumen acquires too brilliant a glaze for portraits; the albumen may be diluted with from a 1/4 to 1/3 its bulk of water. It should be kept in tin or zinc cases.

_Plain Paper._ Albuminised paper may be used as plain paper if, instead of sensitising the glazed side, the plain side is placed in the sensitising solution.

_Nitrate of Silver Bath_ (_for Negatives_). Recrystallised nitrate of silver, 1/2 oz.; distilled water, 7 oz.; collodion, 7 drops. Shake well together until the crystals have dissolved, then filter.

The purity of the negative bath is a matter of great importance, hence the necessity of employing the very best nitrate of silver, and also of excluding all foreign matters of every kind. When the bath gets out of order, it should be diluted with an equal bulk of distilled water, and exposed to the sun for a few days, in a white glass bottle, then filtered, and sufficient nitrate of silver added to restore the strength to 35 grains an ounce, as indicated by the argentometer.

_The Argentometer._ This instrument is for ascertaining the strength of the nitrate of silver solution, which becomes weakened to a certain extent, after the immersion of every plate.

_Developing Solution_ (_for Negatives_). Protosulphate of iron, 75 gr.; glacial acetic acid, 2 dr.; alcohol, 2 dr.; distilled water, 5 oz. Dissolve the crystals in the water, then add the acid and alcohol, and filter. In hot weather a little more acetic acid may be added, and if it does not flow readily, the alcohol may be increased.

_Intensifying Solution_, No. 1 (_Negatives_). Pyrogallic acid, 10 gr.; citric acid, 10 gr.; distilled water, 5 oz. When it becomes brown it is useless. No. 2. Recrystallised nitrate of silver, 40 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; dissolve and filter. This latter will keep for any length of time in the dark.

_Another Intensifying Bath_ (_Negatives_). A saturated solution of bichloride of mercury in water. Place the negative plate in a bath of the solution, remove when the film assumes a milky-white appearance, wash, and then plunge into a solution of 1 oz. of liquid ammonia to 10 oz. of water. Remove the plate, wash, and place to dry. This mode of intensifying may be regulated by leaving the plate in the bichloride of mercury a shorter time, when it will require a weaker ammonia bath than that above given.

_Fixing Solution_ (_for Negatives_). Hyposulphite of soda, 5 oz.; distilled water, 5 oz.; dissolve and filter.

_Sensitising Solution_ (_for Paper_). Nitrate of silver, 5 dr.; distilled water, 5 oz.; nitric acid, 2 drops; kaolin, 1 oz. Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water, and then add the acid and kaolin; the kaolin will not dissolve, its use being to prevent the solution becoming discoloured after using. This solution will not require filtering; it must be allowed to become quite clear, and when required for use must be carefully decanted. This solution should be occasionally tested with the argentometer, and sufficient nitrate of silver added to restore it to its original strength.

_Another Negative Collodion._ Ether, 1/2 oz.; gun-cotton, 7 gr.; bromide of cadmium, 1/2 gr.; bromide of ammonium, 1-1/2 gr.; iodide of calcium, 1 gr.; iodide of potassium, 1 gr.; iodide of ammonium, 1 gr. For intensifying, flood with chloride of gold, 1 gr.; water, 15 oz.; then wash, and flood with pyrogallic acid, 2 gr.; water, 3 oz.

_Toning Baths._ 1. Chloride of gold, 4 gr.; acetate of soda, 1/4 oz.; distilled water, 10 oz.; dissolve and filter. 2. _To produce black to bright sepia tones, according to length of immersion._ Take carbonate of soda sufficient to cover a threepenny piece, dissolve it in a teaspoonful of cold water in a cup, add 2 gr. of chloride of gold, then add 3 oz. of boiling water; use in 15 minutes. This will suit Hart’s albuminised paper.

_Fixing Solution_ (_for Paper Prints_). Hyposulphite of soda, 8 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint. This solution must only be used once.

_Stopping-out Negatives._ Small, round, transparent spots are frequently found on glass negatives, which, if not stopped, occasion corresponding black spots on the print. Lay the plate on a slab of glass, having either direct or reflected light shining up through it. Then cover the spots with a mixture composed of 10 parts of ivory black, 2 parts of saturated solution of gum Arabic, 2 parts of white honey, 1 part of sugar-candy; well mix and apply with a fine camel-hair brush. Should the spots on the negative be black or opaque, white spots will be formed on the print; these are easily tinted with a little water colour, to match the other portions of the print; it is seldom necessary, therefore, to alter the negative on this account.

_Ferrotypes._ In these, instead of a glass plate being used to receive the picture, as in a positive glass photograph, a thin plate of black varnished iron is employed. Of course no black backing is required; with this exception the photograph is produced in every particular by the same means and in the same manner as the glass positive is.

_To Clean Glass Plates._ (Mr Hughes.) The description of glass known as “flatted crown” is well suited for positives, but before using it requires careful cleaning. The sharp edges should be first removed with a “corundum” file, or by drawing the sharp edge of one piece over the sharp edge of another; then place the glass on a clean flat surface, or put it in “a plate-cleaning holder,” and pour a few drops of the plate-cleaning solution in the middle. Rub it carefully over every part with a bit of clean soft rag; turn the glass over, and do the other side the same. Then polish each side with a clean cloth, and finish with a soft chamois leather kept expressly for this purpose. Now breathe on the glass, and if the breath deposits evenly the plate is clean. If the plate, however, shows patches and marks, it must be recleaned. Let the edges be carefully wiped, and the plate is ready for use.

The following preparation makes a good plate-cleaning solution for glasses that require mechanical friction to make them clean:——Ordinary water, 5 oz.; alcohol, 5 oz.; iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; iodine, 3 gr. When dissolved, add tripoli, prepared chalk, whiting, or rotten-stone, in sufficient quantity to make a creamy paste.

This thin pasty solution is to be rubbed on the plates on both surfaces and polished off as already described. This amount of cleaning will generally be sufficient for new glasses, but when they have been used they require more labour.

They must then be well washed under the tap, to get rid of all collodion and chemicals, and be wiped on cloths kept expressly for the purpose. Should the plates have been varnished they must be soaked for some hours in a saturated solution of washing soda till the varnish and film come freely off. The glasses must then be immersed for a few minutes in a solution composed of common nitric acid, 2 oz., water, 10 oz., and be well washed and treated as already described. It is a good plan when working to have a dish of water at hand, and to place the spoilt pictures in it at once while they are wet, and at the end of the day to wash the glasses and put them away clean. By thus not allowing the films to dry on the glasses they are much easier cleaned, and fewer failures will arise from dirty glasses.

Collodion is a good material for cleaning glasses when they are not very dirty. Pour a few drops on the glass and well rub it with a clean cloth, and you will entirely remove all grease; a hint may thus be taken how to use up waste collodion.

_Various Solutions used in the Dry Process._ These are employed in cases where bromo-iodised collodion and the nitrate bath are used.

In all processes in which the bromo-iodised collodion is employed 2 grains of bromide of cadmium should be added to each ounce of the collodion.

Mr Bartholomew advises diluted alcohol to be poured over the plate previous to developing.

_Acid Pyro Developer._ This developer is formed as follows:

Pyrogallic acid 1 gr. Glacial acetic acid 30 minims. Water 1 oz.

The plate, after being wetted with dilute alcohol and washed, has this solution flowed over it, to which has been added 2 or 3 drops of a 10-grain nitrate of silver solution.

_Plain Pyro Developer._ The strength of this may vary from 1 to 5 gr. in an ounce of water. Two grains may be taken as a medium. The dry plate being flooded with alcohol and water, and washed so as to well wet the film, this solution is floated over it.

_Alkaline Pyro Developer._

No. 1.——Pyrogallic acid 96 gr. Absolute alcohol 1 oz.

No. 2.——Carbonate of ammonia 96 gr. Water 1 oz.

No. 3.——Bromide of potassium 10 gr. Water 1 oz.

At the time of using, make up the following solution:

Water 1 oz. Solution No. 1 10 minims. Solution No. 3 5 ”

Pour this over the wetted plate, allow it to remain on a few seconds only, and then pour back into the developing cup, and add to it 5 minims of solution No. 2, and apply again.

_The Collodio-Albumen Dry Process._ (Mr Mudd.) In this process the ordinary bromo-iodised collodion is employed. The plate being sensitised is washed well first with distilled, then with common water, and placed in a dish half filled with solution of iodide of potassium (3 gr. to the oz.), and allowed to remain while the next plate is being prepared. It is then removed from the solution and well washed with clean water, after which the following solution is poured over its surface:

Distilled water 2-1/2 oz. White of eggs 10 oz. Iodide of potassium 50 gr. Bromide of ammonium 10 gr. Strongest solution of ammonia 120 minims.

Introduce these materials with some pieces of broken glass into a bottle capable of holding twice the quantity, and agitate till the whole forms a froth, and then, when settled, it is ready. A piece of camphor placed in the solution will help to preserve it. It must be filtered before using. After the plate has been coated with the above it is finished by drying before the fire.

In this process all the above operations may be performed in ordinary white light. To render the plate sensitive, heat it as hot as the hand will bear, and when cool immerse it again in the following aceto-nitrate of silver bath for one minute, using only a yellow light, then wash thoroughly in clean water, and dry in the dark.

Nitrate of silver 30 gr. Distilled water 1 oz. Glacial acetic acid 1/2 dram.

The development may be commenced by either plain or alkaline pyro; Mr Mudd gives the preference to the plain, and intensifying after with acid silver.

Dr RYLEY’S _Modified Collodio-albumen Dry Process_. In this method the plate has to be sensitised as usual, and washed thoroughly. When the plate has been well drained, and while still wet, it is coated with the following solution:

Albumen 1 oz. Water 2 oz. Ammonia 30 minims.

The solution is beaten to a froth, allowed to settle, and filtered before using. Pour sufficient over the plate to cover it, letting it flow backwards and forwards so as to soak into the film. Pour the albuminous solution away and thoroughly wash the plate, the last rinsing being with distilled water. Let the plate dry; when perfectly dry, moisten the plate with distilled water, and pour over the following solution:

Gallic acid 2 gr. Water 1 oz.

Filter the solution before using. Pour it on and off the plate to well permeate the film, then set the plate up to drain, and dry without washing off the gallic acid solution. When the surface is dry finish by the heat of a dull fire.

_Bromide of Silver, Wet Process._ To every ounce of good collodion add 8 gr. of bromide of cadmium. The nitrate bath must be made 80 gr. to the oz., and slightly acidulated with nitric acid. The plate must remain in the bath the full time it requires to form a dense opaque film. When the plate is ready (it must not be removed from the bath until the film is much denser than in the ordinary wet process) it must be washed thoroughly to remove all silver. It must then have poured over it a 3-grain solution of gelatin made slightly alkaline with carbonate of soda, or diluted albumen (albumen, 1 oz.; water, 4 oz., well beaten together). When the plate is in this condition it may be exposed wet, or it may be allowed to dry. Prior to development it must be well washed, and the alkaline method must always be adopted. If the plates are used dry, a preliminary coating of dilute albumen is necessary, but if used wet, this is not necessary.

_Bromide of Silver, Emulsion Process._ By this method the nitrate bath is not necessary, as the sensitive material is contained in the collodion. The purchase of the material ready-made for working this process is recommended in preference to its direct manufacture, as its preparation demands the use of considerable technical skill, together with the employment of a gun cotton not usually attainable. Mr Hughes says the ‘Liverpool Dry Plate Company’ supply an excellent emulsion. It is only necessary to pour the emulsion on to a plate and to allow it to dry, when the plate is ready for use. The development is by the alkaline process.

_Gelatino-bromide of Silver, Emulsion Process._ In this process the use both of the nitrate bath and of collodion are abolished.

The material employed is very troublesome to prepare, and on this account, as well as because of the risk of failure attending the use of home-made articles, it is far preferable it should be purchased. It may be obtained under the name of ‘Kennett’s Sensitised Pellicle.’

This pellicle consists of shreds of dry gelatin containing the sensitive salts.

Fresh directions accompany each packet of the “Sensitised Pellicle.”

_The Honey Process._ Let the plate be cleaned, coated, and sensitised in the usual manner; then place it in a bath of distilled water, washing it more or less, as it may be required to be kept for a longer or shorter time. Pour on the plate a solution made of equal parts of honey and distilled water in the same manner as when using collodion; throw away the first portion, and repeat the operation, letting the solution soak in for one or two minutes; pour back the honey solution into its bottle; drain the plate on blotting paper, and keep it in the dark free from dust. The time required for exposure of the plate is about double as long as in the ordinary wet process.

The plate should be soaked in distilled water previous to being developed, in order to soften or remove the film of honey; the older the plate the longer it will require to be soaked, afterwards dip the plate in the silver bath, and develop in the usual manner.

_The Carbon Process._ In this process, the adoption of which is daily increasing, the material employed consists of a layer of gelatin containing carbon, or some other permanent pigment, spread on paper.

In this condition the paper is not sensitive to light, but if it be treated with a solution of bichromate of potash, dried in the dark, and afterwards exposed to sunlight under a negative, those portions of the paper which have been acted upon by the light will become insoluble, whilst those parts that have been protected from it will be soluble. When, therefore, after sufficient exposure, the prepared paper is removed from the negative, a picture the reverse of the negative will have been formed, in which the pigmented gelatin alone remains, and performs the part of the reduced silver in the ordinary photograph.

If the film, after exposure to light under a negative, is soaked in warm water, all the parts which have been protected from the action of the light can be dissolved, and a relief is formed which, when dry, is sufficiently hard to transmit its shape to lead. From the mould or plate thus obtained a comparatively large number of impressions can be taken, either with coloured gelatin or with fatty colours, the well-known Woodbury-type being the most successful of the several processes based on the fact.

=Photographic Varnish.= See VARNISHES.

MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES:

_To Clean Glass Plates._ (Mr Mayall.) Shake up together alcohol, 30 parts; strong liquid ammonia, 10; water, 40; and fine tripoli, 30 parts. The plates are to be rubbed hard and evenly with balls of cotton wool dipped in this mixture. Rub again, when dry, with a clean ball of cotton; lastly, dust the back and edges with a clean hog-hair brush.

_To Clean off Collodion Pictures._ This may be done whether they have been varnished or not, by means of a tuft of cotton wool dipped in wood spirit.

_To Colour Photographic Prints._ This may be done variously in water and oils. A simple way is to rub in slowly with a small camel-hair brush a minute piece of dry colour laid upon the part, as of flesh tint for the face, &c. When properly distributed, the paper may be breathed upon, and the tint will not easily be rubbed off. Or it may be carefully coated with gelatin.

M. Minotto has described a plan of colouring on the back of the paper. The picture, being held up to the light, is first faintly outlined, on the reverse side; colours are then laid on, of water or oil, as preferred, on this side. When dry the paper is rendered transparent by a varnish, and the colours will then appear through it with all the delicacy and effect of a miniature on ivory. Good strong writing paper is best for this purpose; the colours must be vivid; and the varnish may consist of Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine, or a mastic varnish may be used, or turpentine and wax, or oil.

_To Remove Stains from the Hands._ The powerfully poisonous character of cyanide of potassium renders its employment for the above purpose an operation attended with considerable danger. Iodide of potassium and iodine may both be substituted, but the first is expensive, and the second requires considerable nicety in its application, lest a coloured stain be left on the skin. Instead of the above substances, M. Fortin recommends to wash the hands with a concentrated solution of either sulphate or chloride of zinc, to which some acid is added at the same time. He advises the deepest and blackest stains being touched with metallic zinc, whereby the reduction of the oxide of silver or that of the gallate of iron is promoted, and all metallic stains adhering to or penetrating into the skin removed. Since most of the salts of zinc are colourless, and soluble in water, the hands soon become quite clean. They should then be washed, first with pure water, and next with soap and water.

The reader desirous of further information on the subject of photography cannot do better than consult Mr Ernest Spon’s valuable manual, entitled ‘Workshop Receipts,’ and Mr Hughes’ ‘Principles and Practice of Photography,’ to both of which we are largely indebted. Captain Abney’s work on ‘Photography,’ cannot be too highly commended. See COLLODION, PHOTOGRAPHIC.

=Photographic Waste Products, Recovery of.= We extract the following from the ‘American Chemist’ for February, 1876. The contributor, Mr. C. A. Pitkin, A. B., states that the methods given have been collected from the ‘Philadelphia Photographer,’ the ‘British Photographic Journal,’ Hardwick’s ‘Photograph Chemistry,’ &c., &c.; also that they include suggestions by Professor Hill.

1. Nitrate bath, α, recovered; β, renovated.

2. Hyposulphite bath.

3. Reduction of silver chloride, oxide, or sulphide.

4. Gold waste, α, recovered; β, separated from silver,

5. Paper waste and washings from positive prints.

6. Cyanide solution.

7. Developer.

I. _Nitrate Bath_,

α, _Recovered_.

1. Add solution of caustic potash or lime, as long as there is a brown precipitate. Allow to settle, pour off liquid, and collect silver oxide for reduction; _vide_ III, below.

2. For 1 lb. of silver, add 1 oz. sulphuric acid and 1/2 lb. zinc, and allow to stand two days. Precipitate as chloride, wash eight or ten times by decantation, and dissolve gradually in nitric acid.

NOTES.——Test complete washing by hydrochloric acid. Wash with water till zinc nitrate is removed. If zinc clings to silver wash with hydrochloric acid.

3. Suspend sheet of copper in bath for two or three days.

4. Acidify as nitric acid, precipitate as silver chloride by sodium chloride or hydrochloric acid, and reduce as _vide_ III, below.

5. Immerse in bath two strips of copper attached to the poles of a Daniell’s or Smee’s cell. Silver deposited on the copper as in 3, above.

6. Add sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrate. Reduce as 3 below, or if pure enough, dissolve precipitate at once in nitric acid.

7. Concentrate bath, make alkaline by sodium carbonate, and add aqueous solution of oxalic acid neutralised with sodium carbonate. Filter, dry, and fuse with equal weight of sodium bicarbonate.

8. Deposit, either with or without battery, on iron. (Iron can be obtained purer than zinc or copper, and possesses the additional advantage that the iron salts, as iodides, &c., are all quite soluble). Fuse with potassium nitrate and sodium carbonate.

β. _Renovated._

1. Dilute with three volumes of distilled water, expose to sunlight, filter, add sodium carbonate till slightly turbid. Expose to sunlight six hours more, filter, add sodium carbonate till silver all thrown down. Wash, precipitate by decantation, and dissolve in nitric acid. Filter again, make up to 35 grammes; neutralise, expose to sun a week, and bath is ready for use.

2. Neutralise with ammonia till just alkaline; boil till black; let cool, filter, acidify with pure nitric acid, and evaporate to crystallisation, then fuse. When cool, add distilled water, shake and let stand exposed to light. Filter and add drained crystals. Dissolve and make solution acid with pure nitric acid. Expose again to sunlight, filter, and bath is ready for use.

3. Add potassium permanganate, expose to sunlight, filter, acidify, put in clean bottles four-fifths full, cork, and freeze in a tray; thaw gradually till ball of ice one-eighth size of bottle remains. This contains impurities to be reduced as III, below. Use rest for new bath at once.

II. _Hyposulphite Bath._

1. Precipitate as silver sulphide by potassium sulphide. Reduce as III, below, or dissolve in nitric acid.

2. Precipitate by hydrosulphuric acid, and reduce as III.

3. Decompose hyposulphite by waste nitro-sulphuric acid from manufacture of gun-cotton for collodion. Have silver sulphide and sulphur, with sodium nitrate and sulphate in solution. Suspend zinc in solution, then boil two or three hours; wash on filter, dry, fuse with borax and sodium carbonate.

4. Suspend sheet copper in bath.

5. Add hydrochloric acid, which sets free sulphur and precipitates silver chloride. Oxidise sulphur by aqua regia, and reduce silver chloride as in III.

6. Add sodium hypochlorite to the alkaline solution. Wash, precipitate, and fuse with mixed carbonates. This gives sodium bisulphate and chloride as by-products, no sulphur, no fumes.

III. _Reduction of Silver Chloride, Oxide, or Sulphide._

1. Mix with one third weight of colophony. Heat moderately in crucible till greenish-blue flame ceases, then suddenly increase heat, and obtain a button of metal.

2. Melt with alkaline carbonates enough to cover surface from air; then mix with 75 per cent. of chalk and 4 per cent. of charcoal, and heat.

3. Ignite with nitre on red-hot plate carefully, and in small quantities to avoid explosion, run down to button with borax and sodic carbonate.

4. If chloride, reduce to oxide by boiling with strong potash, then reduce by glucose; or boil the chloride with glucose and sodium carbonate.

5. Add silver chloride dissolved in ammonia to a boiling solution of one part glucose and three parts sodium carbonate in 40 per cent. of water, keeping up the boiling all the time.

6. Add to silver chloride sodium hydrate in solution and grape sugar, and expose to sunlight in open dish with occasional stirring. Reduce to dark brown oxide of silver, soluble in nitric acid.

7. Mix with five times weight of sodium carbonate. Fill hessian crucible half full, and sprinkle sodium chloride over the top. Heat slowly in anthracite fire. After half an hour increase heat till crucible is white-hot. When complete fusion has taken place, allow to cool, and break out button of silver.

8. Fuse with two parts mixed carbonates (sodium and potassium).

9. Add pure zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, and let stand two days. Wash silver off with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, to remove all zinc; finally fuse to a button.

10. Mix with half weight dry sodium carbonate and one-fourth weight of clean dry sand, and ignite.

IV. _Gold Waste_, α, _Recovered_.

1. Make just acid with hydrochloric acid, add solution containing 2 oz. pyrogallic acid, shake, let stand 24 hours; filter. Dissolve in aqua regia, and product after evaporation will be found better for toning than that precipitated by iron.

2. Acidify toning bath, and add sulphate of iron (2 grammes to 1 gramme chloride of gold.)

β. _Separated from Silver._

1. Treat button obtained by fusing waste from hypo-toning and fixing baths with dilute nitric acid. Wash insoluble part with ammonia to remove silver chloride, if present, and dissolve in aqua regia.

2. Digest 20 grammes in flask with 1 fl. dr. hydrochloric acid, 15 m.m. of nitric acid, and 2 dr. of water. After quarter of an hour boil, add 2 oz. water; filter. Silver chloride with organic matter, &c. left undissolved. Reduced as III, above.

3. Add excess of pure potassium hydrate, and then boil in flask with excess of solid oxalic acid.

V. _Paper Waste._

1. Soak paper in strong solution of saltpetre, and burn.

2. Treat with nitric acid, precipitate with sodium chloride or potassium hydrate, then put with III, above, for reduction.

_Washings from Positive Prints._

Precipitate by sodium chloride, potassium hydrate, or on copper plates, &c., as above, and reduce, as in III.

VI. _Cyanide Solution._

1. Dilute with water, precipitate by (1) potassium sulphide, (2) sodium chloride, and reduce as 3.

2. Decant bath into iron kettle, warm, add ferrous sulphate slowly till slight precipitate of oxide. Make alkaline, and add solution of grape sugar till brownish-yellow colour. Allow to settle, syphon off liquid. Wash sediment on filter, and ignite to recover silver.

NOTE.——Ferrous sulphate forms ferrocyanide, therefore no free alkaline cyanide should be present.

VII. _Developer._

1. _Vide_ II. (3, 4, 5, 6), with hypo bath; (1) and (2) not applicable, for sulphide of iron would be formed.

2. Reduced by its own iron (if ferrous sulphate).

=PHOTOM′ETRY.= The art of determining the relative intensities of different lights. Various methods have been adopted, at different times, for this purpose, among which, however, a few only are sufficiently simple for general application. The principle adopted by Bouguer and Lambert depends on the fact that, though the eye cannot judge correctly of the proportional force of different lights, it can generally distinguish with great precision when two similar surfaces or objects presented together are equally illuminated, or when the shadows of an opaque object produced by different lights are equally dark. Now, as light travels in straight lines, and is equally diffused, it is evident that its intensity will progressively lessen as the distance of its source increases. This diminution is found to be in the duplicate ratio of the distance. To apply this principle to candles, lamps, gaslights, &c., we have only to arrange two of them so that the light or shadow resulting from both shall be of equal intensity, after which we must carefully measure the distance of each of them from the surface on which the light or shadow falls. The squares of these distances give their relative intensity. In general, some known light, as that from a wax candle (4 to the lb.), is taken as the standard of comparison.

Dr Ritchie’s ‘photometer’ consists of a rectangular box, about 2 inches square, open at both ends, and blackened inside to absorb extraneous light. In this, inclined at angles of 45° to its axis, are placed two precisely similar rectangular plates of plain silvered glass, and fastened so as to meet at the top, in the middle of a narrow slit about an inch long and the eighth of an inch broad, and which is covered with a strip of tissue or oiled paper. In employing this instrument, the “lights must be placed at such a distance from each other, and from the instrument between them, that the light from each shall fall on the reflector next it, and be reflected to the corresponding portion of the oiled paper. The photometer is then to be moved nearer to the one or the other, until the two portions of the oiled paper corresponding to the two mirrors are equally illuminated, of which the eye can judge with considerable accuracy.”

In Prof Wheatstone’s ‘PHOTOMETER’ the relative intensity of the two lights is determined by the relative brightness of the opposite sides of a revolving silvered ball illuminated by them.

In the method of photometry usually, but erroneously, ascribed to Count Rumford, the shadows of an opaque object formed by different lights, and allowed to fall on a white wall or paper screen, are contrasted. A wire about 3/16ths of an inch thick, and about a foot in length, with the one end bent so as to form a handle, is commonly used to form the shadows. The method of proceeding is similar to that first above noticed.

It is generally supposed that the equality of two shadows can be appreciated with greater certainty than that of two lights.

=PHTHIS′IC.= A popular name for difficulty of breathing, from its supposed resemblance to phthisis. See BRONCHITIS, and _below_.

=PHTHISIS.= (A wasting away.) This is the formidable disease ordinarily or popularly known as “consumption,” although, strictly speaking, there are points of difference between consumption and phthisis, as well as between these and another variety of the malady known as tuberculosis. The statistics which follow, however, apply to all those diseases of the lungs accompanied by wasting, and as such include the mortality from phthisis, tuberculosis, and consumption.

In the Registrar-General’s returns for many years past, under the heads ‘phthisis,’ or ‘tubercular disease,’ have been included chronic bronchitis, emphysema, fibroid changes of the lungs and kindred affections. ‘It is, however, probable that the figures representing the mortality are fairly accurate, as the errors are to a certain extent compensating; and, indeed, tubercles are often found even in the diseases above mentioned.’[99]

[Footnote 99: Dr Wynter Blyth.]

The following table, taken from the Registrar-General’s returns for 1848-75, shows the annual number of deaths in England from phthisis, during a period of 28 years:——

1848 51,663 1849 50,299 1850 46,618 1851 49,166 1852 50,594 1853 54,918 1854 51,284 1855 52,290 1856 48,950 1857 50,106 1858 50,442 1859 50,149 1860 51,024 1861 51,930 1862 50,962 1863 51,072 1864 53,046 1865 53,734 1866 55,714 1867 55,042 1868 51,423 1869 52,270 1870 54,231 1871 53,376 1872 52,589 1873 51,355 1874 49,379 1875 52,943

Dr Farr in his letter to the Registrar-General on the causes of death in England in 1875, writes, “Phthisis is a most fatal disease, although it has declined within the last twenty-five years.”

According to the same authority, the mean rate of mortality from this disease was 2·811 per 1000 in the five years from 1850 to 1854, and 2·283 in the five years from 1870 to 1874.

One of the most prominent facts revealed even by a cursory study of the statistics of phthisis, is the large share which the breathing of impure or tainted air has in the origin and dissemination of the disease.

Hence it follows that thickly populated and overcrowded localities suffer much more from its ravages than those which are less densely inhabited. This is exemplified in the following table:——

-----------+-------+---------+------------------------------------------- | | |Proximity| Average Annual Mortality | | | | or | to 100,000 living. | | |Density|nearness +--------------------+---------------------+ | | of |of Person| | Other diseases | | |Persons| to | Phthisis. | of the | | | to a | Person. | | Respiratory Organs.| | | Sq. +---------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ | | Mile. | |15 |25 |35 |15 |25 |35 | | | | Yards. | to | to | to | to | to | to | | | | | 25| 35| 45| 25| 35| 45 | +----------+-------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+-------| |Healthy | | | | | | | | | | districts| 135 | 163 | 336 | 398 | 330 | 34 | 45 | 67 | |London |19,470 | 14 | 264 | 395 | 493 | 45 | 69 | 148 | |Lancashire| 1,008 | 60 | 419 | 475 | 484 | 46 | 86 | 195 | |England | | | | | | | | | | and Wales| 308 | 108 | 362 | 438 | 407 | 38 | 61 | 113 | -----------+-------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+--------

In the very badly ventilated Leopoldstadt, in Vienna, 378 prisoners out of 4280 died between the years 1834 to 1847, or at the rate of 86 per 1000; and out of these as many as 220, or 51·4 per 1000, died from phthisis. Contrasting with this the rate of mortality from the same disease in the well-ventilated House of Correction in the same city, we learn that out of 3037 there died in five years (from 1850-1854) 43, or 14 per 1000, and of these 24, or only 7·9 per 1000, died from the same disease.

The great prevalence of phthisis that used to prevail, not only in our army, but in the principal European ones, has been clearly shown to have been referable to the overcrowding and defective ventilation of the barracks. And this applied equally to the barracks of military stations possessing such mild and genial climates as Gibraltar, Malta, Ionia, Jamaica, Trinidad, Bermuda, &c.[100]

[Footnote 100: Dr Parkes.]

The sanitary Commissioners appointed some years back to inquire into the prevalence of consumption amongst our soldiers, came to the conclusion that the foul atmosphere of the barracks was the cause of it. The correctness of our decision has been corroborated by the greatly diminished number of deaths which have followed the improved ventilation in our barracks, recommended by the Commissioners. At the present time, owing to those hygienic improvements, the mortality from phthisis is not more than half what it was in our army prior to 1867. The same satisfactory results have been obtained by the introduction into the French barracks of similar sanitary improvements.

Animals are affected in precisely the same manner as human beings. Thus, it is that phthisis attacks monkeys when shut up in badly ventilated buildings, and cows confined in close sheds.

After these statements we shall be prepared to find that indoor trades and occupations swell the bills of mortality from phthisis much more than those carried on in the open air. That this is the case is shown by the following table:——

_Deaths from Phthisis at Victoria Park Hospital, showing the influence of Occupation._

+------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+-------+ | | AGES UNDER | | | Cause of Death. +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------+Totals.| | | | | | | | | | | | | Not | | | |20.|25.|30.|35.|40.|45.|50.|55.|60.|65.|stated.| | +------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Female lives | 45| 41| 25| 15| 12| 3| 1| 1|...|...| ... | 143 | |Indoor occupation | 32| 31| 30| 24| 15| 9| 5|...|...|...| 4 | 150 | | { Mixed occupation| 10| 7| 7| 5| 4| 3| 4|...|...|...| 1 | 41 | |Males { Outdoor occup. | 9| 21| 21| 13| 12| 11| 8| 2| 1|...| 2 | 100 | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | | 96|100| 83| 57| 43| 26| 18| 3| 1|...| 7 | 434 | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | _The same reduced to | | | | | | | | | | | | | | a per centage._ | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Female lives | 32| 28| 18| 10| 8| 2| 1| 1|...|...| ... | 100 | |Indoor occupation | 21| 21| 20| 16| 10| 7| 3|...|...|...| 2 | 100 | | { Mixed occupation| 24| 17| 17| 12| 10| 7| 10|...|...|...| 3 | 100 | |Males { Outdoor occup. | 9| 21| 21| 13| 12| 11| 8| 2| 1|...| 2 | 100 | | +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+ | | 86| 87| 76| 51| 40| 27| 22| 3| 1|...| 7 | 400 | +------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-------+-------+

The influence of occupation in developing phthisis is forcibly illustrated in the following table:——

+-----------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+ | | |Death-rate by Phthisis and| | | | other Lung Diseases at | | District. | Nature of principal | between 15 and 25 years | | | Industry in the District.| of age, per 100,000 of | | | | each class referred to. | +-----------------+--------------------------+-------------+------------+ | | | Male. | Female. | | | | | | |Berkhampstead |}Extensive female {| 219 | 578 | |Leighton Buzzard |} employment in {| 319 | 554 | | |} straw-plaiting {| | | | | | | | |Newport Pagnell |}Extensive female {| 301 | 615 | |Towcester |} employment in {| 239 | 577 | | |} lace-making {| | | | | | | | | |{Extensive female (with }| | | |Yeovil |{ some males) employment}| 280 | 409 | | |{ in glove-making }| | | | | | | | |Leek |}Extensive employment {| 437 | 856 | |Congleton |} (more female than {| 566 | 790 | |Macclesfield |} male) in silk work {| 593 | 890 | | | | | | |Standard Northern| | | | | District | Agriculture | 531 | 333 | +-----------------+--------------------------+-------------+------------+

The above figures may be supplemented by the others, which show the difference between the deaths from phthisis and other lung diseases occurring amongst the agricultural and the manufacturing populations, and are another illustration of the nature of the toiler’s occupation upon his liability to consumption. Thus, for every 100 deaths by phthisis and other lung diseases that take place amongst the men in various agricultural districts of England between the ages of fifteen to fifty-five, there are in Coventry 163 deaths; in Blackburn and Skipton, 167; in Congleton and Bradford, 168; in Leek, 182; in Macclesfield, 184; in Bolton, 190; in Nottingham, 192; in Rochdale, 193; in Derby, 198; in Salford and Ashton-under-Lyne, 203; in Leeds, 218; in Preston, 220; and in Manchester, 263.[101]

[Footnote 101: Quoted by Dr Wynter Blyth.]

As bearing directly upon the above portion of our subject, we may quote the sixth report of the medical officer of the Privy Council, who therein states——“In proportion as the people of a district are attracted to any collective indoor occupation, in such proportion, other things being equal, the district death-rate by lung diseases will be increased.”

The much larger number of cases of lung disease amongst those who pursue indoor callings than amongst others whose occupations are carried on out of doors, arises principally from the defective ventilation of the workshops or rooms in which the labour is carried on.

When indoor occupations are practised in large and efficiently ventilated apartments, or existence is passed in healthy houses, as in the dwellings of the rich and upper classes, who have also the additional advantages of good food and warm clothing, the liability to phthisis becomes immensely diminished.

The much greater immunity from the disease which the richer enjoy over the poorer classes has been carefully pointed out by Dr Guy, who, writing on this subject in the ‘Journal of the Statistical Society,’ says——“The ratio of deaths from consumption follows the same order as the average age at death, being lowest where the average age is highest, and the reverse. Thus the average age at death of the class of gentlemen is 58·61, and the ratio of deaths from consumption 1 to 2·60; while in the class of artisans the average age is 48·06, and the proportion from consumption is 1 to 2·29.

+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |Number of| | | | | | | | | | | | | | Deaths | | | | | | | | | | | | | +----+----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | O | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | t | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | h | | | | | | | | | | | | | | C | e | | | | | | | | | | | | A | | o | r | | | | | | | | | | | | v | | n | | | | | | | | | | | | | e a | | s | D | | | | | | | | | | | | r t | | u | i | | | | | | | | | | | | a | | m | s | | | | | | | | | | | | g D | | p | e | | | 15 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | | | e e | | t | a | | | | | | | | | |Under|Under| a | Ratio. | i | s | |Condition.| to | to | to | to | to | to | to | 30. | 40. | a t | | o | e | | | | | | | | | | | | g h | | n | s | | | 20. | 30. | 40. | 50. | 60. | 70.| 80.| | | e . | | . | . | +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+------+---------+----+----+ |Gentlemen,| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | &c. |10·84|18·67|27·11|19·27|15·06|6·03|3·01|29·51|56·62|39 |1 to 5·00| 166| 835| |Tradesmen | 8·46|24·34|26·98|20·11|12·70|6·35|1·06|32·80|59·78|38 |1 to 2·60| 189| 491| |Artisans | 7·25|23·69|26·24|22·79|13·34|6·26|0·43|30·94|57·18|38-1/2|1 to 2·29|2318|5308| +----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+----+-----+-----+------+---------+----+----+

“Again, the class of gentry presents a smaller proportional number of deaths under thirty and forty than either of the other classes. It is also worthy of observation that the per-centage proportion of deaths from consumption under thirty and forty is higher in the class of tradesmen than in that of the artisan and labourer, although the ratio of cases of consumption is greater in the latter class. This is doubtless accounted for by the fact already established, that the strong exertion which a considerable portion of the labouring class employed within doors use in their occupations, and the large number employed out of doors, has the effect of retarding the effect of pulmonary consumption. The tradesman, it will be seen, occupies the intermediate place between the indoor and outdoor labourer——between the artisan using little exertion and the artisan using much exertion.

... Another point attracts attention, viz. the great proportion of deaths from consumption occurring in the class of gentry from fifteen to twenty years of age. Does not this show that the liability to the disease is greater in this class than in the two others, and does it not tend to strengthen the position that the excess of the deaths from consumption in the other classes is due to the unfavorable circumstances in which they are placed?

“The ratio of deaths from consumption in the class of gentry, low as it is, would have been still lower if the medical men, who are included in it, were omitted. The number of cases of pulmonary consumption occurring in members of that profession is very remarkable, and it is a subject of regret with the author that they were not made a separate class.”

Much less clearly and satisfactorily established is the question as to whether consumption is or is not contagious. The instances which have occurred of its extensive and rapid spread in overcrowded barracks, prisons, men-of-war, merchant vessels, large workshops, &c., not unreasonably seem to lend weight to the opinion that the germs of the disease might have been conveyed by the atmosphere charged with them from an unhealthy to a healthy subject, on whom they might develop the malady.

“But,” as Dr Blyth writes, “it must be remembered that, in all crowded localities, there is direct vitiation of air, and it is difficult to say whether the foul air or actual contagion have most to do with the propagation of the malady.” He adds “that consumption, under ordinary conditions, is certainly not contagious; but, under special insanitary influences, certain forms of consumption may be contagious, although it is still a matter not proven.” Dr Guy bases his objection to the doctrine of the generally contagious nature of consumption upon the fact of the small fluctuations in the annual number of deaths caused by it.

The lowest rate of mortality for phthisis for a million of inhabitants in London was, he states, for any one of the fifteen years from 1840 to 1854 inclusive, 2645, and the fluctuation was very slight. The figures in three consecutive years were——1849, 2777; 1850, 2645; 1851, 2970. “If, then,” Dr Guy says, “any one were to assert that this disease is contagious, which is tantamount to saying that it may be epidemic, the figures I have quoted would in themselves furnish an answer in the negative. They are suggestive of a domestic disease, influenced, as is bronchitis, by the seasons and the weather.”

The statistics before quoted as to the correlation between the prevalence of consumption and unhealthy surroundings, lead to the belief, that before this connection between the two was so well defined, cases of phthisis were often erroneously referred to hereditary taint, when they may simply have arisen from the patient having been environed with the same unfavorable hygienic conditions as his parents; these unfavorable conditions, including not only polluted air, but bad food, deficient apparel, and want of exercise. Hence it is that most of the later pathologists, without denying the existence of the transmitted form of the disease, believe the hereditary influence has been greatly over estimated.

“As regards the origin of tubercle,” writes Dr Douglas Powell, “opinions are extremely various, and indeed irreconcileable; but the tendency of modern research——the experiments of inoculation in animals, and the very powerful advocacy of Prof. Niemeyer, is certainly to show that tubercles is much more commonly a secondary disease than has until lately been suspected——that people are, in fact, only exceptionally, if ever, born to die of tuberculosis.

“A due appreciation of this doctrine, so different from that even now accepted by many, is of almost national importance in giving encouragement to those hygienic and other measures of prevention, the neglect of which has too often been sanctioned by a foregone conclusion.

“It would I think be extremely injudicious to deny hereditary predisposition to tubercles altogether. Moreover, when we come to the question of hereditary predisposition to the forms of consumption which originate in catarrhal pneumonia, it is freely admitted that the offspring of consumptive parents have a tendency to this form of pulmonary phthisis, that the scrofulous have a like tendency (Niemeyer), and that scrofulosis is sometimes hereditary.”

As allied to this portion of the question may be mentioned the opinion of some pathologist, that phthisis may be either caused or promoted by habitual drunkenness; and that a drunkard may transmit it to his offspring.

The proneness to consumption is greatly modified by sex and age, the influences of which upon the disease are very defined and unmistakable. Thus, women are more liable to its attacks than men, and young and middle aged persons of both sexes than old ones.

“In Edinburgh the ratio of deaths from phthisis was found to decline from ·285 at twenty years to ·052 above sixty years; at Nottingham, from ·416 to ·017 in the same period of time; at Chester, from ·245 to ·054; at Carlisle, from ·290 to ·097; and in Paris, according to Louis, from ·325 to ·042; while the general average decline was from ·285, or 28·5 per cent., at twenty to thirty, to ·078, or 7·80 per cent., above 60.”[102]

[Footnote 102: Blyth.]

Amongst other conditions unfavorable to the consumptive patient, in addition to the breathing of a polluted atmosphere, may be named insufficiency of nourishing food and apparel, variable weather, and a damp soil. This latter is particularly inimical to phthisical sufferers. Indeed so closely is dampness of soil associated with the spread of phthisis, that the disease has been conclusively shown to have diminished in localities in proportion as these have been properly drained. Dr Andrews, of Chicago, says that consumption is most prevalent near the sea, and that it diminishes in proportion to the distance of the inland locality from the ocean. A damp atmosphere also provokes the disease.

Phthisis seems to be a malady peculiar to temperate climates. As to the influence of the season upon the disease, Dr Haviland says, “In England we learn from the statistical returns that the spring is the most fatal to consumptive patients, whether male or female, but with regard to the other seasons there is considerable variability. For instance, suppose we take the seasons of 1838 in the order of their fatality to males, they would stand thus——spring, 1137; winter, 1048; summer, 968; autumn, 904. To females——spring, 972; summer, 937; winter, 896; autumn, 825. Then again, although the spring invariably takes the lead, the other seasons change places with each other from year to year; and what is remarkable, this inconsistency does not seem to be dependent upon the temperature, as we shall presently see. In the returns for 1853, the following statistics in deaths from consumption appear:——Winter, 1872; spring, 1971; summer, 1745; autumn, 1914. The order of fatality in the years above quoted would therefore be:——

1838.——_Males._ 1. Spring. 2. Winter. 3. Summer. 4. Autumn.

1838.——_Females._ 1. Spring. 2. Summer. 3. Winter. 4. Autumn.

1840.——_Total._ 1. Spring. 2. Winter. 3. Summer. 4. Autumn.

1853.——_Total._ 1. Spring. 2. Autumn. 3. Winter. 4. Summer.

“So far, therefore, as seasons are concerned, the above table proves that spring, _i.e._ April, May, June, is the most inimical quarter to phthisical patients, and probably Autumn——October, November, December, the least so. In London at least, if not throughout England generally, the spring is undoubtedly the most obnoxious to consumptive cases; and this statement is in accordance with the experience of those physicians who have opportunities of seeing the rise, progress, and end of many hundreds of phthisical patients during the year. Dr Richard Quain observes that the cold easterly wind of spring completes the work, which the winter had left undone.”[103]

[Footnote 103: ‘Climate, Weather, and Disease,’ by Dr Haviland.]

That greater or less destruction of the lungs, which is characteristic of pulmonary phthisis, originates in the presence in them of a diseased growth, consisting of very minute masses or grains, which are sometimes grey, and at others yellow or cheeselike in appearance.

These little bodies are either diffused uniformly through the substance of the lungs, or are collected together in them in larger or smaller masses. In the latter case, each little mass generally sets up in the surrounding tissue of the lungs, inflammation and suppuration, which, although only processes by which nature endeavours to expel the alien substance from the lung, may, by constant repetition, cause the destruction of the greater part of the respiratory organs.

=PHYLLOXERA VASTATRIX.= In 1866 M. Delorme, of Arles, in the South of France, was the first to suggest that a peculiar disease which had manifested itself the previous year amongst the vines growing in the plateau of Pujaut on the west bank of the river Rhone, in the Department of the Gard, was of a new and specific character.

Shortly afterwards a commission appointed by the Herault Agricultural Society visited one of the infested localities, and one of its members, M. Planchon, confirmed M. Delorme’s conjectures, by discovering the cause of the vine malady. This he conclusively showed was due to the presence of a peculiar and hitherto unknown description of _Aphis_, belonging to the genus _Phylloxera_, which, as illustrative of its devastating qualities, he named _P. vastatrix_.

A full-grown _Phylloxera vastatrix_ does not exceed more than the 33rd or 40th of an inch in length. Examined under a microscope, in addition to short pointed legs, it is seen to be furnished with a proboscis nearly half as long as its body. Upon examination this proboscis seems to be composed of three tongues, of which the centre one is the longest, and these are united at their base into a kind of flat, sharp-pointed blade, which is the boring or puncturing apparatus, by the aid of which the insect pierces into the roots, from which it sucks the juices that constitutes its food. About half the proboscis or sucker is inserted into the bark of the root, and the creature can not only attach itself to the root by means of it, but can also turn on it, as on a pivot, when engaged in the depredations.

These are continued from April to October, by which month the insect has lost the yellow colour that distinguishes it in the summer months, and assumed a copper brown shade.

From October to April the Phylloxera hybernate, or rather, such of them do as have laid no eggs during the period of their active existence, for the egg-laying females die, and young phylloxeræ only are preserved during the winter months.

With the return of April they awake from their winter sleep, and recommence their devastating career. They then increase rapidly in size and begin to lay unimpregnated eggs, for there are at that time no males. “These bring forth females which in their turn develop and lay unimpregnated eggs, and the virginal reproduction continues for five or six generations, the development increasing in rapidity with the heat, but the prolificacy or the number of the eggs decreases.

“In July some of the individuals show little wing-pads at the sides, and begin to issue from the ground and acquire wings. These winged individuals become very numerous in August, and continue to appear in diminishing numbers thereafter till the leaves have all fallen. They are all females and carry in their abdomen from three to eight eggs of two sizes, the larger ones about 2/100ths of an inch long and half as wide; the smaller 3/4th as long. These eggs are also unimpregnated and are laid by preference on the under side of the more tender leaves, attached by one end, amid the natural down. They increase somewhat in size, and give birth in about ten days to the true sexual individuals, the larger producing females, the smaller, males.

“Anomalous as it may seem these creatures are born perfect, though without mouth, and with no other than the reproductive function.

“A most remarkable fact, discovered by Babiani, is that some of the females never acquire wings, but always remain on the roots, also produce the few different sized eggs from which these true, mouthless males and females hatch. The sexes pair soon after hatching, and the female is delivered on the 3rd or 4th day of a solitary egg, and then perishes. This egg is never laid on the leaf, but always on the wood, either under the bark, or in sheltered situations above ground, or on the roots underground. The young hatching from it is the normal agamous mother, which, with increased vigour and fertility, lays a large number of eggs, and recommences the virginal reproduction and the cycle of the species’ curious life. The impregnated eggs laid early in the season doubtless hatch the same year, though some of the later deposited ones may pass the winter before hatching.”[104]

[Footnote 104: Riley.]

The parts of the vine attacked by the Phylloxera are the rootlets, which in a diseased plant, may be seen more or less covered with what appears to the naked eye, a yellowish powder, but upon a microscopic examination reveals itself as a mixture of phylloxeræ of different sizes, and of their eggs.

During August and September, the phylloxeræ invest the rootlets in countless numbers, and are so abundant as to entirely obscure the colour of the roots, and to cause them to appear yellow from the enormous number of their minute organisms.

The effect of the attacks of the parasite upon the rootlets is to give rise in it to the formation of a number of little tumefactions or enlargements. These in course of time decay, and their destruction results in the death of the plant.

Exposure to air and sunlight acts fatally to the Phylloxera, shrivelling and drying it up. Hence its instinct of self-preservation, no less than its search after its food, leads it to bury itself beneath the surface of the soil. But, as the insect does not possess an organisation that fits it for burrowing, the character of the soil has a great deal to do in affording facilities or the reverse favorable to its existence.

If the soil be of such a nature, that it splits easily into fissures or cracks, which better lead to or serve to expose the vine roots, it will of course afford a much more easy means of access to the parasite than if it be compact or close.

Hence it is that clayey and chalk soils, from their liability to split up on the surface, afford much more congenial habitats for the Phylloxera than sandy ones, which, being dry and closely-knit, afford a much more impenetrable barrier to the entrance of the insect, or to its subterranean movements.

These statements are borne out by the fact that where the disease has shown itself it has been found to vary in extent and intensity in proportion as the soil of the vineyard is more or less clayey; and many instances are known in which patches of a vineyard have continued unaffected amidst the surrounding devastation, owing to the absence in those particular parts of the soil, of the argillaceous element.

A forcible illustration of this malign influence of clay in the soil is afforded by the following analyses of two specimens of earth taken from the same vineyard. The specimen marked “healthy” was from a small plot of ground in which the vines were perfectly sound; that distinguished as “unhealthy” formed by far the greater portion of the soil of the vineyard, the plants growing in which were all suffering from the ravages of the parasite:——

Healthy. Unhealthy. Water 2·25 3·20 Nitrogen 0·11 0·12 Sulphate of calcium 0·62 0·42 Chloride of sodium 1·15 0·18 Carbonate of calcium 49·00 42·00 Siliceous sand 23·50 10·20 Clay 17·75 37·50 Organic substances } and error of analysis.} 5·62 6·38 ———————— ———————— 100·00 100·00

From the locality already indicated, where it had first developed itself in 1865, the vine disease gradually extended until, in the year 1873, it was ravaging the vineyards of the Gard, Vaucluse, Isère, Herault, Drôme, Bouches du Rhone, Ardèche, Basses-Alpes, Var, the Gironde, and the Charentes, since which time it has gradually continued to spread into the adjacent districts.

“We may gain a more precise idea than can be afforded by a mere observation of the geographical extension of the disease, of the disastrous nature of the ravages of the Phylloxera, by the examination of some of the statistics of the grape-crop in successive years, in some of the departments attacked. Thus, in the Department of Vaucluse, where the disease showed itself in 1866, there were in 1866, according to the results obtained by the departmental commission instituted at Avignon to observe on the new vine-disease, 6000 hectares absolutely dead or dying, and a much larger number already attacked, which have since succumbed to the parasite. Out of the 30,000 hectares of vineyards comprised in this department, 25,000, or five sixths of the total area, have been destroyed. In the Gard, where the vine flourishes better than in the above-mentioned department, the ravages of the disease are yet most terrible; for in 1871, in the Arrondissement of Uzes, but one half of the average crop was produced, and in the Arrondissement of Nismes a tenth part of the crop was destroyed. These proportions, moreover, have increased since that year.

“If we examine the mischief done in the less extended areas of the communes, we shall obtain a still clearer idea of the rapid spread of the disease:——

“COMMUNE OF GRAVESON.

1865-66-67 mean crop 10,000 hectolitres. 1868 ” 5,500 ” 1869 ” 2,200 ” 1870 ” 400 ” 1871 ” 205 ” 1872 ” 100 ” 1873 ” 50 ”

“In the Commune of Maillanne the crop in 1868 was only 40 per cent. of the average of the three preceding years, while in 1869 it was only 10 per cent. In the Commune of Eyragues the crop in 1868 was about 33 per cent. of the average of the three preceding years, and in 1869 there was a further falling off of about 10 per cent. In 1870 the crop in the three above-named communes was almost entirely destroyed. From instances such as these, fairly selected from many others equally tragic in their stern figures, we may form some idea of the magnitude of the disaster. Indeed, it is difficult to see, so rapid is the extension of the disease, how, unless some potent and effective remedy can be soon applied, any vine-bearing district in France can escape the visitation of the Phylloxera.”[105]

[Footnote 105: ‘Nature,’ vol. x.]

The French Government, fully alive to the peril threatening the staple product of their country, shortly after the appearance of the Phylloxera in the vineyards of France, offered through their Minister of Commerce and Agriculture a reward of 300,000 francs for the discovery of a means of arresting and stopping its ravages; and in 1871 the Academy of Sciences, at Paris appointed a commission, presided over by the celebrated chemist M. Dumas, to investigate the biology, habits, &c., of the parasite, together with the nature of the injuries it inflicted upon the vine, the area of its depredations, &c. From amongst the members of this commission three gentlemen were chosen to visit the infected districts, so as to be afforded an opportunity of studying the Phylloxera at its destructive work, and its environments of soil, situation, temperature, &c.

The delegates selected by the Commission were MM. Balbiani, Cornu, and Duclaux, respectively amongst the most distinguished living representatives of zoology, botany, and chemistry in France, and the results of their labours was the issue, some few years back, of a most exhaustive and valuable report to the Academy of Sciences on the subject of the Phylloxera.

The vines of other countries besides those of France have also suffered from the attacks of the Phylloxera. Thus it has made its appearance in the vineyards of Algiers, Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Australia, and North America, on all of which it has been productive of more or less serious injury to the vintage.

Amongst the numberless remedies that have been suggested and tried, with varying but by no means uniform or satisfactory results, for the destruction of the Phylloxera, may be mentioned sulphur, the sulphites, tobacco, caustic soda, and potash, bisulphide of carbon, coal-tar, soft soap, lime, the immersion of the vine in sulpho-carbonate of potassium, and the application around the roots of sand.

A certain amount of success, it has been said, has attended the employment of the sulpho-carbonate of potassium and sand.

An American botanist, Mr Riley, recommends the importation into French vineyards of the American vines, which he suggests should be employed as stocks on which to graft the French ones.

The American plant being of a hardy nature, he believes its incorporation with the more susceptible French ones, would give rise to a vine sufficiently vigorous to resist, or at any rate not to be injured by the ravages of the parasite.

=PHYSIC BALLS.= See VETERINARY MEDICINES.

=PHYSOSTIGMATIS FABA.= See CALABAR BEAN.

=PI′CA.= Depraved appetite.

=PIC′AMAR.= One of the peculiar principles discovered by Reichenbach in beech-tar, and described by him as a viscid, colourless, oily liquid, only feebly odorous, but intensely bitter; insoluble in water; freely soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils; boiling point 520° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·095. See KREASOTE.

=PICCALIL′LI.= See PICKLES.

=PICK′LE.= The liquor in which substances used as food are preserved. That for flesh is commonly brine; that for vegetables, vinegar; both of which are commonly flavoured with spices, &c.

_Prep._ 1. (FOR MEAT.)——_a._ From bay salt, 3 lbs.; saltpetre, 2-1/2 oz.; moist sugar, 1 lb.; allspice and black pepper, of each (bruised) 1 oz.; water, 9 pints; simmer them together in a clean covered iron or enamelled vessel for 7 or 8 minutes; when the whole has cooled, remove the scum, and pour it over the articles to be preserved. Used for hams, tongues, beef, &c., to which it imparts a fine red colour and a superior flavour.

_b._ From bay salt and common salt, of each 2 lbs.; moist sugar, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1/2 lb.; allspice (bruised), 1/2 oz.; water, 1 gall,; as before. Used chiefly for pork and hams. Common salt may be substituted for bay salt, but it is less powerfully antiseptic, and the flavour is less grateful.

2. (For VEGETABLES.)——_a._ Strong distilled vinegar, to each quart of which 1-1/2 oz. of good salt has been added.

_b._ Good distilled vinegar, 4 pints; common salt, 2-1/2 oz.; black pepper, 1/2 oz.; unbleached Jamaica ginger, 2-1/2 oz. (the last two bruised, but not dusty); mace (shredded), 1/4 oz.; simmer in an enamelled iron or stoneware vessel, as above, and strain through flannel. Sometimes a little capsicum is added. Used either hot or cold, according to the vegetable it is intended to preserve.

=Pickle, Lemon.= See SAUCES.

=PICKLES.= These well-known articles are easily prepared of the finest quality. The vegetables and fruit, selected of the proper quality and at the proper season, after being well cleansed with cold spring water, are steeped for some time in strong brine; they are then drained and dried, and transferred to bottles or jars; the spice (if any) is then added, the bottles filled up with hot, strong, pickling vinegar, and at once securely corked down and tied over with bladder. As soon as the bottles are cold the corks are dipped into melted wax, the more surely to preserve them air-tight. Good wood or distilled vinegar is commonly used for this purpose; but the best malt or white wine vinegar of the strength known as No. 22 or 24 is exclusively employed for the finer pickles which are not spiced. In those for early use the ‘steep’ may be made in hot or boiling brine, by which the product will be ready for the table in a much shorter period; but with substances of a succulent and flabby nature, as cabbage, cauliflower, some fruit, &c., or in which crispness is esteemed a mark of excellence, this is inadmissible. To such articles the vinegar should also be added cold, or, at furthest, should be only slightly warmed. As a general rule, the softer and more delicate articles do not require so long soaking in brine as the harder and coarser kinds; and they may be often advantageously pickled by simply pouring very strong pickling vinegar over them without applying heat. It must also be observed that beetroot, and other like substances which are sliced, as well as certain delicate fruits, must not be steeped at all. The spice is commonly added whole to the bottles; but a more economical plan is to steep it (bruised) for some time, or to simmer it in the vinegar before using the latter, as in the forms given under PICKLE (_above_).

The spices and flavouring ingredients employed for pickles are——allspice, black and white pepper, capsicums or red pods, cloves, garlic, ginger, horseradish, lemon peel, mace, mustard, shallots, and turmeric. These are chosen with reference to the particular variety of the pickle, or the taste of the consumer.

A good SPICED VINEGAR for pickles generally is the following:——Bruise in a mortar 2 oz. of black pepper, 1 oz. of ginger, 1/2 oz. of allspice, and 1 oz. of salt. If a hotter pickle is desired, add 1/2 dr. of cayenne, or a few capsicums. For walnuts, add also 1 oz. of shallots. Put these into a stone jar, with a quart of vinegar, and cover them with a bladder wetted with the pickle, and over this place a piece of leather. Set the jar on a trivet near the fire for 3 days, shaking it 3 times a day, then pour it on the walnuts or other vegetables. For walnuts it is used hot, but for cabbage, &c., cold. To save time it is usual to simmer the vinegar gently with the spices; which is best done in an enamelled saucepan.

In the preparation of pickles it is highly necessary to avoid the use of metallic vessels, as both vinegar and brine rapidly corrode brass, copper, lead, &c., and thus become poisonous. These liquids may be best heated or boiled in a stoneware jar by the heat of a water bath or a stove. Common glazed earthenware should be avoided, either for making or keeping the pickles in, as the glazing usually contains lead. Pickles should also be kept from the air as much as possible, and should only be touched with wooden or bone spoons. They are also better prepared in small jars, or bottles, than in large ones, as the more frequent opening of the latter exposes them too much. Copper or verdigris is frequently added to pickles to impart a green colour, or the vinegar is boiled in a copper vessel until sufficiently ‘greened’ before pouring it on the vegetables. This poisonous addition may be readily detected by any of the tests mentioned under COPPER. If a green colour be desired, it may be imparted to the vinegar, and ultimately to the pickles, by steeping vine leaves, or the leaves of parsley or spinach, in it. A teaspoonful of olive oil may be advantageously added to each bottle to keep the pickles white, and to promote their preservation.

⁂ The following list includes the leading pickles of the shops, and some others:——

=Barberries.= From the ripe fruit, without heat.

=Beans.= From the young green pods of the scarlet bean, and the French or kidney bean, with heat.

=Beetroot.= From the sliced root, without steeping in brine, and with cold spiced vinegar. When wanted for immediate use the vinegar may be used boiling hot.

=Broccoli.= As CAULIFLOWERS.

=Cabbage.= This, either red or white, is cut into thin slices, and steeped in strong brine or sprinkled with common salt, and allowed to lie for 1 or 2 days; after which it is drained for 10 or 12 hours in a warm room, and then put into jars or bottles, with or without a little mace and white peppercorns, and at once covered with cold, strong, white vinegar.——Another plan is to steep the sliced cabbage in alum water for 10 or 12 hours, and, after draining and drying it, to pour the vinegar upon it as before. The product of the last formula eats very fresh and crisp, but takes longer to mature than that of the other. Some persons add a little salt with the vinegar; and others mix slices of red beet with the cabbage.

=Capsicums.= As GHERKINS.

=Cauliflowers.= As CABBAGE (nearly). Or, they may be steeped in hot brine for 1 or 2 hours before pouring the vinegar over them.

=Cherries.= From the scarcely ripe fruit, bottled, and covered with strong and colourless pickling vinegar.

=Codlins.= As BEANS.

=Cucumbers.= As GHERKINS.

=Elderflowers.= From the clusters, just before they open, as RED CABBAGE. A beautiful pickle.

=English Bamboo.= From the young shoots of elder, denuded of the outer skin, pickled in brine for 12 or 14 hours; then bottled with a little white pepper, ginger, mace, and allspice, and pickled with boiling vinegar. Excellent with boiled mutton.

=Eschalots.= With boiling spiced vinegar, or spices added to each bottle.

=French Beans.= See _above_.

=Garlic.= As ESCHALOTS.

=Gherkins.= From small cucumbers (not too young), steeped for a week in very strong brine; this last is then poured off, heated to the boiling point, and again poured on the fruit; the next day the gherkins are drained on a sieve, wiped dry, put into bottles or jars with some spice (ginger, pepper, or cayenne), and at once covered with strong pickling vinegar, boiling hot. Several other pickles may be prepared in the same way.

=Gooseberries.= From the green fruit, as either CABBAGE or CAULIFLOWERS.

=Indian Mango.= From green peaches. (See _below_.)

=Indian Pickle.= _Syn._ PICCALILLI. This is a mixed pickle which is characterised by being highly flavoured with curry-powder, or turmeric, mustard, and garlic. The following form is commonly used:——Take 1 hard white cabbage (sliced), 2 cauliflowers (pulled to pieces), some French beans, 1 stick of horseradish (sliced), about 2 dozen small white onions, and 1 dozen gherkins; cover them with boiling brine; the next day drain the whole on a sieve, put into a jar, and add, of curry-powder or turmeric, 2 oz.; garlic, ginger, and mustard seed, of each 1 oz.; capsicums, 1/2 oz.; fill up the vessel with hot pickling vinegar, bung it up close, and let it stand for a month, with occasional agitation. See MIXED PICKLES (_below_).

=Lemons.= From the fruit, slit half way down into quarters, and cored, put into a dish, and sprinkled with a little salt; in about a week the whole is placed in jars or bottles with a little turmeric and capsicums, and covered with hot vinegar.

=Limes.= As the last.

=Mangoes.= As LEMONS, adding mustard seed and a little garlic, with spices at will. ENGLISH MANGOES are made from cucumbers or small melons, split and deprived of their seeds.

=Melons.= As LEMONS (nearly).

=Mixed Pickles.= From white cabbage, cauliflowers, French beans, cucumbers, onions, or any other of the ordinary pickling vegetables, at will (except red cabbage or walnuts) treated as GHERKINS; with raw ginger, capsicum, mustard seed, and long pepper, for spice, added to each bottle. A little coarsely bruised turmeric improves both the colour and flavour.

=Mushrooms.= From the small button mushrooms, cleansed with cold spring water, and gently wiped dry with a towel, then placed in bottles, with a blade or two of mace, and covered with the strongest white pickling vinegar, boiling hot.

=Myrobalans.= The yellow myrobalan preserved in strong brine. Gently aperient.

=Nasturtiums.= From the unripe or scarcely ripe fruit, simply covered with cold strong vinegar; or, as CABBAGE or GHERKINS.

=Onions.= From the small button or filbert onion, deprived of the outer coloured skin, and either at once put into bottles and covered with strong white pickling vinegar, or previously steeped for a day or two in strong brine or alum water. When required for early use, the vinegar should be poured on boiling hot.

=Peaches.= From the scarcely ripe fruit, as GHERKINS.

=Peas.= As BEANS or CAULIFLOWERS.

=Piccalilli.= See INDIAN PICKLE.

=Radish Pods.= As BEANS or GHERKINS.

=Samphire.= From the perennial samphire (_Erythmum maritimum_), covered with strong vinegar, to each pint of which 3/4 oz. of salt has been added, and poured on boiling hot. Said to excite the appetite.

=Tomatoes.= From the common tomato or love apple, as GHERKINS.

=Walnuts.= From the young fruit of _Juglans regia_, or common walnut:——1. Steep them in strong brine for a week, then bottle them, add spice, and pour on the vinegar boiling hot.

2. On each pint of the nuts, spread on a dish, sprinkle 1 oz. of common salt; expose them to the sun or a full light for 10 or 12 days, frequently basting them with their own liquor; lastly, bottle them, and pour on the vinegar, boiling hot.

3. (Dr Kitchener.) Gently simmer the fruit in brine, then expose it on a cloth for a day or two, or until it turns black; next put it into bottles or jars, pour hot spiced vinegar over it, and cork down immediately. In this way the pickle becomes sufficiently mature for the table in half the time required for that prepared by the common method. Dr Kitchener also recommends this parboiling process for several other pickles. Some persons pierce the fruit with an awl or stocking-needle, in several places, in order to induce early maturation. The spices usually employed are mustard seed, allspice, and ginger, with a little mace and garlic.

=PIC′OLINE.= An oily substance, discovered by Dr Anderson, associated with aniline, chinoline, and some other volatile bases, in certain varieties of coal-tar naphtha.

=PIC′RIC ACID.= HC_{6}H_{2}(NO_{2})_{3}O. _Syn._ CARBAZOTIC ACID, NITROPHENISIC ACID, TRINITROPHENISIC ACID. A peculiar compound formed by the action of strong nitric acid on indigo, aloes, wool, and several other substances.

_Prep._ 1. Add, cautiously and gradually, 1 part of powdered indigo to 10 or 12 parts of hot nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1·43; when the reaction has moderated and the scum has fallen, add an additional quantity of nitric acid, and boil the whole until red fumes are no longer evolved; redissolve the crystals of impure picric acid deposited in boiling distilled water, and remove any oily matter found floating on the surface of the solution by means of bibulous paper; a second time redissolve in boiling water the crystals which form as the liquid cools, saturate the new solution with carbonate of potassa, and set it aside to crystallise; the crystals of picrate of potassium thus obtained must be purified by several re-solutions and re-crystallisations, and next decomposed by nitric acid; the crystals deposited as the liquid cools yield pure picric acid by again dissolving them in boiling water, and re-crystallisation.

2. Dissolve the yellow resin of _Xanthorrhœa hastilis_ (Botany Bay Gum) in a sufficiency of strong nitric acid. Red vapours are evolved, accompanied by violent frothing, and a deep red solution is produced, which turns yellow after boiling. Evaporate this solution over a water bath. A yellow crystalline mass is deposited, which consists of picric acid with small quantities of oxalic and nitrobenzoic acids. The picric acid is purified by neutralising the yellow mass with potassa, and crystallising twice out of water. The pure picrate of potassium thus obtained is decomposed by hydrochloric acid, and the liberated picric acid is purified by two crystallisations. This process, devised by Stenhouse, is one of the best, and yields a quantity of the acid amounting to 50% of the resin employed.

_Prop., &c._ Brilliant yellow scales, scarcely soluble in cold water, but very soluble in boiling water, and in alcohol and ether; fusible; volatile; taste insupportably bitter, and very permanent. It forms salts with the bases (picrates, carbazotates), mostly possessing a yellow colour, and exploding when heated. The picrate of lead has been proposed as a fulminating powder for percussion caps. The picrate of potassium has been given with advantage in intermittent fevers. A solution of picric acid in alcohol is an excellent test for potassa, if there be not too much water present, as it throws down a yellow crystalline precipitate with that alkali, but forms a very soluble salt with soda. Most of the picrates may be made by the direct solution of the carbonate, hydrate, or oxide of the metal, in a solution of the acid in hot water. The picrate of silver forms beautiful starry groups of acicular crystals, having the colour and lustre of gold.

The principal use of crude picric acid is for dyeing yellow. It is said to be largely employed for the adulteration of beer. It is, however, highly poisonous. According to Prof. Rapp, it acts deleteriously both when swallowed and applied to the unsound skin. Five grains seriously affected a large dog, and killed it within twenty-four hours. It induces vomiting, feebleness, and general loss of nervous tone. The tissues of animals poisoned by it (even the white of the eye) were tinged of a yellow colour. See PORTER, &c.

=PICROTOX′IN.= C_{12}H_{14}O_{5}. _Syn._ PICROTOXINE, PICTROTOXIA, PICROTOXINA. A poisonous principle discovered by Boullay in the fruit of _Anamirta paniculata_, or _Cocculus indicus_.

_Prep._ 1. Precipitate a decoction of _Cocculus indicus_ with a solution of acetate of lead, gently evaporate to dryness, redissolve the residuum in alcohol of ·817, and crystallise by evaporation; repeat the solution and crystallisation a second and a third time. Any adhering colour may be removed by agitating it with a very little water; or by animal charcoal, in the usual manner.

2. (Kane.) Alcoholic extract of _Cocculus indicus_ is exhausted with the smallest possible quantity of water, and the mixed liquors filtered; to the filtrate hydrochloric acid is added, and the whole set aside to crystallise. The product may be purified as before.

_Prop., &c._ It forms small, colourless, stellated needles; soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, and feebly so in water; boiling water dissolves it freely; taste of solutions inexpressibly bitter; reaction neutral. It does not combine with acids, as formerly asserted, but it forms feeble combinations with some of the bases. It is a powerful intoxicant and narcotico-acrid poison. It acts powerfully on the spinal cord and nervous system generally, occasioning an increase of the animal temperature, and peculiar movements, similar to those described by Flourens as resulting from sections of the cerebellum. It is frequently present in malt liquors, owing to their common adulteration with _Cocculus indicus_.

=PICTURES, Oil.= To clean. See PAINTINGS, OIL.

=PIERRE DIVINE.= _Syn._ CUPRUM ALUMINATUM. See LAPIS DIVINUS.

=PIES.= Alexis Soyer gives the following instructions for making pies:——

To make a pie to perfection,——when your paste (half-puff or short) is carefully made, and your dish or form properly full, throw a little flour on your paste-board, take about a 1/4 lb. of your paste, which roll with your hand until (say) an inch in circumference; then moisten the rim of your pie-dish, and fix the paste equally on it with your thumb. When you have rolled your paste for the covering, or upper crust, of an equal thickness throughout, and in proportion to the contents of your pie (1/2 inch is about the average), fold the cover in two, lay it over one half of your pie, and turn the other half over the remaining part; next press it slightly with your thumb round the rim, cut neatly the rim of the paste, form rather a thick edge, and mark this with a knife about every quarter of an inch apart; observing to hold your knife in a slanting direction, which gives it a neat appearance; lastly, make two small holes on the top, and egg-over the whole with a paste-brush, or else use a little milk or water. Any small portion of paste remaining may be shaped to fanciful designs, and placed as ornaments on the top.

“For meat pies, observe that, if your paste is either too thick or too thin, the covering too narrow or too short, and requires pulling one way or the other, to make it fit, your pie is sure to be imperfect, the covering no longer protecting the contents. It is the same with fruit; and if the paste happens to be rather rich, it pulls the rim of the pie to the dish, soddens the paste, makes it heavy, and, therefore, indigestible as well as unpalatable.”

Meat pies require the addition of either cayenne, or black pepper, or allspice; and fruit pies, of enough sugar to sweeten, with mace, ginger, cloves, or lemon peel, according to taste and the substance operated on. See PASTRY, &c.

=PIG.= The pig or hog (_Sus scrofa_——Linn.), one of the common pachydermata, is now domesticated in all the temperate climates of the world. Its flesh constitutes pork, bacon, ham, &c.; its fat (lard) is officinal in the Pharmacopœias. The skin, bristles, and even the blood and intestines of this animal, are either eaten as food or turned to some useful purpose in the arts. See PORK, LEATHER, &c.

=PIG′MENTS.= These are noticed under the _respective colours_.

=PIG-STYE.= In order that a pig-stye may not become a nuisance and a danger to health it is essential that the liquid excrement of the pig should be carried off by means of an effective and well-covered drain, and that the solid matters should be frequently removed.

Should it come to the knowledge of the sanitary inspector of the district that a pig-stye is deficient in this particular, the inspector has power to compel the owner of the stye to construct proper drainage.

Urban authorities have full powers in the matter of pig-styes, since under section 26 of the Public Health Act it is enacted “that the owner of any swine or pig-stye kept in a dwelling-house, or so as to be a nuisance to any person, is liable to a penalty of 40_s._ or less, and to a further penalty (if the offence is continued) of 5_s._ a day. The authority can also, if they choose, abate the nuisance themselves, and recover the expenses of such action from the occupier of the premises in a summary manner.

A rural authority has power to deal with the matter under provision 3, section 91, of the Public Health Act, which defines as a nuisance “any animal so kept as to be a nuisance or injurious to health.”

=PIKE.= The _Esox lucius_ (Linn.), a fresh-water fish. It is remarkable for its voracity, but is highly esteemed by epicures. Various parts of it were formerly used in medicine. The fat (OLEUM LUCII PISCIS) was one of the simples of the Ph. L. of 1618, and was esteemed as a friction in catarrhs. It is even now used in some parts of Europe to disperse opacities of the cornea.

=PIL′CHARD.= The _Clupea pilchardus_, a fish closely resembling the common herring, than which, however, it is smaller, but thicker and rounder and more oily. It abounds on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where it is not only consumed as food, but pressed for its oil.

=PILES.= _Syn._ HEMORRHOIDS; HÆMORRHOIDES, L. A painful disease occasioned by the morbid dilatations of the veins at the lower part of the rectum and surrounding the anus.

Piles are principally occasioned by costiveness and cold; and, occasionally, by the use of acrid food. They have been distinguished into——BLIND PILES, or a varicose state of the veins without bleeding,——MUCOUS PILES, when the tumours are excoriated, and mucus or pus is discharged,——BLEEDING PILES, when accompanied with loss of blood, and——EXCRESCENTIAL PILES, when there are loose fleshy excrescences about the verge of the anus and within the rectum.

The treatment of piles consists in the administration of mild aperients, as castor oil, or an electuary of sulphur and cream of tartar. When there is much inflammation or bleeding, cold and astringent lotions, as those of sulphate of zinc or alum, should be applied; and when the pain is considerable, fomentations of decoction of poppy heads may be used with advantage. To arrest the bleeding, ice is also frequently applied, but continued pressure is more certain. When the tumours are large and flaccid, the compound ointment of galls is an excellent application; and if there is a tendency to inflammation, a little liquor of diacetate of lead may be added. In confirmed piles the internal use of copaiba, or, still better, of the confection of black pepper, should be persevered in for some time, together with local applications. In severe cases the protruded tumours are removed by surgeons, by the knife or ligature. See OINTMENTS, ELECTUARIES, &c.

=PILL COCHIA.= See COMPOUND COLOCYNTH PILLS (_below_).

=PILL RUFI.= See PILLS OF ALOES WITH MYRRH (_below_).

=PILLS.= _Syn._ PILULÆ (Ph. E. & D.), PILULA (Ph. L.), L.; PILULES, SACCHAROLÉS SOLIDES, Fr. Pills are little balls, of a semi-solid consistence, composed of various medicinal substances, and intended to be taken whole. The facility with which they are made and administered, their comparatively little taste, their power of preserving their properties for a considerable length of time, and, lastly, their portability and inexpensiveness, have long rendered them the most frequently employed and the most popular form of medicine.

The rapid and skilful preparation of pills, from all the numerous substances of which they are composed, is justly considered to demand the highest qualifications in the practical dispenser. The medicinals employed must be made into a consistent and moderately firm mass, sufficiently plastic to be rolled or moulded into any shape, without adhering to the fingers, knife, or slab, and yet sufficiently solid to retain the globular form when divided into pills. A few substances, as certain extracts, &c., are already in this condition; but the others require the use of an excipient to give them the requisite bulk or consistence. As a general rule, all the constituents of a pill which can be pulverised should be reduced to fine powder before mixing them with the soft ingredients which enter into its composition; and these last, or the excipient, should next be gradually added, and the mixture triturated and beaten until the whole forms a perfectly homogeneous mass. It is then ready to be divided into pills. This is effected by rolling it on a slab, with a pill or bolus knife, into small pipes or cylinders, then dividing these into pieces of the requisite weight; and, lastly, rolling them between the thumb and finger to give them a globular form. A little powdered liquorice-root or starch is commonly employed to prevent the pills adhering to the fingers, or to each other, after they are made. Magnesia, so frequently used for this purpose, is unsuited for pills containing metallic salts or the alkaloids, or other remedies, which are exhibited in very small doses.

Instead of forming the mass into pills by hand, in the manner just referred to, a convenient and simple instrument, called a ‘pill-machine,’ is now generally used by the druggists for the purpose. This consists of two pieces. The first (see fig. 1) is divided into three compartments:——_c_ is a vacant space to receive the divided mass, which is to be rolled into pills:——_b_ is a grooved brass plate, which assists in dividing the mass into pills; and _a_ is a box for containing the powder for covering the pills, and to receive them as they are formed. The second (see fig. 2) consists of a brass plate (_a_), grooved to match the plate _b_ in fig. 1, and bounded at both ends by movable projecting plates (_b_ _b_), containing each two wheels under the ledge of the plate (_b_); and a wooden back (_c_), with two handles (_d_ _d_), to which this plate is affixed. In using this machine, the pill-mass is rolled into a cylindrical form on the front part of it, by means of fig. 2 inverted; the small roll is then laid on the cutting part of the instrument (1, _b_), and divided by passing fig. 2 over it, the little wheels enabling the latter to run easily on the brass plate which forms the margin of the bed of the machine. The pills, thus formed, are then drawn forward on to the smooth bed on which the mass was first rolled, and receiving a finishing turn or two with the smooth side of the ‘cutter,’ by which they are rendered more nearly spherical. They are, lastly, thrown over into 1, _c_, ready to be transferred to the pill-box.

The nature of the excipient should be suited to that of the active ingredients in pills, as well as in all other forms of medicine. Furthermore, it should be of such a nature “that,” to quote Dr Redwood, “it will modify as little as possible the action of the pills, either by causing them to become hard, or in any other way, and will not unnecessarily or inconveniently increase their size.” Soft extracts, and other substances of a like character, may be rendered more consistent by the addition of any simple powder, as that of liquorice or sugar. Vegetable powders are generally beaten up with syrup or treacle, and heavy powders with conserve of roses or extract of liquorice. Castile soap (made of olive oil and soda) and medicinal soft soap (made of olive oil and potash) are commonly employed for fatty and resinous matters, as well as for many others which are not decomposed by alkalies. When the chief ingredient of the mass is resin, rectified spirit is frequently used to soften it, either with or without the addition of soap to increase its solubility in the stomach. For many substances no excipient is required. Thus, most of the gum-resins and stiff extracts may be at once made into pills, or, at all events, after being slightly softened by heat. Mucilage, formerly so much used in the preparation of pills, is now only employed for those which are to be taken within a day or two after being made; as pills containing it become so hard and insoluble when kept for some time as to resist the action of the stomach, and frequently to pass through the bowels without even losing their form. Glycerin, as well as a mixture of glycerin and tragacanth made into a paste of proper consistence, are also employed as pill-excipients.

The use of glycerin as a pill-excipient has been advocated on account of its generally neutral properties, and also because its substitution for syrup, the conserves of roses, treacle, and such like substances, results in the production of a pill of smaller bulk. It seems to be suited for pills containing chemical substances, such as quinine, tannic acid, &c. It is said, however, to possess the disadvantage of making the pills moist on their surfaces. To obviate as much as possible this inconvenience, and to provide an absorbent for the superfluous moisture, Mr Martendale, an experienced pharmacist, recommends the employment of a mixture of glycerin and flour, of which he writes as follows:——“By stirring constantly and heating together until a temperature of about 240° F. is reached, 5 parts of glycerin by weight, and 1 part of flour, a firm adhesive paste is formed, which I shall call glycerin mass. As an excipient for vegetable powder it answers well, and for other substances on which it can exert a partially solvent action it is eminently useful. Among these are such salts as valerianate of zinc, 4 gr., which with 1 of the glycerin mass forms a good pill.

Quinine, 3 parts, with 1 of the glycerin mass, P. B. strength, works well. Compound powder of ipecacuanha, 5 gr., with 3/4 gr. of the mass, makes a good pill. Oxide of zinc, too, 4 gr. with 1, makes a good mass.

But for most mineral and insoluble powders it is too moist, and will not form with them a firm mass; some additional absorbent is necessary, and for this purpose I found nothing better than flour; equal parts of the glycerin mass and flour form a tolerably firm, solid, adhesive paste, somewhat resembling dough, but it is not so elastic; this I call bread mass. It possesses great capacity for the absorption of insoluble powders, such, for example, as calomel (3 gr. with 1-1/2 gr. of this mass makes a good pill), nitrate and carbonate of bismuth, arsenic, &c. Of reduced iron, 3 parts with 2 of it, form a good mass, in which the iron is not liable to oxidation. Carbolic acid, too, of which it is a good solvent, is readily made into a pill with the bread mass, a little additional flour being necessary for this substance. Then again, substances which are given in minute doses, as the salts of morphia, resin of podophyllum, and other active principles to partially dilute their action, or where an excipient is needed to partially increase the bulk of the pill, it is well adapted for use. And among the official pill masses an equal quantity of it can with great advantage be used to supplant confection of roses in all these, with the exception of pilula aloes cum ferro, for which the glycerin masses is needed, and pilula ferri carbonatis. This, too, requires the glycerin mass, with which it mixes well, but after a time the pills have a tendency to become moist. Mercurial pill I have not tried with it. The same quantity of this bread mass will replace the treacle in pilula scillæ composita. Equal parts of it and powdered soap, in place of powdered soap alone (if this might be permitted), form a much better mass than the official one of pilula saponis composita.

This pill mass, made strictly according to the Pharmacopœia, soon becomes set into a condition resembling a piece of soap, in which state much beating is necessary to make it again plastic.

Of the glycerin mass to be added to the Pharmacopœia quantities of——

Pil. cambogiæ comp. (_vice_ syrup), 1 oz., makes a good mass.

Pil. colocynth comp. (_vice_ water), 3 dr., makes a good mass, and does not get so hard.

Pil. hydrarg. subchlor. comp. (_vice_ castor oil), 1-1/2 oz., makes a good mass, but becomes slightly moist.

Pil. ipecac. cum scilla (_vice_ treacle), 1 oz., makes a good mass, which does not crumble.

Pil. rhei comp. (_vice_ 4 oz. of treacle), 2 oz., makes a good mass, and keeps tolerably plastic.

Among the other official pill masses which I have not tried with these excipients are pilula colocynthidis et hyoscyamic and pilula conii composita. These I find do not generally require any excipient, and pilula ferri iodidi, the starch contained in the flour, with that would not form an elegant preparation.

_Nitrate of silver_ is generally recommended in works on materia medica to be made into a pill with bread crumb, but this contains common salt, with which it is incompatible. I recommend the following formula, which is a modification of the bread mass:——

℞ Nitrate of silver 6 gr. Distilled water 6 minims. Dissolve, and add—— Glycerin mass 12 gr. Flour 24 gr.

Mix to form a mass which may be divided into 2 gr. pills, each containing 1/4 gr. of nitrate of silver. The mass rolls out well. Keep them from exposure to the air and light.

For _Perchloride of Mercury_ Pills:——

℞ Perchloride of mercury 6 gr. Distilled water 48 minims.

Heat in a test-tube till dissolved, and add to it——

Glycerin mass 48 gr. Flour 96 ”

Mix well, and divide into 96 2-gr. pills, each of which will contain a sixteenth of a grain of perchloride of mercury.

Substances like nitrate of silver and perchloride of mercury may form different combinations with the albuminoid principles contained in the flour, but in such state they will probably be quite as readily assimilated, and have a similar medicinal action, as physiologists affirm that most metallic substances enter into the blood as albuminates. I have had some fear lest the gluten contained in the flour might favour some decomposition similar to fermentation, but such, from nearly two years’ use of them, I have never yet seen take place; the glycerin seems to check anything of the kind.

The crude gluten obtained in the moist condition from flour I find is nearly entirely soluble in glycerin, the solution does not appear to undergo any change when kept.

A mixture of glycerin and tragacanth is often used, and produces very similar results to those I have obtained from the glycerin mass. I have not had much experience with such a mixture, but I find it makes a more elastic paste, which is often a disadvantage, as it causes the pills to have a certain amount of springiness, and renders them difficult to form perfectly globular.

For dried sulphate of iron, of which a large quantity is sometimes ordered in a pill, I find syrup the best excipient. By this means 5 grains of this can be thus made into a pill.[106]

[Footnote 106: ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book.’]

It may be further remarked, that no deliquescent salt should enter into the composition of pills not intended for immediate use; and that when efflorescent salts are so employed they should be first freed from their water of crystallisation.

When the mixed ingredients are made into a mass (pill-mass), which it is not intended at once to divide into pills, it should be preserved in a piece of bladder or gut-skin placed in a covered stoneware or earthenware pot. In this state it may be occasionally moistened with a little weak spirit to prevent its getting hard.

The weight (size) of pills varies from 1/2 gr. to 6 gr. If heavier than this, they are called ‘boluses.’ Formerly, as a general rule, they were made of 5 gr. each; but pills of this weight are, in general, so large that some persons find a difficulty in swallowing them. Another disadvantage of large pills is the trouble of nicely apportioning the dose,——one pill being, perhaps, too small a quantity, and two pills the reverse. Hence, 2 to 3-gr. pills are now the favourite size with both pill-takers and dispensers, notwithstanding that 5-gr. pills are still ordered in one of the authorised Pharmacopœias.

Pills are occasionally coated with gold, silver, and other substances, to render them more agreeable to the eye, or to prevent the taste of nauseous ingredients affecting the palate during deglutition. They are gilded and silvered by placing them, in the moist state, on a leaf or two of the metal in a small gallipot, and covering them in a similar manner with another leaf of metal; over the mouth of the gallipot is laid a piece of smooth writing paper, and on this the palm of the hand; a sudden and rapid circular motion is then given to the whole. If the pills are not sufficiently moist or sticky, they should be rendered so by rolling them between the fingers very slightly moistened with mucilage, before proceeding to silver them. Another method is to shake them in a similar manner with a little gold or silver dust.

Mr Haselden recommends a varnish composed as follows:——Resin[107] of tolu, 3 parts; rectified spirit, 6 parts; methylated ether, 2 parts. Well shake until all that will is dissolved. Use the clear solution. Mr Hasleden says iodide of iron pills are well preserved by this coating, and also granules of secale cornutum.

[Footnote 107: This is the substance which is left in the preparation of syrup of tolu.]

When pills are to be covered with gelatin, each pill, being stuck on the point of a very thin wire four or five inches in length, is dipped into a solution of gelatin, so as to coat it completely, and the wire is then inserted into a pin-cushion, or a vessel containing fine sand, and left until the gelatin is firm, which occurs in about a quarter of an hour; the pins may then be easily removed by simply warming them, by placing the centre of each wire for a second or two in the flame of a spirit lamp or candle. ‘Sugar-coated pills’ are prepared in nearly the same way, but substituting hot and highly concentrated syrup, to which a little gelatin has been added, for a simple solution of gelatin.

The following details for coating pills with sugar are taken from the ‘Chemist and Druggist,’[108]——“The pills are first varnished with the following liquids——

[Footnote 108: Dec. 15th, 1871.]

Ether 100 parts. Bals. tolu 10 ” Colophonium 1 ” Absolute alcohol 10 ”

“By first rolling them in a mortar with this ethereal solution, and then transferring to a sheet of writing paper with the sides bent upwards, shaking being continued till they are perfectly dry. Then to a small quantity of the saccharated albumen (see next recipe) add a few drops of water, at the same time beating for a short while, so that a thick paste will be formed. Into this mass the pills are stirred, and when moistened on all sides, quickly poured into a wooden pill-box, which has been previously filled about one third with the finest powdered sugar obtainable, and immediately shaken, or rather rolled in a lively way with great force, separating from time to time those cohering. When no more sugar will adhere they are dried over a gentle fire, taking care not to bring them too near the stove lest they should crack. Shaking, of course, must be continued till dryness is effected.”

=Albumen cum Saccharo.= Take the white of an egg, and in an evaporating dish beat with it as much powdered sugar, passed through a very fine sieve, as will make rather a thick fluid. Then place it in a water bath and evaporate to dryness, stirring constantly, that no sugar may be deposited. Pulverise and set aside for further use.

M. Durden covers pills with collodion. Others have recommended for this purpose a solution of gutta percha in either chloroform or bisulphide of carbon. The ready solubility in the stomach of pills thus covered has, with justice, been questioned. Gelatin, or, still better, gelatin mixed with a little sugar, is unexceptionable in this respect; whilst it undoubtedly excludes the taste of nauseous medicines more effectually than any other substance. Mr Furley employs a thin coating of albumen to render pills tasteless.

As pill-masses are likely to get hard and brittle by keeping, an excellent plan is to keep the dry ingredients powdered and mixed together in well-corked bottles or jars, when a portion may at any time be beaten up with syrup, conserve, soap, &c.; according to the formula, and as wanted for use. The mixed ingredients in this state are technically known as ‘species’ or ‘powder’ for the respective pills.

“It is generally said that pills should be taken on an empty stomach, and at a considerable distance from a meal; but for ourselves we think that it is nearly always better to take them during a meal; first, because the stomach does not then find itself immediately under the influence of substances which, if not always dangerous, seldom fail to act more or less disagreeably; secondly, because its absorbent action is more certain; and, lastly, because they are then taken more easily.” (Trousseau and Reveil.) The meal here referred to should be a light one, from which acidulous and other substances likely to interfere with the action of the remedy should be excluded. The dose should also be increased.

In the London Pharmacopœia the singular number (‘pilula’) is now very properly employed to express the names of the officinal pill-masses; but in the other Pharmacopœias the names are given in the plural form. As the latter is almost universally adopted in speaking of magistral formulæ and nostrums, we have used it in all cases, for the sake of uniformity and for ease of reference. See BOLUS EXTRACT, PRESCRIBING, and _below_.

=Pills, Abernethy’s.= See ABERNETHY MEDICINES (page 6).

=Pills of Ac′etate of Lead.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PLUMBI ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Acetate of lead, 20 gr.; powdered camphor, 15 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s.; mix and divide into 12 pills.

2. (Radius.) Acetate of lead and powdered mallow or liquorice root, of each 1/2 dr.; simple syrup, q. s.; divide into 18 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 daily, washed down with water soured with vinegar; as a powerful astringent in hæmorrhages, diarrhœa, the night-sweats in phthisis, &c. See OPIATED LEAD PILLS.

=Pills of Acetate of Mercury.= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Subacetate of mercury, 18 gr.; sugar of milk (or manna), 1 dr.; mucilage, q. s.; divide into 24 pills.——_Dose._ As an alterative, 1 daily; as a sialogogue, 1 every four or five hours, or oftener; in syphilis, &c. See KEYSER’S PILLS.

3. (Opiated——Carmichael.) Acetate of mercury, camphor, and opium, of each 30 gr.; syrup of poppies to mix. For 30 pills. Less apt to affect the stomach and bowels than the last.

=Pills of Acetate of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ PILULÆ MORPHIÆ ACETATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Acetate of morphia, 2 gr.; sugar of milk, 15 gr.; conserve of roses, 20 gr.; for 12 pills. Anodyne, sedative, and soporific.——_Dose._ One, as required.

2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Acetate of morphia, 1 gr.; powdered foxglove, 6 gr.; powdered camphor, 10 gr.; powdered gum Arabic, 8 gr.; syrup of tolu, q. s.; to be divided into 6 pills. Sedative and antispasmodic.——_Dose._ One, every 3 or 4 hours; in phthisis, palpitations, spasms, &c. The hydrochlorate of morphia may be used instead of the acetate, with advantage.

=Pills of Ac′onite.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ACONITI, P. EXTRACTI A., L. _Prep._ (Dr Turnbull.) Alcoholic extract of aconite, 1 gr.; liquorice powder, 12 gr.; simple syrup, q. s.; mix, and divide the mass into 6 pills.——_Dose._ One pill, every 3 or 4 hours; as a powerful anodyne and sedative in excessive action of the heart, acute rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, &c. The utmost care should be taken both in their preparation and administration.

=Pills, Alibert’s.= See PILLS, APERIENT.

=Pills of Aloes.= _Syn._ PILULA ALOES SOCOTRINÆ (B. P.), PILULÆ ALOETICÆ, PILULÆ ALOËS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Socotrine aloes (in powder) and Castile soap, equal parts; conserve of red roses, q. s. to form a pill-mass.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered aloes and Castile soap, equal parts, beat into a mass, and divided into 4-gr. pills.

3. (B. P.) PILULA ALOES BARBADENSIS. _Prep._ Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz.; hard soap, in powder, 1 oz.; oil of caraway, 1 fluid dr.; confection of roses, 1 oz. Beat all together until thoroughly mixed.

_Obs._ “This pill may be also correctly made with the finer qualities of East Indian aloes, as the (true) Socotrine variety is very scarce; and many, not without reason, prefer (pure) Barbadoes aloes.” (Ph. E.) The dose, as a laxative, is 5 to 10 gr.; as a purgative, 12 to 20 gr., or more. See PILLS OF ALOES AND SOAP.

=Pills of Aloes and Assafœtida.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS ET ASSAFŒTIDA (B. P.). _Prep._ Socotrine aloes, in powder, 1; assafœtida, 1; powdered hard soap, 1; confection of roses, 1 (1/4 confection sufficient——Squire). Mix. Cathartic and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

=Pills of Aloes (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOETICÆ COMPOSITÆ, PILULA ALOËS COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PILULÆ A. COMPOSITÆ (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Socotrine aloes (in powder), 1 oz.; extract of gentian, 1/4 oz.; oil of caraway, 40 drops; treacle, q. s.; the whole to be beaten together until they form a mass proper for making pills.

2. (Ph. D.) Hepatic aloes (in powder), 2 oz.; extract of gentian and treacle, of each 1 oz.; oil of caraway, 1 fl. dr.; as the last.

_Obs._ The above is a very valuable purgative in habitual costiveness and indigestion, in all cases in which the use of aloes is not contra-indicated. The dose is from 5 to 15 gr., or more.

=Pills of Aloes (Diluted).= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS DILUTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Marshall Hall.) Barbadoes aloes, Castile soap, extract of liquorice, and treacle, equal parts; water, q. s.; dissolve, with heat, strain, and evaporate to the consistence of a pill-mass. Resembles the PILULA ALOËS CUM SAPONE——Ph. L.

=Pills of Aloes and Assafœti′da.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS ET ASSAFŒTIDA (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Aloes (Socotrine or East Indian, powdered), assafœtida, and Castile soap, equal parts; beat them with conserve of red roses to a proper pill-mass.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr., once or twice daily, as a stomachic tonic and laxative, in dyspepsia, flatulence, &c.; and 12 to 20 gr., as a purgative in similar cases. It is extremely useful in costiveness, with flatulency, occurring in hysterical and hypochondriacal subjects. The B. P. preparation is the same as this, except that hard soap is used instead of Castile soap.

=Pills of Aloes and Gin′ger.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS ET ZINGIBERIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Aloes, 1 oz.; Castile soap, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1 dr.; oil of peppermint, 1/2 dr.; beaten to a mass. A useful laxative in cold habits.——_Dose._ As the last.

=Pills of Aloes and Ipecac′uanha.= _Syn._ DR BAILLIE’S DINNER PILLS; PILULÆ ALOËS ET IPECACUANHÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Baillie.) Powdered aloes, 30 gr.; powdered ginger (finest), 45 gr.; ipecacuanha, 12 gr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. to mix. For 24 pills.——_Dose._ One, about an hour before dinner.

=Pills of Aloes and I′ron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS ET FERRI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P.) Barbadoes aloes, 2; sulphate of iron, 1-1/2; compound powder of cinnamon, 3; confection of roses, 4; mix (6 of confection required——Squire).——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Sulphate of iron, 3 parts; Barbadoes aloes, 2 parts; aromatic powder, 6 parts; conserve of red roses, 8 parts; powder the aloes and sulphate of iron separately, beat the whole to a mass, and divide this into 5-gr. pills. An excellent medicine in chlorosis, hysteria, and atonic amenorrhœa.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills daily.

=Pills of Aloes and Mas′tic.= See PILLS, DINNER.

=Pills of Aloes and Mer′cury.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS CUM HYDRARGYRO, L. See PILLS, APERIENT (8).

=Pills of Aloes and Myrrh.= _Syn._ RUFUS’S PILLS; PILULA ALOËS CUM MYRRHÂ (Ph. L. & D.), PILULÆ RUFI or COMMUNES (Ph. L. 1720), P. ALOËS ET MYRRHÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes (in powder, 1/2 oz.; saffron, myrrh powdered), and soft soap (Ph. L.), of each 2 dr.; treacle, q. s. to form a pill-mass.

2. (Ph. D.) Hepatic aloes, 2 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; dried saffron, 1/2 oz.; all in powder; treacle, 2-1/2 oz.

3. (Ph. E.) Aloes (Socotrine or East Indian), 4 parts; myrrh, 2 parts; saffron, 1 part; beat them to a pill-mass with conserve of red roses, q. s.

4. (Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. D. 1826.) Aloes (in powder), 2 oz.; saffron and powdered myrrh, of each 1 oz.; syrup, q. s. to form a pill-mass.

5. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 2; myrrh, 1; dried saffron, 1/2; confection of roses, 2-1/2 (3 are required——_Squire_). Mix. Stimulant and cathartic.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

_Obs._ This compound is a most excellent stomachic purgative and emmenagogue, when there are no febrile symptoms present. It is said to have been employed ever since the time of Rhazes, and is still in extensive use.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

=Pills of Aloes and Rhu′barb.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS ET RHEI, P. R. CUM RHEO, L. _Prep._ Powdered Socotrine or hepatic aloes, powdered rhubarb, and soft soap (Ph. L.), of each 1/2 dr.; oil of chamomile, 10 drops; for 30 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 5, either as a stomach tonic or laxative; especially in dyspepsia, with loss of appetite.

=Pills of Aloes and Rose-juice.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS ROSATÆ, L.; PILULES ANGELIQUES, GRAINS DE SANTÉ, Fr. _Prep._ Take aloes and rose juice, of each 4 oz.; juice of borage and chicory, of each 2 oz.; dissolve with heat, evaporate to an extract; add, of rhubarb, 2 dr.; agaric, 1 dr.; and divide the mass into 1-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 4 to 12, as a purge.

=Pills of Aloes with Soap.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOËS CUM SAPONE (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Powdered extract of Barbadoes aloes, soft soap, and extract of liquorice, equal parts; treacle, q. s. to form a pill-mass.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in the usual cases in which aloes is administered. It is more readily soluble in the juices of the primæ viæ, and is milder than most of the aloetic pills without soap. See PILLS OF ALOES (Diluted).

=Pills, Aloes and Turpentine.= (Bois.) _Syn._ PILULÆ ALOES ET TEREBINTHINÆ. _Prep._ Boiled turpentine, 2 dr.; aloes, 1/2 dr. Divide into 40 pills.

=Pills, Al′terative.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALTERANTES, L. See PILLS, CALOMEL, MERCURIAL, and PLUMMER’S, &c.

=Pills of Al′um.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALUMINIS, P. A. COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Augustin.) Alum, 20 gr.; benzoic acid, 6 gr.; powdered gum and white sugar, of each 10 gr.; water, q. s. to form a mass. For 36 pills. In phthisis and atonic mucous discharges. The whole to be taken in the course of 2 or 3 days.

2. (Capuron.) Catechu, 1 dr.; alum, 1/2 dr.; opium, 10 gr.; syrup of red roses, q. s.; divide into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3; in chronic diarrhœa and leucorrhœa.

3. (Radius.) Alum and catechu, equal parts; extract of gentian, q. s. to mix; divide into 2 or 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, every four hours; in passive hæmorrhages, mucous discharges, and chronic diarrhœa.

=Pills of Ammoni′acum.= _Syn._ PILULÆ AMMONIACI, L. _Prep._ 1. Gum ammoniacum, 1 dr.; powdered sugar, 1/2 dr.; conserve of hips, q. s. In old coughs and hysterical affections.

2. (Compound.)——_a._ (Ainslie.) Ammoniacum, 1 dr.; mercurial pill, 15 gr.; powdered squills, 6 or 8 gr.; simple syrup, q. s. For 16 pills. In asthmatic coughs, with deranged action of the liver.——_Dose._ One, 2 or 3 times a day.

_b._ (W. Cooley.) Ammoniacum and sagapenum, of each 1 dr.; dried sulphate of iron, 1/2 dr.; conserve of hips, q. s. In obstructed menstruation, and in the chronic diarrhœa of hysterical subjects.

=Pills of Ammo′′niated Cop′per.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CUPRI AMMONIATI (Ph. E.), P. C. AMMONIURETI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Ammoniated copper (in fine powder), 1 part; bread-crum, 6 parts; solution of carbonate of ammonia, q. s. to make a mass, which is to be divided so that each pill may contain 1/2 gr. of ammoniated copper. In epilepsy, and in some other spasmodic diseases.——_Dose_, 1 pill, night and morning, gradually increased to 5 or 6.

=Pills of Ammoniated I′ron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI AMMONIATI, P. F. AMMONIO-CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr. Copland.) Ammoniated iron, 1 dr.; aloes and extract of gentian, of each 1/2 dr.; for 30 pills. In scrofula, chlorosis, amenorrhœa, &c.

2. (Radius.) Ammoniated iron and galbanum, of each 1 dr.; assafœtida, 2 dr.; castor, 20 gr.; tincture of valerian, q. s. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 pills, night and morning; in atonic nervous disorders, epilepsy, &c.

=Pills of Ammo′′nio-cit′rate of Iron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI AMMONIO-CITRATATIS, L. _Prep._ (Beral.) Ammonio-citrate of iron, 1 dr.; white sugar, 3 dr.; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, or more; as a mild chalybeate tonic.

=Pills, Analep′tic.= See PILLS, JAMES’, ANALEPTIC, &c.

=Pills, Anderson’s Scot’s.= Various formulæ for these pills are extant, the products of which differ widely from the genuine article. Dr Paris, some years since, declared that they consisted of Barbadoes aloes, jalap, and oil of aniseed. “A careful examination of the proprietary article, with other facts that have come to our knowledge, leads us to believe that the first of the following formulæ is the one now employed in the preparation of the ‘Grana Angelica,’ or ‘Anderson’s True Scot’s Pills,’ of the present day.” (Cooley.)

_Prep._ 1. From Barbadoes aloes, 7 lbs.; jalap (in fine powder), 2-1/4 lbs.; treacle, 1/2 lb.; soap, 6 oz.; melted together by the heat of a warm bath, and, when partly cold, aromatised by stirring in of oil of aniseed, 1 oz. The mass is divided into about 3-1/2-gr. pills, of which 26 or 27 are placed in each 1_s._ 1-1/2_d._ box. A mild and useful aperient.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., or more.

2. (Original formula.) Socotrine aloes, 1 oz.; best myrrh, 1/4 oz.; saffron, 1 dr.; separately pounded very fine; mix them, in an earthen pipkin, with a spoonful each of water and sweet oil, by the heat of a slow fire, and form the mass into “common-sized pills.” From a copy of the original document in the Chapel of the Rolls.

3. (P. Cod.) Aloes and gamboge, of each 6 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s.; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills. Much more powerful than the preceding, and closely resembling Morison’s ‘No. 2 pills.’

4. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Barbadoes aloes (in powder), 3 lbs., Castile soap, 1/2 lb.; colocynth and gamboge (both in fine powder), 2 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1 oz.; beat to a mass with water, q. s., and divide it into 3-gr. pills. Less active than the last, but more so than the ‘True Scot’s Pills.’

=Pills, An′odyne.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANODYNÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Hosp. F.) Opium (in powder), 6 gr.; camphor, 15 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s.; divide into 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, as required.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, potassio-tartrate of antimony, and opium, equal parts; syrup of saffron, q. s.; divided in 3-1/2-gr. pills. In acute rheumatism and neuralgia.——_Dose_, 1 pill, at bedtime.

=Pills, Antibil′ious.= All the ordinary aperient and stomachic pills may be classed under this head. See the names of their proprietors or reputed inventors, or those of their leading ingredients.

=Pills Antichlorot′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTICHLOROTICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Radius.) Aloes and carbonate of iron, of each 1/2 dr.; gum ammoniacum, 1 dr.; extract of taraxacum, q. s. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 6, night and morning; in chlorosis, amenorrhœa, &c.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Porphyrised iron filings, 1 dr.; extract of wormwood, q. s. For 36 pills.——_Dose_, 3 or 4; as the last.

=Pills, Antimonial (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTIMONIALIS COMPOSITÆ, P. ANTIMONII CO., L. _Prep._ 1. Antimonial powder, 1/2 dr.; calomel, camphor, and powdered opium, of each 6 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s.; divide into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2, at night; in acute rheumatism, neuralgia, chronic coughs, &c.

2. (St B. Hosp.) Tartar emetic, 1 gr.; guaiacum and pill of aloes and myrrh, of each 1/2 dr.; treacle, to mix. For 16 pills. As the last.

=Pills, Antispasmod′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTISPASMODICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Opium, 1 gr.; Russian castor, 13 gr.; powdered digitalis, 2 gr.; syrup, to mix; divide into 4 pills.——_Dose_, 1 or 2, two or three times a day; in spasmodic asthma, difficulty of breathing, &c. Several other formulæ for antispasmodic pills will be found both above and below.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Musk, 15 gr.; extract of valerian, 1/2 dr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 20 pills.——_Dose_, 1 every two hours, until there is a marked improvement in the symptoms; in pneumonia, accompanied by delirium, especially in drunkards; in spasms of the uterus, and in various other spasmodic affections.

=Pills, Ape′′rient.= _Syn._ PILULÆ APERIENTES, L. _Prep._ 1. Hepatic aloes, 2 dr.; rhubarb and Castile soap, of each 1 dr.; scammony, 1/2 dr. (all in powder); essential oil (at will), 10 or 12 drops; beaten to a smooth mass, and divided into pills.

2. Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 1-1/2 dr.; extract of gentian, 1/2 dr.; powdered ipecacuanha, 20 gr.; oil of cloves, caraway, or cassia, a few drops. In dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c.

3. (Abernethy’s.) See page 6.

4. (Alibert’s.) From calomel, resin of jalap, and Castile soap, of each 1 dr.; oil of orange peel or citron, 6 or 8 drops. For 60 pills. As an occasional mild purgative, especially in bilious habits and worms.

5. (Sir B. Brodie.) Compound extract of colocynth and mercurial pill, of each 1/2 dr.; scammony and Castile soap, of each 15 gr.; oil of caraway, 6 or 7 drops. For 24 pills. As the last.

6. (W. Cooley.) Aloes, 1-1/2 dr.; jalap and Castile soap, of each 1 dr.; rhubarb and cardamoms, of each 1/2 dr. (all in powder); oil of juniper, 12 drops. For 3-gr. pills. A useful mild aperient, for either frequent or occasional use.

7. (Dr Copland.) Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 40 gr.; extract of henbane, 30 gr.; Castile soap, 12 gr.; ipecacuanha, 6 or 7 gr. For two dozen pills.——_Dose_, 2, on retiring to rest. As an aperient in nervous affections and irritable habits.

8. (Harvey.) Mercurial pill and powdered aloes, of each 1/2 dr.; ginger, 20 gr. For 24 pills. In constipation, attended with a deficiency of bile.

9. (Dr Neligan.) Compound colocynth pill and soap of jalap, equal parts; either with or without a few drops of some aromatic essential oil. For 4 or 5-gr. pills. As an aperient for general use.

10. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Compound extract of colocynth, 40 gr.; extract of rhubarb, 1/2 dr.; scammony and soap, of each 12 gr.; oil of caraway, 5 or 6 drops. For 20 or 24 pills.

11. (Stahl’s; PILULÆ APERIENTES STAHLII——Ph. Hannov.) Powdered aloes, 1 oz.; compound extract of colocynth, 1/2 oz.; iron filings, 2 dr.; mucilage, q. s. In amenorrhœa, low habits, and worms.

12 (Vance.) Compound extract of colocynth, 80 gr.; extract of rhubarb, 12 gr.; Castile soap, 6 or 8 gr.; oil of cinnamon, 4 or 5 drops.

_Obs._ The products of the above formulæ may be divided into pills of any size deemed most agreeable to the patient, and they may be aromatised by the addition of any essential oil at will. The dose varies, according to circumstances, from 5 to 10 or 12 gr., or more. Those containing aloes or mercurials are best taken at bedtime. For other formulæ see the various officinal and other pills containing aloes, colocynth, gamboge, rhubarb, scammony, &c.

=Pills, Aromat′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ AROMATICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Compound powder of aloes, 3 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 oz.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. Aperient, sudorific, and nervine.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

=Pills of Arse′′niate of Iron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI ARSENIATIS, L. _Prep._ (Biett.) Arseniate of iron, 3 gr.; extract of hops, 2 dr.; powdered mallow-root, 1/2 dr.; syrup, q. s. For 48 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, daily; in cancerous, scrofulous, and herpetic affections. See PILLS, ARSENICAL.

=Pills of Arseniate of So′da.= _Syn._ PILULÆ SODÆ ARSENIATIS, L. _Prep._ (Erasmus Wilson.) Arseniate of soda, 2 gr.; distilled water, the smallest possible quantity to dissolve it; powdered gum guaiacum, 1/2 dr.; oxysulphuret of antimony, 20 gr.; mucilage, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, as the last; in herpes, &c. See PILLS, ARSENICAL.

=Pills, Arsen′ical.= _Syn._ ASIATIC PILLS, CARNATIC P., EAST INDIAN P., TANJORE P.; PILULÆ ARSENICI, P. ARSENICALIS, P. ASIATICÆ, P. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Arsenious acid, 1 gr.; black pepper (in fine powder), 12 gr.; rub them together for some (considerable) time in an iron mortar, then add, of powdered gum, 2 gr.; water, q. s. to make a mass; which is to be accurately divided into 12 pills. Each pill contains 1/12 gr. of white arsenic.

_Obs._ This compound is commonly employed in the East Indies in syphilis, elephantiasis, intermittents, the bites of venomous snakes, &c.; and as a preventive to hydrophobia. The common practice in England is to employ 16 gr. of pepper to 1 gr. of arsenious acid, and to divide the mass into 16 instead of 12 pills. The dose is one or two pills daily, taken _after_ a meal. The use of all compounds containing arsenic demands great caution.

=Pills, Arsenical (Opiated).= _Syn._ PILULÆ ARSENICI CUM OPIO, L. _Prep._ (A. T. Thomson.) Arsenious acid, 2 gr.; powdered opium, 8 gr.; Castile soap, 20 gr.; simple syrup, q. s. For 34 pills.——_Dose._ As the last; in intermittents, herpes, lepra, psoriasis, periodical headaches, neuralgia, &c. (See _above_.)

=Pills, Asiat′ic.= See PILLS, ARSENICAL.

=Pills of Assafœt′ida.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ASSAFŒTIDA (Ph. E. & U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1 (Ph. E.) Assafœtida, galbanum, and myrrh, of each 3 parts; conserve of red roses, 4 parts, or q. s.; mix, and beat them to a proper pill-mass.

2. (Pb. U. S.) Assafœtida, 1-1/2 oz.; Castile soap, 1/2 oz.; water, q. s.; divide into 240 pills.

_Obs._ The above (particularly the last) are stimulant and antispasmodic——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; twice or thrice daily; in hysterical affections, &c. (See _below._)

=Pills of Assafœtida (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ ASSAFŒTIDÆ COMPOSITÆ (B. P., Ph. D.) _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Assafœtida, 2 oz.; galbanum, myrrh, and treacle, of each 1 oz.; mix in a capsule, by the heat of steam or a water bath, and stir until it becomes a uniform mass.——_Dose, &c._ As the last. The B. P. directs the quantity of galbanum to be double the above.

2. (Hosp. F.) Assafœtida, 1 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), 20 gr.; ipecacuanha and squills, of each (in powder), 12 gr.; syrup, q. s.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; in chronic asthmas, coughs, &c.

=Pills of Assafœtida with I′ron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ASSAFŒTIDÆ CUM FERRO, L. _Prep._ (W. Cooley.) Assafœtida, 1 dr.; extract of chamomile, 1/2 dr.; mix with a slight heat; add, of dried protosulphate of iron, 15 gr.; oil of cajeput, 10 drops; and divide into 36 pills. In hypochondriasis, hysteria, amenorrhœa, chlorosis, &c., after an aperient.

=Pills, Asthma.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTASTHMATICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Expectorant.) From compound squill pill, 20 gr.; calomel, 5 gr.; powdered opium, 3 gr.; made into 6 pills.——_Dose_, 1 or 2, at bedtime. Expectorant, and sometimes laxative.

2. (Tonic.) From compound iron pill, 2 dr.; extract of gentian, 1 dr.; mix, and divide into 60 pills.——_Dose_, 2, night and morning, with an occasional dose of laxative medicine.

=Pills, Astringent.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ASTRINGENTES, L. See PILLS OF ACETATE OF LEAD, ALUM, GALLIC ACID, NITRATE OF SILVER, SULPHATE OF IRON, SULPHATE OF COPPER, TANNIN, &c.

=Pills of Atropine.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PILULÆ ATROPIÆ. _Prep._ Atropia, 1-1/2 gr.; sugar of milk, 1 dr.; gum Arabic, 12 gr.; syrup of honey, q. s. Triturate the atropia for a long time with the sugar of milk, and make into 100 granules and silver them. Granules of arsenious acid, digitalin, and strychnia, are prepared in the same way.

=Pills, Bacher’s Ton′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ TONICÆ BACHERI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Paris.) Extract of black hellebore and powdered myrrh, of each 1 oz.; powdered blessed thistle, 3 dr.; mix, and divide into 1-dr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 6, three times a day.

2. (P. Cod.) Alkaline extract of hellebore and extract of myrrh, of each 2 dr.; powdered blessed thistle, 1 dr. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, as the last. An alterative tonic, hydragogue, and emmenagogue; in debility, dropsy, amenorrhœa, &c. A favourite remedy in some parts of Europe.

=Pills, Dr Baillie’s.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Aqueous extract of aloes and compound extract of colocynth, of each 3 dr.; Castile soap, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 15 drops. For 4-gr. pills. A good occasional aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, at bedtime, or early in the morning. See PILLS, DINNER.

=Pills, Balsamic.= (Morton.) _Syn._ PILULÆ BALSAMICA. _Prep._ Powdered millipedes, 18 dr.; gum ammoniacum, 9 dr.; benzoic acid, 6 dr.; saffron, 1 dr.; balsam of tolu, 1 dr,; anisated balsam of saffron, 6 dr., or sufficient.

=Pills, Barbarossa’s.= These are supposed to have been the first mercurial preparation employed in medicine. They consisted of quicksilver, rhubarb, musk, and amber.

=Pills, Rev. D. Barclay’s.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Resinous extract of jalap, 1 dr.; almond or Castile soap, 1-1/2 dr.; extract of colocynth, 2 dr. (or powdered colocynth, 3 dr.); gum guaiacum, 3 dr.; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 10 gr.; oil of juniper, 8 or 10 drops; oils of caraway and rosemary, of each 4 drops; make a mass with syrup of buckthorn (the smallest possible quantity), and divide into 4-gr. pills. A diaphoretic aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, at bedtime.

=Pills, Dr Baron’s.= _Prep._ From compound rhubarb pill, 30 gr.; compound extract of colocynth, 20 gr.; powdered ipecacuanha, 6 gr. For 3-gr. pills. An excellent stomachic aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills, at bedtime; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c.

=Pills, Barthez’s.= _Prep._ From myrrh, 1 dr.; aloes, 1/2 dr.; musk, 15 gr.; camphor, 12 gr.; balsam of Peru, q. s. to form a mass. For 3-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2, thrice daily; in hysteria, amenorrhœa, chlorosis, &c.

=Pills, Bath Digestive.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; ipecacuanha and Castile soap, of each 1/2 oz.; capsicum, ginger, and gamboge, of each 1/4 oz. (all in powder); syrup of buckthorn, q. s. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 as a dinner pill; 2 or 3 as an aperient.

=Pills of Be′beerine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ BEBEERINÆ, L. _Prep._ From sulphate of bebeerine, 1/2 dr.; aromatic confection, q. s.; oil of cajeput, 6 or 6 drops. For 18 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, every four hours; as an antiperiodic, instead of bark or quinine.

=Pills, Be′chic.= PILULÆ BECHICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Trousseau and Reveil.) Extract of digitalis, 15 gr.; white oxide of antimony, 30 gr.; extract of liquorice, 40 gr.; mix carefully, and divide into 40 pills. Expectorant and sedative.——_Dose_, 2 to 12, or more; in cases of irritating coughs, catarrh of the pulmonary capillaries or bronchia, &c. See PILLS, COUGH.

=Pills, Beddoe’s.= _Prep._ From dried (effloresced) carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; soap, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of juniper, 12 drops; syrup of ginger, q. s.; divide into 30 pills. In gravel, stone, &c.——_Dose_, 2 to 5.

=Pills of Belladon′na (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ BELLADONNÆ COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ainslie.) Extract of belladonna, mercurial pill, and powdered ipecacuanha, equal parts. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 night and morning, in cancerous and glandular affections.

2. (Debreyne.) Camphor and assafœtida, of each 1 dr.; extract of belladonna, 20 gr.; extract of opium, 5 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 48 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, gradually increased to 6, daily. In hysteria, amenorrhœa, &c.

=Pills, Belloste’s.= See PILLS, MERCURIAL.

=Pills, Bennet’s.= See PILLS, FULLER’S.

=Pills, Benzoic.= (Dr Paris.) _Syn._ PILULÆ BENZOES. _Prep._ Benzoic acid, 12 gr.; extract of poppies, 18 gr. Mix, for 6 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill. Expectorant.

=Pills of Bichlo′′ride of Mercury†.= Pills of corrosive sublimate.

=Pills of Bichlo′′ride of Plat′inum.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PLATINI BICHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ (Dr Hoefer.) Bichloride of platinum, 7-1/2 gr.; extract of guaiacum, 1 dr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, twice or thrice daily; as an alterative, in syphilis, &c.

=Pills, Bicker’s.= _Prep._ From rust (carbonate) of iron, 2 dr.; aloes, myrrh, and sulphur, of each 1 dr.; ox-gall, q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 6, morning and evening; in debility, chlorosis, &c.

=Pills of Bit′tersweet.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DULCAMARÆ, L. _Prep._ (Radius.) Extract of bittersweet (dulcamara), 1 dr.; crude antimony and bittersweet (in powder), of each 1/2 dr. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 6 to 12, twice or thrice a day; in obstinate skin diseases.

=Pills, Blaud’s.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTICHLOROTICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Trousseau and Reveil.) Sulphate of protoxide of iron, 2 parts; reduce it to powder, and dry it in a stove at 104° Fahr.; add to this dry carbonate of potassa, 2 parts; honey, 1 part; and form the mass into 50 pills. Tonic and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 1 to 10, daily; in debility, chlorosis, &c.

=Pills, Blue.= See PILLS, MERCURIAL.

=Pills, Bontius’s.= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDROGOGÆ, P. H. BONTII, L. _Prep._ (B. Cod.) Socotrine aloes, gamboge, and gum ammoniacum, of each 1 dr.; white-wine vinegar, 6 dr.; dissolve by heat at twice, press out the liquor, evaporate to a pilular consistence, and divide into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3; as a strong cathartic, in dropsy.

=Pills, Brigg’s Gout and Rheumatic.= This nostrum closely resembles in appearance, odour, and properties, the PLUMMER’S PILL of the Pharmacopœia; the two are probably identical. (Cooley.)

=Pill of Bro′mide of I′ron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI BROMIDI, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Bromide of iron and powdered gum Arabic, of each 12 gr.; conserve of roses, 20 gr.; mix, and divide into 20 pills. They should be kept in a dry, corked phial. Tonic and alterative.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, night and morning; in debility, especially that of scrofulous habits, in chlorosis, &c.

=Pills of Bru′cine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ BRUCIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Brucine, 12 gr.; confection of roses, 1/2 dr.; carefully mixed and divided into 24 pills, which are recommended to be silvered. The quantity of the confection may be advantageously doubled.——_Dose_, 1 pill, night and morning; in the same affections as those for which strychnine is administered. The acetate hydrochlorate, or sulphate of brucine may be substituted for the alkaloid in the above formula, in a slightly larger quantity.

=Pills of Calomel.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CALOMELANOS, P. E. CALOMELANE, P. HYDRARGYRI SUBCHLORIDI, P. H. CLORIDI†, P. H. C. MITIS (Ph. U. S.), L. _Prep._ 1. Calomel, 4 dr.; powdered gum Arabic, 1 dr.; simple syrup, q. s.; mix and divide into 240 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of calomel. A convenient form of exhibiting this drug when uncombined with other remedies.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 pills, according to the indication.

2. (U. C. Hosp.) Calomel, 2 dr.; rhubarb, 1-1/2 dr.; confection of senna, q. s. For 4 dozen pills. An excellent alterative aperient, especially in hepatic affections.

=Pills of Calomel (Compound).= _Syn._ PLUMMER’S PILLS, RED P.; PILULA HYDRARGYRI SUBCHLORIDI COMPOSITA, PILULÆ CALOMELANOS COMPOSITÆ (Ph. E. & D.), PILULÆ PLUMMERI, PILULA HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI COMPOSITA, L. (Ph. L.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.). Chloride of mercury (calomel) and oxysulphide of antimony, of each 2 dr.; rub them together, add of guaiacum (in powder) and treacle, of each 4 dr., and form the whole into a pill-mass.

2. (Ph. E.) Calomel and golden sulphide of antimony, of each 1 part; guaiacum (in powder) and treacle, of each 2 parts; beat the whole to a pill-mass, and divide it into 6-gr. pills.

3. (Ph. D.) Calomel and precipitated sulphide of antimony, of each 1 dr.; triturate them together, then add, of guaiacum resin (in powder), 2 dr.; castor oil, 1 fl. dr.; and beat the whole to a uniform mass.

4. (B. P.) Calomel, 1; sulphurated antimony, 1; guaiac resin (in powder), 2; castor oil, 1; mix.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

_Obs._ An excellent alterative pill; very useful in lepra, in secondary syphilis affecting the skin, and in various other chronic cutaneous diseases; also in dyspepsia and liver complaints.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr., night and morning.

=Pills of Calomel and Opium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CALOMELANOS ET OPII (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Calomel, 3 parts; opium, 1 part; conserve of red roses, q. s.; divide the mass so that each pill may contain 2 gr. of calomel.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 pills, in rheumatism, facial neuralgia, and various inflammatory affections. They offer a convenient form for gradually introducing mercury into the system, and, if continued, induce salivation.

=Pills of Cam′phor.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CAMPHORÆ, P. CAMPHORATÆ, L. _Prep._ Camphor and sugar, of each (in powder) 2 parts; conserve of hips, 1 part. For 3-gr. pills. Anaphrodisiac, sedative, diaphoretic, and nervine.——_Dose_, 1 to 5, twice or thrice a day.

=Pills of Camphor (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITÆ, P. CAMPHORATÆ C., L. _Prep._ 1. (Dupuytren.) Camphor, 24 gr.; pure musk, 8 gr.; opium, 2 gr.; syrup, q. s.; divide into 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4, three or four times daily; in putrescent sores, hospital gangrene, &c.

2. (Fr. Hosp.) Gum ammoniacum, 40 gr.; camphor, 30 gr.; musk, 10 gr.; opium, 5 gr.; tincture of valerian, q. s.; divide into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 pills, daily; in nervous and hysterical affections, &c.

3. (Ricord.) Camphor and lactucarium (or extract of lettuce), equal parts; divide into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 pills daily; as an anaphrodisiac.

4. (U. C. Hosp.) Camphor, 20 gr.; assafœtida, 1 dr.; extract of valerian, 2 dr. For 30 pills. As No. 2.

=Pills of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CANTHARIDIS, P. C. COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Cantharides (in very fine powder), 8 gr.; extract of gentian, 1/2 dr.; liquorice powder, 10 gr. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 daily; as a diuretic, emmenagogue, &c.

2. (Ellis.) Cantharides (in very fine powder), 18 gr.; opium and camphor, 36 gr.; mix, and divide into 36 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, at bedtime; as an aphrodisiac, in parties labouring under general debility. They should be used with extreme caution, and but seldom.

=Pills of Caout′chouc.= _Syn._ PILULÆ GUMMI ELASTICI, L. _Prep._ (Bouis.) India rubber, cut into small squares or spheres, then moistened with syrup of tolu, and, lastly, shaken in a box with a mixture of powdered gum and sugar. In phthisis.——_Dose_, 1 pill, three or four times a day. They pass through the primæ viæ unaltered, and may therefore fairly be presumed to be inert.

=Pills of Cap′sicum.= _Syn._ CAYENNE PEPPER PILLS; PILULÆ CAPSICI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Guy’s Hosp.) Capsicum, 1 part; rhubarb, 2 parts (both in powder); treacle, q. s.; mix, and divide into 3-1/2-gr. pills——_Dose_, 1 to 3, an hour before dinner, to create an appetite and promote digestion.

2. (Radius.) Powdered capsicum, 20 gr.; extract of gentian, 1 dr.; powdered gentian, q. s. to form a mass. For 60 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills, thrice daily; in chronic dyspepsia, especially in the loss of tone of the stomach arising from intemperance.

=Pills of Carbolic Acid.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ACIDI CARBOLICI. _Prep._ Carbolic acid, 3 drops; soap powder, ·60 gram; lycopodium, ·06 gram; powdered tragacanth, q. s. For six pills. The two first ingredients form a semi-fluid mass, which the lycopodium does not absorb, but which is solidified by means of the tragacanth.

=Pills of Car′bonate of I′ron.= _Syn._ VALLET’S PILLS; PILULÆ FERRI CARBONATIS (Ph. E), L. _Prep._ (B. P., Ph. E.) Saccharated carbonate of iron, 4 parts; conserve of red roses, 1 part; mix, and divide the mass into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, or more; as a mild chalybeate and antichlorotic. 5 to 20 gr., B. P. For another formula, see PILLS, BLAUD’S (_above_).

=Pills, Carbonic Acid.= (Mr Morson). _Syn._ PILULÆ ACIDI CARBONICI. _Prep._ Mix 1/2 dr. of bicarbonate of soda and 25 gr. of tartaric acid, coarsely powdered, with the smallest possible quantity of syrup and mucilage to form a mass. Divide into 12 pills.

=Pills, Catarrh′.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTICATARRHALES, L. _Prep._ 1. (Trousseau and Reveil.) Turpentine, 4 dr.; ammoniacum, 1 dr.; balsam of tolu, 1/2 dr.; aqueous extract of opium, 5 gr.; liquorice powder, q. s.; mix, and divide into 80 pills.——_Dose_, 5 or 6 daily; in chronic catarrh of the bronchi and bladder.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Alcoholic extract of aconite, 30 gr.; sulphuret of calcium, 16 gr.; powdered sugar, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, three or four times daily; in chronic pulmonary catarrh.

=Pills, Cathar′tic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CATHARTICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Collier.) Calomel, 10 gr.; powdered jalap and prepared chalk, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of caraway, 10 drops; syrup of buckthorn, to mix; divide into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4.

2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Scammony, 4 gr.; extract of taraxacum, 16 gr.; divide into 6 pills.——_Dose_, 3 pills, twice daily; in hypochondriasis and chronic inflammation of the liver.

3. (A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, 15 gr.; powdered jalap, 45 gr.; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For 18 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, at night, to empty the bowels, in bilious affections. Other formulæ for cathartic pills will be found both _above_ and _below_.

=Pills, Cathartic (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ CATHARTICÆ COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Compound extract of colocynth, 4 dr.; powdered extract of jalap and calomel, of each 3 dr.; powdered gamboge, 40 gr.; water, q. s.; mix, and divide into 180 pills. An excellent purgative, especially in bilious affections, dyspepsia, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills.

=Pills of Cetrarine.= (Dr Neligan.) _Syn._ PILULÆ CETRARINÆ. Cetrarine, 24 gr.; extract of calumba, 1/2 dr.; make into 12 pills; one every four hours as a febrifuge.

=Pills, Chamberlain’s Restor′ative.= A nostrum composed of cinnabar and milk of sulphur, equal parts; beaten up with conserve of hips.

=Pills of Cham′omile.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTHEMIDIS, P. FLORUM CHAMÆMELI, L. _Prep._ Extract of gentian, 1 dr.; powdered aloes, 1/2 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr.; oil of chamomile, 10 drops. A tonic and stomachic aperient.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr. This forms the ‘chamomile pills’ of the shops. They should be kept in a corked phial. (See _below_.)

=Pills of Chamomile (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTHEMIDIS COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ainslie.) Extract of chamomile, 1 dr.; assafœtida, 1/2 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr.; divided into 30 or, better, 36 pills.——_Dose_, 1, as a dinner pill; or 2 to 3, twice a day, in flatulent dyspepsia.

2. (Beasley.) Aqueous extract of aloes, 12 gr.; extract of chamomile, 36 gr.; oil of chamomile, 3 drops. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 2 at night, or twice a day; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c. See PILLS, NORTON’S CHAMOMILE.

=Pills, Chapman’s.= _Prep._ Mastic, 12 gr.; aloes, 16 gr.; rhubarb, 24 gr. For 12 pills. An excellent stomachic aperient.——_Dose_, 2 to 4.

=Pills of Chiray′ta.= _Syn._ Dr REECE’S PILLS; PILULÆ CHIRAYTÆ, L. _Prep._ From chirayta, 2 dr.; dried carbonate of soda, 20 gr.; powdered ginger (best), 15 gr.; divided into 36 pills.——_Dose_, 2, twice a day. In acidity, flatulence, and dyspepsia, especially when complicated with gout or debility.

=Pills of Cho′′ride of Ba′′rium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ BARII CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Pierquin.) Chloride of barium, 1 dr.; resin of guaiacum, 4 dr.; conserves of fumitory, q. s.; divided into 188 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, morning and evening, afterwards increased to 2; in tapeworm, and in the rheumatism of scrofulous subjects.

2. (Walsh.) Chloride of barium, 15 gr.; powdered marshmallow or liquorice root and mucilage of tragacanth, of each q. s. to make 200 pills.——_Dose_, 3, gradually increased to 10 or 12, daily; in cancer, scrofula, goitre, syphilis, &c.

_Obs._ The above are very poisonous, and their exhibition demands great caution.

=Pills of Chloride of Cal′cium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CALCII CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. As the last.

2. (Gräfe.) Chloride of calcium, 1 dr.; extract of opium, 10 gr.; mucilage, q. s. For 54 pills.——_Dose_, 1, every two or three hours, gradually increased until 10, or even 12, are taken every hour; in gonorrhœa, more especially when occurring in scrofulous subjects.

=Pills of Chloride of Gold.= _Syn._ PILULÆ AURI CHLORIDI L. _Prep._ From terchloride of gold, 3 gr.; powdered liquorice, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. For 48 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, twice or thrice daily.

=Pills of Chloride of Gold and So′dium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ AURI ET SODI CHLORIDI, P. A. SODIO-CHLORIDI, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Soda-chloride of gold, 1 gr.; extract of mezereon, 2 dr.; divide into 60 pills.

=Pills of Chloride of Lime.= _Syn._ PILLS OF CHLORINATED LIME; PILULÆ CALCIS HYPOCHLORITIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Chloride of lime, 12 gr.; starch powder, 24 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s.; divide into 36 pills.

2. (Dr Copland.) Chloride of lime, 15 gr.; compound powder of tragacanth, 90 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily; in various putrid affections, fevers, &c.

=Pills of Chloride of Mercury†.= Pills of calomel.

=Pills, Chol′era.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTICHOLERICÆ, E. _Prep._ 1. Powdered camphor, 15 gr.; powdered capsicum (pure), 1/2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; conserve of roses, q. s. For 36 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, every 15 minutes, washed down with a wine-glassful of cold water containing half a teaspoonful of ether; repeated every 15 or 20 minutes until reaction ensues. They should be freshly made.

2. (PILULA ANTICHOLERICA ARABICA.) _Prep._ Assafœtida, asclepias gigantea, and opium, of each 1-1/2 gr. in each pill. One every half or three quarters of an hour, broken down in a spoonful of brandy and water, till the symptoms yield. After vomiting and purging have ceased, if prostration and spasms are urgent, give 1/2 or 1/4 doses. Black pepper is substituted for asclepias in this country.

3. (PILULÆ CAMBOGIÆ COMPOSITÆ. B. P.) _Prep._ Gamboge, aloes pods, and compound cinnamon powder, of each 1 part; soap, 2 parts; syrup, q. s.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 10 gr.

=Pills of Ci′trate of I′ron and Quinine′.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI CITRATIS CUM QUINA, L. _Prep._ From citrate of iron and quinine, 1 dr.; powdered citric acid, 20 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. For 36 pills. An excellent tonic in debility, chlorosis, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily.

=Pills, Sir C. Clark’s.= See DINNER PILLS.

=Pills, Coindet’s.= See PILLS OF IODIDE OF MERCURY.

=Pills of Col′chicum.= See PILLS, GOUT.

=Pills of Col′ocynth.= _Syn._ PILULÆ È DUOBUS, P. EX COLOCYNTHIDE SIMPLICIORES, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Colocynth and scammony, of each 2 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 dr.; syrup of buckthorn, q. s. An active hydragogue cathartic.——_Dose_, 2 to 12 gr.

=Pills of Colocynth (Compound).= _Syn._ PILL OF COCHIA; PILULÆ COCCIÆ, PILULÆ COCHIÆ, PILULA COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA (B. P.), P. COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITÆ (Ph. L. & D.), P. COLOCYNTHIDIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Extract of colocynth (simple), 1 dr.; powdered extract of aloes, 6 dr.; powdered scammony, 2 dr.; powdered cardamoms, 1/2 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), 1-1/2 dr.; mix, and beat them altogether, so that a mass may be formed. This is intended as a substitute for the compound extract of colocynth of the Ph. L. 1836.

2. (Ph. E.) Socotrine or East Indian aloes and scammony, of each 8 parts; sulphate of potassa, 1 part; beat them together; add of colocynth, in fine powder, 4 parts; next add of oil of cloves, 1 part; and, with the aid of a little rectified spirit, beat the whole to a mass and divide this into 5-gr. pills.

3. (Ph. D.) Colocynth pulp, scammony, and Castile soap, of each (in powder) 1 oz.; hepatic aloes, 2 oz.; treacle, 10 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 fl. dr.; mix, and beat them into a mass of uniform consistence.

4. (Ph. L. 1746.) Socotrine aloes and scammony, of each 2 oz.; pulp of colocynth, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 dr.; syrup of buckthorn, q. s. to form a pill-mass. This is the original formulæ published by Galen for ‘pilulæ cochiæ minores,’ and, under various slight modifications, it has continued in use ever since.

5. Aloes, 1-1/2 lb.; colocynth, 3/4 lb.; jalap, 6 oz. (all in powder); oil of cloves, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup or treacle, q. s. to mix. _Prod._ About 4-3/4 lbs. This forms the common ‘pil. cochiæ’ of the druggists. A few, more conscientious than the rest, add to the above, scammony, 6 oz. It is greatly inferior to the Ph. pill.

6. (B. P.) Colocynth, in powder, 1; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2; scammony, in powder, 2; sulphate of potash, in powder, 1/4; oil of cloves, 1/4; distilled water, a sufficiency (about 1/4); mix. Dr Gregory’s favourite pill.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

_Obs._ Compound colocynth pill is a cheap and excellent cathartic, more powerful than the other officinal aloetic pills, and well adapted to cases of habitual costiveness. It has long been extensively used by the poorer classes, and in domestic medicine generally.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

=Pills of Colocynth and Hen′bane.= _Syn._ PILULÆ COLOCYNTHIDIS ET HYOSCYAMI (B. P., Ph. E.), _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Colocynth pill-mass, 2 parts; extract of henbane, 1 part; beat them up with a few drops of rectified spirit (if necessary), and divide them into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills; as an anodyne purgative, in irritable bowels.

2. (B. P.) Colocynth, in powder, 2; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2; scammony, in powder, 2; sulphate of potash, in powder, 1/4; oil of cloves, 1/4; extract of hyoscyamus, 3; distilled water, a sufficiency; mix.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

=Pills of Copai′ba.= _Syn._ PILULÆ COPAIBÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Pure balsam of copaiba, 2 oz.; recently prepared calcined magnesia, 1 dr.; mix thoroughly, then set the mixture aside until it acquires a pillular consistence, and lastly, divide it into 200 pills.

_Obs._ Unless the magnesia has been very recently calcined, the copaiba hardens very slowly or not at all. It is said that “lime produces the effect more completely and uniformly than magnesia,” and that “specimens of copaiba which are old and contain the most resin harden quickest.” (Redwood.) For present use, the quantity of magnesia may be at least doubled. Dr Pereira orders copaiba, 1 oz.; magnesia, 5 or 6 dr.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr., frequently; in diseases of the mucous membranes of the urinary organs. Cubebs are often added.

=Pills, Dr Copland’s.= See PILLS, APERIENT and PECTORAL.

=Pills of Corro′sive Sub′limate.= _Syn._ PILLS OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY; P. OF BICHLORIDE OF M. †, HOFFMAN’S P.; PILULÆ SUBLIMATIS CORROSIVI, P. HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI†, P. MAJORES HOFFMANNI, L. _Prep._ 1. Corrosive sublimate, 3 gr.; white sugar, 1/2 dr.; triturate together in a glass mortar for some time, then add of powdered gum Arabic, 20 gr., and beat the whole to a mass with dilute hydrochloric acid, q. s. For 36 pills, each containing 1/12 gr. of corrosive sublimate.

2. (Brera.) Corrosive sublimate, 3 gr.; rectified spirit, the smallest possible quantity to dissolve it; bread-crum, q. s. to form a mass. For 24 pills, each containing 1/8 gr. of the corrosive sublimate.

3. (Dr Paris.) Corrosive sublimate and sal-ammoniac, of each 5 gr.; water, 1/2 fl. dr.; triturate together until solution is complete, then add of honey, 1/2 dr.; liquorice powder, 1 dr. (or q. s.), and divide into 40 pills. Each pill contains 1/8 gr. of corrosive sublimate.

4. (Ph. Hannov.) Corrosive sublimate, 15 gr.; distilled water, 1/4 fl. dr.; crum of bread, q. s. to form a mass. For 120 pills, each containing 1/8 gr.

5. (PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI CUM GUAIACO. Dupuytren.) _Prep._ Perchloride of mercury in subtle powder, 3 gr.; extract of opium, 6 gr.; extract of guaiacum, 12 gr. Make into 20 pills.

_Obs._ The above formulæ are among those most usually employed. Other authorities order pills containing 1/16th of a gr. Dzondi orders 1/20 gr., and Hüfeland only 1/30 gr., in each pill. The commencing dose should not exceed 1 pill containing the 1/12 of a grain, twice or thrice a day. It may afterwards be safely kept at 1/8th of a grain. They are chiefly employed in syphilis, but are also occasionally exhibited with great advantage in glandular indurations and enlargements, and in cancer; due caution being observed.

=Pills, Cough.= See PILLS, PECTORAL, EXPECTORANT, &c.

=Pills of Cre′asote.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CREASOTI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Pitschaft.) Creasote, 6 gr.; powdered henbane, 24 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 three times daily; in sea-sickness, the vomiting during pregnancy, &c.

2. (Rieche.) Creasote, 1 dr.; extract of liquorice and gum galbanum, of each 1/2 dr.; powdered mallow-root, 2 dr.; to be divided into 2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6, four times a day; in acute rheumatism, bronchitis, neuralgia, phthisis, &c.

=Pills, Crespigny’s.= See PILLS, DINNER.

=Pills of Cro′ton Oil.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CROTONIS, P. TIGLII, L. _Prep._ 1. Croton oil, 3 drops; oil of cloves, 4 drops; bread-crum, q. s. For 3 pills, one of which is a dose.

2. (Dr Copland.) Croton oil, 6 drops; pill of aloes and myrrh, 1-1/2 dr.; soap, 20 gr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 30 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4.

3. (Dr Reece.) Croton oil, 6 drops; Castile soap, 1/2 dr.; oil of caraway, 8 drops; liquorice powder, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3. In dropsy, visceral obstructions, &c. See CROTON OIL.

4. (With MERCURY——Dr Neligan.) Croton oil soap, 3 gr.; extract of henbane and mercurial pill, of each 24 gr.; oil of pimento, 12 drops; divide into 12 pills.——_Dose_, 2 at bedtime. (See _above_.)

=Pills of Cy′anide of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI CYANIDI, P. H. CYANURETI, L. _Prep._ (Guibourt.) Cyanide of mercury, 6 gr.; opium, 12 gr.; bread-crum, 60 gr.; honey or syrup, q. s. For 96 pills.——_Dose_, 1 night and morning; in syphilis, chronic inflammation of the viscera, &c.

=Pills of Cyanide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ POTASSII CYANIDI, L. _Prep._ (Golding Bird.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr.; arrowroot, 20 gr.; simple syrup, q. s. For 18 pills.——_Dose_, 1, twice or thrice a day; as a sedative in hysteria, gastrodynia, extreme nervous excitability, &c. See DRAUGHT and MIXTURE, HYDROCYANIC.

=Pills of Dandeli′on.= See PILLS, TARAXACUM.

=Pills, De Haen’s.= _Prep._ (St Marie.) Gum ammoniacum and pill aloes with myrrh, of each 1 dr.; extracts of hemlock and Castile soap, of each 1-1/2 dr. For 2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 daily; in painful or obstructed menstruation, chlorosis, &c.

=Pills of Del′phine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DELPHINIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dr Turnbull.) Delphine, 1 gr.; extracts of henbane and liquorice, of each 12 gr. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, twice a day; in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, &c., instead of veratrine.

=Pills, Deobstruent.= (L. Ph., 1746.) _Syn._ PILULÆ ECPHRACTICA. _Prep._ Aromatic pill, 3 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; extract of gentian, 1 oz.; sulphate of iron, 1 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1/2 oz.; syrup of roses, q. s.

=Pills of Deuto-iodide (Biniodide) of Mercury.= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI DEUTO-IODIDI. (Magendie.) _Prep._ Deuto-iodide (biniodide) of Mercury, 7-1/2 gr.; extract of juniper, 75 gr.; powdered liquorice, q. s. for 100 pills.

=Pills, Diaphoret′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DIAPHORETICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Antimonial powder, 1/2 dr.; opium, 10 gr.; calomel, 5 gr.; confection of opium, q. s. to mix; divide into 10 pills.——_Dose_, 1 at bedtime; in coughs and bronchial irritability, after an aperient.

2. Guaiacum, 19 gr.; emetic tartar and opium, of each 1 gr.; simple syrup, q. s. to mix; divide into 3 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, in acute rheumatism, &c.

3. Camphor and antimonial powder, of each 1/2 dr.; opium, 10 gr.; aromatic confection, q. s. to mix. For 12 pills. In fevers, and in some spasmodic diseases.——_Dose_, 1 pill.

4. Powdered guaiacum, 10 gr.; compound powder of ipecacuanha, 5 gr.; confection of roses, q. s. to mix; for a dose. As a diaphoretic, in inflammatory affections and rheumatism.

=Pills, Diarrhœ′a.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTIDIARRHŒALES, L. _Prep._ (Trousseau & Reveil.) Soft extract of opium, 1-1/2 gr.; calomel and powdered ipecacuanha, of each 3 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s.; divide into 10 pills.——_Dose_, 1, two or three times daily; in chronic and choleraic diarrhœa.

=Pills, Diges′tive.= Under this head are generally classed all the stomachic and milder aperient pills. See PILLS, BATH; PILLS, DINNER, &c.

=Pills of Digita′line.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DIGITALINÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Digitaline, 1 gr.; powdered sugar, 1/2 dr.; thick mucilage, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 daily, watching the effects; as a sedative to reduce the force of the circulation, in phthisis, enlargement of heart, &c. See PILLS, FOXGLOVE.

=Pills, Din′ner.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DICTÆ ANTECIBUM, L.; GRAINS DE SANTÉ, Fr. _Prep._ 1. Aloes, 1 dr.; rhubarb and extract of gentian, of each 1/2 dr.; ipecacuanha and capsicum, of each 12 gr.; syrup of ginger, q. s. to mix. For 3-1/2-gr. pills.

2. (Dr Baillie’s.) See _above_.

3. (BATH DIGESTIVE PILLS.) See _above_.

4. (PILLS OF ALOES AND MASTIC; LADY CRESPIGNY’S PILLS, LADY HESKETH’S P., LADY WEBSTER’S P., DIGESTIVE P., STOMACH P., PILULÆ ALOËS ET MASTICHES, P. A. CUM MASTICHE, P. STOMACHICÆ MESUES; GRAINS DE VIE, GRAINS DE MESUES.) From aloes (powdered), 6 dr.; powdered mastic and petals of red roses, of each 2 dr.; syrup of wormwood, q. s. to form a pill-mass. For 3-gr. pills. In small doses they excite the appetite; in larger ones they produce a bulky and copious evacuation. This is the formula of the old Paris Codex. Rhubarb is now frequently substituted for the rose petals.

5. (Sir C. Bell’s.) From sulphate of quinine, 4 gr.; mastic, 6 gr.; rhubarb, 50 gr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s. to mix. For 12 or, preferably, 18 pills.

6. (Sir Chas. Clarke’s.) From extract of chamomile, 1/2 dr.; myrrh and rhubarb (in powder), of each 20 gr.; powdered Socotrine aloes, 10 gr.; oil of chamomile, 8 drops; mucilage, q. s. to form 20 pills. “These pills, which were originally prescribed by Sir Chas. Clarke, are much used in London.” (Redwood.)

7. (Frank’s.) From aloes and jalap, of each 4 parts; rhubarb, 1 part; syrup of wormwood, q. s. For 3-gr. pills.

8. (P. Cod.) Aloes, 6 dr.; extract of cinchona bark, 3 dr.; cinnamon, 1 dr.; syrup of wormwood, q. s.

The dose of the above is 3 to 5 gr., about an hour before dinner, to promote the appetite; or, as a purgative, 10 to 15 gr.

=Pills, Diuret′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DIURETICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. From powdered foxglove, 12 gr.; calomel, powdered squills, and opium, of each 4 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. For 12 pills.

2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Mercurial pill, 1 dr.; powdered squills, 20 gr.; confection of roses, q. s.; divided into 20 pills. The dose of either of the above is 1 pill, twice or thrice daily; in dropsy, &c.

=Pills, Dixon’s.= According to Dr Paris these pills consist of aloes, scammony, rhubarb, and a little tartar emetic, beaten up with syrup. “The following formula produces a pill precisely similar to this nostrum:——Take of compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 4 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 2 dr.; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 8 gr.; syrup of buckthorn, q. s.; mix, and divide into 120 pills. Aperient and diaphoretic.——_Dose_, 2 or 3, at bedtime.” (Cooley.) Although a nostrum it is really an excellent medicine, adapted for numerous cases.

=Pills, Duchesne’s.= _Prep._ From aloes and gum ammoniacum, of each 30 gr.; mastic and myrrh, 10 gr.; carbonate of potassa and saffron, of each 3 gr.; syrup, q. s. In the dyspepsia of hysterical patients, in engorgements of the abdominal viscera, following intermittent fevers, &c.

=Pills, Dys′entery.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DYSENTERICÆ, L. _Prep._ Pure alumina and tannic acid, of each 20 gr.; antimonial powder, 15 gr.; castor oil, 1/2 dr.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; frequently.

=Pills of Elate′rium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ELATERII, L. _Prep._ (Radius.) Elaterium, 6 gr.; extract of gentian and Castile soap, of each 9 gr.; mix, and divide in 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4; in obstinate constipation, and as a purge in dropsy, &c.

=Pills, Emet′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ EMETICÆ, P. CUPRI SULPHATIS COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Sulphate of copper and ipecacuanha equal parts; syrup or conserve of roses, q. s. For 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, repeated every 15 minutes, until vomiting comes on. See EMETICS.

=Pills, Epilep′sy.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTEPILEPTICÆ, P. AD EPILEPSIAM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Griffith.) Powdered indigo, 75 gr.; assafœtida, 15 gr.; Russian castor, 7 gr.; mix, and divide the mass into 20 pills.——_Dose_, 1 every hour.

2. (Récamier.) Oxide of iron, 9 gr.; camphor and extract of belladonna, of each 6 gr. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, every 3 or 4 hours.

=Pills, Er′got of Rye.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ERGOTÆ, P. SECALIS CORNUTI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dewees.) Powdered ergot, 1/2 dr.; extract of gentian, 1 dr.; divide into 15 pills. In obstructed and painful menstruation, hæmorrhages, &c.——_Dose_, 1 pill, thrice daily.

2. (Lallemande.) Aloes, ergot, and rue, of each 8 gr.; for 12 pills. As the last.

=Pills of Er′gotine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ERGOTINÆ, L. _Prep._ (Bonjean.) Ergotine (Bonjean’s), 24 gr.; liquorice powder, 40 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 daily; as an internal hæmostatic, &c.

=Pills, Everlast′ing.= _Syn._ PERPETUAL PILLS; PILULÆ ÆTERNÆ:, P. PERPETUÆ, L. Small spheres of metallic antimony. They possess the property of purging as often as swallowed, but have now long fallen into disuse.

=Pills, Expec′torant.= _Syn._ PILULÆ EXPECTORANTES, L. _Prep._ 1. Myrrh, 1-1/2 dr.; powdered squills, 1/2 dr.; extract of henbane, 2 dr.; syrup, q. s.; divide into 30 pills.——_Dose_, 2, night and morning.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Powdered squills and extract of hemlock, of each 1/2 dr.; ammoniacum, 1-1/2 dr.; divide into 30 pills.——_Dose_, 2 twice or thrice a day. In chronic coughs, asthma, &c., after an aperient. See PILLS, PECTORAL, &c.

=Pills of Extract of Walnut Leaves.= (Negrier.) _Syn._ PILULÆ JUGLANDIS. _Prep._ Extract of walnut leaves, 1 dr.; powdered walnut leaves, sufficient to form a mass; to be divided into 20 pills, 2 or 3 to be taken in the day.

=Pills, Family Antibil′ious.= _Syn._ ALOE PILLS; ALOËS ROSATA, PILULÆ ALOËS ROSATÆ, L. _Prep._ Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 3 oz.; juice of roses, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, strain through a piece of coarse flannel, evaporate to a proper consistence, and form it into pills. Purgative, in doses of 5 to 15 gr.

=Pills, Fe′ver.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FEBRIFUGÆ, L. Of these the principal are those containing antimonials, bark, quinine, and salicine (which _see_).

=Pills, Fordyce’s.= An active purgative, closely resembling in composition the compound gamboge pill of the Ph. L.

=Pills, Dr Fothergill’s.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Aloes, 4 dr.; extract of colocynth and scammony, of each 1 dr.; diaphoretic antimony, 30 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 3-1/2-gr. pills. A diaphoretic aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 pills at bedtime.

=Pills of Fox′glove and Hen′bane.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DIGITALIS ET HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Powdered foxglove, 4 gr.; powdered camphor, 12 gr.; extract of henbane, 18 gr. For 6 pills——_Dose_, 1 or 2 at bedtime; as a sedative in maniacal and spasmodic affections, &c.

=Pills of Fox′glove and Squills.= _Syn._ PILULÆ DIGITALIS ET SCILLÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Powdered foxglove and squills, of each 1 part; aromatic electuary (Ph. E.), 2 parts; conserve of red roses, q. s.; divide into 4-gr. pills. A valuable diuretic in dropsies.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 pills.

=Pills, Frankfort.= These are the Pilules Angeliques noticed among PATENT MEDICINES, formed into 2-gr. pills, and silvered.

=Pills, Franks’.= See PILLS, DINNER.

=Pills of Fuligoka′li.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FULIGOKALI, L. _Prep._ (Deschamps.) Fuligokali, 5 dr.; starch, 2-1/2 dr.; powdered tragacanth, 10 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 100 pills, which must be covered with 2 or 3 coats of gum, and preserved from the air. The pills of sulphuretted fuligokal (Pilulæ Fuligokali Sulphurati) are prepared in a similar manner.

=Pills, Fuller’s.= _Syn._ BENNET PILLS; PILULÆ BENEDICTÆ, L. _Prep._ (Cooley.) Aloes and sulphate of iron, of each 1/2 dr.; myrrh and senna, of each 20 gr.; assafœtida and galbanum, of each 10 gr.; mace and saffron, of each 6 gr.; syrup, q. s.; mix and divide into 4-gr. pills. Antispasmodic, emmenagogue, and tonic, and slightly aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 4, according to the object in view.

=Pills, Gairthorn’s Mild Provi′′sional.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Compound gamboge pill, 60 gr.; aqueous extract of aloes, 40 gr.; sulphate of potassa and extract of senna, 30 gr.; compound scammony powder, 15 gr.; balsam of Peru, 6 or 8 gr.; emetic tartar, 3 gr.; mix, and divide into 36 pills. Purgative.——_Dose_, 1, 2, or more, when required.

=Pills of Gal′banum (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULA GALBANI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PILULÆ G. COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Myrrh and prepared sagapenum, of each 3 dr.; prepared galbanum and soft soap, of each 2 dr.; prepared assafœtida, 1 dr.; treacle, q. s. to form a pill-mass.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, omitting the soap.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) As the Ph. L., except that treacle is substituted for syrup.

_Obs._ These pills are stimulant, expectorant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in hysteria, chronic coughs, chlorosis, amenorrhœa, &c.

=Pills of Galbanum with Iron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ GALBANI CUM FERRO, L. _Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.) Compound galbanum pill, 2 parts; precipitated sesquioxide of iron, 1 part; water, q. s. to form a mass. For 4-1/2-gr. pills. An excellent tonic emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.; in chlorosis, amenorrhœa, &c., when chalybeates are not contra-indicated.

=Pills of Gam′boge (Compound).= _Syn._ GAMBOGE PILLS, FORDYCE’S P.; PILULÆ CAMBOGIÆ COMPOSITA (PH. L.), P. CAMBOGIÆ. (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 3 dr.; powdered gamboge, 2 dr.; powdered ginger, 1 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), 4 dr.; mix, and beat them to a pill-mass. The formulæ of the Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. D. 1826 are precisely similar.

2. (Ph. E.) Gamboge, East Indian or Barbadoes aloes, and aromatic powder, of each (in powder) 1 part; Castile soap, 2 parts; syrup, q. s.

_Obs._ All the above are active cathartics.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., at bedtime; in obstinate constipation, &c.

=Pills of Gen′tian (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ GENTIANÆ COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ (W. Cooley.) Extract of gentian, 1 dr.; powdered rhubarb and cardamoms, of each 1/2 dr.; ipecacuanha, 12 gr. For 3-gr. pills. Stomachic.——_Dose_, 2 or 3, twice or thrice daily, to improve the appetite and digestion.

=Pills, Gout.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTARTHRITICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Bouchardat.) Extract of colchicum and compound extract of colocynth, of each 1 dr.; aqueous extract of opium, 3 gr.; mix, and divide into 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 or 2, according to their purgative action, as required.

2. (Sir H. Halford’s.) From acetic extract of colchicum, 1/2 dr.; Dover’s powder and compound extract of colocynth, of each 18 gr. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill.

3. (Lartigue’s.) From compound extract of colocynth, 20 gr.; alcoholic extract of colchicum seeds and alcoholic extract of digitalis, of each 1 gr. For 2-gr. pills.——_Dose, &c._ As the last.

4. (St George’s Hosp.) Acetic extract of colchicum, 12 gr.; Dover’s powder, 30 gr. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 2 pills.

5. (Sir C. Scudamore’s.) From acetic extract of colchicum, 1 dr.; powdered marshmallow root, q. s. to form a mass. For 40 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, or more, with caution, as required.

6. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Powdered colchicum seeds, 1/2 dr.; powdered digitalis and sulphate of quinine, of each 15 gr.; calomel and extract of colocynth, of each 8 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 20 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4, during the day, at the commencement of an attack of gout. Other formulæ for gout pills will be found under the respective names.

=Pills, Dr Griffith’s.= Powdered rhubarb, 1-1/2 dr.; sulphate of iron, 1/2 dr.; Castile soap, 40 gr.; water, q. s. to form a mass. For 48 pills. An excellent remedy in costiveness, with loss of tone of the bowels.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, at bedtime.

=Pills, of Gu′aiacum (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ GUAIACI COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Powdered resin of guaiacum, 1 dr.; oxysulphide of antimony, 40 gr.; oil of cajeput, 12 drops; extract of gentian, q. s. to form a mass. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6, thrice daily; in gout, rheumatism, secondary syphilis, various obstinate cutaneous affections, &c.

2. (St B. Hosp.) Guaiacum, 30 gr.; ipecacuanha and opium, of each 3 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3. As the last.

=Pills, Halford’s.= See PILLS, GOUT.

=Pills, Dr Hamilton’s.= The same as the colocynth and henbane pill of the Ph. E. The compound pills of gamboge, now vended under the title of ‘MORISON’S NO. 2 PILLS,’ were long known in Scotland as Dr Hamilton’s Pills.

=Pills, Head′ache.= _Syn._ CEPHALIC PILLS; PILULÆ CEPHALICÆ, P. ANTICEPHALALGICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Caffeine, 15 gr.; aloes, 20 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, occasionally; when only one side of the head is affected.

2. (Broussais.) Extract of opium, 6 gr.; extracts of belladonna and henbane, of each 15 gr.; extract of lettuce, 30 gr.; butter of cacao, 4 dr. For 120 pills.——_Dose_, 1, twice or thrice daily; in headache, accompanying spasmodic affections, &c.

3. (Dr Wilson Philip.) Powdered nutmeg and rhubarb, of each 20 gr.; extract of chamomile, 20 gr.; oil of peppermint, 10 or 12 drops. For 30 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, thrice daily; in nervous headaches.

=Pills, Helvetius’s.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ALUMINIS HELVETII, L. _Prep._ Alum, 2 dr.; dragon’s blood, 1 dr.; honey of roses, to mix. For 48 pills. Astringent.

=Pills of Hem′lock (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ CONII COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Extract of hemlock, 5 dr.; powdered ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; treacle, q. s. Antispasmodic, expectorant, and narcotic.——_Dose_, 4 to 8 gr. (B. P. 5 to 10 gr.), twice or thrice daily; in hooping-cough, bronchitis, incipient phthisis, &c.

=Pills of Henbane (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYOSCYAMI ET ZINCI, L.; PILULES DE MEGLIN, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Extracts of henbane and Valerian, and oxide of zinc, equal parts. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 10; as an anodyne or sedative in neuralgia, nervous attacks, &c.

=Pills, Lady Hesketh’s.= See PILLS, DINNER.

=Pills, Hoffmann’s.= See PILLS OF CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.

=Pills, Holloway’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Pills, Hooper’s Female.= _Prep._ 1. (Gray.) Sulphate of iron and water, of each 8 oz.; dissolve, add, Barbadoes aloes, 2-1/2 lbs.; white canella, 6 oz.; myrrh, 2 oz.; opopanax, 1 oz.

2. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Barbadoes aloes, 8 oz.; dried sulphate of iron, 2-1/4 oz.; myrrh, extract of black hellebore, and Castile soap, of each 2 oz.; canella and ginger, of each 1 oz.; water, q. s.; divide the mass into 2-1/2- or 3-gr. pills, and put 40 in each box. Cathartic and emmenagogue.——_Dose_, 2, or more. “If we omit the soap, lessen the quantity of extract of hellebore, and increase that of the aloes, we think the form will be nearer that of the original.” (Cooley.)

=Pills of Hound’s-tongue.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PILULÆ CUM CYNOGLOSSÔ. _Prep._ Root-bark of hound’s-tongue, 4 dr.; henbane seeds, 4 dr.; extract of opium, 4 dr.; myrrh, 6 dr.; olibanum, 4 dr. and 48 gr.; saffron, 96 gr.; castor, 96 gr.; syrup of honey, 14 dr. Mix. Contains 1 gr. of extract of opium in 10 gr. The original form of NICOLANS contained styrax, and seems to have been the origin of the compound styrax pill, as well as of this compound.

=Pills, Humphrey’s.= See PILLS, PECTORAL.

=Pills, Hunter’s.= See PILLS, RENAL.

=Pills, Hydragogue.= See BONTIUS’S PILLS, &c.

=Pills, Hydropho′bia.= _Syn._ PILULÆ AD RABIEM, L. _Prep._ (Werlhoff.) Cantharides (in very fine powder), 2 gr.; belladonna and calomel, of each 4 gr.; camphor, 8 gr.; mucilage, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 3, twice daily.

=Pills of Iatropha.= (Dr Barham.) _Syn._ PILULÆ IATROPHÆ. _Prep._ Decorticated seeds of _Jatropha gossypifoli_, 3 dr.; gamboge, extract of colocynth and scammony, of each 1 dr. Make into 90 pills.——_Dose_, 1, 2, or more.

=Pills of In′dian Hemp.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CANNABIS INDICÆ, L. _Prep._ From alcoholic extract of Indian hemp, 1/2 dr.; sugar of milk, 1 dr.; mucilage, q. s. For 48 pills. An excellent pill for soothing pain and quieting the system, acting without causing headache or constipation of the bowels.——_Dose_, 1 pill, increased to 2 or more, as necessary.

=Pills of In′digo.= See PILLS, EPILEPSY.

=Pills of I′odide of Arsenic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ARSENICI IODIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Neligan.) Iodide of arsenic, 2 gr.; manna, 40 gr.; mucilage, q. s.; mix, and divide into 12 pills.

2. (Gardner.) Iodide of arsenic, 1 gr.; extract of hemlock, 20 gr. For 20 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, twice or thrice daily; in lepra, psoriasis, and some other scaly skin diseases.

=Pills of Iodide of Iron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI IODIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. Unoxidised iron filings (recently levigated), 20 gr.; iodine, 40 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 dr.; mix in a cold wedgwood-ware mortar, and triturate them together until the red colour of the mixture has entirely disappeared; then add, of powdered gum, 20 gr.; powdered sugar, 1 dr.; liquorice powder, q. s. to form a mass, and divide it into 48 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of dry iodide of iron.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 pills, twice or thrice a day.

2. (B. P.) Fine iron wire, 40 gr.; iodine, 80 gr.; refined sugar, in powder, 70 gr.; liquorice root, in powder, 140 gr.; distilled water, 50 minims. Agitate the iron with the iodine and the water in a strong stoppered ounce phial until the froth becomes white. Pour the fluid upon the sugar in a mortar, triturate briskly, and gradually add the liquorice.——_Dose_, 3 to 8 gr.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Protosulphate of iron, 60 gr.; iodide of potassium, 80 gr. (both in fine powder); mix, add of powdered tragacanth, 10 gr.; powdered sugar, 30 gr.; and form the whole into a mass with syrup, q. s. For 40 pills. Each pill contains nearly 2 gr. of the dry iodide, or about 2-1/2 gr. of the common hydrated iodide of the shops.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, as the last.

_Obs._ The above pills are reputed alterative, tonic, and emmenagogue, and are found peculiarly useful in indurations, scrofula, chlorosis, leucorrhœa, &c., when the administration of chalybeates is not contra-indicated.

=Pills of Iodide of Lead.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PLUMBI IODIDI, L. _Prep._ From iodide of lead, 15 gr.; powdered sugar, 1-1/2 dr.; mucilage, q. s. For 60 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, gradually increased to 3, or more, twice a day; in scrofula, scirrhus, &c.

=Pills of Iodide of Mer′cury.= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Green iodide of mercury and powdered ginger, of each 1 dr.; conserve of hips, 3 dr.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr., twice or thrice daily, as an alterative in scrofula and scrofulous syphilis, &c.

2. (COINDET’S PILLS.) From green iodide of mercury, 1 gr.; extract of liquorice, 20 gr.; mix, and divide into 8 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, as the last. Pills of red iodide of mercury are made in the same way, but, owing to its greater activity, only one fourth of the above quantity of iodide must enter into their composition.

=Pills of Iodide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ POTASSII IODIDI, L. _Prep._ 1. Iodide of potassium and powdered starch, of each 1/2 dr.; conserve of hips, q. s. For 36 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 6, thrice daily; in glandular indurations and enlargements, goiture, scrofula, &c.

2. (Vogt.) Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; burnt sponge and extract of dulcamara, of each 5 dr.; water, q. s. For 180 pills.——_Dose_, 4 to 6, twice a day, as the last.

=Pills of I′odine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ IODINII, L. _Prep._ (Radius.) Iodine, 6 gr.; extract of gentian, 1 dr.; powdered gum, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3; in scrofula, &c.; also, in mercurial and scorbutic salivation.

=Pills of Iodide of Silver.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ARGENTI IODIDI. (Dr Patterson.) _Prep._ Iodide of silver, nitrate of potash, of each 10 gr., rub together into a very fine powder, and add, liquorice powder, 1/2 dr.; white sugar, 20 gr.; mucilage, q. s.; to form a mass, to be divided into 40 pills; 1 three times a day.

=Pills of Iod′oform.= _Syn._ PILULÆ IODOFORMI, L. _Prep._ (Bouchardat.) Iodoform, 1/2 dr.; extract of wormwood (or gentian), 1 dr.; mix, and divide into 36 pills.——_Dose_, 1, twice or thrice daily; in scrofula, &c.

=Pills of Ipecac′uanha (Compound).= _Syn._ PILLS OF IPECACUANHA WITH SQUILLS, P. OF I. AND OPIUM; PILULÆ IPECACUANHA CUM SCILLÂ (Ph. L.), P. IPECACUANHÆ ET OPII (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Compound powder of ipecacuanha (Dover’s powder), 3 dr.; powdered ammoniacum and squills (freshly powdered), of each 1 dr.; treacle, q. s. to form a pill-mass. Anodyne, sudorific, and expectorant.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.; in chronic coughs and asthma, &c.

2. (Ph. E.) Dover’s powder, 3 parts; conserve of red roses, 1 part; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills. Resembles Dover’s powder in its effects. It is hence regarded by many as a useless preparation.

3. (B. P.) PILULA IPECACUANHÆ CUM SCILLÂ. _Prep._ Compound ipecacuanha powder, 3 oz.; fresh-dried squill, 1 oz.; ammoniacum in powder, 1 oz.; treacle, q. s. Beat all together.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

=Pills of I′ron (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), P. F. CUM MYRRHÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Myrrh (in powder), 2 dr.; carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; rub them together in a warm mortar, then add of sulphate of iron, 1 dr., and again triturate; lastly, add of treacle, 1 dr., and beat all together, to form a pill mass. An excellent mild chalybeate tonic and emmenagogue, similar in its properties to ‘Griffith’s Mixture,’——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., two or three times a day.

=Pills, Italian Black.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ITALICÆ NIGRÆ, P. ALOETICÆ FERRATÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Powdered aloes and dried sulphate of iron, equal parts; beaten up with rectified spirit, q. s., and divided into 2- or 2-1/2-gr. pills. See PILLS OF ALOES AND IRON.

=Pills of Jal′ap.= _Syn._ PILULÆ JALAPÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Extract of jalap, 2 dr.; aromatic powder, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Soap of jalap, 3 parts; powdered jalap, 1 part; beat them to a pill-mass.——_Dose_ (of either), 10 to 15 gr.

=Pills, James’s Analep′tic.= _Prep._ 1. Antimonial powder, guaiacum, and pill of aloes with myrrh, equal parts; syrup, q. s.

2. (Cooley.) Antimonial powder (James’s), pill aloes with myrrh, and compound aloes powder, of each 2 parts; powdered ammoniacum, 1 part; beaten up with tincture of castor, q. s., and divided into 3-1/2-gr. pills. A diaphoretic purge.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills.

=Pills, Dr J. Johnson’s.= _Prep._ From compound extract of colocynth, 2 dr.; calomel, 1/2 dr.; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 2 gr.; oil of cassia, 12 drops. For 4 dozen pills. An excellent alterative and diaphoretic aperient.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills.

=Pills, Kaye’s.= See PILLS, WORSDELL’S.

=Pills, Keyser’s.= _Prep._ (Guibourt.) Red oxide of mercury, 1-1/2 oz.; distilled vinegar (dilute acetic acid), 1 pint; dissolve, add to the resulting solution manna, 2 lbs., and triturate for a long time before the fire, until a proper consistence is attained; lastly, divide the mass into pills of 1-1/2 gr. each.

_Obs._ Keyser’s pills were once celebrated throughout Europe as a remedy possessing extraordinary virtue, and so highly were they prized that the method of preparing them was purchased by the French Government for the benefit of the nation. Richard, who first published a full account of them, concludes by observing that he considers this compound to be, without exception, the most effectual remedy for syphilis hitherto discovered. In this country, however, it has long sunk into comparative disuse with the faculty; probably from pills of acetate of suboxide of mercury being erroneously employed under the name, whereas, according to Robiquet, acetate of protoxide of mercury (called by him the ‘peroxide’) forms the basis of the original preparation. The dose is 1 to 2, night and morning, as an alterative; and 2 to 6, twice a day, as a sialogogue.

=Pills, King’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Pills, Kitchener’s.= _Syn._ Dr KITCHENER’S PERISTALTIC PERSUADERS; PILULÆ RHÆI ET CARUI, L. _Prep._ From powdered Turkey rhubarb, 2 dr.; simple syrup, 1 dr.; oil of caraway, 10 or 12 drops. For 40 pills. An admirable stomachic, dinner, or laxative pill, according to the quantity taken.——_Dose_, 2 to 6. “From 2 to 4 will generally produce one additional motion within 12 hours. The best time to take them is early in the morning.”

=Pills, Klein’s.= _Prep._ From ammoniacum and extract of centaury, of each 1-2 dr.; Castile soap, 1 dr.; oil of amber, 3 drops. For 2-gr. pills. Stomachic, emmenagogue, and pectoral.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 pills.

=Pills of Lac′tate of Iron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI LACTATIS, L. _Prep._ (Cap.) Lactate of protoxide of iron and powdered marshmallow root, equal parts; clarified honey, q. s. For 3-gr. pills. One of the most valuable of the chalybeates.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, three or four times a day.

=Pills of Lactuca′′rium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ LACTUCARII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Brera.) Lactucarium, 18 gr.; conserve of elder-berries and extract of liquorice, of each q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 pills, every three or four hours; in dry asthma, obstinate coughs without expectoration, &c.

2. (Dr Duncan.) Lactucarium, 12 gr.; liquorice powder, 20 gr.; simple syrup, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 pills, every hour, as an anodyne, or to induce sleep.

=Pills, Lartigue’s.= See PILLS, GOUT.

=Pills of Lead.= _Prep._ 1. See PILLS OF ACETATE OF LEAD.

2. (Opiated; PILULÆ PLUMBI OPIATÆ——Ph. E.; PILULA PLUMBI CUM OPIO——B. P.) Acetate of lead, 6 parts; opium, 1 part; conserve of red roses, about 1 part; beat them to a proper mass, and divide this into 4-gr. pills. “This pill may also be made with twice the quantity of opium.” In hæmorrhages, obstinate diarrhœa, dysentery, spitting of blood, and other cases demanding the use of a powerful astringent. It has also been highly extolled in cholera.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills, twice or thrice daily, washed down with water soured with pure vinegar.

=Pills, Lee’s Antibil′ious.= _Prep._ (‘Amer. Journ. of Pharm.’) Aloes, 12 oz.; scammony, 6 oz.; calomel, 5 oz.; gamboge, 4 oz.; jalap, 3 oz.; Castile soap and syrup of buckthorn, of each 1 oz.; mucilage, 7 oz.; beat them together, and divide the mass into 5-gr. pills. A powerful cathartic, and, from containing mercury, not adapted for frequent use. See WYNDHAM’S PILLS.

=Pills, Lewis’s Al′terative and Liver.= These “for the most part resemble SCOTT’S BILIOUS AND LIVER PILLS. They are, however, of a more drastic and powerful character, and frequently operate with considerable violence.”

=Pills, Lockstadt’s.= _Prep._ (Phœbus.) Sulphate of quinine, 3 gr.; aromatic powder, 10 gr.; essential oil of almonds, 1 drop; extract of gentian, q. s. For 10 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, thrice daily, as a stomachic tonic; or the whole at once, before an expected attack of an ague or intermittent.

=Pills, Lockyer’s.= _Prep._ From panacea of antimony, 6 gr.; powdered white sugar, 4 dr.; mucilage, q. s. For 48 pills. Cathartic and emetic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 pills.

=Pills of Lupulin.= (Magendie.) _Syn._ PILULÆ LUPULINI. _Prep._ The powder triturated forms a sufficiently tenacious mass for pills, without any addition.

=Pills, Dr Lynn’s.= _Prep._ From pill of aloes with myrrh and compound extract of colocynth, of each 1 dr.; calomel, 1/2 dr. For 4 dozen pills. Aperient and antibilious.——_Dose_, 1 to 3; in costiveness, biliousness, &c.

=Pills of Manganese, Carbonate.= (Hannon.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII CARBONATIS. _Prep._ Dissolve separately, 17 oz. of crystallised sulphate of manganese, and 19 oz. carbonate of soda, in water, q. s. Mix the solutions and add to every 17 oz. of the liquid, 1 oz. of syrup, and allow the precipitate to subside in a well-closed bottle. Pour off the supernatant liquid, wash the precipitate with sugared water, express, mix it with 10 oz. of honey, and evaporate rapidly to a pill consistence.——_Dose_, from 4 to 10 4-grain pills daily, in anæmia, chlorosis, &c.

=Pills of Manganese, Iodide.= (Hannon.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII IODIDI. _Prep._ Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; dried sulphate of manganese, 1 oz.; mix with honey, q. s. to form a pill mass; divide into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose._ From 1 pill daily, gradually increased.

=Pills of Manganese, Malate.= (Hannon.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII MALATIS. Malate of manganese, 15 gr.; powdered cinchona bark, 15 gr.; honey, q. s. for 20 pills. 3 to 5 or 6 daily.

=Pills of Manganese, Muriate.= (Niemann.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII MURIATIS. _Prep._ Chloride of manganese, 2 scruples; gum Arabic, 2 scruples; liquorice, 1 scruple. Mix.

=Pills of Manganese, Phosphate.= (Hannon.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII PHOSPHATIS. _Prep._ Phosphate of manganese, 1-1/2 dr.; cinchona bark, 1/2 dr.; syrup of catechu, q. s. Make into 4-gr. pills.

=Pills of Manganese, Tartrate.= _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII TARTRATIS. As Pills of Malate Manganese.

=Pills of Manganese and Sulphate of Iron.= (Hannon.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MANGANESII ET FERRI SULPHATIS. _Prep._ Sulphate of iron, 13 oz.; sulphate of manganese, 3-1/2 oz.; carbonate of soda, 17-1/2 oz.; honey, 10 oz.; syrup, q. s. to make a mass to be divided into 4-gr. pills.

=Pills, Mar′tial.= _Syn._ PILLS OF IRON AND WORMWOOD; PILULÆ FERRI CUM ABSINTHIO, P. MARTIALES, L. _Prep._ (Sydenham.) Levigated iron-filings, 1 dr.; extract of wormwood, q. s. Tonic and hæmatinic.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr., twice a day.

=Pills, Matthew’s.= _Syn._ PILULÆ MATTHÆI, P. PACIFICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Paris.) Black hellebore, Castile soap, liquorice, opium, saffron, and turmeric, equal parts; made into pills with oil of turpentine.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Opium and saffron, of each 1 dr.; castor, 2 dr.; soap of turpentine, 3 dr.; balsam of copaiba (or oil of turpentine), q. s. to form a mass. Alterative and anodyne.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.

=Pills, McKinsey’s.= See MCKINSEY’S KATAPOTIA, among PATENT MEDICINES.

=Pills, Meglin’s.= _Syn._ PILULES DE MEGLIN, Fr. See PILLS OF HENBANE (Compound).

=Pills, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ BLUE PILL; PILULA HYDRARGYRI (B. P.), PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI (Ph. L.), PILULÆ H. (Ph. E. & D.), P. MERCURIALES, L.; PILULES MERCURIELLES, Fr. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 4 dr.; confection of roses, 6 dr.; rub them together until globules can no longer be seen; then add of liquorice powder, 2 dr., and beat the whole together, so that a proper mass may be formed.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last; afterwards dividing the mass into 5-gr. pills.

3. (Ph. D.) As the Ph. L. formula, but taking four times the quantity of the respective ingredients.

4. (B. P.) Mercury, 2; confection of roses, 3; decorticated liquorice root, in fine powder, 1; rub the mercury with the confection of roses until metallic globules are no longer visible, then add the liquorice, and mix the whole well together.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr. as an alterative, 10 gr. as a purgative.

_Obs._ The remarks under ‘MERCURIAL OINTMENT’ (p. 1179), for the most part, also apply here. This pill, when properly prepared, presents no globules of mercury when moderately rubbed on a piece of white paper, and immediately communicates a white stain to a piece of bright gold or copper. It possesses considerable density, and has a dark blue or slate colour. It contains 1-3rd of its weight of mercury, which may be ascertained from its sp. gr.; or, more exactly, by an assay for the metal. It is the mildest and the most extensively used of all the mercurial preparations.——_Dose._ As an alterative, 1 to 3 gr.; as a purgative, 10 to 15 gr.; and as a sialogogue, 5 or 6 gr., or more, twice or thrice daily. To prevent it affecting the bowels, it is commonly combined with either rhubarb or opium. A blue pill taken over-night, and a black draught in the morning, is a popular remedy in bilious complaints. See ABERNETHY MEDICINES.

5. (Collier.) Mercury, 2 dr.; sesquioxide of iron, 1 dr.; confection of red roses, 3 dr.; triturated, as before, until the globules disappear. An excellent extemporaneous substitute for the common mercurial pill. The addition of only a few grs. of the sesquioxide of iron to 1 oz. of conserve, renders the latter capable of rapidly killing a large quantity of quicksilver.

6. (Tyson.) Grey oxide of mercury (prepared by decomposing calomel with liquor of potassa to which a little liquor of ammonia has been added), 2 dr.; confection of roses, 6 dr.; powdered chamomiles, 1 dr.; mix. As a substitute for the College pill.

7. (‘Pharm. Journ.’) Stearin, 1 dr.; rub it in a warm mortar till it assumes the consistence of thick cream, then add of mercury, 4 dr., and again triturate until the globules disappear; next further add, of confection of roses and wheaten flour, of each 3 dr., powdered gum, 1 dr., and form the whole into a pill-mass. As a substitute for the College pill.

8. (PILULÆ HYDRARGYROSÆ——P. Cod.) Mercury and honey, of each 6 dr.; triturate till the globules are extinguished, then add of aloes, 6 dr.; rhubarb, 3 dr.; scammony, 2 dr.; black pepper, 1 dr.; and make a pill-mass as before. Contains 1-4th part of quicksilver. Alterative and aperient.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr. BELLOSTE’S, BARBAROSSA’S, SÉDILLOT’S, and MORELOT’S PILLS are nearly similar compounds. See PILLS OF CALOMEL and CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, &c.

9. (PILULÆ UNGUENTI HYDRARGYRI——Biett.) _Prep._ Mercurial ointment, powdered sarsaparilla, 1 dr. Mix, and divide into 48 pills. From 1 to 4 daily.

10. (PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI CUM SAPONE——P. Cod.) _Prep._ Mercurial ointment, 2 dr.; soap, 4 scruples; liquorice powder, 2 scruples. Make into 3-gr. pills.

=Pills, Mercurial (Arabic).= _Syn._ PILULÆ MERCURIALES ARABICÆ, L. _Prep._ Take of quicksilver and corrosive sublimate, of each 1/2 dr.; triturate them patiently together until the globules disappear; then add, of agaric, pellitory, and senna, of each 1 dr.; honey, q. s. to make a pill-mass. For 3-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 a day. Employed in the ‘traitement arabique’ for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases.

=Pills, Mercurial, Hahnemann’s.= (F. H.) _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI HAHNEMANNI. _Prep._ Hahnemann’s soluble mercury, 20 gr.; gum Arabic, 30 gr.; sugar, 30 gr. Mix, and divide into 30 pills.

=Pills, Mitchell’s.= _Prep._ Aloes, 1/2 dr.; rhubarb, 1 dr.; calomel, 6 gr.; emetic tartar, 2 gr. For 36 pills. An alterative aperient.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills.

=Pills, Moat’s.= Similar to MORISON’S PILLS.

=Pills, Morison’s.= _Prep._——_a._ (No. 1 Pills.) From aloes and cream of tartar, equal parts, made into a mass with either syrup or mucilage. A mild aperient.

_b._ (No. 2 pills.) From colocynth, 1 part; gamboge, 2 parts; aloes, 3 parts; and cream of tartar, 4 parts; made into a mass with syrup, as the last. An active purgative, often acting with great violence. Both No. 1 and No. 2 are divided into 3-gr. pills, of which 4 dozen are put into each 1s. 1-1/2d. box. The proper dose of either is 1 to 3 or 4 pills; but they are often given by the Morisons in doses of 12, 20, 30, or even more, daily. For the history of these pills and their proprietors, see ‘Anat. of Quackery,’ or ‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 9-27.

=Pills of Mor′phia.= _Syn._ PILULÆ MORPHIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Morphine, 1 gr.; conserve of roses (stiff), q. s. For 6 (or, better, 8) pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill; as an anodyne or soporific.

=Pills of Morphia (Compound).= (Rougier.) _Syn._ PILULÆ MORPHIÆ COMPOSITÆ. _Prep._ Sulphate of morphia, 2 gr.; cyanide of potassium, 4 gr.; mucilage, q. s. Make into 24 pills; 1 every six hours, in neuralgia.

=Pills, Moseley’s.= _Prep._ Finest Turkey rhubarb, 60 gr.; Jamaica ginger, 30 gr.; sugar, 20 gr. (all in powder); tincture of rhubarb, q. s. to form a mass. For 4-gr. pills. A mild and excellent medicine, closely resembling KITCHENER’S PERISTALTIC PERSUADERS.

=Pills of Musk.= _Syn._ PILULÆ MOSCHI, L. _Prep._ (Dupuytren.) Opium, 2 gr.; musk (genuine), 8 gr.; camphor (in powder), 24 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 8 pills. Antispasmodic and stimulant.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, thrice daily, in low nervous affections; or the whole during the day in hospital gangrene, &c.

=Pills of Myrrh.= See PILLS OF ALOES AND MYRRH.

=Pills, Napier’s Neuroton′ic.= Of these, like MORISON’S PILLS, there are No. 1 and No. 2. The first is a simple stomachic aperient; the other, a stimulant tonic. They both owe their sale and reputed virtues to extensive advertising. (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Pills, Napoleon’s.= See PECTORAL PILLS.

=Pills, Neuralg′ia.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTINEURALGICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Marchal De Calvi.) Aqueous extract of opium, 4 gr.; sulphate of quinine, 16 gr.; powdered cinnamon, powdered orange leaves, and extract of valerian, of each 20 gr.; syrup of belladonna, q. s. For 3 dozen pills.——_Dose_, 1, hourly.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Extracts of opium and stramonium, of each 8 gr.; oxide of zinc, 2 dr.; syrup, q. s. For 40 pills.——_Dose_, 1, every two or three hours, gradually increased in frequency until there is some considerable disorder of vision, &c. Both of the above should be used with care. See PILLS, MEGLIN’S, &c.

=Pills of Ni′trate of Bismuth.= _Syn._ PILULÆ BISMUTHI TRISNITRATIS, L. _Prep._ From trisnitrate of bismuth and powdered rhubarb, equal parts; syrup of orange peel, q. s. to form a mass. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, every two hours; as a tonic, stomachic, and antispasmodic, in dyspepsia, debility, spasms, &c.

=Pills of Nitrate of Mercury.= _Syn._ PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI PROTO-NITRATIS. PILULES DE SAINTE MARIE. _Prep._ Powder of proto-nitrate of mercury, 7-1/2 gr.; extract of liquorice, 1/2 dr. Mix accurately, and divide into 60 pills.——_Dose_, 1, four times a day.

=Pills of Nitrate of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ARGENTI NITRATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Nitrate of silver (crystallised), 12 gr.; liquorice powder, 24 gr.; treacle, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, twice or thrice a day; in chronic epilepsy and some other spasmodic disorders.

2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Nitrate of silver, 6 gr.; crum of bread, q. s. (say 1/2 dr.); mix, and divide into 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1, every six hours.

_Obs._ To prevent the blue or slate coloured tinge of the skin, so often produced by the continued use of the salts of silver, 8 drops of diluted nitric acid in 1 fl. oz. of water should be taken after each pill.

=Pills, Norton’s Chamomile.= _Prep._ From aqueous extract of aloes, 1 dr.; extract of gentian, 3 dr.; mix, and drive off the excess of moisture by the heat of a water bath; then add of essential oil of chamomiles, 20 drops, and divide the mass into 60 pills. To preserve their aromatic properties, they should be kept in a dry glass bottle or a well-covered earthenware pot.——_Dose_, 1, as a dinner pill; or 2, night and morning, as a stomachic tonic. (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Pills of Nux Vom′ica.= _Syn._ PILULÆ NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Nux vomica and aloes (both in powder), equal parts; syrup, q. s. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily, carefully watching the effects; in nervous derangement, general debility, impotence, paralysis, &c.

2. Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 1 part; powdered sugar, 2 parts; beaten up with rectified spirit, q. s. For 2-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2; as the last.

3. (Mondière.) Alcoholic extract, 6 gr.; levigated black oxide of iron, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. In atonic incontinence of urine, amenorrhœa, &c.

=Pills, Odontal′gic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ODONTALGICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Bor.) Powdered opium and extracts of belladonna and henbane, of each 10 gr.; oil of olives, 20 drops; powdered pellitory of Spain, 1/2 dr.; beat them to a mass, and divide it into 1-gr. pills; keep them in a corked phial.

=Pills, Opiated Lead.= See PILLS OF LEAD.

=Pills of O′′pium.= _Syn_. ANODYNE PILLS, NIGHT P., THEBAIC P.; PILULÆ OPII (Ph. U. S.), P. O. or THEBAICÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Opium and conserve of red roses, of each 1 part; sulphate of potash, 3 parts; rub them together to a proper mass, and divide into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 pills, as an anodyne or soporific. Each pill contains 1 gr. of opium, or double the quantity in the same pill of the previous edition of the Ph. E.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered opium, 1 dr.; Castile soap, 12 gr.; water, q. s. For 60 pills. As the last.

=Pills of Ox-Gall.= _Syn._ BILE PILL; PILULÆ FELLIS BOVINI, P. BILIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From inspissated ox-gall formed into pills by the addition of any simple powder; or the harder extract beaten up with a little proof spirit. Powdered rhubarb is frequently used for the purpose. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 6; for constipation, flatulence, &c., arising from a deficiency of bile.

2. (Compound.) From inspissated ox-gall, 1 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 1/2 dr.; powdered ipecacuanha and capsicum, of each 15 gr.; oil of caraway, 12 drops. For 48 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4; in loss of appetite and dyspepsia, with torpor of the bowels, &c. See CONSTIPATION, GALL, &c.

=Pills of Ox′ide of Gold.= _Syn._ PILULÆ AURI OXYDI, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Teroxide of gold, 5 gr.; extract of mezereon, 2 dr.; mix, and divide into 60 pills. Each pill contains 1/12 gr. of teroxide.——_Dose_, 1 to 3; in scrofula, syphilis, malignant fevers, &c.

=Pills of Oxide of Mercury.= See PILLS, MERCURIAL.

=Pills of Oxide of Sil′ver.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ARGENTI OXYDI, L. _Prep._ From oxide of silver, 6 gr.; powdered rhubarb and extract of gentian, of each 12 gr. For 1 dozen pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, twice or thrice daily; in gastralgia, hæmorrhages, nervous affections, &c. Milder than the pills of nitrate of silver.

=Pills of Oxide of Zinc.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ZINCI OXYDI, L. _Prep._ From oxide of zinc, powdered cascarilla, and conserve of hips, equal parts. For 3-1/2-gr. pills. Tonic and antispasmodic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, thrice daily; in dyspepsia, gastric or spasmodic coughs, epilepsy, chorea, &c.

=Pills, Parr’s Life.= _Prep._ Aloes, 7 lbs.; rhubarb and jalap, of each 5 lbs. (all in powder); extract of gentian, 3-1/2 lbs.; soft soap, 1/2 lb.; liquorice powder, treacle, and moist sugar, of each 4-1/2 lbs.; oil of cloves, 10 oz.; oil of caraway, 3-1/2 oz.; mix, and beat the whole to a proper mass with syrup bottoms, q. s., and divide it into 3-1/2-gr. pills. “There are about 4 dozen in each 1s. 1-1/2d. box, weighing (dry) barely 3 gr. each.” A good stomachic and aperient pill, but possessing none of the extraordinary virtues ascribed to it by its proprietors. (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 146, 167, &c.)

=Pills of Paullin′ia.= _Syn._ GUARANA PILLS; PILULÆ GUARANÆ, P. PAULLINIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Paullinia mixed up with syrup of orange peel, and the mass divided into 2-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 8.

2. (Dr Gavrelle.) Extract of guarana, 1 dr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 40 pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6, daily.

_Obs._ These pills are highly esteemed on the Continent as a tonic and astringent, in diseases of the bowels and bladder, in chlorosis, debility, &c.

=Pec′toral Pills.= _Syn._ BREATH PILLS; PILULÆ PECTORALES, L. _Prep._ 1. Compound squill pill, 1 dr.; gum benzoin, 1/2 dr.; powdered ipecacuanha and extract of henbane, of each 15 gr.; syrup, q. s. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, three or four times a day; in asthmas, chronic bronchial affections, coughs, &c.

2. (Dr Copland.) Camphor (in powder), 10 gr.; ipecacuanha, 15 gr.; extract of hemlock, 1 dr.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr.; in irritating and spasmodic coughs, &c.

3. (Haggart.) Powdered ipecacuanha and squills, of each 1/2 dr.; acetate of morphia, 6 gr.; Castile soap, 3 dr.; mix, and divide into 72 pills. A most excellent medicine, at once soothing and expectorant.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, thrice a day, or oftener.

4. (HUMPHRIES’ COUGH PILLS.) From powdered ipecacuanha, 15 gr.; compound squill-pill, 1 dr.; compound extract of colocynth, 1/2 dr. For 3-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 pills, night and morning.

5. (Dr Latham.) Compound powder of ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; fresh squill and gum ammoniacum, of each 20 gr.; calomel, 4 gr. For 20 pills. A most valuable pectoral and expectorant.——_Dose_, 1 pill, thrice daily; in bronchitis, coughs, &c., after the more active inflammatory symptoms have subsided.

6. (Napoleon’s.) From ipecacuanha, 30 gr.; squills and ammoniacum, of each 40 gr. (all in powder); mucilage, q. s. to mix. For 24 pills. It is said that this was a favourite remedy with the Emperor Napoleon I for difficulty of breathing, bronchitis, and various affections of the organs of respiration.——_Dose_, 2 pills, night and morning.

7. (Dr Paris.) Powdered squills, 1/2 dr.; powdered myrrh, 1-1/2 dr.; extract of henbane, 40 gr.; water (or simple syrup), q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. pills,——_Dose_, 2 pills, night and morning. As No. 2.

8. (Ph. L. 1746.) Gum ammoniacum, 4 dr.; gum benzoin, 3 dr.; gum myrrh, 2 dr.; saffron, 1 dr.; anisated balsam of sulphur, 1/2 dr.; syrup of tolu, q. s. to mix.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.

9. (Richter.) Assafœtida and valerian, of each 1/2 dr.; castor, 15 gr.; powdered squills and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, of each 8 gr.; extract of aconite (alcoholic), 3 gr. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills, night and morning; in spasmodic affections of the respiratory organs.

=Pills, Perpe′tual.= See PILLS, EVERLASTING.

=Pills, Peter’s.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Aloes, 3 dr.; gamboge, jalap, and scammony, of each 2 dr. (all in powder); calomel, 1 dr.; beaten up with rectified spirit, q. s. A powerful cathartic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills.

=Pills of Phosphorus.= (B. P.) _Syn._ PILULÆ PHOSPHORI. _Prep._ Phosphorus, 2 gr.; balsam of tolu, 120 gr.; yellow wax, 60 gr. Put the phosphorus and balsam into a wedgwood mortar half full of hot water, and when the phosphorus has melted and the balsam become sufficiently soft, rub them together beneath the surface of the water until no particles of phosphorus are visible, the temperature of the water being maintained at or near 140° F. Add now the wax, and as it softens mix it thoroughly with the other ingredients. Allow the mass to cool without being exposed to the air, and keep it in a bottle immersed in cold water. It may be softened with a few drops of rectified spirit when made into pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6 gr.

=Pills of Pi′perine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PIPERINÆ, L. _Prep._ From piperine, 1/2 dr.; extract of cinchona, q. s. For 30 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, every two hours, during the intermission of an ague; also as an aphrodisiac and a remedy in piles.

=Pills of Pitch.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PICIS NIGRÆ, L. _Prep._ From black pitch and powdered black pepper, equal parts; beaten together in a warm mortar, and divided into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 pills, night and morning; in piles, &c.

=Pills, Pitschaft’s Eccopro′tic.= _Prep._ From strained aloes and disulphate of quinine, equal parts; made into 2-gr. pills. A tonic and stomachic aperient.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, at bedtime; in torpor of the large intestines, the dyspepsia of the debilitated, &c.

=Pills of Podophyllin.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PODOPHYLLINI. _Prep._ Resin of podophyllin, 1/4 gr. Extract of henbane. To make one pill. One or two for a dose.

=Pills of Prussian Blue.= (Jolly.) _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI PERCYANIDI COMPOSITA. _Prep._ Prussian blue, 18 gr,; sulphate of quinine, 12 gr,; extract of opium, 1 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s. Mix, and make into 12 pills; 1 every three hours, in neuralgia.

=Pills, Plummer’s.= See PILLS OF CALOMEL (Compound).

=Pills, Pu′rgative.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PURGANTES, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr Robinson.) Aqueous extract of aloes, 1 dr.; powdered scammony, 1/2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 10 or 12 gr.; oil of caraway, 9 or 10 drops; mix, and divide into 30 pills. A warm, stimulating aperient, highly recommended to excite the peristaltic action of the bowels of the aged, sedentary, and debilitated.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 pills, as required.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Resin of jalap, 1 dr.; scammony, 1/2 dr.; extract of colocynth, 6 gr.; excipient, as required. For 20 (or, better, 24) pills.——_Dose_, 1, “every two hours, in the morning, fasting, until they operate.” For other formulae see PILLS, APERIENT and CATHARTIC, and PILLS OF ALOES, JALAP, COLOCYNTH, &c.

=Pills of Quinine′.= See PILLS OF SULPHATE OF QUININE.

=Pills, Reece’s.= See PILLS, CHIRAYTA.

=Pills, Re′nal.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RENALES, L. _Prep._ 1. Squills, myrrh, and digitalis, of each (in powder) 10 gr.; extract of rhubarb and mercurial pill, of each 15 gr.; powdered nitre, 20 gr.; oil of juniper, 10 or 12 drops. For 24 pills. Alterative, diuretic, and tonic.——_Dose_, 3 to 6, thrice a day. Hunter’s Renal Purifying Pills are similar, but omitting the mercurial pill. De Roos’ Renal Pills contain a preparation of copaiba.

=Pills, Rhe′umatism.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTIRHEUMATICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Gum guaiacum, 1 dr.; nitrate of potassia, 1-1/2 dr. (both in powder); soft soap (Ph. L.), 1/2 dr.; oil of cajeput, 16 drops. For 4 dozen pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 6, night and morning; in chronic rheumatism, and rheumatic gout. Their action is accelerated by the copious use of lemon juice during the day.

2. (Beasley.) Extract of artichoke, 1/2 dr.; powdered sarsaparilla, 20 gr.; oil of sassafras, 1 drop. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, thrice daily.

=Pills of Rh′ubarb.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RHEI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 9 parts; acetate of potassa, 1 part; conserve of red roses, 5 parts; mix, and divide into 5-gr. pills. A stomachic and gentle aperient, particularly useful in atonic dyspepsia.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered rhubarb, 6 dr; Castile soap, 2 dr.; beaten up with water, q. s., and divide into 120 pills. As the last.

=Pills of Rhubarb (Compound).= _Syn._ AROMATIC PILLS, BALSAMIC LAXATIVE P., EDINBURGH P., STOMACHIC P.; PILULA RHEI COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), PILULÆ R. COMPOSITÆ (Ph. E. & D.), P. STOMACHICÆ, P. AROMATICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered rhubarb, 4 dr.; powdered Socotrine aloes, 3 dr.; powdered myrrh, 2 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), 1/2 dr.; oil of caraway, 15 drops; treacle, q. s. to form a mass.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz.; aloes, 6 dr.; myrrh, 4 dr.; Castile soap, 1 dr.; oil of caraway, 1/2 fl. dr.; syrup, q. s.

3. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 12 parts; aloes, 9 parts; myrrh and Castile soap, of each 6 parts; conserve of red roses, 5 parts; oil of peppermint, 1 part; mix, and divide into 5-gr, pills. The oil of peppermint may be omitted, when so preferred.

4. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 1-1/2 oz.; hepatic aloes, 9 dr.; myrrh and Castile soap, of each in fine powder, 6 dr.; oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr.; treacle, 2 oz.; mix, and beat the whole to a uniform mass.

5. (Ph. U. S. & Ph. E. 1817.) Rhubarb, 8 dr.; aloes, 6 dr.; myrrh, 4 dr.; oil of peppermint, 1/2 fl. dr.; syrup of orange peel, q. s.; mix, and divide into 240 pills.

6. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in fine powder, 3 oz.; Socotrine aloes, in fine powder (some physicians prefer the aqueous extract——_Squire_), 2-1/2 oz.; myrrh, in fine powder, 1-1/2 oz.; hard soap, 1-1/2 oz.; English oil of peppermint, 1-1/2 dr.; treacle, by weight, 4 oz.; reduce the soap to fine powder and triturate it with the rhubarb, aloes, and myrrh; add the treacle and oil, and beat into a mass.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 gr.

_Obs._ The above are tonic, stomachic, and gently laxative; extremely useful for obviating costiveness and giving tone to the stomach and bowels.——_Dose_, 6 or 8 to 20 gr. The London pill is not only the most agreeable, but it keeps the best.

=Pills of Rhubarb and Ca′raway.= See KITCHENER’S PERISTALTIC PERSUADERS (Patent medicines).

=Pills of Rhubarb and Cham′omile.= _Syn._ SPEEDIMAN’S PILLS; PILULÆ RHEI ET ANTHEMIDIS, L. _Prep._ From aloes, myrrh, rhubarb (each in powder), and extract of chamomile, of each 1 dr.; essential oil of chamomile, 10 or 12 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An excellent tonic and stomachic aperient, particularly useful in the dyspepsia and loss of appetite of hard drinkers.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills, either before dinner or at bedtime.

=Pills of Rhubarb and Copa′iba.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RHEI ET COPAIBÆ, P. R. BALSAMICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Swediaur.) Powdered rhubarb and gum, equal parts; balsam of copaiba, q. s.

=Pills of Rhubarb and Gi′nger.= _Syn._ STOMACH PILLS; PILULÆ RHEI ET ZINGIBERIS, L. _Prep._ From powdered rhubarb, 1 dr.; powdered ginger, 1/2 dr.; Castile soap, 20 gr.; tincture or essence of ginger, q. s. to form a mass. For 30 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 6.

=Pills of Rhubarb and Ipeca′cuanha.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RHEI ET IPECACUANHÆ, L. _Prep._ From rhubarb, 1/2 dr.; ipecacuanha, 15 gr.; opium, 5 gr. (each in powder); oil of cinnamon, 6 drops; syrup, q. s. For 18 pills.——_Dose._ In loss of appetite and spasmodic dyspepsia, 1 to 3 pills, twice a day; in dysentery, diarrhœa, &c., to relieve tormina and tenesmus, 1 every two hours.

=Pills of Rhubarb and I′ron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RHEI ET FERRI (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Dried sulphate of iron, 4 parts; extract of rhubarb, 10 parts; conserve of red roses, 5 parts; beat them to a proper mass, and divide this into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills; in the atonic dyspepsia of debilitated subjects, in chlorosis, &c.

=Pills of Rhubarb and Ox-gall.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RHEI ET FELLIS BOVINI, L. _Prep._ From powdered rhubarb, gum ammoniacum, and inspissated ox-gall, equal parts; beaten up with a little tincture of ginger or proof spirit, and the mass divided into 2-1/2-gr. pills. In dyspepsia and constipation dependent on a torpid action of the liver.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 pills.

=Pills of Rhubarb and So′da.= _Syn._ PILULÆ RHEI ET SODÆ, P. R. COMP. CUM SODÂ, L. _Prep._ (Guy’s Hosp.) Dried carbonate of soda, powdered rhubarb, and extract of gentian, equal parts. For 4-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills; in acidity, heartburn, diarrhœa, loss of appetite, &c.

=Pills, Richter’s.= See PECTORAL PILLS.

=Pills, Dr Robinson’s.= See PILLS, PURGATIVE.

=Pills, Rudius’s.= _Syn._ RUDIUS’S EXTRACT; PILULÆ RUDII, EXTRACTUM RUDII, L. _Prep._ 1. Colocynth pulp, 6 dr.; agaric, black hellebore, and turpethum root, of each 4 dr.; cinnamon, mace, and cloves, of each 40 gr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; digest for 4 days, express the tincture, and evaporate it to a proper consistence for making pills. Formerly esteemed one of the most safe and certain cathartics in troublesome constipation.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.

2. (Ph. E. 1783.) Black hellebore and colocynth, of each 2 oz.; water, 4 pints (o. w. m.); boil to a quart, strain, evaporate to the consistence of honey, and add, of aloes, 2 oz.; scammony (powdered), 1 oz.; next remove the vessel from the fire, and further add of sulphate of potassa, 2 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; and form the whole into a pill-mass. Resembles the last (nearly).

=Pills, Rufus’s.= See PILLS OF ALOES WITH MYRRH.

=Pills of Sabadilla.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CEVADILLÆ. _Prep._ Equal parts of sabadilla and honey; make into 5-gr. pills.——_Dose._ For an adult, 4 to 6 pills; for a child, 1 to 2. Vermifuge.

=Pills of Sa′ffron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CROCI, L. _Prep._ 1. From hay saffron, 1 dr.; myrrh, 1/2 dr.; oil of cajeput, 6 drops; syrup of saffron, q. s. For 36 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 or 4, occasionally; as a stimulant in low spirits, hypochondriasis, &c.

2. (Phœbus.) Saffron, myrrh, and sulphur, equal parts; inspissated bile, q. s. For 2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 12 daily; as an emmenagogue.

=Pills of Sagape′num (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ SAGAPENI COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Sagapenum, 1 oz.; aloes, 1/2 dr.; syrup of ginger, q. s.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.; as a stimulant antispasmodic laxative, in dyspepsia with flatulence, flatulent colic, &c.

=Pills of Sal′icin.= _Syn._ PILULÆ SALICINÆ, L. _Prep._ From salicin, 1/2 dr.; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr.; extract of gentian, q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, every three hours, during the apyrexia of intermittents.

=Pills of Sandal Wood Oil.= (Ebert.) _Syn._ PILULÆ OLEI SANTALI. _Prep._ Oil of yellow sandal wood, 1/2 oz.; yellow wax, 1/2 oz. Melt the wax into a capsule, and weigh into it the oil of sandal wood. Mix, and stir until cold, then roll out the mass and divide it into 80 pills, by means of the pill machine or pill-tite, in the same manner as in the ordinary mass, and sprinkle with marshmallow root powder. Each pill contains about 3 gr. or about 5 drops of the oil. The excipient is unobjectionable, as it is readily soluble in the juices of the stomach.

=Pills of Scam′mony (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ SCAMMONII COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (St. B. Hosp.) Scammony, 24 gr.; ginger, 20 gr.; aloes and gamboge, of each 12 gr.; treacle, q. s.; mix, and divide into 12 pills. A powerful cathartic and vermifuge.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills.

2. (B. P.) Resin of scammony, resin of jalap, of each 1 oz.; curd soap, in powder, 1 oz.; strong tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. Add the tincture and spirit to the soap and resins, and dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat, then evaporate the spirit over a water-bath until the mass has a pilular consistence.——_Dose_, 5 gr. to 15 gr.

=Pills, Scot’s.= _Prep._ From aloes, 9 lbs.; jalap, 3 lbs.; gamboge and ginger, of each 1/2 lb.; beaten with treacle, q. s. See PILLS, ANDERSON’S SCOT’S.

=Pills, Dr Scott’s Bil′ious and Liver.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 8 oz.; powdered rhubarb, 4 oz.; powdered myrrh, 2 oz.; soft soap, 1/2 oz.; oil of caraway, 2-1/2 dr.; strong syrup of saffron, q. s. to form a pill-mass. “There are twenty-five 3-1/2-gr. pills in each 1s. 1-1/2d. box.” “It has been stated that these pills contain a minute portion of antimony.” (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Pills, Se′dative.= _Syn._ PILULÆ SEDATIVÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; powdered sumbul, 20 gr.; alcoholic extract of Indian hemp, 1/2 dr. For 2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily; in excessive nervous irritability, painful menstruation, &c.

2. (U. C. Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr.; reduce it to powder by means of rectified spirit, 3 or 4 drops; add of extract of henbane, 20 gr., and divide the mass into 20 pills. To allay pain and excitement, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 2 pills.

3. To either of the above, add of powdered rhubarb and extract of gentian, of each 20 gr., and divide the mass into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4 pills; when, besides the other symptoms, the stomach and bowels are disordered.

=Pills, Sedillot’s Febrifuge.= _Prep._ From powdered opium, 3 gr.; sulphate of quinine, 12 gr.; confection of opium, 10 gr., or q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, every second hour, during the intermission of an ague.

=Pills of Sen′na.= _Syn._ PILULÆ SENNÆ, P. S. COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Powdered senna, 1 dr.; extract of rhubarb, 1/2 dr.; powdered capsicum, 4 gr.; oil of juniper, 6 or 8 drops. For 3-gr. pills. An aperient well suited for females.——_Dose_, 5 to 8 pills.

2. (Hufeland.) Powdered senna, 1 dr.; extract of dandelion, q. s. to mix. For 30 pills. As the last.

=Pills, Smith’s.= _Prep._ From powdered aloes, 4 dr.; jalap, 2 dr.; ginger and soft soap, of each 1 dr.; oil of juniper, 1/2 dr.; emetic tartar, 6 gr. For 120 pills. Laxative and diuretic.——_Dose_, 1 to 4, at bedtime, or early in the morning.

=Pills, Dr Hugh Smith’s.= See STOMACH PILLS.

=Pills of Soap.= _Syn._ PILULÆ SAPONIS, P. CUM SAPONE, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) White Castile soap, 32 parts; powdered marshmallow root, 4 parts; powdered nitrate of potassa, 1 part; beat them to a mass, and divide this into 4-gr. pills. In habitual costiveness, calculary affections, &c.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 pills, twice or thrice a day.

=Pills of Soap (Compound).= _Syn._ PILLS OF SOAP AND OPIUM, LAUDANUM PILLS; PILULA SAPONIS COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PILULÆ SAPONIS CUM OPIO, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Opium and liquorice, of each (in powder) 2 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), 6 dr.; beat them to a uniform mass.

2. (B. P. & Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine powder), 1/2 oz.; Castile soap, 2 oz.; distilled water, 1/2 fl. dr., or q. s.; reduce the soap to powder, mix it with the other ingredients, and beat the whole together, as before.——_Dose_, 3 gr. to 5 gr. See PILLS OF OPIUM.

_Obs._ The above pills contain 1-5th part of their weight in dry opium. The dose is 3 to 10 gr., in the usual cases in which the administration of opium is indicated. Mr Skey, the eminent surgeon of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, has shown the great value of this pill in promoting the healing of obstinate ulcers, more especially those of the legs.

=Pills of Soda.= _Syn._ PILULÆ SODÆ CARBONATIS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E. 1817.) Exsiccated carbonate of soda, 4 parts; Castile soap, 3 parts; syrup, q. s. to form a mass. Antacid and slightly laxative.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr. This pill was a great favourite of the once celebrated Dr Beddoes.

=Pills, Soot.= (Dr Neligan.) _Syn._ PILULÆ FULIGINIS. _Prep._ Extract of soot, 1/2 dr.; compound galbanum pill, 1 scruple; oil of valerian, 15 minims. Make into 12 pills. Take 2 three times a day. For hysteria.

=Pills, Speediman’s.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Aloes, 3 dr.; rhubarb, myrrh (all in powder), and extract of chamomile, of each 1 dr.; oil of chamomile, 20 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An excellent aperient, tonic, and stomachic.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 pills, as a purgative; 1, as a stomachic or dinner pill.

=Pills, Splenet′ic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTISPLENETICÆ, L. _Prep._ (Saunders.) Strained aloes and gum ammoniacum, of each 3 dr.; myrrh and bryony, of each 1/2 dr. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 5, “Extolled in amenorrhœa and hypochondriasis.” (Dr R. E. Griffith.)

=Pills of Squill (Compound).= _Syn._ COUGH PILLS, PILLS OF SQUILLS AND GINGER; PILULA SCILLÆ COMPOSITÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), PILULÆ SCILLÆ COMPOSITÆ (Ph. D.), P. SCILLÆ (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Freshly powdered squills, 1 dr.; powdered ginger and powdered ammoniacum, of each 2 dr.; mix, add of soft soap (Ph. L.), 3 dr.; treacle, 1 dr.; and beat the whole together, so that a mass may be formed.

2. (Ph. E.) Squills, 5 parts; ammoniacum, ginger (all in fine powder), and Spanish soap, of each 4 parts; conserve of red roses, 2 parts; mix, as before, and divide the mass into 5-gr. pills.

3. (Ph. D.) Squills (in fine powder), 2-1/2 dr.; ammoniacum, ginger, and Castile soap, of each (in fine powder) 2 dr.; treacle, 1/2 oz.

4. (B. P.) Squill (in fine powder), 1-1/4; ginger (in fine powder), 1; ammoniacum (in powder), 1; hard soap (in powder), 1; treacle (by weight), 2, or a sufficiency; mix the powders, add the treacle, and beat into a mass.——_Dose_, 5 to 10 grains.

_Obs._ Compound squill pill is a most useful expectorant in chronic coughs, asthmas, bronchial affections, difficulty of breathing, &c.; and, combined with calomel and foxglove, and, occasionally, with croton oil, as a diuretic, &c., in dropsies. Unfortunately, however, it soon spoils; and, therefore, to be effective as a remedy, it must be recently prepared. As an expectorant, it should not be administered until the inflammatory symptoms have been subdued by purgatives or bleeding. A little powdered opium, or extract of henbane, is occasionally added, to allay irritation.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr., twice or thrice a day, accompanied by an occasional aperient.

=Pills, Stahl’s.= See PILLS, APERIENT.

=Pills, Starkey’s.= _Prep._ (Original formula.) Extract of opium, 4 oz.; mineral benzoar and nutmeg, of each 2 oz.; saffron and Virginian snake-root, of each 1 oz.; Starkey’s soap, 1/2 lb.; oil of sassafras, 1/2 oz.; tincture of antimony (Old Ph.), 2 fl. oz. Anodyne, diaphoretic, &c.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr. The formula already given under MATTHEW’S PILLS is erroneously assigned to this pill by some writers.

=Pills, Mrs. Stephen’s.= This once celebrated remedy for stone was prepared from the calcined shells of eggs and snails, made into 3-gr. pills with soft soap. Its active ingredients were, consequently, lime and potash.

=Pills, Stim′ulant.= _Syn._ PILULÆ STIMULANTES, L. _Prep._ 1. Capsicum, 1/2 dr.; nitrate of silver, 2 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. For 12 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, washed down with a spoonful of warm spirit and water, and repeated hourly until reaction ensues; in cholera, &c.

2. (A. T. Thomson.) Strychnine, 1 gr.; acetic acid, 1 drop; crum of bread, 20 gr.; mix very carefully, and divide the mass into 10 pills.——_Dose_, 1 every six hours; in paralysis arising from lead.

=Pills, Stoerck’s.= _Syn._ PILULÆ CONII, P. CICUTÆ, L. _Prep._ From extract of hemlock, 1 dr.; powdered hemlock, q. s. to make a mass. For 2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 4, twice a day; in various glandular and visceral enlargements, pulmonary affections, cancer, scrofula, neuralgia, &c.

=Pills, Stomach.= _Syn._ PILULÆ STOMACHICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Ipecacuanha, 10 gr.; sumbul and extract of rhubarb, of each 30 gr.; powdered quassia, 20 gr.; oil of sassafras, 6 drops; beaten up with essence of ginger (strongest), q. s. For 3-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 3, thrice daily; in loss of appetite, flatulence, dyspepsia, &c.

2. (Dr Hugh Smith’s.) From aloes, rhubarb, ginger (all powdered), and sagapenum, of each 1 dr.; oils of peppermint and cloves, of each 10 drops; balsam of Peru, q. s. to mix. For 5-gr. pills——_Dose_, 2 or 3 nightly; or 1 to 2 before dinner. For other formulæ, see DINNER, APERIENT, COMPOUND RHUBARB, ALOES AND MASTIC PILLS, &c.

=Pills of Sto′rax (Compound).= _Syn._ STORAX PILLS; PILULA STYRACIS COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PILULÆ STYRACIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared storax, 6 dr.; saffron and powdered opium, of each 2 dr. beat them together to a uniform mass. Contains 1-5th of its weight of opium.

2. (Ph. E.) Opium and saffron, of each 1 part; extract of styrax, 2 parts; beat them to a uniform mass, and divide this into 4-gr. pills. Contains 1/4th part of opium.

_Obs._ The storax is here chiefly employed to disguise the odour and taste of opium. The name of the preparation has been chosen so that the word ‘opium’ may not appear in the prescription, a point highly necessary with certain patients.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 gr.; as compound soap pill, and as an anodyne and expectorant in chronic coughs, &c.

=Pills of Stramo′′nium.= _Syn._ PILULÆ STRAMONII, L. _Prep._ 1. Stramonium seeds (in powder), 12 gr. (or leaves, 25 gr.); powdered camphor and extract of seneka root, of each 1 dr.; powdered savine, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of cajeput, 15 drops. For 2-1/2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4, thrice daily; in rheumatism, &c.

2. (Sir H. Halford.) Extract of stramonium and liquorice powder, of each 1 dr.; powdered Castile soap, 2 dr.; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For 60 pills.——_Dose_, 1 night and morning; in asthmas, &c.

=Pills of Strych′nine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ STRYCHNIÆ, L. _Prep._ (Magendie.) Strychnine, 2 gr.; conserve of hips, 36 gr. (liquorice powder, q. s.); mix very carefully, divide the mass into 24 pills, and silver them.——_Dose_, 1 pill night and morning; in amaurosis, impotence, paralysis, &c.

=Pills of Sulphate of Copper.= (Brande.) _Syn._ PILULÆ CUPRI SULPHATIS. _Prep._ Sulphate of copper, 3 gr.; bread crum, 1 dr. Mix, for 24 pills; 1, three or four times a day.

=Pills of Sul′phate of I′ron.= _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI SULPHATIS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Dried sulphate of iron and conserve of red roses, of each 2 parts; extract of dandelion, 5 parts. For 5-gr. pills. A useful chalybeate tonic. _Dose_, 1 to 2, twice or thrice daily; in dyspepsia, chlorosis, amenorrhœa, &c.

2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Sulphate of iron (dried), 1 oz.; extract of chamomile, 1-1/2 oz.; oil of peppermint, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. As the last.

3. (Ph. U. S.) As No. 1, but substituting extract of gentian for extract of dandelion. For other formulæ, see PILLS, HOOPER’S FEMALE, &c.

=Pills of Sulphate of Quinine′.= _Syn._ PILULÆ QUINIÆ SULPHATIS, P. Q. DISULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphate of quinine, 20 gr.; extract of gentian, 40 gr. For 20 pills.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Sulphate of quinine, 2 dr.; powdered gum, 1/2 dr.; strained honey, q. s. For 120 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of the sulphate or disulphate of quinine.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 twice a day, as a tonic and stomachic; 6 to 12, every two or three hours during the remissions of agues.

3. (B. P.) Mix 60 gr. of sulphate of quinine, and 20 gr. of confection of hips to a uniform mass.——_Dose_, 2 gr. to 10 gr.

_Obs._ Various additions are often made to the above formulæ, according to the indications, by which numerous other useful pills are produced. Thus, potassio-tartrate of antimony is frequently added in obstinate intermittents; iodide of potassium, in scrofulous affections; foxglove, in the hectic fever of phthisis; bitter tonics and aromatics, in dyspepsia, flatulence, &c.; carbonate of soda or magnesia, in acidity and heartburn; calomel, mercurial pill, in bilious affections; rhubarb and aloes, in bowelly affections; sulphate of iron and other chalybeates, in debility, amenorrhœa, and chlorosis; calomel, as an alterative, &c., &c.

=Pills of Sulphate of Zinc.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ZINCI SUPHATIS, P. Z. S. COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphate of zinc, 12 gr.; extract of gentian, 1/2 dr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 20 pills. In dyspepsia, epilepsy, and various convulsive diseases.

2. (Dr Paris.) Sulphate of zinc, 10 gr.; powdered myrrh, 1-1/2 dr.; conserve of roses, q. s. For 30 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, twice or thrice daily; in hooping-cough, &c.

=Pills of Sulphuret of Iron.= (Biett.) _Syn._ PILULÆ FERRI SULPHURETI. _Prep._ Sulphuret of iron, 1/2 dr.; marshmallow powder, 10 gr.; syrup, q. s. Make into 20 pills; 1 to 4 pills daily, in scrofulous eruptions.

=Pills, Syph′ilis.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTISYPHILITICÆ, L. See the various pills of mercury, gold, &c. The pills of corrosive sublimate commonly pass under this name.

=Pills, Tangore.= See PILLS, ARSENICAL.

=Pills of Tan′nic Acid.= _Syn._ PILULÆ TANNINI, P. ACIDI TANNICI, L. _Prep._ From tannic acid or tannin and powdered sugar, of each 1/2 dr.; conserve of roses, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1 or 2 pills, thrice daily, in diarrhœa; or 2 every three hours, in internal hæmorrhages, spitting of blood, &c.

=Pills of Tar.= _Syn._ PILULÆ PICIS LIQUIDÆ, L. _Prep._ From tar, 1 dr.; powdered gentian, 1/2 dr., or q. s. For 24 pills. Stimulant, diuretic, and sudorific.——_Dose_, 1 to 4, thrice a day; in dropsies, worms, ichthyosis, and several other skin diseases, &c.

=Pills of Tarax′acum.= _Syn._ PILULÆ TARAXACI, L. _Prep._ 1. Extract of dandelion, 1 dr.; powdered rhubarb, q. s.; divide into 3-1/2-gr. pills. In dyspepsia, &c., complicated with congestion of the liver.

2. (St Marie.) Extract of dandelion and Castile soap, equal parts; liquid acetate of potassa, q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. pills. As a diuretic in dropsy.

3. Extract of dandelion, 1 dr.; mercurial pill, 20 gr.; powdered digitalis, 15 gr.; liquorice powder, q. s. For 24 pills.——_Dose_, 1, afterwards increased to 2 or 3; in dropsy connected with liver disease.

=Pills, Thomson’s Stomach and Liver.= _Prep._ From extract of dandelion, 1 dr.; scammony and rhubarb, of each 15 gr. For 14 pills.——_Dose_, 2 pills, night and morning; in hysteria, hypochondriasis, and chronic inflammation of the liver or kidneys.

=Pills of Tobacco.= (Augustin.) _Syn._ PILULÆ TABACI. _Prep._ Powder of tobacco, 24 gr.; confection of roses, q. s. Mix, and form 72 pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 4 daily, till nausea is produced. In dropsy.

=Pills, Tonic.= _Syn._ PILULÆ TONICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphate of iron, ginger, and myrrh (all in powder), equal parts; conserve of roses, q. s.; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1, twice a day; in debility, chlorosis, &c.

2. Powdered myrrh and sulphate of iron, of each 1 dr.; disulphate of quinine, 1/2 dr., powdered capsicum, 15 gr.; conserve of roses, q. s. to mix. For 60 pills.——_Dose_, 1 or 2, twice or thrice a day; in debility, dyspepsia, ague, &c.

3. (Dr Collier.) Tartrate of iron and extract of gentian, of each 1 dr.; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops. For 30 pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6, three or four times a day. A good stomachic tonic.

4. (Dr Collier.) Oxide of zinc, 1/2 dr. (or sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.); myrrh, 2 dr.; camphor, 20 gr.; confection of hips, to mix. For 40 pills.——_Dose_, 1 or two pills, three times a day; in epilepsy, chorea, and other nervous disorders, debility, &c.

5. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Rhubarb and ginger, of each 1/2 dr.; extract of chamomile, 1 dr.; divide into 30 pills.——_Dose_, 2 or 3, twice a day; in dyspepsia and chlorosis.

6. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Sesquioxide of iron and extract of hemlock, of each 1 dr.; mix, and divide into 20 pills.——_Dose_, 1 or 2, twice a day; in fluor albus, scrofula, &c. Several other formulæ for tonic pills will be found under the names of the leading ingredients, &c. (See _above_.)

=Pills of Turpentine.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PILULÆ TEREBINTHINÆ. _Prep._ Venice turpentine, 1-1/2 oz.; carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz. Make into 200 pills.

=Pills of Vale′′rian (Compound).= _Syn._ PILULÆ VALERIANÆ COMPOSITÆ, L. _Prep._ (Dupuytren.) Powdered valerian, 1/2 dr.; castor and white oxide of zinc, of each 20 gr.; syrup, q. s.; to mix. For 18 pills.——_Dose_, 2 or 3, thrice daily; in hysteria, hypochondriasis, chlorosis, hemicrania, &c.

=Pills of Vale′′rianate of Zinc.= _Syn._ PILULÆ VALERIANAS, L. _Prep._ From valerianate of zinc and powdered gum, of each 15 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. to form a mass. For 18 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, twice daily; in nervous headache, neuralgia, hysteria, &c.

=Pills, Vallet’s.= See PILLS OF CARBONATE OF IRON.

=Pills, Vance’s.= See PILLS, APERIENT.

=Pills of Vera′trine.= _Syn._ PILULÆ VERATRINÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Magendie.) Veratrine, 1/2 gr.; powdered gum Arabic and syrup of gum, of each q. s. to form 6 pills. (See _below_.)

2. (Turnbull.) Veratrine, 1 gr.; extract of henbane and liquorice powder, of each 12 gr.; mix, and divide into 12 pills.——_Dose_, 1 pill, every 3 hours; in dropsy, epilepsy, hysteria, paralysis, nervous palpitations, &c. This should be prepared and used with great caution.

=Pills, Ward’s Red.= _Syn._ WARD’S ANTIMONIAL PILLS. _Prep._ From glass of antimony (finely levigated), 4 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1 oz.; mountain wine, q. s.; to form a mass. For 1-1/2-gr. pills. Emetic. “They are recommended in obstinate rheumatism affections, in foulness of the stomach and bowels, &c. Their action is often of a very unpleasant character.” (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Pills, Lady Webster’s.= See PILLS, DINNER.

=Pills, Whitehead’s Essence of Mustard.= Balsam of tolu, with resin. (Dr Paris.)

=Pills, Whytt’s.= _Prep._ (Radius.) Aloes, chloride of iron, and extract of horehound, of each 1/2 dr.; assafœtida, 1-1/2 dr. For 2-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 2 to 5, thrice daily; in leucorrhœa, chlorosis, hysteria, &c., with constipation.

=Pills, Worm.= _Syn._ PILULÆ ANTHELMINTICÆ, P. VERMIFUGÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Calomel, 1 oz.; sugar, 1-1/2 oz.; mucilage, q. s.; mix, and divide into 240 pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, overnight, followed by a strong dose of castor oil early the next morning.

2. Gamboge, 6 gr.; calomel, 5 gr.; mucilage, q. s.; divide into 3 pills. For a morning’s dose, fasting.

3. Extract of wormwood, calomel, and powdered scammony, equal parts. For 4-gr. pills.——_Dose_, 1 to 2, as the last. For ascarides, and other small worms.

4. (Bresmer.) Powdered aloes and tansy seed, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of rue, 9 or 10 drops. for 12 pills.——_Dose_, 3 to 6, in the morning, fasting, and repeated in two or three hours.

5. (Phœbus.) Iron filings, 1/2 dr.; assafœtida, 1-1/2 dr.; essential oil of tansy, 10 or 12 drops; extract of wormwood, q. s.; mix, and divide into 80 pills.——_Dose_, 6 pills, thrice daily.

6. (Peschier.) Ethereal extract of male fern, 30 drops; extract of dandelion, 1 dr.; powdered rhizomes of male fern, q. s. to mix. For 30 pills. In tapeworm.——_Dose_, 6 to 15, at bedtime; the dose being repeated in the morning, and then followed in an hour by a strong dose of castor oil.

=Pills, Wordsell’s (Kaye’s).= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Powdered aloes, gamboge, and ginger, equal parts; together with a very small quantity of diaphoretic antimony, beaten into a mass with either syrup or treacle, and divided into 2-1/2-gr. pills. “There are about 4-1/2 dozen pills in each 1s. 1-1/2d. box.” “The dose, as given in the directions, is from 2 to 8 pills (or even 10 to 12) daily.” (‘Anat. of Quackery.’) They frequently operate with great violence.

=Pills, Wyndham’s (Lee’s).= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Aloes and gamboge, of each (in powder) 3 oz.; Castile soap and extract of cow-parsnip, of each 1 oz.; nitre, 1/2 oz. For 5-gr. pills. A powerful drastic cathartic.——_Dose_, 1 to 3 pills.

=Pills of Zinc.= See PILLS OF OXIDE, SULPHATE and VALERIANATE of ZINC, &c.

=PILOCARPINE.= _Prep._ Exhaust the leaves or bark of Jaborandi with 80% alcohol, to which hydrochloric acid has been added in the proportion of 8 grains per litre; distil and evaporate to the consistence of an extract. Redissolve the extract with a small quantity of distilled water and filter; treat with ammonia in slight excess, and a large quantity of chloroform. Distil off the chloroform, dissolve the residue in distilled water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and filter. Treat afresh with chloroform and ammonia. The chloroformic solution is then shaken with water, to which hydrochloric acid is added, drop by drop, up to the quantity sufficient to saturate the pilocarpine. The foreign matters remain in the chloroform, and upon evaporation of the aqueous liquid the hydrochlorate is obtained, well crystallised, in long needles radiating from a common centre. The hydrochlorate dissolved in distilled water, and treated with ammonia and chloroform, yields the pilocarpine upon evaporation of the chloroform solution.

Pilocarpine appears under the form of a soft viscous substance; it is slightly soluble in water and very soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform. It presents all the chemical characters of an alkaloid, and rotates the plane of polarized light strongly to the right. (Paris Pharmaceutical Society.)

=PIMA′RIC ACID.= A resin acid first obtained by Laurent from the turpentine of _Pinus maritima_ (Bordeaux turpentine), by the action of hot alcohol.

=PIMEN′TO.= _Syn._ ALLSPICE, CLOVE PEPPER, JAMAICA P., PIMENTO BERRIES; PIMENTA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & E.), PIPER CARYOPHYLLATUM, P. JAMAICENSE, P. ODORATUM, PIMENTÆ BACCÆ, L. “The dried unripe berries of the allspice tree, _Eugenia pimenta_, from the West Indies”——B. P. “The immature fruit of _Eugenia pimenta_ (Myrtus pimenta, _Linn._)”——Ph. L. It possesses a mixed odour of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, which, with its other properties, it for the most yields to alcohol, ether, and water. It is a stimulant and tonic, and is much esteemed as an adjuvant in medicines prescribed in dyspepsia, flatulence, gout, hysteria &c.; and also to cover the taste of disagreeable medicines.——_Dose_, 5 to 30 gr., bruised or in powder. See ESSENCE, OILS (Volatile), SPIRITS, and WATERS.

=PIM′PLES.= See ERUPTIONS (Papular).

=PINCH′BECK.= A gold-like alloy of copper and zinc. See DUTCH GOLD.

=PINE APPLE.= _Syn._ ANANAS. The fruit of _Ananassa sativa_, a plant of the natural order _Bromeliaceæ_. It is astringent, esculent, and possesses a rich flavour and odour. In Europe it is chiefly used as a delicacy for the table; but in tropical climates it is said to be valuable in renal diseases. See ESSENCE, &c.

=PI′NEY TAL′LOW.= _Syn._ PINEY RESIN, P. DAMMAR. An oleo-resinous substance obtained from the fruit of _Vateria indica_, a tree common in Malabar, by boiling it with water. It is intermediate between fat and wax, makes good soap and excellent candles. It melts at 98° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9250 to ·9265.

=PI′NIC ACID.= The portion of common resin or colophony which is soluble in cold alcohol of sp. gr. ·833.

=PINK.= A well known shade of light red. The name is also applied to several pigments, consisting of whiting stained with liquid dyes. See RED and YELLOW PIGMENTS, &c.

=PINK DYE.= _Prep._ From washed safflower, 2 oz.; salt of tartar, 1/2 oz.; cold water, 1 quart; digest for 3 hours, express the liquor, and strain it. Used as a cosmetic, and to dye silk stockings, &c., of a rose colour. The colour is brought out by afterwards applying to, or passing the articles through, water soured with lemon juice. See SAUCERS (Pink).

=PIP′ERIN.= C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}. _Syn._ PIPERINA, PIPERINUM, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Alcoholic extract of black pepper is treated with a weak solution of caustic potassa (1 to 100), and the residuum, after being washed with cold water, is dissolved in alcohol; the solution is next agitated with a little animal charcoal, and the filtrate is allowed to evaporate spontaneously; the product may be purified by the re-solution in alcohol and re-crystallisation.

_Prop., &c._ Colourless, or only slightly yellow; tasteless; inodorous; fusible; and crystallisable; insoluble in water; freely soluble in strong spirit, and in the acids; very feebly basic; a few definite compounds have, however, been obtained with difficulty; reddened by oil of vitriol. It has been much employed in Italy and on the Continent as a febrifuge.——_Dose_, 2 to 10 gr., frequently repeated, during the apyrexia of intermittents.

_Obs._ An assay for its piperin is the only certain method of testing the quality of either black or white pepper. For this purpose a weighted quantity of the sample is reduced to powder, and is exhausted with alcohol of the sp. gr. ·883; the mixed tinctures are then evaporated to an extract, which is treated as above. See PEPPER.

=PIPES.= (In confectionery.) These are formed from any of the common lozenge-masses, by rolling them into cylinders of about the thickness of a goose-quill. They are frequently medicated.

=PIPETTE.= A graduated glass instrument, in frequent use in the chemical laboratory, for conveying a measured quantity of fluid from one vessel to another. The pipette mostly consists of a bulb, from each end of which proceeds a straight, slender hollow stem, communicating with the bulb, and varying in length with the capacity of the instrument. Thus constructed, the lower end of the pipette can be dipped into a vessel with a narrow and long neck, such as a flask, containing a fluid, the required volume of which can be removed from it. The pipette varies in capacity from 1 to 200 cubic centimètres.

Dr Fresenius gives the following directions for its use:——“To fill a pipette with the fluid which it is intended to transfer from one vessel to another, the lower part of the instrument is dipped into the fluid, and suction applied to the upper aperture, either direct with the lips or through a caoutchouc tube until the fluid in the pipette stands a little above the required mark; the upper, somewhat narrowed, ground orifice is then closed with the point of the index of the right hand, which to that end had always better be moistened a little, and holding the pipette in a perfectly vertical direction, the excess of over the quantity required is made to drop out by lifting the finger a little. When the fluid in the pipette has fallen to the required level, the drops which may happen to adhere to the outside of the pipette are carefully wiped off, and the contents of the tube are then fully transferred to the other vessel. In this process it is found that the fluid does not run out completely, but that a small portion of it remains adhering to the glass in the point of the pipette; after a time, as this becomes increased by other minute particles of fluid trickling down from the upper part of the tube, a drop gathers at the lower orifice, which may be allowed to fall from its own weight, or may be made to drop off by a slight shake; if, after this, the point of the pipette be laid against a moist portion of the inner side of the vessel, another minute portion of fluid will trickle out; and lastly, another trifling droplet or so may be got out by blowing into the pipette through the upper orifice. Now, supposing the operator follows no fixed rule in this respect, letting the fluid, for instance, in one operation simply run out, whilst in another operation he lets it drain afterwards, and in a third blows off the last particles of it from the pipette, it is evident that the respective quantities of fluid delivered in the several operations cannot be quite equal. I prefer in all cases the second method, viz. to lay the point of the pipette whilst draining finally against a moist portion of the inner side of the vessel, which I have always found to give the most accurate corresponding measurements.”

=PISTA′CHIO NUTS.= _Syn._ PISTACIA NUTS; NUCES PISTACIÆ, L. The kernels of the fruit of _Piscatia vera_ (Linn.), one of the turpentine trees. They closely resemble almonds, but are sweeter, and form a green emulsion with water. Used in confectionery and perfumery, and also as a dessert fruit.

=PITCH.= _Syn._ BLACK PITCH, BOILED P., STONE P., WOOD P.; PIX (Ph. L.), PIX NIGRA, L. “A dry bitumen prepared from liquid pitch.” (Ph. L.) The residuum from boiling tar in an open iron pot, or in a still, until the volatile and liquid portion is driven off. The volatile products principally consist of crude pyroligneous acid and oil of tar. Pitch is chiefly employed in ship-building. As a medicine, it is stimulant and tonic, and has been used internally in some skin diseases, and in piles. An ointment made of it is also extensively used in cutaneous affections of the scaly.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

=Pitch, Burgundy.= _Syn._ WHITE PITCH, BURGUNDY PINE RESIN; PIX BURGUNDICA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “Impure resin prepared from the turpentine of _Abies excelsa_,” or Norway spruce fir. (Ph. L.) “A concrete resinous exudation, probably, in a great measure, from _Abies excelsa_.” (Ph. E.) It is chiefly used in plasters.

_Obs._ The importation of this substance has for some years past been gradually lessening in amount, in consequence of the substitution for it of a fictitious pitch, made by melting common resin with linseed oil, and colouring the mass with annotta or palm oil. The physiological action of the two articles is, however, considerably different, since Burgundy pitch acts upon the skin as a powerful local irritant, exciting a slight degree of inflammation, and not unfrequently producing a pimply eruption and an exudation of purulent matter. It is celebrated for its effects when employed as a plaster in all cases where warmth, support, and long adhesion to the skin, are desirable; and in the latter quality no substance equals it. The fictitious Burgundy pitch has similar properties, but in an immensely less degree.

PREPARED BURGUNDY PITCH (PIX BURGUNDICA PRÆPARATA——Ph. L.) is ordered to be obtained in the same way as that adopted for strained ammoniacum. This plan is, however, seldom, if ever, adopted in trade.

=Pitch, Burgundy (Facti′′tious).= _Syn._ PIX BURGUNDICA FACTITIA, L. _Prep._ By melting good yellow resin, 1 cwt.,with linseed oil, 1 gall., and palm oil (bright), q. s. to colour. The mixture is allowed to cool considerably, and is then pulled with the hands in the same way as lead plaster is treated; after which it is placed in ‘bladders’ or ‘stands’ for sale.

_Obs._ The product of the above formula is the ‘Burgundy pitch’ of the shops. The ‘pulling’ or ‘working’ destroys the translucency of the resin, and imparts to it the peculiar semi-opacity of foreign Burgundy pitch. Cold water is commonly employed to cool it down. Annotta is often substituted for palm oil as a colouring substance. The addition of some of the ‘droppings’ or ‘bottoms’ of Canada balsam, Chio turpentine, oil of juniper, &c., renders this article nearly equal to foreign pitch; but in commerce this is never attempted, the aim being only the production of a lively colour with moderate toughness. A common melting-pan and fire (if clean, and carefully managed) will succeed sufficiently, but, both for safety and convenience, steam is preferable, and on the large scale, almost indispensable. A good workman can pull and put into stands or casks about 5 cwt. daily; or from 1-1/2 cwt. to 3 cwt. in bladders, the latter quantity depending on the size of the bladders. (See _above_.)

=Pitch, Can′ada.= _Syn._ HEMLOCK GUM, H. PITCH. Similar to Burgundy pitch; but from the _Abies canadenses_, or hemlock spruce fir.

=Pitch, Jews’.= Asphaltum.

=Pitch, Min′eral.= Indurated mineral bitumen. See ASPHALTUM, BITUMEN, &c.

=PIT′COAL.= _Syn._ COAL; HOUILLE, Fr.; STEINKOHLE, Ger. This article has been truly described as the most valuable of all those mineral substances from which Great Britain derives its prosperity, and the one which may be regarded as the main support of the whole system of British production. It fuses the metals, it produces the steam which sets our machinery in motion, and, in short, it may be said to render all the resources of this country available for use.

The more important kinds of coal may be classified as follows:——1. Lignite or brown coal (see page 969).——2. Bituminous or caking coals. The most widely diffused and valuable of English coals. They are subdivided into: _a._ Caking coal. Splinters on heating, but the fragments then fuse together in a semi-pasty mass. The chief sources of this valuable variety of coal are the Newcastle and Wigan districts, _b._ Cherry coal or soft coal. Lustre very bright; does not fuse, ignites well and burns rapidly. Glasgow, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, Lancashire, &c. _c._ Splint, rough, or hard coal. Black and glistening; does not ignite readily, but burns up to a clear hot fire. It constitutes the bulk of the great coal fields of North and South Staffordshire, and occurs in the Glasgow district, in Shropshire, Leicestershire, Warwickshire, &c. _d._ Cannel or parrot coal. Dense and compact, having a shelly fracture, and taking a polish like jet. Splinters in the fire, and burns clearly and brightly. Wigan and other parts of Lancashire, West Glasgow, &c. The curious deposit at Bathgate, near Edinburgh, commonly known as ‘Boghead cannel coal,’ or ‘Torbanehill mineral,’ differs considerably from the ordinary ‘cannels,’——3. Anthracite or stone-coal. The densest, hardest, and most lustrous of all kinds of pitcoal. Burns with little flame or smoke, but gives great heat. South Wales, Devonshire, &c.——4. Steam coal. Approaches nearly to anthracite. Admirably adapted for steam-vessels. South Wales, Tyne district, &c.

The quality of coal may be ascertained by either directly testing its heating power or by chemical analysis. In the investigations undertaken at the Museum of Economic Geology, under the directions of Sir H. De la Beche, and which furnished the materials for the celebrated ‘Admiralty Reports,’ three different methods were adopted for this purpose.[109] These consisted in——the determination of the quantity of water which a given weight of the coal was capable of converting into steam, the quantity of litharge which it was capable of reducing to the metallic state, and, lastly, its ultimate analysis by combustion with oxide of copper. See ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

[Footnote 109: See Watt’s ‘Dict. of Chemistry,’ vol. i, page 1033.]

The quantity of sulphur in coal is another matter of importance that may be determined by chemical analysis. (See SULPHUR.) The presence of more than 1% of sulphur renders coal unfit for the economical production of good light-gas, and more than 2% of sulphur renders it objectionable for use as domestic fuel. In like manner, coals containing mineral ingredients in excess are to be avoided, not merely on account of the quantity of ashes left by them, but for their tendency to vitrify upon the bars of the furnace, and to produce what is technically called ‘clinkers.’ The presence of much silica or alumina, and more particularly of any of the salts of lime, in ‘steam coal,’ is, on this account, highly objectionable.

For some further information connected with this subject, see ANTHRACITE, CHIMNEYS, COKE, FUEL, GAS, LIGNITE, OILS, (Mineral), ORGANIC SUBSTANCES, &c.

=PLAGUE.= (PESTIS). “A specific fever attended with bubo of the inguinal and other glands, and occasionally with carbuncles.”

Such is the definition of plague given in the ‘Nomenclature of Diseases’ (published in 1869), drawn up by a joint committee appointed by the College of Physicians.

More detailed accounts of the disease, described by other pathologists, state that it attacks the patient with great suddeness, or only after a few premonitory symptoms. These are:——Shivering, extreme prostration, intense headache and giddiness, excessive restlessness, and an overwhelming sense of anxiety. The patient’s gait becomes uncertain, and he staggers like a drunken man. These symptoms are more or less accompanied by nausea, bilious vomiting, and frequently by bilious diarrhœa. As the disease advances, delirium very frequently sets in; the nausea, vomiting, and diarrhœa increase in intensity, the tongue becomes swollen and covered with a dark fur, whilst the lips, teeth, and nostrils are coated with a dry fetid incrustation. Provided the attack does not terminate fatally, in a very rapid manner, these symptoms are accompanied by sharp pains (increasing in intensity during the progress of the malady) in the groin, armpits, and neck. These pains in the above parts precede the appearance of the buboes, and in many cases, of the carbuncles, which, associated with the fever, are so characteristic of plague. These glandular swellings vary, in different cases, as to the time when they make their appearance. Sometimes they do so during the first day of the attack, at others, after two or three days——and in others, again, not until near the close of the disease. With the buboes and carbuncles, small red purplish spots (_petechiæ_), frequently appear on the body. The carbuncle is by no means an invariable accompaniment of the disease. Dr Russell, out of 2700 cases, found only 490 in which it showed itself. He states that when carbuncle develops itself, it is distributed over the whole surface of the body with the exception of the scalp, the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet.

“The plague may be said to assume four degrees of severity:——1. Slight fever, without delirium or buboes. 2. Fever, delirium, and buboes. 3. Fever, delirium, or coma, buboes, carbuncles, and _petechiæ/e_. 4. Congestive fever, fatal on the first, second, or third day, before the appearance of buboes. The fever, though usually continued, may assume the intermittent or remittent type.”[110]

[Footnote 110: Hooper’s ‘Vade Mecum,’ edited by Messrs Guy and Harley.]

There is considerable diversity of opinion as to the origin of plague. By some pathologists it is maintained that it spreads solely by contagion; by others the contagion theory is altogether repudiated, and certain local and epidemic agencies are referred to as its source; whilst others, again, adopt a medium view and, whilst not denying its contagious origin, hold that it may also be developed by endemic and epidemic causes. It bears a great resemblance to typhus.

With the exception of the outbreak of plague at Veltianka, in Astrakan, in the beginning of the current year (1879), the pestilence has not visited Western Europe during the present century an exemption which, being so obviously due to the improved sanitary and hygienic conditions of the modern European cities and towns, is a forcible illustration of how largely the power of curtailing the propagation and progress of the scourge is within the means of human control. There can be little, if any, doubt that the same total absence of drainage, and the very possible consequent contamination of drinking water, added to the narrowness of the streets, the overcrowded and badly ventilated state of the houses themselves, and the dirty habits of the inmates, which are also characteristic of those quarters of eastern cities and towns in which plague is always more or less occasionally prevalent, obtained in the fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, amongst European communities.

We learn, on the authority of Mr Marshall (who gets his figures from the weekly bills of mortality of the period), that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries London was seldom free from the pestilence, and that in several years, not usually regarded by historians as plague epochs, it annually slew from less than 1000 to 4000 of the inhabitants.

Between the years 1593 and 1665, five severe outbreaks of the disease occurred in London, and the number of deaths for the respective years were as follows:——1593, 11,503; 1603, 36,269; 1625, 35,417; 1636, 10,400; 1665, 68,596. According to Sir William Petty, the average mortality during these several attacks amounted to about a fifth of the population.

That insanitary surroundings and the spread of plague, whilst sanitary ones and its decline, follow each other like cause and effect, may be emphasised by the statement of two facts:——1. The medical commissioner lately sent by the Russian government to the seat of the late outbreak of the malady in Astrakan, discovered the people dirty in their habits, living in noisome, overcrowded houses, and the atmosphere polluted with the smell of decaying fish, added to which the village was most miserably drained. 2. Ranken records that in Rajpootana plague propagated by the filthy habits of the inhabitants was for some years almost entirely obliterated by the adoption of sanitary precautions.

It may here be noticed that the Astrakan plague was associated with inflammation of the lungs, a feature which led an eminent Russian physician to adopt the opinion, that the Astrakan malady is the same as the Indian plague, which is believed to be the same disease which, under the name of ‘The Black Death,’ committed such appalling devastation in Europe, Asia, and Africa, in the fourteenth century.

In his ‘Epidemics of the Middle Ages,’[111] Hecker has told of the ravages of this ruthless pestilence, which made its appearance in Europe in 1348. Its devastations at Florence have been very powerfully described by Boccaccio in the introduction to his ‘Decameron.’ Boccaccio was in Naples at the time it was devastating Italy, therefore, it is conjectured, his graphic description must have been derived from hearsay and the reports of eyewitnesses.

[Footnote 111: Published by the Sydenham Society, 1844.]

In August of the same year it broke out at Dorset, from which county it soon reached Devon and Somerset, and thence rapidly spread throughout England, slaying its thousands in its progress. In London alone it has been estimated that the mortality caused by it amounted to a hundred thousand.

Hecker assumes that in Europe its victims were twenty-five millions. These however, as well as the following figures, must only be received as approximations to the correct numbers, which, owing to the absence of any contemporary bills of mortality, cannot but be very imperfect:——

In Florence there died of the black plague 60,000 In Venice 100,000 In Marseilles, in one month 16,000 In Sienna 70,000 In Paris 50,000 In St Denis 14,000 In Avignon 60,000 In Strasbourg 16,000 In Lübeck 9,000 In Basle 14,000 In Erfurt at least 16,000 In Weimar 5,000 In Lemburg 2,500 In London at least 100,000 In Norwich 51,000

To which may be added:——

Franciscan Friars in Germany 124,434 Minorites in Italy 30,000

From the circumstance——illustrative of the religious and blind bigotry of this period——that the Jews were brutally tortured, massacred, and burnt, on suspicion of having poisoned the wells from which drinking water was drawn, it may be inferred that the wells, owing to the entire absence of drainage, which led to their contamination by sewage matters, contributed largely to the spread of the pestilence.

Of the potency of the contagion disseminated by the ‘Black Death’ Hecker records:——

“Every spot which the sick had touched, their breath, their clothes, spread the contagion; and in all other places the attendants and friends, who were either blind to their danger, or heroically despised it, fell a sacrifice to their sympathy.

“Even the eyes of the patient were considered as sources of contagion, which had the power of acting at a distance, either on account of their unwonted lustre, or the distortion which they always suffer in plague, or in conformity with an ancient notion, according to which the sight was considered as the bearer of a demoniacal excitement.

“The pestilential death of the sick, who expectorated blood, caused a terrible contagion far and near, for even the vicinity of those who had fallen ill of plague was certain death, so that parents abandoned their infected children, and all the ties of kindred were dissolved.”

There is a striking similarity between the above description, referring to the plague of 1348, and the following, which is extracted from Dr Döppner’s official medical report to the Russian government on the plague which manifested itself at Veltianka in Astrakan as lately as January, 1879. Dr Döppner, writes:——

“The necessary remedies were employed to combat the disease. I prescribed especially salicylic acid, muriatic acid, quinine, &c., but everything proved useless. Not a single patient recovered, viz. Dr Koch and six of his assistants died, the priest of the Stanitza, the Cossacks employed in burying the dead; in a word, all those who approached the persons attacked with the disease, although furnished with the means of preservation used in like circumstances, very few escaped the plague.[112]”

[Footnote 112: ‘Lancet.’]

No case of plague has occurred in England for more than two centuries, although in 1721 it half depopulated Marseilles, and committed fearful ravages at Moscow, in 1771.

Within the present century it has appeared in Europe at the following places:——At Malta, in 1813; at Calabria, in 1816; at Corfu, in 1818; in Silesia, in 1819; and amongst the Russian troops in Bulgaria, in 1824. In Malta between 4000 and 5000 people fell victims to it.

It made its last appearance in England in 1665, and was especially fatal in London, where it carried off, as we have already seen, 65,596 people. Because of the frightful mortality it occasioned, this particular outbreak of the disease has been named by historians “The Great Plague of London.” Rapidly spreading from Westminster, where it first manifested itself, to the more closely built city, its progress increased with the warm weather, until during the sultry months of August and September it reached its height. “Thus,” writes Pepys in his diary, August 31st, 1665 “this month ends with great sadness upon the public through the greatness of the plague everywhere through the kingdom almost. Every day sadder and sadder news of its increase. In the city died this week 7496, and of them 6102 of the plague. But it is feared the true number of the dead this week is near 10,000; partly from the poor that cannot be taken notice of through the greatness of the number, and partly through the Quakers and others that will not have the bell ring for them.” The general aspect of the pestilence stricken city is thus described by Pepys, “To the Exchange, where I have not been a great while. But, Lord! how sad a sight it is to see the streets empty of people and very few upon the ‘Change. Jealous of every door that one sees shut up, lest it should be plague; and about us two shops in three, if not generally more, shut up.”

The doors of a house infected with the plague were marked with a red cross, and on them was written the words, “The Lord have mercy upon us.” Pepys tells of the fright he experienced when he came upon two houses of this description, in Drury-lane, for the first time; and as he adds that he was compelled to buy some roll tobacco to smell and to chew, it may be concluded that this substance was at that time regarded as somewhat of a safeguard against the disease.

Large carts called nightly at the infected habitations and collecting the bodies of any dead conveyed them to pits, into which they were flung, covered with quicklime. This rude kind of burial became a necessity as the disease gained ground, because the ordinary grave-yards were full to overflowing. “This is the first time,” writes Pepys, “since I have been in the church since I left London for the plague, and it frightened me indeed to go through the church more than I thought it could have done, to see so many graves lie so high upon the churchyards where people have been buried of the plague.”

Such was the fury of the pestilence, and frequently so sudden were its attacks, that wayfarers were often assailed with it in the streets, and staggering like drunken men fell down into the road or pathways insensible or dead. Merchants in their counting-houses, clergymen in the act of reading the burial service, buyers and sellers in the market-place, were similarly assailed by the malignant malady, and it was no uncommon occurrence for the mourner at the grave of a relative or friend one day, to be himself borne to his own tomb the next. It is not improbable the infection may have been conveyed by the rapidly decaying and putrid corpse to large numbers of people, owing to the custom that prevailed of crowds of mourners attending the obsequies.

Pepys records how he saw in broad daylight two or three burials, one at the very heels of another, each followed by forty or fifty people. Furthermore, he states that one day on his way to Greenwich, during the month of August in 1665, he passed a coffin, “with a dead body therein, dead of the plague, lying in an open close belonging to Coombe Farm.”

If this exposure of plague-stricken corpses were at all general, it will readily be perceived how greatly it must have aided the propagation of the pestilence.

Another important agent in the diffusion of the plague must have been the infected clothing, whether of the dead or of those who had been in near or close contiguity to them. On this part of our subject Dr Guy, remarks:——“Nor will this surprise us if we imagine the frantic and successful efforts that must have been made by the non-infected to escape, and the temptation to servants and nurses to appropriate and remove the property of the dying and the dead. Indeed, Dr Hodges accuses the nurses of strangling their patients, and secretly conveying the pestilential taint from sores of the infected to those who were well; and he justifies his accusations ‘of these abandoned miscreants’——the Gamps and Prigs of the seventeenth century——by two instances; the one, of a nurse who, ‘as she was leaving the house of a family, all dead, loaded with her robberies, fell down dead under her burden in the streets,’ the other, of a worthy citizen who, being considered dying by his nurse, was beforehand stripped by her, but recovering again, he came a second time into the world naked.”

Lastly, in endeavouring to account for the great prevalence and excessively fatal character of this pestilence, we must not leave out of consideration one important factor——viz. fear.

We can easily conceive how powerfully the appalling incidents by which the plague was accompanied must have affected the imaginations of those who were in its midst, and thus have stimulated the fear, which, acting by its depressing mental effect, would predispose and prepare men and women for the reception of the contagion.

In ‘Pepys’ Diary’ we find a circumstance recorded corroborative of this. A certain alderman, stumbling at night over a dead body in the street, when he reaches home tells his wife of his adventure, and she is forthwith seized with the plague and dies of it. Furthermore, the belief derived from knowledge of the deadly character of the disease, operating upon the minds of those who were attacked by it, would greatly diminish the chances of their recovery, since they would most likely regard seizure and death as synonymous.

There is an old Eastern fable which tells of a traveller journeying from an infected city, and overtaking the plague, who had not long left it. The traveller accosts the plague and reproaches him for having slain thirty thousand people in the city. “You are in error there,” replied the plague, “I slew only ten thousand, fear slew the rest.”

Tropical climates are never visited by plague. In those countries which suffer from its ravages it prevails most during the hot months of the year, and its virulence and spread appear to be commensurate with increase of temperature. In northern climates it diminishes with the approach of cold weather. In Europe it has always been most fatal during the summer and autumn, and in the great plague of London the greatest mortality prevailed during the months of August and September.

=PLAICE.= The _Platessa vulgaris_, a well-known flat fish, common to both the English and Dutch coasts. Its flesh is good, and easy of digestion, but more watery than that of the flounder.

=PLANTAIN.= The plantain, which belongs to the nat. ord. Musaceæ, and is a native of the East Indies, is cultivated in all tropical and subtropical regions of the world, in many of which it constitutes the principal food of the inhabitants. There are a great many varieties of the plantain, in some of which the stem is 15 or 20 feet high, whilst in others it does not exceed 6 feet. It is one of the largest of the herbaceous plants.

The fruit is sometimes eaten raw, but is more generally boiled or roasted. It contains both starch and sugar. Boiled and beaten in a mortar, it forms the common food of the negroes in the West Indies. It also constitutes the chief food of the Indians of North and South America.

Humboldt has calculated that the food produce of the plantain is 44 times greater than that of the potato and 133 times that of wheat.

The banana is a species of plantain. See BANANA.

=PLASMA.= The liquor sanguinis. A tenacious plastic liquid, forming the coagulating portion of the blood, and that in which the corpuscles float.

=PLAS′TER.= (In boiling, &c.) See MORTAR.

=Plaster of Paris.= Calcined sulphate of lime. See ALABASTER, GYPSUM, LIME, &c.

=PLASTER.= (In pharmacy.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM, L. Plasters (emplastra) are external applications that possess sufficient consistence not to adhere to the fingers when cold, but which become soft and adhesive at the temperature of the human body.

Plasters are chiefly composed of unctuous substances united to metallic oxides, or to powders, wax, or resin. They are usually formed, whilst warm, into 1/2-lb. rolls, about 8 or 9 inches long, and wrapped in paper. When required for use, a little is melted off the roll by means of a heated iron spatula, and spread upon leather, linen, or silk. The less adhesive plasters, when spread, are usually surrounded with a margin of resin plaster, to cause them to adhere.

In the preparation of plasters the heat of a water bath, or of steam, should alone be employed. On the large scale, well-cleaned and polished copper or tinned copper pans, surrounded with iron jackets, supplied with high-pressure steam, are used for this purpose. The resins and gum resins that enter into their composition are previously purified by straining. After the ingredients are mixed, and the mass has acquired sufficient consistence by cooling, portions of it are taken into the hands, anointed with a little olive oil, and well pulled or worked until it becomes solid enough to admit of being formed into rolls. To promote the cooling of the plaster it is usual to plunge it into cold water, and to expose it to the action of the fluid by working it about under the surface, after which it is well pulled in the hands to remove the superfluous water; but this process must not, on any account, be practised on compound plasters, containing odorous substances, or substances soluble in water. These should be suffered to cool on an oiled marbled slab, until sufficiently ‘stiff’ to be formed into rolls. Many plasters, as those of lead and resin, derive much of their whiteness and beauty from the treatment just referred to. White plasters are not, however, always the best; but they are those which are most admired, and the most sought after in trade.

Plasters are preserved by enveloping the rolls with paper, to exclude the air as much as possible, and by keeping them in a cool situation. A few, as those of belladonna and ammoniacum with mercury, are commonly placed in pots. When kept for any length of time, they are all more or less apt to become hard and brittle, and to lose their colour. When this is the case, they should be remelted by a gentle heat, and sufficient oil added to the mass to restore it to a proper consistence.

The operation of spreading plasters for use requires skill and experience on the part of the operator. Various textures are employed for the purpose, of which linen or cotton cloth, or leather, are those most generally employed. Silk and satin are used for ‘court plaster.’ The shape and size must be regulated by the part to which they are to be applied.

On the large scale plasters are spread by means of a ‘spreading machine.’

Compound plasters are now much less frequently employed in medicine than formerly. Those principally in use are such as afford protection to sores and abraded surfaces, and give support to the parts. A few, however, which contain acrid, stimulating, and narcotic substances, and operate as rubefacients, blisters, or anodynes, are still retained in the Pharmacopœias.

=Plaster of Ac′onite.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ACONITI, L. _Prep._ (Curtis.) Gently evaporate tincture of aconite to the consistence of a soft extract, then spread a very small portion over the surface of a common adhesive plaster, on either calico or leather. Mr Curtis has strongly recommended this plaster in neuralgia. A little of the alcoholic extract may be employed instead of that obtained fresh from the tincture.

=Plaster, Adhe′′rent.= See PLASTER, SOAP (Compound).

=Plaster, Adhe′sive.= See PLASTER, RESIN, COURT P., &c.

=Plaster, Adhesive Lime.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ADHÆSIVUM CALCAREUM. _Prep._ Soap of lime, 200 parts; boiled turpentine, 100 parts; suet, 25 parts.

=Plaster, Ammoni′acal.= _Syn._ DR KIRKLAND’S VOLATILE PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM AMMONIÆ, E. A. HYDROCHLORATIS, L. _Prep._ Take of lead plaster, 1 oz.; white soap (shaved fine), 1/2 oz.; melt them together, and, when nearly cold, add of sal ammoniac (in fine powder), 1 dr. Stimulant and rubefacient. Dr Paris, who highly recommends it in pulmonary affections, employs double the above proportion of sal ammoniac. Its efficacy depends on the gradual extrication of free ammonia by the decomposition of the sal ammoniac, on which account it is proper to renew the application of it every 24 hours.

=Plaster of Ammoni′acum.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Ammoniacum (strained), 5 oz.; dilute acetic acid (distilled vinegar), 8 fl. oz. (9 fl. oz.——Ph. E.); dissolve, and, frequently stirring, evaporate by a gentle heat to a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. D.) Gum ammoniacum (in coarse powder), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat, and evaporate, as before.

_Obs._ This plaster is adhesive, stimulant, and resolvent, and is employed in scrofulous and indolent tumours, white swellings, &c. In the Ph. D. 1826 vinegar of squills was ordered instead of distilled vinegar.

=Plaster of Ammoniacum with Hem′lock.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM CICUTÂ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E. 1744.) Gum ammoniacum, 8 oz.; vinegar of squills, q. s. to dissolve; hemlock juice, 4 oz.; gently evaporate, as before. In cancerous and other painful tumours. A better plan is to add 1 dr. of extract of hemlock to 1-1/4 oz. of strained ammoniacum (previously reduced to a proper consistence with a little distilled vinegar), melted by a very gentle heat.

=Plaster of Ammoniacum with Mer′cury.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Olive oil, 1 dr.; heat it in a mortar, add of sulphur, 8 gr.; triturate; further add of mercury, 3 oz.; again triturate, and when the globules are extinguished, add it to ammoniacum (strained), 1 lb. (12 oz., B. P.), previously melted by a gentle heat, and mix them well together.

2. (Ph. D.) From ammoniacum plaster, 4 oz.; mercurial plaster, 8 oz.; melted together by a gentle heat, and then stirred constantly until nearly cold.

3. (_Wholesale._) Take of mercury, 38 oz.; prepared sevum, 5 oz.; triturate, as last, and add the mixture to strained ammoniacum, 10 lbs., previously sufficiently softened by a gentle heat. Possesses a fine blue colour, and is quickly made.

_Obs._ This plaster cannot be rolled till considerably cooled, and neither this nor the simple plaster must be put into water. It is powerfully discutient, and is applied to indurated glands, indolent tumours, &c.

=Plaster, An′odyne.= SEE PLASTER, OPIUM, PLASTER, BELLADONNA, &c.

=Plaster, Antimo′′nial.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ANTIMONIALE, E. ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, L. _Prep._ (U. C. Hosp.) By sprinkling tartar emetic, in very fine powder, on the surface of a spread Burgundy pitch (or common adhesive) plaster. It has been successfully applied to the nape of the neck, in the scarlatina of children; also the chest, in phthisis; and, with the addition of a little opium, in rheumatic affections of the joints.

=Plaster, Arnica.= (Ph. U. S.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ARNICÆ. _Prep._ Alcoholic extract of arnica, 1-1/2 oz.; resin plaster, 3 oz. Add the extract to the plaster previously melted over a water bath, and mix it thoroughly.

=Plaster, Aromatic.= _Syn._ STOMACH PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM AROMATICUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Strained frankincense (thus), 3 oz.; beeswax, 1/2 oz.; melt them together, and, when the mass has considerably heated, add, of powdered cinnamon, 6 dr.; oils of allspice and lemons, of each 2 dr. Stimulant; applied over the stomach in dyspepsia, spasms, nausea, flatulence, &c. Camphor, 1 dr., is commonly added.

=Plaster of Assafœtida.= _Syn._ ANTIHYSTERIC PLASTER, ANTISPASMODIC P.; EMPLASTRUM ASSAFŒTIDÆ (Ph. E.), E. ANTIHYSTERICUM, &c., L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) From lead plaster and strained assafœtida, of each 2 oz.; strained galbanum and beeswax, of each 1 oz.; melted together. Antispasmodic; applied to the stomach or abdomen in spasms, hysteria, &c.; and to the chest in hooping-cough.

=Plaster, Baynton’s Adhesive.= _Prep._ From yellow resin, 1 oz.; lead plaster, 1 lb.; melted together. Recommended for bad legs, and other like sores.

=Plaster of Belladon′na.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Soap plaster, 3 oz.; melt it by the heat of a water bath; add of extract of belladonna (deadly nightshade), 3 oz.; and keep constantly stirring the mixture until it acquires a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. E.) Resin plaster, 3 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1-1/2 oz.; as the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Resin plaster, 2 oz.; extract of belladonna, 1 oz.

4. (B. P.) Extract of belladonna, 3; resin plaster, 3; rectified spirit, 6; rub the extract and spirit together in a mortar, and when the insoluble matter has subsided, decant the clear solution, remove the spirit by distillation or evaporation, and mix the alcoholic extract thus obtained with the resin plaster melted at the heat of a water bath, continuing the heat until with constant stirring the plaster has acquired a suitable consistence.

_Uses, &c._ As a powerful anodyne and antispasmodic; in neuralgia and rheumatic pains, and as an application to painful tumours. The plaster of the shops is usually deficient in extract. The following formula is in common use in the wholesale trade:——Lead plaster and resin plaster, of each 2-1/2 lbs.; extract of belladonna, 1-3/4 lb. This plaster must not be ‘pulled’ in water.

=Plaster, Berg’s Antirheumatic.= _Syn._ GOUT PAPER; EMPLASTRUM ANTIRHEUMATICUM, CHARTA ANTIRHEUMATICA, L. _Prep._ By digesting euphorbium, 2 parts, and cantharides, 1 part (both in powder), in rectified spirit, 10 parts, for eight days; adding to the strained liquid, black resin and Venetian turpentine, of each 4 parts; assisting the mixture by a gentle heat. Two or three coats of the product are successively spread over the surface of thin paper. Used in gout and rheumatism. (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Plaster, Black.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM NIGRUM. _Prep._ Mr Sharp’s black plaster was formed by boiling together olive oil, 13 oz.; wax, 2-1/2 oz.; carbonate of lead, 10 oz.

=Plaster, Black Diach′ylon.= See COURT PLASTER.

=Plaster of Black Pitch.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PICIS NIGRÆ, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Wirtem.) Black pitch, black resin, and beeswax, of each 8 parts; suet, 1 part; melted together. Rubefacient and stimulant.

=Plaster, Blistering.= See PLASTER OF CANTHARIDES.

=Plaster, Bree’s Antiasthmatic.= _Prep._ From lead plaster, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1 dr.; melted together, and, when somewhat cooled, mixed with powdered camphor, 2 dr.; powdered opium, 1 dr., and at once spread on leather.

=Plaster, Brown.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM FUSCUM, L.; ONGUENT DE LA MÈRE, Fr. The butter, lard, oil, suet, and wax should be first melted together, and the heat gradually increased until they begin to smoke; the litharge is then to be sifted in, and the stirring and heat continued until the mixture assumes a brown colour; the pitch is next added, and the whole stirred for some time longer.

=Plaster, Brown Diach′ylon.= See PLASTER OF GALBANUM.

=Plaster, Bryony.= (Boerhaave.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM BRYONIÆ. _Prep._ Strained galbanum, 4 oz.; wax plaster, 9 oz.; olive oil, 1 oz. Melt together and add powdered bryony root, 2 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 1 oz.; Ethiops mineral, 2 dr.; stir till cold.

=Plaster of Bur′gundy Pitch.= _Syn._ CEPHALIC PLASTER, BREATH P.; EMPLASTRUM PICIS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), E. P. COMPOSITUM, E. P. BURGUNDICÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared (strained) Burgundy pitch, 2 lbs.; prepared frankincense (thus), 1 lb.; yellow resin and beeswax, of each 4 oz.; melt them together, then add, olive oil and water, of each 2 fl. oz.; expressed oil of nutmeg (mace), 1 oz.; and, constantly stirring, evaporate to a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. E.) Burgundy pitch, 1 lb.; resin and beeswax, of each 2 oz.; olive oil and water, of each 1 fl. oz.; oil of mace, 1/2 oz.; as the last.

3. (B. P.) Burgundy pitch, 26; common frankincense, 13; resin, 4-1/2; yellow wax, 4-1/2; expressed oil of nutmegs, 1; olive oil, 2; water, 2; add the oil and the water to the other ingredients, previously melted together; stir, and evaporate to a proper consistency.

_Uses, &c._ Burgundy-pitch plaster is stimulant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant. It is a common application to the chest in pulmonary affections, to the joints in rheumatism, and to the loins in lumbago. Spread on leather, it forms a good warm plaster to wear on the chest during the winter. “When it produces a serous exudation, it should be frequently renewed.”

The BURGUNDY-PITCH PLASTER of the shops is commonly made as follows:——Factitious Burgundy pitch (bright coloured), 42 lbs.; palm oil (bright), 3/4 lb.; beeswax (bright), 5 lbs.; melt, and, when nearly cold, add, of oil of mace, 6 oz.; oil of nutmeg, 1 oz.

=Plaster of Burgundy Pitch (Irritating).= (Ph. G.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PICIS IRRITANS. _Prep._ Burgundy pitch, 32 oz.; yellow wax, 12 oz.; turpentine, 12 oz.; euphorbium, 3 oz.

=Plaster, Califa′cient.= _Syn._ WARM PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM CALEFACIENS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) 1. Plaster of cantharides, 1/2 lb. (1 part); Burgundy pitch, 5-1/2 lbs. (11 parts); melt them together by a gentle heat, and stir the mixture as it cools until it stiffens. Stimulant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant; in a variety of affections. In some persons, when long applied, it blisters or produces a running sore.

2. (Ph. B.) Cantharides in coarse powder, 4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; expressed oil of nutmeg, 4 oz.; yellow wax, 4 oz.; resin, 4 oz.; soap plaster, 3-1/4 lbs.; resin plaster, 2 lbs. Infuse the cantharides in the boiling water for six hours; squeeze strongly through calico, and evaporate the expressed liquid by a water bath till reduced to one third. Then add the other ingredients and melt in a water bath, stirring well till the whole is thoroughly mixed.

=Plaster, Camphor.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM CAMPHORÆ. Camphor is best applied by sprinkling the powder on the warm surface of a spread adhesive or other plaster. Blisters are treated in this way to prevent strangury.

=Plaster, Can′cer.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ANTICANCROSUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Wax plaster, 1 oz.; extract of hemlock, 1 dr.; levigated arsenious acid, 1/2 dr.

2. (Richter.) Extract of hemlock, 1 oz.; extract of henbane, 1/2 oz.; powdered belladonna, 1 dr.; acetate of ammonia, q. s. to form a plaster. Both the above must be used with great caution. See CANCER, &c.

=Plaster of Canthar′ides.= _Syn._ BLISTERING PLASTER, VESICANT P., PLASTER OF SPANISH FLIES; EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), E. C. VESICATORÆ, E. LYTTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax and suet, of each 7-1/2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; resin, 3 oz.; melt them together, remove the vessel from the fire, and, a little before they concrete, sprinkle in of cantharides (in very fine powder), 1 lb. (12 oz. B. P.), and mix.

2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, beeswax, resin, and suet, equal parts; as the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 6 oz.; prepared lard, resin, and yellow wax, of each 4 oz.; proceed as before, and “stir the mixture constantly until the plaster is cool.”

4. (Wholesale.) From beeswax and good lard, of each 4 lbs.; flies and yellow resin, of each 6 lbs.; suet, 10 lbs. A commonly used formula, the product of which is, however, greatly inferior to that of the Pharmacopœia.

_Obs._ All the above are used to raise blisters. The plaster is spread on white leather with a cold knife, and is surrounded with a margin of resin plaster to make it adhere. A piece of thin muslin or tissue paper is usually placed between the plaster and the skin to prevent absorption. A little powdered camphor is sometimes sprinkled on the surface of the spread plaster, to prevent strangury. A better mode of obviating the action on the urinary organs is by the copious use of diluents. This plaster should be rolled in starch powder, and not with oil.

=Plaster of Cantharides (Compound).= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Venice turpentine, 4-1/2 oz.; cantharides and Burgundy pitch, of each 3 oz.; beeswax, 1 oz.; verdigris (in fine powder), 1/2 oz.; powdered mustard and black pepper, of each 2 dr.; mix at a heat under 212° Fahr. Stronger than the last, and quicker in its action; but it causes more pain, and is much more apt to occasion troublesome ulcerations. Used in gout, spasms of the stomach, &c.

=Plaster, Capuchin′.= See PLASTER OF EUPHORBIUM.

=Plaster of Car′bonate of Lead.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS, E. CERUSSÆ, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Carbonate of lead, 1 lb.; olive oil and water, of each 2 lbs.; boil them together until they combine and form a plaster; lastly, remelt this with white wax, 3-1/2 oz. Its properties resemble those of ordinary lead plaster. An excellent emollient and defensive plaster. See PLASTER, MAHY’S.

=Plaster, Cephal′ic.= _Syn._ LABDANUM PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM CEPHALICUM, E. LABDANI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.) Labdanum, 3 oz.; frankincense (thus), 1 oz.; melt, and add to the mixture, when nearly cold, powdered cinnamon and expressed oil of mace, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of mint, 1 dr. Applied to the forehead or temples, in headache; to the stomach, in colds, &c. See PLASTER OF BURGUNDY PITCH, &c.

=Plaster, Cheselden’s Stick′ing.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI CUM PICE, L. _Prep._ From lead plaster, 2 lbs.; Burgundy pitch (genuine), 1 oz.; melted together.

=Plaster, Corn.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM AD CLAVOS, L. _Prep._ 1. Resin plaster, 5 parts; melt, stir in of sal ammoniac (in fine powder), 1 part, and at once spread it on linen or soft leather.

2. (Kennedy’s.) From beeswax, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 5 oz.; verdigris (in fine powder), 1-1/2 oz.; mixed by a gentle heat, and spread on cloth. It is cut into pieces, and polished, and of these 1 dozen are put into each box.

3. (Le Foret.) Galbanum plaster, 2 oz.; melt by a very gentle heat; add, sal ammoniac and saffron, of each 1/2 oz.; powdered camphor, 2 oz.; and, when nearly cold stir in of liquor of ammonia, 2 oz. Applied, spread on leather, to the corn only, as it will blister the thinner skin surrounding its base.

4. (Ph. Sax.) Galbanum plaster, 1 oz.; pitch, 1/2 oz.; lead plaster, 2 dr.; melt them together, and add verdigris and sal ammoniac (in fine powder), of each 1 dr. For other formulæ, see PLASTER OF VERDIGRIS (_below_), and CORNS.

=Plaster, Court.= _Syn._ STICKING PLASTER, ISINGLASS P.; EMPLASTRUM ICHTHYOCOLLÆ, E. ADHESIVUM ANGLICUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Isinglass, 1 part; water, 10 parts; dissolve, strain the solution, and gradually add to it of tincture of benzoin, 2 parts; apply this mixture, gently warmed, by means of a camel-hair brush, to the surface of silk or sarcenet, stretched on a frame, and allow each coating to dry before applying the next one, the application being repeated as often as necessary; lastly, give the prepared surface a coating of tincture of benzoin or tincture of balsam of Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the unprepared side of the plaster, and others add to the tincture a few drops of essence of ambergris or essence of musk.

2. (Deschamps.) A piece of fine muslin, linen, or silk is fastened to a flat board, and a thin coating of smooth, strained flour paste is given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of colourless gelatin, made into size with water, q. s., are applied warm. Said to be superior to the ordinary court plaster.

3. (Liston’s.) Soak isinglass, 1 oz., in water, 2-1/2 fl. oz., until it becomes swollen and quite soft; then add of proof spirit, 3-1/2 fl. oz., and expose the mixture to the heat of hot water, frequently stirring, until the union is complete; lastly, apply four coats of the solution to the surface of oiled silk nailed to a board, by means of a soft brush.

4. (Dr Paris.) Black silk or sarcenet is strained and brushed over 10 or 12 times with the following composition:——Gum benzoin, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 6 oz.; dissolve. In a separate vessel dissolve of isinglass, 1 oz., in as little water as possible; strain each solution, mix them, decant the clear portion, and apply it warm. When the last coating is quite dry, a finishing coat is given with a solution of Chio turpentine, 4 oz., in tincture of benzoin, 6 oz.

_Obs._ The common ‘COURT PLASTER’ of the shops is generally prepared without using spirit, and with merely sufficient tincture of benzoin, or other aromatic, to give it an agreeable odour. Formerly, black silk or sarcenet was exclusively employed as the basis of the plaster, but at the present time checkered silk is also much in favour. ‘FLESH-COLOURED COURT PLASTER’ is likewise fashionable. ‘TRANSPARENT COURT PLASTER’ is prepared on oiled silk. ‘WATERPROOF COURT PLASTER’ is simply the common plaster which has received a thin coating of pale drying oil on its exposed surface. The FINEST COURT PLASTER of the West-end houses is now prepared on gold-beaters’ skin (or the prepared membrane of the cæcum of the ox), one side of which is coated with the isinglass solution, as above, and the other with pale drying oil or a solution of either gutta percha or caoutchouc in chloroform, or in bisulphuret of carbon.

=Plaster of Cro′ton Oil.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM CROTONIS, E. OLEI TIGLII, L. _Prep._ (Bouchardat.) To lead plaster, 4 parts, melted by a very gentle heat, add of croton oil, 1 part. A powerful counter-irritant; it also generally acts powerfully on the bowels.

=Plaster of Cum′in.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM CUMINI (Ph. L.), E. CYMINI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Burgundy pitch, 3 lbs.; beeswax, 3 oz.; melt, add of cumin seed, caraways, and bay-berries, of each (in powder) 3 oz.; next add of olive oil and water of each 1-1/2 fl. oz., and evaporate to a proper consistence.

2. (Wholesale.) From yellow resin, 7 lbs.; beeswax and linseed oil, of each 1/2 lb.; powdered cumin and caraway seeds, of each 7 oz.; mix.

_Obs._ This is a mere revival of the formula of the Ph. L. 1724. In that of the Ph. L. 1778 no water was ordered, and the powders simply stirred into the melted mass shortly before it cools; the common practice in all laboratories.

Cumin plaster is carminative, stimulant, and discutient. It is applied over the regions of the stomach and bowels in colic, dyspepsia, and flatulence, and is also applied to indolent tumours. It has long been a favourite remedy with the lower classes.

=Plaster, Delacroix’s Agglu′tinative.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM GLUTINANS SANCTI ANDREÆ A CRUCE, E. PICIS CUM ELEMI, L. EMPLÂTRE D’ANDRÉ DE LA CROIX, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) From Burgundy pitch, 25 parts; gum elemi, 6 parts; Venice turpentine and oil of bays, of each 3 parts; melted together, and strained.

=Plaster, Diach′ylon.= See PLASTER OF LEAD.

=Plaster, Diapal′ma.= See PLASTER, PALM.

=Plaster of El′emi.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ELEMI, L. _Prep._ From wax plaster, 3 parts; gum elemi, 1 part; melted together by a gentle heat. Stimulant and discutient. Used for issues, &c.

=Plaster of Euphor′bium.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM EUPHORBII, L. _Prep._ 1. (Guy’s Hosp.) Burgundy pitch plaster, 8 oz.; melt, and add of euphorbium (in powder), 1 dr.

2. (CAPUCHIN PLASTER——Ph. Wirt.) Burgundy pitch and beeswax, of each 3 oz.; Venice turpentine, 1 oz.; melt them together, add, gum ammoniacum, olibanum, mastic, and lapis calaminaris, of each 1 oz.; euphorbium, pyrethrum, and common salt, of each (in powder) 2 oz.; and stir until the mass concretes. Both of the above are stimulant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant.

=Plaster, Fayard’s.= See PAPER (Gout).

=Plaster of Flower of Ointments.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM FLOS UNGUENTORUM DICTUM, L. _Prep._ From frankincense (thus), yellow resin, suet, and beeswax, of each 1 lb.; olibanum, 1/2 lb.; Venice turpentine, 5 oz.; gum myrrh, 2 oz.; white wine, 16 fl. oz.; boil to a plaster, adding, before the mass cool, of camphor, 1/2 oz. Calorifacient and stimulant.

=Plaster of Frank′incense.= _Syn._ STRENGTHENING PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM THURIS, E. ROBORANS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1788.) To lead plaster, 2 lbs., melted by a gentle heat, add of frankincense (thus), 1/2 lb., dragon’s blood (in powder), 3 oz., and stir well. In muscular relaxations, weak joints, &c. Mr Redwood says that a “better-looking plaster is produced by melting the frankincense and dragon’s blood together, and straining them through a cloth, then mixing these with the lead plaster previously melted.” See PLASTER OF OXIDE OF IRON.

=Plaster of Gal′banum.= _Syn._ COMPOUND GALBANUM PLASTER, YELLOW DIACHYLON, GUM PLASTER, DIACHYLON WITH THE GUMS, EMPLASTRUM GALBANI (B. P., Ph. L.), E. GUMMOSUM (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Take of strained galbanum, 8 oz.; common turpentine, 1 oz.; melt them together, then add of prepared frankincense (thus), 3 oz.; and next, of lead plaster, 3 lbs., previously melted over a slow fire.

2. (Ph. E.) Gum ammoniacum and galbanum, of each 1/2 oz.; melt them together, strain, and add, of litharge plaster, 4 oz.; beeswax, 1/2 oz. (both previously melted); and mix the whole thoroughly. These proportions are the same as those of the B. P.

3. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster, 42 lbs.; yellow resin, 12 lbs.; strained galbanum, 3 lbs.; strained assafœtida, 1 oz.

_Obs._ Galbanum plaster is stimulant and resolvent, and is much used in indolent, scrofulous, and other tumours, painful gouty and rheumatic joints, in rickets, &c.

=Plaster, Gaulthier’s.= _Prep._ (Guibourt.) Palm plaster, 12 parts; olive oil and white wax, of each 1 part; melt, and add of Venice turpentine, 2 parts. More adhesive than the simple PALM PLASTER.

=Plaster of Gin′ger.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ZINGIBERIS, L. See GINGER.

=Plaster, Gout.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ANTARTHRITICUM, L. See PLASTER OF GALBANUM, PITCH, &c.; PAPER, GOUT.

=Plaster of Gum.= See PLASTER OF GALBANUM.

=Plaster of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM CONII, E. CICUTÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. Wax, 1 part; Burgundy pitch, 9 parts; melt them together, and add of extract of hemlock, 3 parts.

2. (Ph. Bat.) Lead plaster and beeswax, of each 1 lb.; olive oil, 6 fl. oz.; melt, and add of powdered hemlock (recent), 1 lb.

_Obs._ Hemlock plaster is occasionally used as an application to painful and malignant ulcers and tumours, painful joints, &c. A spread plaster of it, with 6 or 8 gr. of tartar emetic (in very fine powder) sprinkled over its surface, has been highly extolled as a counter-irritant in hooping-cough, phthisis, &c.

=Plaster of Hen′bane.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM HYOSCYAMI, L. _Prep._ As the last, but using henbane instead of hemlock. As an anodyne, in various external affections.

=Plaster of I′odide of Lead.= (Ph. B.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI IODIDI. _Prep._ Add iodide of lead in fine powder, 1 oz.; to soap plaster and resin plaster, of each 4 oz., previously melted together. Mix thoroughly.

=Plaster of Iodide of Potas′sium.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM POTASSII IODIDI (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; olive oil, 2 fl. dr.; triturate them together, then add, of strained frankincense (thus), 6 oz.; wax, 6 dr.; and stir constantly until the mass cools. “This plaster is to be spread on linen, rather than on leather.” Used as a discutient or resolvent; more particularly as an application to scrofulous tumours and indurations.

=Plaster of I′odine.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM IODINII, L. _Prep._ Triturate iodine, 1 dr., in a warm mortar, with olive oil, 1 oz.; then add, of beeswax, 1 oz.; yellow resin, 1/2 oz.; previously melted together, and stir the whole until it concretes. It should be, preferably, spread at once on leather, and applied shortly after being prepared. Used as the last.

=Plaster of Iodine (Compound).= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM IODINII COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; rub them to a fine powder, add this to lead powder, 2 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 1 oz.; previously melted together, and just about to concrete. More active than either of the preceding.

2. (EMP. IOD. CUM BELLADONNÂ.) To belladonna plaster, 2 oz., melted by a very gentle heat, add iodine and iodide of potassium (in fine powder), of each 1 dr.; and stir the mixture until nearly cold. Powerfully resolvent and anodyne. Used in the same cases as the preceding, when there is much pain.

=Plaster of I′ron.= See PLASTER OF OXIDE OF IRON.

=Plaster of I′′singlass.= See PLASTER, COURT.

=Plaster, Is′sue.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM AD FONTICULOS, SPARADRAPUM PRO FONTICULIS, L. _Prep._ 1. From beeswax, 1/2 lb.; Burgundy pitch and Chio turpentine, of each 4 oz.; vermilion and orris powder, of each 1 oz.; musk, 4 gr.; melted together and spread upon linen. This is afterwards polished with a smooth piece of glass moistened with water, and cut into pieces.

2. (Ph. Aust.) Yellow wax, 6 oz.; mutton suet, 2 oz.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.; melt, add of turpentine, 1-1/2 oz., and afterwards of red lead, 4 oz.; dip pieces of linen into the melted mixture, pass these between rollers, and, when cold, polish them, as before, and cut them into squares. The issue plaster (issue paper; charta ad fonticulos) of the Ph. Suecica is a nearly similar compound, with the addition of about 1-48th part of verdigris, in very fine powder, and being spread upon paper.

=Plaster, Kennedy’s.= See PLASTERS, CORN.

=Plaster, Kirkland’s.= See PLASTER, AMMONIACAL.

=Plaster of Lab′danum.= See PLASTER, CEPHALIC.

=Plaster of Lead.= _Syn._ LEAD PLASTER, LITHARGE P., COMMON P., DIACHYLON, SIMPLE DIACHYLON, WHITE D.; EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI (B. P., Ph. L.), E. LYTHARGYRI (Ph. E. & D.), E. COMMUNE, DIACHYLON SIMPLEX, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of lead (litharge), in very fine powder, 6 lbs.; olive oil, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart; boil them over a slow fire, constantly stirring to the consistence of a plaster, adding a little boiling water, if nearly the whole of that used in the beginning should be consumed before the end of the process.

2. (Ph. E.) Litharge, 5 oz.; olive oil, 12 fl. oz.; water, 8 fl. oz.; as the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Litharge, 5 lbs.; olive oil, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart.

4. (Otto Kohnke.) For each lb. of litharge employed, add 1/4 pint of colourless vinegar (each fl. oz. of which is capable of saturating 1/2 dr. of carbonate of potassa); add the oil, boil until all moisture is evaporated, and until only a few striæ of litharge rise to the surface, then remove the vessel from the heat, add gradually 1/3 to 1/2 as much vinegar as before, and boil the mixture to a proper consistence.

5. (Wholesale.) From Genoa oil, 7 galls. (or 65 lbs.); litharge (perfectly free from copper), 28 lbs.; water, 2-1/2 galls.; boil to a plaster, as before.

6. (B. P.) Oxide of lead, in very fine powder, 1; olive oil, 2-1/2; water, 1; boil all the ingredients together gently by the heat of a steam bath, and keep them simmering for 4 or 5 hours, stirring constantly until the product acquires the proper consistence for plaster, adding more water during the process, if necessary.

_Obs._ The London College orders too little oil. The second, fourth, and fifth formulæ produce beautiful plasters, that keep well; those of the others, although very white, get hard and brittle much more rapidly. The proper proportion of oil is fully 2-1/3 times the weight of the litharge,——2-1/2 times appears the best quantity; and without this is used, the plaster speedily gets hard and non-adhesive. The process consists in putting the water and the litharge into a perfectly clean and well-polished tinned copper or copper-pan, mixing them well together with a spatula, adding the oil, and boiling, with constant stirring, until the plaster is sufficiently hard, when thoroughly cold. This process usually occupies from 4 to 5 hours, but by adopting the fourth formula an excellent plaster may be made in from 20 to 30 minutes. This plaster is generally cooled by immersion in cold water; and to render it very white, a quality highly prized in the trade, it is usual to submit it to laborious ‘pulling,’ in the manner already noticed.

_Use._ As a simple defensive plaster or strapping; but principally as a basis for other plasters.

=Plaster, Liston’s.= See PLASTER, COURT.

=Plaster, Mahy’s.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS, E. P. C. COMPOSITUM, L. _Prep._ (Ph. U. S.) Carbonate of lead (pure white lead), 1 lb.; olive oil, 32 fl. oz.; water, q. s.; boil them together, constantly stirring until perfectly incorporated; then add, of yellow wax, 4 oz.; lead plaster, 1-1/2 lb.; and when these are melted, and the mass somewhat cooled, stir in of powdered orris root, 9 oz. A favourite application in the United States of America to inflamed and excoriated surfaces, bed sores, burns, &c.

=Plaster of Mel′ilot.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM MELILOTI, E. È MELILOTO, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Fresh melilot, chopped small, 6 lbs.; suet, 3 lbs.; boil until crisp, strain with pressure, and add, of yellow resin, 8 lbs.; beeswax, 4 lbs., and boil to a plaster. Stimulant. Used to dress blisters, &c. The greater portion of this plaster in the shops is made without the herb, and is coloured with verdigris. (See the next formula.)

2. (Wholesale.) Take of yellow resin, 18 lbs.; green ointment, 4-1/2 lbs.; yellow wax, 3 lbs.; finely powdered verdigris, q. s. to give a deep-green colour.

=Plaster, Mercu′′rial.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM MERCURIALE, E. HYDRARGYRI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Add, gradually, of sulphur, 8 gr., to heated olive oil, 1 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly with a spatula until they unite; next add of mercury, 3 oz., and triturate until globules are no longer visible; lastly, gradually add of lead plaster (melted over a slow fire), 1 lb., and mix them all well together. (About 1 fl. dr. of balsam of sulphur may be substituted for the oil and sulphur ordered above.) These proportions are the same as those of the B. P.

2. (Ph. E.) Resin, 1 oz.; olive oil, 9 fl. dr.; mix by heat, cool, add of mercury, 3 oz., and triturate until its globules disappear; then add of litharge plaster, 6 oz. (previously liquefied), and mix the whole thoroughly.

3. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 1 fl. oz.; resin, 2 oz.; dissolve, with the aid of heat; add of mercury, 6 oz.; triturate until the globules disappear, and the mixture assumes a dark grey colour, then add of litharge plaster (previously melted), 12 oz., and stir the whole until it stiffens on cooling.

4. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 7 lbs.; prepared serum, 1/2 lb.; triturate until the globules disappear, and add the mixture to lead plaster (melted by a gentle heat), 36 lbs.; stir them well together, and until they concrete. Very fine bluish-slate or lead colour.

_Obs._ Mercurial plaster is used as a discutient in glandular enlargements, and other swellings; and is also applied over the hepatic regions in liver complaints.

=Plaster, Mercurial, with Belladon′na.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI CUM BELLADONNÂ, L. _Prep._ From mercurial plaster, 6 dr.; extract of belladonna, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1 dr.;mixed by a gentle heat. One of our most useful anodyne and discutient applications, in painful scirrhous, scrofulous, and syphilitic tumours. The Medico-Chirurgical Pharm. orders 1/2 fl. dr. of hydrocyanic acid to be added to every 2 oz. of the above.

=Plaster of Mezereon and Cantharides.= (Ph. G.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM MEZEREI CANTHARIDATUM. _Prep._ Cantharides in coarse powder, 3 oz., mezereon cut and dried, 1 oz.; acetic ether, 10 oz. by weight. Macerate for 8 days, filter, and dissolve in the filtered liquid 175 gr. of sandarac, 87 gr. of eleme, 87 gr. of resin, which, spread on silk previously covered with the following solution; isinglass, 2 oz.; distilled water, 20 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 oz. by weight.

=Plaster of Min′ium.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM MINII, E. È MINIO, E. PLUMBI OXYDI RUBRI, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 4 lbs.; minium (red lead), in fine powder, 2-1/2 lbs.; water, q. s.; proceed as for lead plaster (which it closely resembles).

_Obs._ To ensure a good colour and the quality of keeping well, the quantity of oil should be increased about 1-3rd. When discoloured by heat it forms the ‘brown minium plaster’ (emp. è minio fuscum) of old pharmacy. Lead plaster, either alone or with the addition of a little red lead, is usually sold for it.

=Plaster of Minium (Compound).= _Syn._ NUREMBERG PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM MINII COMPOSITUM, L.; EMPLÂTRE DE NUREMBERG, Fr. _Prep._ (Soubeiran.) Red lead, 12 parts; olive oil, 8 parts; grind them together on a porphyry slab, and add the mixture to lead plaster, 50 parts, beeswax, 24 parts, melted together; lastly, when nearly cold, stir in of camphor, 1 part.

=Plaster, Morrison’s Adhesive.= _Syn._ MORRISON’S ADHESIVE PASTE. From wheaten flour, 2 oz.; mild ale, 1/2 pint; stir them together, and heat the mixture to the boiling point; when cold, add of powdered resin, 3 oz.; and, constantly stirring, again heat them to boiling. Used as a depilatory in ringworm, &c.

=Plaster of Mu′cilages.= _Syn._ DIACHYLON COMPOSITUM, EMPLASTRUM È MUCILAGINIBUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1746.) Beeswax, 20 oz.; oil of mucilages, 4 oz.; melt, and add them to strained ammoniacum, 3 oz.; common turpentine, 1 oz., previously melted together. Stimulant and emollient.

=Plaster of Mus′tard.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM SINAPIS, L. This is always an extemporaneous preparation. Flour of mustard is made into a stiff paste with lukewarm water, or with vinegar, and is then spread on a piece of calico or linen (folded two or three times); over the surface of the mustard is placed a piece of gauze or thin muslin, and the plaster is then applied to the part of the body it is intended to medicate. Its action is that of a powerful rubefacient and counter-irritant; but its application should not be continued long, unless in extreme cases. Its effects are often apparently wonderful. We have seen very severe cases of facial neuralgia, sore throat, painful joints, rheumatic pains, &c., relieved in a few minutes by means of a mustard plaster or ‘poultice.’

=Plaster, Nuremberg.= See PLASTER, MINIUM (COMPOUND).

=Plaster of Oak-mistletoe.= (Hardy.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM VISCI QUERCINI. _Prep._ To 2 parts of melted beeswax add gradually 1 part of juice of true oak mistletoe, and form a plaster. In neuralgic pains.

=Plaster of O′′pium.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ANODYNUM, E. OPII (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 8 oz.; melt, and add of frankincense (thus), 2 oz.; next, add of extract of opium, 1 oz., previously dissolved in boiling water, 1 fl. oz.; and, constantly stirring, evaporate the mixture over a slow fire to a proper consistence. This plaster is much stronger than that of the Ph. L. 1836 and of the other British Colleges.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Lead plaster, 1 lb.; melt, add of powdered thus, 3 oz.; mix, and further add, of powdered opium, 1/2 oz., water, 8 fl. oz., and boil to a proper consistence.

3. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 12 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 3 oz.; liquefy by heat, then add, by degrees, of powdered opium, 1/2 oz., and mix them thoroughly. This and the preceding contains only 1-3rd part of the opium ordered in the present Ph. L. & D.

4. (Ph. D.) Resin plaster, 9 oz.; opium, in fine powder, 1 oz.; as the last. Same as B. P.

5. (Ph. B.), Powdered opium, 1 oz.; resin plaster, 9 oz.; melt the plaster and add the opium.

_Obs._ The above plaster is reputed anodyne, and useful in various local pains; but its virtues in this way have been greatly exaggerated. The formula of the Ph. L. 1836, from being less costly, is still often employed in place of that of the Ph. L. 1851. The following is commonly used:——Lead plaster, 14 lbs.; yellow resin, 2 lbs.; powdered opium, 1/2 lb.

=Plaster of Opium and Camphor.= (Dr Paris.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM OPII ET CAMPHORÆ. _Prep._ Opium and camphor, of each 1/2 dr. Lead plaster q. s. Mix.

=Plaster of Ox′ide of I′ron.= _Syn._ IRON PLASTER, FRANKINCENSE P., STRENGTHENING P.; EMPLASTRUM ROBORANS, E. FERRI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), E. THURIS, E. FERRI OXYDI RUBRI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 8 oz.; frankincense (thus), 2 oz.; melt them together over a slow fire, sprinkle into the mixture sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz., and mix the whole well together.

2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 3 oz.; yellow resin, 6 dr.; beeswax, 3 dr.; melt them together, then add of red oxide of iron, 1 oz., previously triturated with olive oil, 3-1/2 fl. dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Litharge plaster, 8 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 2 oz.; peroxide of iron, in fine powder, 1 oz.; as No. 1. Same as B. P.

4. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster (quite dry), 84 lbs.; powdered yellow resin, 14 lbs.; ‘crocus martis’ (lively coloured), 14 lbs.; olive oil, 3 pints; as No. 2.

5. (B. P.) Add hydrated peroxide of iron in fine powder, 1 oz., to Burgundy pitch, 2 oz., and litharge plaster, 8 oz., previously melted together, and stir the mixture constantly till it stiffens on cooling.

_Obs._ Iron plaster is reputed strengthening and stimulant. It is employed as a mechanical support in muscular relaxation, weakness of the joints, &c., especially by public dancers. Its tonic action is probably wholly imaginary. No. 4 is the ‘EMPLASTRUM ROBORANS’ of the shops at the present time.

=Plaster, Oxycro′ceum.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM OXYCROCEUM, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Beeswax, 1 lb.; black pitch and strained galbanum, of each 1/2 lb.; melt, and add of Venice turpentine, powdered myrrh, and olibanum, of each 3 oz.; powdered saffron, 2 oz.

2. (Wholesale.) From black pitch, 9 lbs.; black resin, 11 lbs.; beeswax and lard, of each 2-1/2 lbs.; melted together. Warm; discutient. Still popular with the lower orders. The saffron of the original formula never finds its way into the oxycroceum plaster of the druggists.

=Plaster, Palm.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM DIAPALMUM, L.; DIAPALME, EMPLÂTRE DIAPALME, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 32 parts; yellow wax, 2 parts; melt them together, add of sulphate of zinc, 1 part, dissolve in a little water, and continue the heat, with constant agitation, until all the water is evaporated.

_Obs._ This plaster originally contained palm oil, and this ingredient is still ordered in the formulæ of Plenck and Reuss. Soubeiran directs white wax to be employed.

=Plaster, Paracelsus’s.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM PARACELSI, E. STYPTICUM, L. _Prep._ From lead plaster, 28 lbs.; galbanum plaster, 2 lbs.; powdered white canella and gum thus, of each 1-1/2 lb.; melted together. The original formula, as well as that of the Ph. L. 1721 were similar, although much more complicated.

=Plaster of Pitch.= _Syn._ POOR MAN’S PLASTER, GOUT P., ANTI-RHEUMATIC P.; EMPLASTRUM PAUPERIS, E. ANTIRHEUMATICUM, E. ANTARTHRITICUM, E. PICIS COMMUNE, L. This has been already noticed under the head of RESIN PAPER. It is also, but less frequently, spread on cloth and leather.

=Plaster, Prestat’s Adhe′sive.= _Prep._ From lead plaster, 2-1/2 lbs.; yellow resin, 5 oz.; Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; gum ammoniacum and mastic, of each 1-1/4 oz.; made into a plaster, and spread on linen or calico.

=Plaster of Red Lead.= See PLASTER OF MINIUM.

=Plaster of Res′in.= _Syn._ ADHESIVE PLASTER, RESINOUS P.; EMPLASTRUM ADHESIVUM, E. RESINÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), E. RESINOSUM (Ph. E.), E. LYTHARGYRI CUM RESINÂ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) To lead plaster, 3 lbs., melted by a gentle heat, add of resin, 1/2 lb., also liquefied by heat, and mix. The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.

2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 5 oz.; resin, 1 oz.; mix with a moderate heat.

3. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 2 lbs., melted by a gentle heat, add, of powdered resin, 4 oz., Castile soap, in powder, 2 oz., and mix them intimately.

4. (Wholesale.) Pale lead plaster (from a previous batch, and quite dry), 72 lbs.; olive oil (Genoa), 3 lbs.; melt them together in a bright and perfectly clean copper pan, and sift in of pale yellow resin (in powder), 12 lbs., stirring all the while. The mixture is to be cooled, and ‘pulled’ or ‘worked,’ after the manner of lead plaster.

5. (B. P.) Resin (in powder), 2; litharge plaster, 16; hard soap, 1; melt the plaster with a gentle heat, add the resin and soap, first liquefied, and mix.

_Obs._ Resin plaster, spread upon calico, forms the well-known ‘STRAPPING’ or ‘ADHESIVE PLASTER’ so extensively used to protect raw surfaces, support parts, and for dressing ulcers, retaining the lips of recent cuts and wounds in contact, &c. It is gently stimulant, and is thought to assist the healing process. It is also employed as a basis for other plasters. The ‘HOSPITAL PLASTER’ of certain houses is of this kind. See PLASTER OF SOAP, COMPOUND.

=Plaster, Resol′vent.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM RESOLVENS, E. EX MIXTIS QUATUOR, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Galbanum, hemlock, mercurial, and soap plasters, equal parts, melted together.

=Plaster, Roper’s Royal Bath.= _Prep._ (Cooley.) Strained black pitch, 16 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 10 oz.; tar and beeswax, of each 1 oz.; melt, and, when considerably cooled, add of expressed oil of mace, 2 dr.; croton oil, 1 dr.; and spread the mixture upon heart-shaped pieces of white sheep-skin, without remelting it. Stimulant and counter-irritant; recommended by its proprietor as a cure for all human ailments. The ‘BATH-PLASTER PILLS,’ also prepared by Mr Roper, resemble several of the aperient pills already noticed. (See ‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Plaster, Scott’s.= _Prep._ From lead plaster, 14 oz.; olive oil and white resin, of each 1 oz.; melted together, and spread on calico.

=Plaster, Sharp’s Black.= _Prep._ From olive oil, 5 parts; carbonate of lead, 4 parts; beeswax, 1 part; boiled to a plaster.

=Plaster, Simple.= See PLASTER, WAX.

=Plaster of Soap.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM È SAPONE, E. SAPONIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) To lead plaster, 3 lbs., melted by a slow heat, add of Castile soap, sliced, 1/2 lb., resin, 1 oz., both (also) liquefied by heat, and, constantly stirring, evaporate to a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. E.) To litharge plaster, 4 oz., gum plaster, 2 oz., melted together, add of Castile soap, in shavings, 1 oz., and boil a little.

3. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 2-1/2 lbs., melted over a gentle fire, add of Castile soap, in powder, 4 oz., and heat them together (constantly stirring) until they combine.

4. (B. P.) Hard soap (in powder), 6; lead plaster, 36; resin (in powder), 1; to the lead plaster, previously melted, add the soap and the resin, first liquefied, then, constantly stirring, evaporate to a proper consistence.

_Obs._ Care must be taken to evaporate all the moisture from the above compounds, as, if any is left in the plaster, it turns out crumbly, and does not keep well. Much heat discolours it. (See _below_.)

Soap plaster is emollient and resolvent, and is used in abrasions and excoriations, and as a dressing to soft corns, lymphatic tumours, &c.

=Plaster of Soap (Camphorated).= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS CAMPHORATUM. Soap plaster, 10 oz.; camphor, 48 gr.

=Plaster of Soap (Compound).= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM, E. ADHÆRENS, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Resin plaster, 3 oz.; soap plaster, 2 oz.; melted together.

_Obs._ Less emollient, but more stimulant, than the simple plaster. The ‘EMPLASTRUM È MINIO CUM SAPONE’——Ph. E. 1744 was made by melting 1 part of soap with 5 parts of minium plaster. Neither of the above must be put into water. See PLASTER OF RESIN, Ph. D.

=Plaster of Soap-ce′rate.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM CERATI SAPONIS (B. P.). _Prep._ 1. From soap cerate, heated by means of a water bath until all the moisture is evaporated. Sometimes 2 or 3 dr. each of powdered mastic and gum ammoniacum are added for each pound of cerate. The product is generally spread whilst still warm. Said to be suppurative, resolvent, cooling, and desiccative. See CERATE (soap).

2. (B. P.) Hard soap, 10; beeswax, 12-1/2; oxide of lead (in powder), 15; olive oil, 20; vinegar, 160; boil the vinegar with the oxide over a slow fire, or by a steam bath, constantly stirring them until they unite; then add the soap and boil again in a similar manner until all the moisture is evaporated; lastly, mix with the wax previously dissolved in the oil, and continue the process till the product takes the consistence of a plaster.

=Plaster of Squill, Compound.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM SCILLÆ COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Galbanum, 1/2 oz.; soap, 1/2 oz.; litharge plaster, 2 oz.; melt together, and add opium, 1 dr.; ammoniacum, 1/2 oz.; vinegar of squills, 3 oz., mixed together; keep them over the fire constantly stirred till they are incorporated.

=Plaster, St Andrew’s.= _Prep_. From yellow resin, 8 oz.; gum elemi, 2 oz.; Bordeaux turpentine and oil of the bay-laurel, of each 1 oz.; melted together by a gentle heat. A stimulant, resolvent, and adhesive plaster, once supposed to possess extraordinary virtues.

=Plaster, Stick′ing.= See PLASTER, COURT, PLASTER OF RESIN, &c.

=Plaster, Stom′ach.= See PLASTER, AROMATIC, &c.

=Plaster, Strength′ening.= See PLASTERS OF FRANKINCENSE and OXIDE OF IRON.

=Plaster, Styp′tic.= See PLASTER OF OXIDE OF IRON, PARACELSUS’S P., &c.

=Plaster of Sul′phate of Quinine′.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM QUINIÆ, E. Q. DISULPHATIS, L. _Prep._ 1. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; resin plaster, 1 oz. Applied to the abdomen in intermittents.

2. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; mercurial plaster, 2 oz. In affections of the liver or spleen, following intermittents, applied over the regions of those viscera.

3. Resin plaster, 9 dr.; sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; camphor and oil of cajeput, of each 1/2 dr. Applied over the epigastrium as a prophylactic of cholera.

=Plaster of Thus.= See PLASTER OF FRANKINCENSE.

=Plaster of Ver′digris.= Syn. EMPLASTRUM ÆRUGINIS, E. CUPRI SUBACETATIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Beeswax, 4 parts; Burgundy pitch, 2 parts; melt, add of Venice turpentine and prepared verdigris (in powder), of each 1 part, and stir until the mass is nearly cold. For other formulæ, see PLASTER, CORN, &c.

=Plaster, Ver′mifuge.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM VERMIFUGUM, E. ANTHELMINTICUM, L. Prep. From powdered aloes, 1 dr.; oil of chamomile, 10 drops; croton oil, 2 drops; oil of turpentine, q. s.

=Plaster, Vigo’s.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM VIGONIS, L. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 40 oz.; mercury, 12 oz.; liquid styrax, 6 oz.; beeswax, turpentine, and resin, of each 2 oz.; ammoniacum, bdellium, myrrh, and olibanum, of each 5 dr.; saffron, 3 dr.; oil of lavender, 2 dr.; made into a plaster s.a.

=Plaster, Warm.= See CALEFACIENT PLASTER, BURGUNDY PITCH P., &c.

=Plaster of Wax.= _Syn._ SIMPLE PLASTER; EMPLASTRUM ATTRAHENS, E. SIMPLEX (Ph. E.), E. CERÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Beeswax, 3 oz.; suet and yellow resin, of each 2 oz.; melt them together, and stir the mixture briskly until it concretes by cooling.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Yellow wax and suet, of each 3 lbs.; yellow resin, 1 lb.; as the last. Intended to be employed as a simple dressing, especially to blistered surfaces. It is now seldom used.

=Plaster, White Diach′ylon.= See PLASTER OF LEAD.

=Plaster, Yellow Diach′ylon.= See PLASTER OF GALBANUM.

=Plaster, Zinco-lead.= _Syn._ EMPLASTRUM ZINCO-PLUMBICUM, E. DIAPOMPHOLYGOS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Suec.) Beeswax, 1 lb; olive oil and graphite (black lead), of each 6 oz.; carbonate of lead, 4 oz.; oxide of zinc (impure), 3 oz.; olibanum, 1-1/2 oz.; boil to a plaster. Astringent and desiccant. Other forms substitute an equal weight of litharge for the graphite.

=PLATE.= The name is commonly given to gold and silver wrought into instruments or utensils for domestic use.

The cleaning of plate is an important operation in a large establishment, as its durability, and much of its beauty, depend on this being properly done. The common practice of using mercurial plate powder is destructive to both of these, as mercury not only rapidly erodes the surface of silver, but renders it soft, and, in extreme cases, even brittle. The only powder that may be safely used for silver is prepared chalk, of the best quality. For gold, the form of red oxide of iron, known as _Jeweller’s Rouge_, is the most useful and appropriate.

In his ‘Workshop Receipts’ Mr Spon recommends the following:——“Take an ounce each of cream of tartar, common salt, and alum, and boil in a gallon or more of water. After the plate is taken out and rubbed dry it puts on a beautiful silvery whiteness. Powdered magnesia may be used dry for articles slightly tarnished, but if very dirty it must be used first wet and then dry.”

Chamois leather, a plate brush, or very soft woollen rags, should alone be used to apply them; and their application should be gentle and long continued, rather than the reverse. Dirty plate, after being cleaned with boiling water, may be restored by boiling it in water, each quart of which contains a few grains of carbonate of soda, and about an ounce of prepared chalk, calcined hartshorn, or cuttle-fish bone, in very fine powder. The ebullition sets up a gentle friction, which effects its purpose admirably. The boiled plate, after being dried, is best ‘finished off’ with a piece of soft leather or woollen cloth which has been dipped into the cold mixture of chalk and water, and then dried. The same method answers admirably with German silver, brass, pewter, and all the softer metals. See POWDER (Plate), &c.

=PLAT′INA.= See PLATINUM.

=PLA′′TING.= The art of covering copper and other metals with either silver or gold.

Plating is performed in various ways. Sometimes the silver is fluxed on to the surface of the copper by means of a solution of borax, and subsequent exposure in the ‘plating furnace,’ and the compound ingot is then rolled to the requisite thinness between cylinders of polished steel. The common thickness of the silver plate before rolling is equal to about the 1-40th of that of the compound ingot. Sometimes the nobler metal is precipitated from its solutions upon the copper by the action of chemical affinity, or, more frequently, by the agency of electro-chemical decomposition (electro-plating).

The metal employed for plating is a mixture of copper and brass, annealed or hardened, as the case may require. For electro-plated goods, ‘nickel silver’ is now almost invariably employed. See ELECTROTYPE, GILDING, PLATINISING, SILVERING, &c.

=PLAT′INISING.= Metals may be coated with platinum by nearly similar processes to those already referred to under PLATING. In the ‘moist way’ vessels of brass, copper, and silver are conveniently platinised in the following manner:——Solid bichloride of platinum, 1 part, is dissolved in water, 100 parts, and to this solution is added of common salt, 8 parts; or, still better, 1 part of ammonio-chloride of platinum and 8 parts of chloride of ammonium are placed in a suitable porcelain vessel, with about 40 parts of water, and the whole heated to ebullition; the vessels or utensils, previously made perfectly bright, are then immersed in the boiling liquid. In a few seconds they generally acquire a brilliant and firmly adhering layer of platinum.

Silver plates for voltaic batteries are commonly platinised by immersing them for a few seconds in a mixture of saturated solution of bichloride of platinum, 1 part; dilute sulphuric acid, 3 parts; water, 4 to 6 parts. Platinum battery plates are covered with a pulverulent deposit of platinum by means of the electrotype.

Platinised asbestos is prepared by dipping asbestos into a solution of bichloride of platinum, or one of the double chlorides of that metal, and then gradually heating it to redness. It is used as a substitute for spongy platinum. See ELECTROTYPE, VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.

=PLAT′INUM.= Pt. _Syn._ PLATINA, WHITE GOLD; PLATINUM, L. A heavy, greyish-white metal, occurring chiefly in certain of the alluvial districts of Mexico and Brazil, in the Ural mountains of Russia, in Ceylon, and in a few other places. It occurs in nature under the form of grains and small rolled masses, associated with palladium, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium, iridium, and a little iron. It has only been known in Europe since 1748.

_Prep._ The native alloy of this metal (crude platinum) is acted upon, as far as possible, by nitro-hydrochloric acid containing an excess of hydrochloric acid, and slightly diluted with water, in order to dissolve as small a quantity of iridium as possible; to the deep yellowish-red and high acid solution thus produced ammonium chloride is added, by which nearly the whole of the platinum is thrown down in the state of ammonio-chloride. This substance, after being washed with a little cold water, is dried and heated to redness; the product is spongy metallic platinum. This is made into a thin uniform paste with water, introduced into a slightly conical mould of brass, and subjected to a graduated pressure, by which the water is squeezed out, and the mass rendered at length sufficiently solid to bear handling. It is next dried, very carefully heated to whiteness, and hammered, or subjected to powerful pressure by suitable means, whilst in the heated state. It will now bear forging into a bar, and may afterwards be rolled into plates, or drawn into wire, at pleasure.

_Prop., &c._ Platinum is one of the heaviest substances known, its sp. gr. being 21·5. It is whiter than iron, harder than silver, infusible in the strongest heat of our furnaces, and melts only when exposed to the highest temperature obtained by Deville’s oxyhydrogen gas furnace. It is unaffected by air, water, and all the ordinary acids, and even its polish is uninjured by the strongest heat of a smith’s forge; aqua regia, however, dissolves it, though with much more difficulty than gold; it is also superficially oxidised by fused hydrate of potassium. Spongy platinum, powdered platinum, and even perfectly clean platinum foil, possess the remarkable property of causing the union of oxygen and hydrogen gases, with more or less elevation of temperature. Platinum is precipitated from its solutions by deoxidising substances under the form of a black powder (platinum black), which has the power of absorbing oxygen, and again imparting it to combustible substances, and thus causing their oxidation. In this way alcohol and pyroxylic spirit may be converted into acetic and formic acids, &c.

Platinum black is simply platinum in a fine state of division, and is readily obtained as follows:——1. A solution of platinic chloride, to which an excess of carbonate of sodium and a quantity of sugar have been added, is boiled until the precipitate which forms after a little time becomes perfectly black, and the supernatant liquid colourless; the black powder is then collected on a filter, washed, and dried by gentle heat.

2. Platinic-ammonium chloride, reduced to very fine powder, is moistened with strong sulphuric acid, and a small piece of zinc is thrust into the mixture; after the whole is reduced to a black powder it is washed, first with hydrochloric acid, and then with pure water, and is, lastly, dried.

3. (Zdrawkowitch.) Platinum black, in a highly active condition, can be obtained, according to the author, by adding 3 to 5 c.c. of solution of perchloride of platinum, drop by drop, to a boiling mixture of 15 c.c. of glycerin and 10 c.c. of solution of caustic potash of 1·08 sp. gr.

4. (Ph. B.) Boil down rapidly, solution of potash, 2 pints, in a silver or clean iron vessel, until there remains a fluid of oily consistence, a drop of which removed on a warm glass rod solidifies on cooling. Pour this into proper moulds, and when solidified and while still warm put it into stoppered bottles.

Platinum, in the state of platinum black, possesses the property of condensing gases, more especially oxygen, into its pores, and afterwards giving it out to various oxidisable substances. When placed in contact with a solution of formic acid it converts it, with copious effervescence, into carbonic acid; alcohol, dropped upon it, becomes changed by oxidation into acetic acid, the rise of temperature being often sufficient to cause inflammation; exposed to a red heat, it shrinks in volume, assumes the appearance of spongy platinum, and, for the most part, loses these peculiarities. That prepared with zinc explodes, when heated, like gunpowder. The spongy platinum is obtained by igniting the ammonium platinic chloride at a red heat.

The salts of platinum are recognised as follows:——Sulphuretted hydrogen throws down from neutral and acid solutions of the platinic salts a blackish-brown precipitate, which is only formed after a time in the cold, but immediately on heating the liquid. Ammonium sulphide also gives a blackish-brown precipitate, which completely redissolves in a large excess of the precipitant, provided the latter contains an excess of sulphur.

Chloride of ammonium and chloride of potassium give yellow crystalline precipitates, insoluble in acids, but soluble in excess of the precipitate, upon the application of heat, and decomposable by heat, with production of spongy platinum. Ammonia and potassium hydrate also give similar precipitates in solutions previously acidulated with hydrochloric acid.

_Estim._ This may be effected by throwing down the metal in the form of chloride of ammonium and platinum, which, after being washed on a filter with a little weak spirit to which a little of the precipitate has been added, and afterwards with the spirit alone, may be carefully dried at 212° Fahr., and weighed. Or, the precipitate may be ignited in a platinum crucible, and weighed in the state of a spongy platinum. 193·25 gr. of the platinic and ammonium chlorides are equivalent to 98·75 gr. of metallic platinum.

_Uses._ Platinum is valuable for the formation of crucibles, capsules, and other utensils or instruments intended to be exposed to a strong heat, or to the action of acids. Platinic chloride and the platinic and sodium chloride are much used in chemical analysis. Both of these are also used in medicines with the same intentions, and in the same doses, as the corresponding salts of gold. These compounds are poisonous. The antidotes and treatment are similar to those described under GOLD.

_Concluding Remarks._——Daville and Debray have introduced a method of refining platinum, which has already done much to extend the useful applications of the metal. The process consists in submitting the crude metal to the action of an intensely high temperature, obtained by the combustion of hydrogen (or coal-gas) with oxygen, in a crucible of lime. By this means large quantities of platinum (50 lbs. or more) can be kept fused until the sulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, and osmium, generally occurring in crude platinum, are oxidised and volatilised, and the iron and copper are oxidised and absorbed by the lime forming the crucible. At the International Exhibition of 1862 an ingot of pure platinum, weighing over 2 cwt., was exhibited by Messrs Johnson & Mathey, as an illustration of the practical results of this process.

=Platinic Chloride.= PtCl_{4}. _Syn._ BICHLORIDE OF PLATINUM, CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM, PERCHLORIDE OF P.; PLATINI BICHLORIDUM (Ph. L.), L. PLATINI TETRACHLORIDUM. _Prep._ By dissolving platinum in nitro-hydrochloric acid, and evaporating the solution to dryness at a gentle heat. _Prop., &c._ Reddish-brown, deliquescent, and very soluble in both water and alcohol, yielding orange-coloured solutions. It combines with a variety of metallic chlorides to form ‘double salts.’ Used as a test in chemical analysis, and as an alterative in secondary syphilis, &c.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/4 gr., dissolved in distilled water, or made into a pill with syrup and liquorice powder. Some persons prescribe much larger doses, but unsafely. Hoefer recommends an ointment made with it as an application to indolent ulcers. In doses of 5 gr. and upwards it acts as a violent caustic poison. This last salt is the ‘chloride of platinum’ of the shops, and the one used in the arts and medicine. It forms one of the tests included in the Appendix to the Ph. L.

=Platinic-Ammonium Chloride.= Pt(NH_{4})_{2}Cl_{6}, or PtCl_{4} 2NH_{4}Cl. _Syn._ AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM, PLATINO-CHLORIDE OF AMMONIUM. _Prep._ A solution of chloride of ammonium is added to a strong solution of platinic chloride, and the precipitate washed with dilute alcohol.

_Prop._ Minute, transparent, yellow octahedral crystals very feebly soluble in water, less so in dilute alcohol, and insoluble in acids; heat converts it into spongy platinum.

=Platinic-Potassium Chloride.= PtK_{2}Cl_{6}, or PtCl_{4}2KCl. _Syn._ PLATINO-CHLORIDE OF POTASSIUM, POTASSIO-CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM. _Prep._ A bright yellow, crystalline precipitate, formed whenever solutions of the chlorides of platinum and of potassium are mixed; or a salt of potassium, acidulated with a little hydrochloric acid, is added to platinic chloride. In appearance, solubility, &c., it closely resembles ammonio-chloride of platinum.

=Platinic-Sodium Chloride.= PtNa_{2}Cl_{6}, or PtCl_{4}2NaCl. _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM AND SODIUM, SODIO-CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM, PLATINO-BICHLORIDE OF SODIUM; PLATINI ET SODII CHLORIDUM, PLATINI SODIO-CHLORIDIUM, &c., L. _Prep._ (Redwood.) Platinic chloride, 17 parts; chloride of sodium, 6 parts; dissolve the two salts separately in water, q. s., mix the solutions, and evaporate, that crystals may form. The crystals are large, transparent, and of a yellow-red colour.——_Dose_, 1/12 to 1/2 gr.; in the same cases as the bichloride.

=Platinic Oxide.= PtO_{2}. _Syn._ BINOXIDE OF PLATINUM. _Prep._ 1. By exactly decomposing the platinic sulphate with nitrate of barium, and adding pure hydrate of sodium to the filtered solution, so as to precipitate only half the oxide. (Berzelius.)——2. By boiling platinic chloride with hydrate of sodium, in considerable excess, and then adding acetic acid.

_Prop., &c._ As the hydrate (Pt(HO)_{4}), it is a bulky brownish powder; this, when gently heated, becomes black and anhydrous. It forms salts with the acids, and combines with some of the bases. The salts have a red or yellow colour, and a remarkable tendency to form double salts with the alkaline salts.

_Obs._ Both the oxides of platinum are reduced to the metallic state on ignition.

=Platinous Oxide.= PtO. _Syn._ OXIDE OF PLATINUM. _Prep._ By heating to below redness the platinic chloride and digesting with hydrate of potassium the residue.

_Prop., &c._ A black powder, soluble in excess of alkali, and freely so in the acids, forming brown solutions of the platinous salts. These are distinguished from solutions of the platinic salts by not being precipitated by chloride of ammonium. Platinous oxalate, in fine copper-coloured needles, may be obtained by heating platinic oxide in a solution of oxalic acid.

=Platinum Gas.= _Syn._ GAZ-PLATINE; GILLARD’S GAS. In Paris this gas is employed by gold- and silversmiths and electro-platers because it gives rise to no sulphur product and burns without giving off soot or smoke. It is free from smell. Steam is decomposed by being made to pass through a retort filled with red-hot charcoal. The hydrogen being freed from the carbonic acid which is associated with it, by means of crystallised carbonate of soda, is burnt from an Argand burner provided with numerous small holes. The flame, which is not luminous in itself, is surrounded by a network of moderately fine platinum wire, which on becoming white-hot becomes luminous. It burns quite steadily, and its illuminating power is said to exceed slightly that of coal gas.

=Platinum, Spongy.= _Prep._ 1. By heating ammonio-chloride of platinum to redness.

2. Crude bichloride of platinum and chloride of ammonium are separately dissolved in proof spirit, and the one solution added to the other as long as a precipitate forms; this is collected, and, whilst still moist, formed into little balls or pieces, which are then dried, and gradually heated to redness.

_Prop., &c._ These have been noticed above. Small balls of spongy platinum are used for the hydrogen instantaneous-light lamp (Döbereiner’s lamp); but they are apt to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and then lose their power of inflaming hydrogen, until they are re-dried and heated.

=PLEURISY.= Inflammation of the pleura, or membrane covering the lungs. The symptoms of pleurisy are a sharp pain in the side, which is rendered more acute when a deep breath is taken; quick, short, difficult inspiration; a quick pulse; and fever. Much pain is also experienced if the attempt be made to lie on the affected side.

Pleurisy sometimes accompanies pneumonia or inflammation of the substance of the lungs. If allowed to run on, the disease produces effusion of serum or of lymph into the cavity of the chest, in either case giving rise to adhesions, which cause embarrassment of breathing. On the contrary, it may terminate by resolution or complete recovery.

Pleurisy generally arises from exposure to the cold. A blow or a wound will also cause it, and a not uncommon origin is the splintered end of a broken rib. In every case the advice of the medical practitioner should be sought upon the first indications of the disease. The following treatment is suggested for adoption only by emigrants, or others unable to procure the services of the medical man in cases of urgency:——

Under these circumstances the patient, sitting in an upright posture, should be bled until he is able to breathe without feeling pain. If after bleeding the pain should return, leeches, if obtainable, should be applied to the painful part, and a large blister should be placed near the affected spot. After being bled the patient should have a hot bath. Should the pain not subside, leeching must be had free recourse to, or blood be drawn by cupping. A brisk purgative should be given at the commencement of the disease, and after this has ceased acting the patient should take two grains of calomel and a quarter of a grain of opium every four hours, but this treatment must not be continued longer than is necessary. The patient should remain in bed in a room which has a uniform temperature of 60° F., and adopt a low diet.

IN HORSES.——_Symptoms._ Fever, indicated by shivering, indisposition to move or turn, quick pulse, painful cough, and hurried respiration.

“Place the animal without delay in a cool, airy, loose box, and bleed to the extent of seven or eight quarts, or until the pulse falters. Bleeding is never justifiable after the third day, when the pulse reaches 70. Three or four drachms of aloes in solution will suffice for the horse, and clysters must also be given. Until the physic operates sedatives must be used with great caution. Twenty minims of Flemming’s tincture of aconite should be given every three hours.

“Towards the close of the second day the aconite may be discontinued, and a scruple of calomel and a drachm of opium given in a bolus, and repeated every four hours until four or five doses have been given. Apply liniment of ammonia or mustard to the sides. If the animal be thirsty give water in which nitre has been dissolved. Keep the animal perfectly quiet, and let it have soft laxative food.” (Finlay Dun.)

=PLUG′GING.= The introduction of a mass of lint, sponge, or other suitable material, into a wound or cavity, with the intention of arresting hæmorrhage. It is now seldom adopted, except in cases of bleeding from the nose, and that only after more approved methods have failed.

=PLUM.= A name applied to several varieties of the _Prunus domesticus_ (Linn.), or wild plum. Among the cultivated varieties, the damson, greengage, French plum, magnum bonum or Mogul p., mirabelle p., Orleans p., and prune, are those best known. Grocers’ ‘plums’ are raisins, or dried grapes.

In the following table will be found the composition of the principal varieties of plum.

+------------------+----------+---------------+-------+-------+----------------+ | | | Greengage. | | | Mussel Plums. | | | | |Black- | | | | |Mirabelle,+-------+-------+ blue, | Dark +-------+--------+ | | common |Yellow-|Large |middle-|black- | |Italian,| | | yellow. |green, |green, | sized | red |Common.| very | | | |middle | very | Plums.| Plums.| | sweet. | | | | size. | sweet.| | | | | +------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ |_Soluble matter_——| | | | | | | | | Sugar | 3·584 | 2·960| 3·405| 1·996| 2·252| 5·793| 6·730 | | Free acid, | | | | | | | | | reduced to | | | | | | | | | equivalent in | | | | | | | | | malic acid | 0·582 | 0·960| 0·870| 1·270| 1·331| 0·952| 0·841 | | Albuminous | | | | | | | | | substances | 0·197 | 0·477| 0·401| 0·400| 0·426| 0·785| 0·832 | | Pectous | | | | | | | | | substances, &c. | 5·772 | 10·475| 11·074| 2·313| 5·851| 3·646| 4·105 | | Ash | 0·570 | 0·318| 0·398| 0·496| 0·553| 0·734| 0·590 | | | | | | | | | | |_Insoluble | | | | | | | | |matter_—— | | | | | | | | | Seeds | 5·780 | 3·250| 2·852| 4·190| 3·329| 3·540| 3·124 | | Skins, &c. | 0·179 | 0·680| 1·035|} | |{ 1·990| 0·972 | | Pectose | 1·080 | 0·010| 0·245|} 0·509| 1·020|{ 0·630| 1·534 | |[_Ash from | | | | | | | | |insoluble matter | | | | | | | | |included on | | | | | | | | |weights given_] | [0·082] |[0·039]|[0·037]|[0·041]|[0·063]|[0·094]|[0·066] | | Water | 82·256 | 80·841| 79·720| 88·751| 85·238| 81·930| 81·272 | | +----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ | | 100·00 | 99·971|100·00 | 99·925|100·00 |100·00 |100·00 | +------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+

=PLUMBA′GO.= _Syn._ GRAPHITE, BLACK-LEAD. One of the native forms of carbon. It contains from 95 to 100% of pure carbon; has a metallic lustre, and conducts electricity nearly as well as the metals. It was formerly regarded as a carbide of iron, but the iron generally found is now known to be merely in a state of mixture. There are two distinct varieties of graphite——crystallised or foliated graphite, obtained chiefly from Ceylon; and amorphous graphite (the ordinary plumbago or black-lead), largely imported to this country from Germany. The Borrowdale mine in Cumberland, from which the finest black-lead was formerly derived, is now nearly exhausted. The foliated graphite of Ceylon and other parts is the principal material employed for making plumbago crucibles and other fire-resisting goods. The amorphous graphite is used for making black-lead pencils, polishing powder for stoves and grates (‘lustre,’ ‘servants’ friend,’ &c.), and to diminish friction in heavy machinery (anti-friction powder). Its powder is also used to give conducting surfaces to articles on which it is desired to deposit copper by the electrotype. In medicine plumbago has been used with apparent advantage in herpes and several chronic skin diseases——externally, as an ointment made with four times its weight of lard; and internally, made into pills.

_Purification._ For medical and chemical use graphite may be treated as follows:——

1. (Dumas and Stas.) Heat it to redness with caustic potassa, in a covered crucible, then wash it well with water, boil it in nitric acid and in aqua regia, again wash it with water, dry it, and expose it at a white heat to a stream of dry chlorine gas; lastly, wash it with water, and again heat it to dull redness. In analysis.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Pure native plumbago, 1 lb., is boiled in water for 1 hour, then drained, and digested for 24 hours in a mixture of water, 8 oz.; nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, of each 2 oz.; it is, lastly, well washed with water, and dried.

3. (Brodie’s patent.) This process is only applicable to the hard varieties of graphite, as that of Ceylon. It consists in introducing coarsely powdered graphite, previously mixed with 1/14th of its weight of chlorate of potassa, into 2 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, which is heated in a water bath until the evolution of acid fumes ceases. The acid is then removed by water, and the graphite dried. Thus prepared, this substance, when heated to a temperature approaching a red heat, swells up to a voluminous mass of finely divided graphite. This powder, which is quite free from grit, may be afterwards consolidated by pressure, and used for making pencils or other purposes.

=PLUM′BIC ACID.= Binoxide of lead occasionally receives this name on account of its combining with some of the bases to form compounds which have been called plumbates.

=PLUM′BUM COR′NEUM.= See LEAD, CHLORIDE OF.

=PLUM′OSE AL′UM.= The old name of the silky amianthine crystals of the double sulphate of aluminum and iron occasionally found on alum slate. Asbestos has also been so called.

=PLUNKET’S CANCER REMEDY.= See CAUSTIC, PLUNKET’S.

=PNEUMONIA.= Inflammation of the substance of the lungs. When the inflammation extends to the pleura, or covering of the lungs, the disease is distinguished as PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. By most pathologists pneumonia is described under the three general heads of——(1) Croupous pneumonia, (2) catarrhal pneumonia, (3) chronic pneumonia, each of which have, by some medical writers, been subdivided into other forms and varieties.

1. ACUTE CROUPOUS PNEUMONIA. This first description of pneumonia is most common amongst persons of from twenty to thirty years of age, although no age escapes it, and it is generally very severe in character when it attacks the very young or old. It prevails more amongst men than women, since the former, from their more frequent exposure to the weather and to changes of temperature, run greater risk of being overtaken by a very fertile cause of croupal pneumonia, viz. a sudden chill when the body is unusually heated.

It frequently seizes those suffering from chronic or acute disorders, as well as those who are intemperate and drunken. It often assails patients suffering from contagious and acute maladies, such as measles, smallpox, pyæmia, puerperal fever, typhus, and as appears from the accounts of the recent outbreak of Astrakan plague in that disease also. It likewise frequently prevails amongst the poor and badly fed living in the overcrowded quarters of large towns and cities.

The following are the principal symptoms of acute croupous pneumonia, given by Dr Roberts:[113]——

[Footnote 113: ‘Handbook of the Theory and Practice of Medicine,’ by F. J. Roberts, M.D., &c. Lewis, 1873.]

“In some cases there are premonitory signs of general indisposition for a short time. In primary, or unmixed pneumonia, the attack sets in usually very suddenly, the invasion being attended with a _single, severe, more or less prolonged rigor_. There may be great prostration with fever; vomiting or nervous symptoms, viz. headache, delirium, restless stupor, or, in children, convulsions. The special symptoms are _local_ and _general_.

“_Local symptoms._——Pain in the side is usually present, commonly stabbing or piercing, increased by a deep breath. Difficulty of breathing. Cough also commences speedily; it does not come on in violent paroxysms, but is short and hacking and difficult to repress. Soon expectoration occurs, the expectorated matter presenting peculiar characters. It is scarcely at all frothy but extremely viscid and adhesive, and the vessel which contains it may often be overturned without its escaping. The expectorated matter has a rusty colour or presents various tints of red, from admixture of blood, and as the case progresses, changes of colour are observed through shades of yellow, until finally they become merely like the expectoration of bronchitis. In some cases of croupal pneumonia pain and other symptoms are sometimes very slight or absent, and the expectoration may be merely like that in bronchitis, absent, or in low cases present the appearance of a dark, offensive, thin fluid, resembling liquorice or prune juice.

“_General symptoms._——These may be summed up generally as severe fever with great depression and prostration. The skin is hot, dry, and burning. The temperature rises with great rapidity to 102°, 103°, 105°, or sometimes higher. It has been known to reach 107° in cases which recovered, and in fatal cases it has attained to 109·4°. In a large number of instances it does not exceed 104°. There is usually considerable flushing of the cheeks. The pulse ranges generally from 90 to 120, or may be much above this.”

In the majority of cases this variety of pneumonia has a favorable termination, but however slight the form in which it shows itself, or the mildness of its attack, the properly qualified practitioner should be called in to combat it. We have described the nature and cause of the disease and given the course to be followed in treating it, for the benefit only of the emigrant and others similarly situated. The above comments are meant to apply to the other descriptions of pneumonia, which will be adverted to in the course of the present article.

_Treatment to be followed in croupous pneumonia._——Bleeding was formerly had recourse to, but this treatment has either been abandoned of late years, or very rarely practised, the only case in which its moderate employment is recommended being that in which the patient is threatened with death from partial privation or suspension of breath.

Leeches may be applied to the spot in pain, and a large blister near it, but it is preferable to first try the effect of hot fomentations and poultices containing laudanum; or turpentine sprinkled on a warm damp flannel may be tried. A third of a grain of tartarised antimony, with a few drops of laudanum, or a third of a grain of hydrochlorate of morphia may be given every four hours.

“In all _low_ forms of the disease the only chance is in _free stimulation_. At the same times full doses of carbonate of ammonia, with bark, spirits of chloroform, ether, camphor, and such remedies, must be administered. In some cases quinine with iron is useful.”[114]

[Footnote 114: Dr Roberts.]

The best diet consists of milk and beef tea. The patient, it is needless to say, should be kept in bed, and the temperature of his chamber should be maintained at about 60° F. It is also most essential that the room should be thoroughly ventilated, and all the expectorated matter, stools, &c., thoroughly disinfected before removal.

2. CATARRHAL PNEUMONIA. The acute variety of this form of pneumonia is that which principally attacks infants and children, and frequently complicates diphtheria, hooping-cough, measles, and influenza; although it may occasionally occur when not associated with these diseases.

In the other variety——chronic catarrhal pneumonia——the greater number of cases arise from bronchitis. Many authorities look upon the last variety of pneumonia as the cause of a great proportion of the cases of pulmonary phthisis.

_Symptoms._——These differ, in the great majority of cases, from croupal pneumonia, in not being preceded by rigors. There is always fever and a rise of bodily temperature from 103° to 105°. There is often copious perspiration and increased pulse. As the disease progresses the breathing becomes more difficult and rapid, the cough changes its character, and “becomes short, harsh, hacking, and painful, the child endeavouring to repress it, and having an expression of pain or crying and diminished expectoration.”[115]

[Footnote 115: Dr Roberts.]

The treatment of this form of pneumonia consists in keeping up the strength of the patient by means of good nourishing food, and stimulants judiciously administered. Ammonia and senega should be given if the sufferer is very weak. In ordinary cases ipecacuanha wine will be found useful. Poultices of linseed or mustard to the chest are also prescribed. During convalescence the patient requires careful watching; his diet should be generous, and should include wine; cod-liver oil, quinine, and iron, or other tonics are additionally necessary.

3. CHRONIC PNEUMONIA. This disease, in which the substance of the lung is in a more or less abnormal or altered condition, is mostly the result of some previous pulmonary affection. It frequently follows successive attacks of the catarrhal variety of pneumonia and the bronchial irritation arising from the inhalation of small particles of dust given off by substances employed in certain occupations or manufactures, such as coal, steel, granite, &c.

The symptoms are pains in the side, cough, sometimes occurring in severe paroxysms, shortness of breathing, the patient meantime gradually becoming thinner and weaker. Sometimes night sweats occur, but generally there is little or no fever.

The best treatment is nourishing diet, combined with tonics and cod-liver oil.

Of late years the doctrine of the contagious nature of some forms of acute pneumonia (whether complicated with pleurisy or not) seems to have been gaining ground amongst medical practitioners. The well-known fact that the pleuro-pneumonia of cattle is propagated by contagion, if it does not prove this contention, is at any rate “worthy,” as Dr Parkes remarks, “of all attention.”

The following cases, selected from amongst many others equally striking, would appear to lend considerable support to this view:

1. The ‘Lancet’ for January 9th, 1862, contains a communication from Dr Bryson, describing an epidemic of pleuro-pneumonia which occurred in 1860 amongst the Mediterranean fleet. The infectious character of the disease is stated to have been very marked; besides which there were several points of resemblance between it and the pleuro-pneumonia which attacks cattle.

2. Professor Bock of Christiana has recorded an outbreak of pneumonia which took place in the Akerhus prison of that city in 1866. Out of 360 prisoners 62 of them were attacked with pneumonia in six months. The prison, like the cattle sheds, ravaged by pleuro-pneumonia, was badly ventilated and overcrowded.

The following illustrations are extracted from Dr Wynter Blyth’s valuable ‘Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health.’

1. “Mr Alfred Mayo, Mildenhall, Suffolk, in a private letter to the author, gives a series of cases in which the infectious character of the malady was well marked. The first case was that of a bricklayer, about thirty-five years of age, who was taken ill with pleuro-pneumonia. His mother, who nursed him, very shortly afterwards took the same disease and died. A neighbour, a healthy young woman over thirty, who came in to nurse the last patient, was also taken similarly ill, and died with all the physical and other signs and symptoms well developed; and lastly, her child contracted the disease, but eventually recovered. There were other cases in the neighbourhood at the same time, and all of them were remarkable for their fatality.”

2. “Dr Richard Budd, of Barnstaple, has communicated to the author the following remarkable cases:——1. A clergyman, after attending a public meeting, became affected with acute pneumonia. 2. The nurse in attendance became ill of the same disease about a week afterwards. 3. The clergyman’s sister, taking the place of the nurse, was in her turn also seized with pneumonia. 4. A brother of the clergyman, who now undertook the duty of nurse, was in a very short time laid up with the same malady. The nurse and sister died, the two brothers recovered. Dr Budd concludes his communications as follows: ‘Since that time I have witnessed innumerable instances of the occurrence of this disorder in several members of the same family in succession, and I am thoroughly convinced that it spreads by infection, as the facts I have observed admit of no other explanation.’”

The following table, from the Registrar-General’s Report for 1875, gives the yearly number of deaths from pneumonia in England from 1848 to 1875:——

1848 21,868 1849 21,194 1850 20,303 1851 22,001 1852 21,421 1853 24,098 1854 23,523 1855 26,052 1856 22,653 1857 23,452 1858 26,486 1859 24,514 1860 25,264 1861 22,914 1862 23,713 1863 24,181 1864 24,470 1865 22,489 1866 25,155 1867 21,118 1868 19,908 1869 25,246 1870 23,729 1871 22,768 1872 20,282 1873 22,904 1874 25,927 1875 27,161

As a commentary upon the high death-rate from pneumonia for 1875, we may quote the Report for 1877 of the Registrar-General to the President of the Local Government Board. He writes, “The winter of 1875 was unusually severe; extremes of temperature, with a long continuance of east winds, were fatal to infants and to elderly people, and no less than 162,156 deaths were registered in England for the first quarter of the year; the mortality was at the annual rate of 27·5 per 1000, or 2·6 per 1000 above the average of the thirty-eight years——1838-75.”

_In animals._ For pneumonia and ordinary pleuro-pneumonia, the treatment prescribed for pleurisy may be followed.

EPIDEMIC PLEURO-PNEUMONIA OF CATTLE. It is now universally admitted that this disease is very often traceable to contagion, and hence that its propagation has been largely due to the practice of purchasing infected animals in open market, and afterwards allowing them to herd with healthy ones. When a cow is attacked with this epizootic disease, the first noticeable symptoms are generally tenderness and flabbiness of the udder, and a frothy condition of the milk.

These symptoms are accompanied with a dry cough and irregularity of appetite; at the same time the mouth, horns, and legs become hot, the pulse becomes more rapid, and the breathing also. When on its feet the animal arches its back, and when lying down rests itself upon its breast bone. Generally, however, when in the recumbent posture, it lies on that side where the affected lung is.

The treatment, omitting the bleeding, is very similar to that recommended for pleurisy, except that it should be supplemented by the application to the sides of fomentations of hot water, followed by the rubbing in of mustard or of some vesicant. “If no improvement occur after the third or fourth day, give three times daily an ounce each of ginger and gentian, with four drachms of sulphate of iron. Where there is debility, arrested secretion, and cold extremities, give several times a day a quart of warm ale, with an ounce each of ginger, cardamoms, fenugreek, or other aromatics.”[116]

[Footnote 116: Finlay Dun.]

=POACH′ING.= Amongst cooks, a peculiar method of cooking small articles by a slight boiling or stewing process.

POACHED EGGS are prepared by breaking them into a small saucepan or stewpan containing about 1/2 a pint of boiling water, to which a teaspoonful of common salt, and, occasionally, a little vinegar, is added, and gently simmering them for 3 or 4 minutes, or until sufficiently firm to bear removal with a spoon or ‘slice.’ Another method is to employ melted butter instead of water, and to dress them either with or without stirring.

Poached eggs are commonly served on toast, or with fried ham or bacon, with spice or vegetable seasoning at will. They form an excellent breakfast, or ‘make-shift dinner.’

=PODOPH′YLLIN.= _Syn._ RESIN OF PODOPHYLLUM; RESINA PODOPHYLLI (B. P.). Obtained from the root of the _Podophyllum peltatum_ (Linn.), or may-apple, a substance officinal in the Ph. U. S.

_Prep._ 1. The alcoholic extract of may-apple is digested in cold ether to remove fatty matter, and is then dissolved in rectified spirit; the solution is decoloured with a little animal charcoal, and filtered; it is, lastly, allowed to evaporate spontaneously.

2. (B. P.) Podophyllum, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 3-3/4, or a sufficiency; distilled water and hydrochloric acid, of each a sufficiency; exhaust the podophyllum by percolation with the spirit; distil over the spirit; slowly pour the liquid remaining after the distillation of the tincture into three times its volume of water acidulated with 1/24th part of its weight of hydrochloric acid, constantly stirring; let it stand 24 hours; collect the resin which falls, wash on a filter with distilled water, and dry in a stove. Cholagogue purgative; used as a substitute for calomel.——_Dose_, 1/6 to 1/2 gr., or even 2 gr. It is best to begin with 1/8 gr. (Squire.)

_Prop., &c._ An amorphous, greyish-white mass, soluble in alcohol, and slightly soluble in water. It is a safe and certain cathartic, superior in activity to resin of jalap.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 3 gr. See EXTRACT OF MAY-APPLE.

=PODOPHYLLUM ROOT.= _Syn._ PODOPHYLLI RADIX (B. P.) The dried rhizome of the _Podophyllum peltatum_; imported from North America. Active and certain cathartic.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

=POIS′ON.= _Syn._ TOXICUM, VENENUM, L. Any substance which, when swallowed or applied in any particular way to the living body, disturbs, suspends, or destroys one or more of the vital functions. In sufficient quantity, or in small doses long continued, the common result of the administration of deleterious substances is either impaired vitality or death.

Poisons are classified by Orfila under four heads:——

1. IRRITANT POISONS, or such as inflame or corrode the parts with which they come in contact. Their chief effects are upon the alimentary canal, with, sometimes, ulceration of the tongue, fauces, and œsophagus. Nausea, vomiting, stomachic and intestinal pains, extreme anxiety and anguish, quick and feeble pulse, cold and clammy skin, and mucous, bilious, or bloody diarrhœa, are among the common leading symptoms. Arsenic, blue vitriol, verdigris, strong acids and alkalies, drastic purgatives, and numerous other substances, belong to this class.

2. NARCOTIC OR STUPEFYING POISONS, or such as paralyse the functions of the nervous system, and produce headache, vertigo, confused vision, delirium, stupor, convulsions, coma, &c. It includes morphia, opium, henbane, oil of bitter almonds, prussic acid, &c.

3. NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS, which produce at the same time narcotism and irritation of the parts which they touch. Alcohol, belladonna, cocculus indicus, colchicum, foxglove, hemlock, poisonous fungi, strychnine, tobacco, veratrine, &c., are of this kind.

4. SEPTIC OR PUTREFIANT POISONS, including all those which alter, liquefy, or cause the putrescence of the fluids of the body; as sulphuretted hydrogen, the gas from sewers and cesspools, putrefying organic matter, miasmata, &c.

The treatment of cases of poisoning varies with the substance occasioning it; the proper antidotes will be found noticed under the names of the various substances that exert a deleterious action on the animal body. It may here, however, be useful to remark that, in almost all cases of poisoning, copious vomiting should be excited as soon as possible by the administration of a powerful emetic; its action being promoted by copious draughts of lukewarm water, tickling the throat with the finger, &c. Should this fail, but not otherwise, the stomach-pump should be had recourse to. The vomiting should be kept up and the stomach well washed out with bland albuminous or mucilaginous liquids, such as milk-and-water, barley water, sweetened water, flour-and-water, or any similar matters, as circumstances may afford. After the vomiting a brisk aperient draught, or clyster, may be administered, and nervous irritability or exhaustion allayed by means of ether, opium, wine, or warm spirit-and-water, as the case may require. Even in a suspected case of poisoning, when proper medical advice is not at hand, an emetic should be immediately administered. Vomiting may be, in general, produced very promptly by merely swallowing a cupful of warm water mixed with a teaspoonful of flour of mustard. If no dry mustard is at hand, a portion of the contents of a mustard-pot, put into the water, will answer nearly as well. As mustard may thus prove of so much use, it should never be wanting in any house; but even should there be no mustard at hand, warm water by itself, freely taken, forms a tolerably efficacious emetic.

=POLARISA′TION (of Light).= A change produced upon light by the action of certain media and surfaces, by which it ceases to present the ordinary phenomena of reflection and transmission. Instruments or apparatus employed to effect this change are called ‘polariscopes.’ Although the polarisation of light is frequently employed as a means of chemical investigation, and is of the utmost interest to the philosophical inquirer, its consideration scarcely comes within the province of this work. See ‘Watt’s Dict. of Chemistry,’ ‘Ganot’s Physics,’ &c.

=POL′ISH.= Various substances, differing widely from each other, are popularly known under this name. See POWDERS, VARNISH, &c., and _below_.

=Polish, French.= See FRENCH POLISH.

=Polish, French Reviver.= _Prep._ 1. Linseed oil, 1/2 pint; pale lac varnish and wood naphtha, of each 1/4 pint; well shaken together, and again every time before use.

2. Methylated rectified spirit, 3 pints; linseed oil and French polish, of each 1 pint; as the last.

3. Linseed oil (pale), 1 quart; strong distilled vinegar, 1/2 pint; spirit of turpentine, 1/4 pint; muriatic acid, 1 oz.

=Furniture Cream.= _Prep._ 1. Pearlash, 2 oz.; soft soap, 4 oz.; beeswax, 1 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil until the whole is united and forms a creamy liquid when cold.

2. Beeswax, 1/2 lb.; good yellow soap, 1/4 lb.: water, 5 pints; boil to a proper consistence with constant agitation, then add of boiled oil and spirit of turpentine, of each 1/2 pint. For use, the above are diluted with water, spread upon the surface with a painter’s brush, and then polished off with a hard brush, cloth, or leather.

3. Boiled oil (pale), 1/2 pint; beeswax, 1-1/2 oz.; mixed by heat. Applied by a ‘rubber,’ and at once polished off.

4. (For wooden furniture.) White wax, 8 parts; resin, 2 parts; true Venice turpentine, 1/2 pint; melt at a gentle heat. The warm mass, completely melted, is poured into a stone jar, agitated, and 6 parts of rectified oil of turpentine added thereto. After 24 hours the mass, having the consistency of soft butter, is ready for use. Before using the paste the furniture should be washed with soap and water, and then well dried. (‘Dingler’s Journal.’)

=Furniture Oil.= See OILS, MIXED.

=Furniture Paste.= _Prep._ 1. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; alkanet root, 1/4 oz.; digest until sufficiently coloured, then add of beeswax (scraped small), 4 oz.; put the vessel into hot water, and stir until the mixture is complete, then put it into pots. If wanted pale, the alkanet root should be omitted.

2. (White.) White wax, 1 lb.; solution of potassa, 1/2 gall.; boil to a proper consistence.

=Polish, Harness.= See BLACKING, HARNESS.

=Polish, Leather.= See BLACKING.

=POL′LARD.= See FLOUR.

=POL′YCHREST.= _Syn._ POLYCHRESTUS, L. A term formerly applied to several medicines on account of the numerous virtues they were supposed to possess. Sal polycrestus is the old name for sulphate of potassa.

=POL′YCHROITE.= The name formerly given to the colouring matter of saffron, from the variety of colours which it exhibits with different reagents. Its alcoholic and aqueous solutions are of a golden yellow; nitric acid turns it green; sulphuric acid, first blue, and then lilac.

=POM′ACE.= See CIDER.

=POMA′TUM.= _Syn._ POMMADE, Fr. This term was originally applied to a fragrant ointment prepared with lard and apples; but is now wholly restricted, in this country, to solid greasy substances used in dressing the hair. The pomatums of French pharmacy (POMMADES, GRAISSES MÉDICAMENTEUSES——P. Cod.; LIPAROLÉS——Guibourt; LIPAROLÉS and LIPAROIDÉS——Béral; STEAROLÉS——Chéreau) are soft ointments, having a basis of lard or fat, without resinous matter. See OINTMENT and POMMADE.

=POMEGRAN′ATE.= The _Tunica granatum_ (Linn.), a small tree indigenous in Persia and the East. Fruit (POMEGRANATE; GRANATA, MALA PUNICA) is cooling and astringent; fruit-rind (POMEGRANATE PEEL; MATACORIUM, CORTEX GRANATI; GRANATUM——Ph. L.) and root-bark (GRANATI RADIX——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) are powerfully astringent, detersive, and anthelmintic; the last more particularly so. The double flowers of the wild tree (BALAUSTINES; BALAUSTIÆ), as well as those of the cultivated one (CYTINI), are tonic and astringent.——_Dose_, 15 to 20 gr. of the root-bark, repeated every 30 or 40 minutes, until four doses have been taken, followed by castor oil; in tapeworm. As an astringent, all the parts described are commonly given under the form of decoction.

=POMMADE.= [Fr.] The term applied by Continental perfumers to any soft fragrant ointment (POMATUM).

In the preparation of pommades one of the first objects of consideration is to obtain their fatty basis in as fresh and pure a state as possible. Lard, beef, and mutton suet, beef marrow, veal fat, and bear’s fat, are the substances commonly employed for this purpose, either singly or in mixtures of two or more of them. The fat, carefully selected from a young and healthy animal, after being separated from extraneous skin and fibre, is pounded in a marble mortar, in the cold, until all the membranes are completely torn asunder. It is next placed in a covered porcelain or polished metal pan, and submitted to the heat of a water bath, which is continued until its fatty portion has liquefied, and the albuminous and aqueous matter, and other foreign substances, have completely separated and subsided. The liquid fat is then carefully skimmed, and at once passed through a clean flannel filter. In this state it may be aromatised or perfumed at will; after which, when it is intended that the pommade should be opaque and white, it is assiduously stirred or beaten with a glass or wooden knife, or spatula, until it concretes; but when it is desired that it should appear transparent or crystalline, it is allowed to cool very slowly, and without being disturbed. To prevent the accession of rancidity, a little benzoic acid, gum benzoin, or nitric ether may be added to the fat, whilst in the liquid state, as noticed under FAT and OINTMENT. Sometimes a small portion of white wax or beeswax (according to the intended colour of the product) is melted with the fat to increase its solidity. Some parties employ a few grains of powdered citric acid per ounce, in a like manner, with the intention of increasing the whiteness of the compound; but the practice is not to be commended, as pommades so prepared prove injurious to the hair.

The French perfumers, who are celebrated for the variety and excellence of their pommades, divide them into four classes:——

1. POMMADES BY INFUSION. These are made by gently melting in a clean pan, over a water bath, 2 parts of hog’s lard, and 1 part of beef suet (both of the finest quality, and carefully ‘rendered’), and adding thereto one part of the given flowers, previously carefully picked and separated from foreign matter; or, if the odorous substance is a solid, then coarsely bruised, but not reduced to fine powder. The mixture is next digested at a very gentle heat for from 12 to 24 hours, with occasional stirring, the vessel being kept covered as much as possible during the whole time. The next day the mixture is reheated, and again well stirred for a short time, after which it is poured into canvas bags, and these, being securely tied, are submitted to powerful pressure, gradually increased, in a screw or barrel press. This operation is repeated with the same fat and fresh flowers, several times, until the pommade is sufficiently perfumed. A good pommade requires thrice to six times its weight in flowers to be thus consumed; or of the aromatic barks and seeds a corresponding proportion. The pommades of cassia, orange flowers, and several others kept by the French perfumers, are prepared in this manner.

2. POMMADES BY CONTACT (ENFLEURAGE). These are made by spreading, with a palette knife, simple pommade (made with lard and suet as above) on panes of glass or pewter plates, to the thickness of a finger, and sticking the surface all over with the sweet-scented flowers. These last are renewed daily for one, two, or three months, or until the pommade has become sufficiently perfumed. On the large scale, the panes are placed in small shallow frames, made of four pieces of wood nicely fitted together, and are then closely piled one upon another. On the small scale, pewter plates are generally used, and they are inverted one over the other. In some of the perfumeries of France many thousands of frames are employed at once. The pommades of jasmin, jonquil, orange flowers, narcissus, tuberose, violet, and of some other delicate flowers, are prepared in this manner.

3. POMMADES BY ADDITION. These are prepared by simply adding the fragrant essences or essential oils, in the required quantity, to the simple pommade of lard and suet to produce the proper odour. In this way the pommades of bergamotte, cédrat, cinnamon, lemons, lemon thyme, lavender, limettes, marjoram, Portugal roses, rosemary, thyme, verbena, and about 40 others kept by the Parisian perfumers, are made.

4. MIXED POMMADES. Of these a great variety exists, prepared by the addition of judicious combinations of the more esteemed perfumes to simple pommade; or, by the admixture of the different perfumed pommades, whilst in the semi-liquid state. (See _below_.)

THE COLOURED POMMADES derive their respective tints from tinctorial matter added to the melted fat before perfuming it. GREEN is given by gum guaiacum (in powder), or by the green leaves or tops of spinach, parsley, lavender, or walnut;——RED, by alkanet root and carmine;——YELLOW and ORANGE, by annatto or palm oil; WHITE POMMADES are made with mutton suet, instead of beef suet. The BROWN and BLACK hard pomatums, vended under the name of ‘COSMETIQUE,’ are noticed at page 513. A few compound pommades are used as skin cosmetics.

=Pommade.= _Syn._ POMATUM. _Prep._ 1. (PLAIN POMATUM, SIMPLE P.)——_a._ From lard, 2 lbs.; beef suet, 1 lb.; carefully rendered as above. The ordinary consistence for temperate climates.

_b._ Lard and suet, equal parts. For warm climates. Both may be scented at will.

2. (SCENTED POMATUM.)——_a._ Plain pomatum, 1 lb.; melt it by the least possible degree of heat, add of essence of lemon or essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; and stir the mixture until it concretes. This forms the ordinary ‘pomatum’ of the shops.

_b._ Plain pomatum, 1-1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1-1/2 dr.; essence of lemon, 1 dr.; oils of rosemary and cassia, of each 1/2 dr.; oil of cloves, 20 drops. More fragrant than the last.

=Pommade, Castor Oil.= _Prep._ 1. From castor oil, 1 lb.; white wax, 4 oz.; melt them together; then add, when nearly cold, of essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; oil of lavender (English), 1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 drops. Supposed to render the hair glossy.

2. (Crystallised.) From castor oil, 1 lb; spermaceti, 3 oz.; melt them together by a gentle heat, add, of essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; oil of verbena, lavender, and rosemary, of each 1/2 dr.; pour it into wide-mouthed glass bottles, and allow it to cool very slowly and undisturbed.

=Pommade, Castor Oil and Glycerine.= (American receipt.) White wax, 1-1/2 oz.; glycerin, 2 oz.; castor oil, 12 oz.; essence of lemon, 5 dr.; essence of bergamot, 2 dr.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 10 drops; annatto, 10 gr.; rectified spirit and distilled water, of each a sufficient quantity. By a moderate heat dissolve the wax in a small portion of the castor oil (one fourth), and triturate it with the remainder of the oil and glycerin till quite cool; then add volatile oils. Lastly, rub the annatto with a drachm of water till smoothly suspended; add a drachm of alcohol, and stir the colouring into the pomade until it is thoroughly mixed. Avoid much heat.

=Pommade, Cazenave’s.= _Prep._ From prepared beef marrow, 4 oz.; tincture of cantharides (P. Cod.), 3 to 4 dr.; powdered cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; melt them together, stir until the spirit has, for the most part, evaporated, then decant the clear portion, and again stir it until it concretes. Recommended as a remedy for baldness and weak hair. It is to be used night and morning; the head being washed with soap-and-water, and afterwards with salt-and-water, before applying it. Dr Cattell scents it with the oils of origanum and bergamot instead of cinnamon.

=Pommade, Collante.= _Prep._ 1. Oil of almonds, 3 oz.; white wax, 3/4 oz.; melt them together, and add, of tincture of mastic (strong), 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 dr. Used to stiffen the hair, and keep it in form.

2. Burgundy pitch (true), 3 oz.; white wax, 2 oz.; lard, 1 oz.; melt, and, when considerably cooled, stir in, of tincture of benzoin, 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 dr. Used to fasten false curls.

=Pommade, Cowslip.= _Prep._ From plain pommade, 2 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 3 dr.; essence of lemon and essence of orange peel, of each 1 dr.; huile au jasmin and essence de petit grain, of each 1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 6 drops.

=Pommade, Crystallised.= _Prep._ From olive oil and spermaceti, as crystallised castor oil pommade, with scent at will.

=Pommade of Cucumbers.= _Syn._ POMMADE DE CONCOMBRES, UNGUENTUM CUCUMIS. _Prep._ Lard, 10 oz.; veal suet, 6 oz.; balsam of tolu, 9 gr.; rose water, 44 minims; cucumber juice, 12 oz., by weight. Melt the lard and the suet over a water bath, and add the tolu, previously dissolved in a little alcohol, and then the rose water. When clear, decant it into a tinned basin, then add to a third of the cucumber juice, and stir continually for 4 hours; pour off the juice and add another third, stir as before, then pour off, and add the remainder of the juice; separate as much as possible the fat from the liquid, melt by a water bath, and after some hours skim, and put into pots. (Beat, when in a semi-liquid state, with a wooden spatula, when it will become much lighter and nearly double in bulk.)

=Pommade d’Alyon.= See OINTMENT OF NITRIC ACID. See CUPS.

=Pommade de Beauté.= _Prep._ From oil of almonds, 2 oz.; spermaceti, 2 dr.; white wax, 1-1/2 dr.; glycerin, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; mixed by a gentle heat. Used as a skin cosmetic as well as for the hair.

=Pommade de Casse.= _Prep._ From plain pommade, 1 lb.; palm oil, 1/2 oz.; melt, pour off the clear, and add oil of cassia and huile au jasmin, of each 1 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; oil of verbena or lemon grass, 15 drops; otto of roses, 5 drops; and stir until nearly cold. Very fragrant.

=Pommade d’Hebe.= _Prep._ To white wax, 1 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add, of the juice of lily bulbs and Narbonne honey, each 2 oz.; rose water, 2 dr.; otto of roses, 2 drops. Applied night and morning to remove wrinkles.

=Pommade de Ninon de l′Enclos.= _Prep._ Take of oil of almonds, 4 oz.; prepared lard, 3 oz.; juice of houseleek, 3 fl. oz. Used chiefly as a skin cosmetic. Said to be very softening and refreshing.

=Pommade Divine.= _Prep._ 1. Washed and purified beef marrow, 2 lbs.; liquid styrax, cypress wood, and powdered orris root, of each 2 oz.; powdered cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves and nutmegs, of each (bruised) 1/2 oz.; digest the whole together by the heat of a water bath for six hours, and then strain through flannel.

2. Plain pommade, 2 lbs.; essence of lemon and bergamot, of each 2 dr.; oils of lavender and origanum, of each 1 dr.; oils of verbena, cassia, cloves, and neroli, of each 12 drops; huile au jasmin, 3 dr.; essence of violets, 1/2 oz.

=Pommade, Dupuytren’s.= _Prep._ 1. Take of prepared beef marrow, 12 oz.; melt, add of baume nerval (see OINTMENT, NERVINE), 4 oz.; Peruvian balsam and oil of almonds, of each 3 oz.; and lastly, of alcoholic extract of cantharides, 36 gr.; (dissolve in) rectified spirit, 3 fl. dr. This is the original formula for this celebrated pommade. The following modifications of it are now commonly employed:——

2. (Cap.) Beef marrow, 2 oz.; alcoholic extract of cantharides, 8 gr.; rose oil, 1 dr.; essence of lemons, 30 drops.

3. (Guibourt.) Beef marrow and ‘baume nerval’ (page 1179), of each 1 oz.; rose oil, 1 dr.; alcoholic (or acetic) extract of cantharides, 6 gr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, q. s. These compounds are used to promote the growth of the hair and to prevent baldness, for which purpose they are usually coloured and scented according to the taste of the manufacturer. To be useful, they should be well rubbed on the scalp, at least once daily, for several weeks, and the head should be occasionally washed with soap-and-water.

=Pommade, East India.= _Prep._ Take of suet, 3 lbs.; lard, 2 lbs.; beeswax (bright), 1/2 lb.; palm oil, 2 oz.; powdered gum benzoin, 3 oz.; musk (previously triturated with a little lump sugar), 20 gr.; digest the whole together in a covered vessel, by the heat of a water bath, for 2 hours, then decant the clear portion, and add, of essence of lemon, 1/2 oz.; oil of lavender, 1/4 oz.; oils of cloves, cassia, and verbena, of each 1/2 dr. A favourite pommade in the East Indies.

=Pommade for Freckles.= (‘New York Druggists’ Circular.’) _Prep._ Citrine ointment and oil of almonds, of each 1 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 6 dr.; oil of roses, 3 drops. Mix well in a wedgwood mortar, using a wooden or bone knife.

=Pommade, Hard.= _Syn._ HARD POMATUM, ROLL P. _Prep._ 1. Take of beef suet, 2 lbs.; yellow wax, 1/4 lb.; spermaceti, 1 oz.; powdered benzoin, 1/4 oz.; melt them together, then add, of oil of lavender, 2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 1/2 dr. Before it concretes pour it into moulds of paper or tin foil.

2. Mutton suet and lard, of each 1 lb.; white wax, 6 oz.; melt, and add, of essence of lemon, 2 dr.; oil of cassia, 1/2 dr. Other perfumes may be employed at will.

Hard pomatums are used to gloss and set the hair. They act both as ‘pommade’ and ‘fixateur.’ See COSMETIQUE.

=Pommade, Macassar.= _Prep._ From castor oil, 5 oz.; white wax, 1 oz.; alkanet root, 1/2 dr.; heat them together until sufficiently coloured, then strain, and add, oil of origanum and oil of rosemary, of each 1 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 1/2 dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops. Said to be equal in efficacy to MACASSAR OIL.

=Pommade, Marechal.= Plain pommade scented by digesting it with _poudre maréchale_.

=Pommade, Marrow.= _Syn._ MARROW POMATUM. _Prep._ From prepared beef marrow, 1/2 lb.; beef suet, 1/4 lb.; palm oil, 1/4 oz.; melted together and scented at will.

=Pommade, Millefleur.= _Prep._ From plain pommade scented with a mixture of essence of lemon and essence of ambergris, each 4 parts; oil of lavender, 2 parts; oil of cloves and essence de petit grain, of each 1 part; or with other like perfumes so proportioned to each other that no one shall predominate. Much esteemed.

=Pommade, Roll.= See POMMADE, HARD.

=Pommade, Roman.= See _below_.

=Pommade, Rose.= _Syn._ ROSE POMATUM. This is plain pommade or hard lard, which has been well beaten with eau de rose, or, better still, scented with otto of roses. It is sometimes tinged with alkanet root.

=Pommade, Soft.= Plain pomatum scented at will.

=Pommade, Soubeiran’s.= _Prep._ From beef marrow, 1-1/2 oz.; oil of almonds, 1/2 oz.; disulphate of quinine, 1 dr. Recommended for strengthening and restoring the hair.

=Pommade, Transparent.= _Prep._ Spermaceti, 2 oz.; castor oil, 5 oz.; alcohol, 5 oz.; oil of bergamot, 1/2 dr.; oil of Portugal, 1/2 dr.

=Pommade, Vanilla.= _Syn._ ROMAN POMMADE, POMMADE À LA VANILLE, POMMADE ROMAIN. From plain pommade and pommade à la rose, of each 12 lbs.; powdered vanilla, 1 lb.; heat them together in a water bath, stir constantly for 1 hour, let it settle for another hour, decant the clear, and add, oil à la rose, 2-1/2 lbs.; bergamot, 4 oz.

=POPPY.= _Syn._ WHITE POPPY; PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM, L. The capsules or fruit (“mature”——Ph. L.; “not quite ripe”——Ph. E.) form the poppies or poppy-heads of the shops (PAPAVERIS CAPSULÆ; PAPAVER——Ph. L., E., & D.). They are anodyne and narcotic, similar to opium, but in only a very slight degree. The seeds (MAW SEED), which are sweet, oleaginous, and nutritious, are used as a substitute for almonds in confectionery and mixtures, and are pressed for their oil. See EXTRACT, OPIUM, and SYRUP.

=Poppy, Red.= _Syn._ CORN POPPY, CORN ROSE; PAPAVER RHŒAS, L. The fresh petals or flowers (RHŒADOS PETALA; RHŒAS——Ph. L., E., & D.) are reputed pectoral, but are chiefly employed on account of their rich colour. See SYRUP.

=POP′ULIN.= _Syn._ POPULINUM, L. A peculiar neutral, crystallisable substance, formerly supposed to be an alkaloid, found, associated with SALICIN, in the root-bark of the _Populus tremula_ (Linn.), or aspen.

_Prep._ Concentrate the decoction by a gentle heat, and set it aside in a cool situation to crystallise; dissolve the crystals which are deposited in rectified spirit, decolour them by digestion with animal charcoal, filter, and again crystallise. To render them still purer they may be redissolved and crystallised a second and a third time, if necessary.

_Prop., &c._ It resembles salicin in appearance and solubility, but, unlike that substance, has a penetrating sweet taste. Dilute acids convert it into benzoic acid, grape sugar, and saliretin; and with a mixture of sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassa it yields a large quantity of salicylous acid. It appears to be tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge.

=POR′CELAIN.= See POTTERY.

=PORK.= The value of pork as an article of diet is well known. That from the young and properly fed animal is savoury, easy of digestion, and, when only occasionally employed, highly wholesome; but it is apt to disagree with some stomachs, and should, in such cases, be avoided. To render it proper for food, it should be thoroughly but not overcooked. When salted it is less digestible. The frequent use of pork is said to favour obesity, and to occasion disorders of the skin, especially in the sedentary. See MEAT.

=POR′PHYRIZED, PORPHORIZA′TION.= Words coined by recent pharmaceutical writers, and possessing similar meanings to LEVIGATED and LEVIGATION.

=PORPHY′ROXIN.= A neutral crystallisable substance discovered by Merck in opium. It is soluble in both alcohol and ether, insoluble in water, and is characterised by assuming a purplish-red colour when heated in dilute hydrochloric acid.

=PORRI′GO.= See RINGWORM.

=POR′TER.= This well-known beverage, now the common drink of the inhabitants of London, by whom it is generally termed ‘beer,’ originated with a brewer named Harwood, in 1722. Previously to this date, ‘ale,’ ‘beer,’ and ‘twopenny,’ constituted the stock in trade of the London publican, and were drunk, either singly or together, under the names of ‘half-and-half’ or ‘three threads,’ for which the vendor was compelled to have recourse to two or three different casks, as the case might demand. The inconvenience and trouble thus incurred led Mr Harwood to endeavour to produce a beer which should possess the flavour of the mixed liquors. In this he succeeded so well that his new beverage rapidly superseded the mixtures then in use, and obtained a general preference among the lower classes of the people. At first this liquor was called ‘entire’ or ‘entire butt,’ on account of it being drawn from one cask only, but it afterwards acquired, at first in derision, the now familiar name of ‘porter,’ in consequence of its general consumption among porters and labourers. The word ‘entire’ is still, however, frequently met with on the signboards of taverns about the metropolis.

The characteristics of pure and wholesome porter are its transparency, lively dark brown colour, and its peculiar bitter and slightly burnt taste. Originally, these qualities were derived from the ‘high-dried malt,’ with which alone it was brewed. It is now generally, if not entirely, made from ‘pale’ or ‘amber malt,’ mixed with a sufficient quantity of ‘patent’ or ‘roasted malt’ to impart the necessary flavour and colour. Formerly, this liquor was ‘vatted’ and ‘stored’ for some time before being sent out to the retailer, but the change in the taste of the public during the last quarter of a century in favour of the mild or new porter has rendered this unnecessary. The best ‘draught porter,’ at the time of its consumption, is now only a few weeks old. In this state only would it be tolerated by the modern beer-drinker. The old and acid beverage that was formerly sold under the name of porter would be rejected at the present day as ‘hard’ and unpleasant, even by the most thirsty votaries of malt liquor.

The ‘beer’ or ‘porter’ of the metropolitan brewers is essentially a weak mild ale, coloured and flavoured with roasted malt. Its richness in sugar and alcohol, on which its stimulating and nutritive properties depend, is hence less than that of an uncoloured mild ale brewed from a like original quantity of malt. For pale malt is assumed to yield 80 to 84 lbs. of saccharine per quarter; whereas the torrefied malt employed by the porter brewers only yields 18 to 24 lbs. per quarter, and much of even this small quantity is altered in its properties, and is incapable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. In the manufacture of porter there is a waste of malt which does not occur in brewing ale; and the consumer must, therefore, either pay a higher price for it or be content with a weaker liquor.

The hygienic properties of porter, for the most part, resemble those of other malt liquors. Some members of the faculty conceive that it is better suited to persons with delicate stomachs and weak digestion than either ale or beer. That there may be some reason for this preference, in such cases, we are not prepared to deny, but undoubtedly, when the intention is to stimulate and nourish the system, ale is preferable. Certain it is, however, that the dark colour and strong taste of porter render its adulteration easier than that of ale, whilst such adulteration is more difficult of detection than in the paler varieties of malt liquors. “For medical purposes, ‘bottled porter’ (CEREVISIA LAGENARIA) is usually preferred to ‘draught porter.’ It is useful as a restorative in the latter stages of fever, and to support the powers of the system after surgical operations, severe accidents, &c.” (Pereira, ii, 982.) When ‘out of condition’ or adulterated, porter, more than perhaps any other malt liquor, is totally unfit for use as a beverage, even for the healthy; and when taken by the invalid, the consequences must necessarily be serious. Dr Ure says that pure porter, “when drank in moderation, is a far wholesomer beverage for the people than the thin acidulous wines of France and Germany.”

The manufacture of porter has been described in our article on BREWING, and is also referred to above. It presents no difficulty or peculiarity beyond the choice of the proper materials. A mixture of ‘brown’ and ‘black malt’ is thought to yield a finer flavour and colour to the pale malt that gives the body to the liquor than when ‘black’ or ‘roasted malt’ is employed alone. The proportion of the former to the latter commonly varies from 1-6th to 1-4th. When ‘black malt’ is alone used, the proportion varies from the 1-10th to 1-15th. 1 lb. of ‘roasted malt,’ mashed with about 79 lbs. of pale malt, is said to be capable of imparting to the liquor the flavour and colour of porter. The following formulæ were formerly commonly employed in London:——

1. (DRAUGHT PORTER.) From pale malt, 3-1/2 q. s.; amber malt, 3 q. s.; brown malt, 1-1/2 q.; mash at twice with 28 and 24 barrels of water, boil with brown Kent hops, 56 lbs., and set with yeast, 40 lbs. _Prod._ 28 barrels, or 3-1/2 times the malt, besides 20 barrels of table-beer from a third mashing.

2. (BOTTLING PORTER; BROWN STOUT.) From pale malt, 2 q. s.; amber and brown malt, of each 1-1/2 qr.; mash at 3 times with 12, 7, and 6 barrels of water, boil with hops, 50 lbs., and set with yeast, 26 lbs. _Prod._ 17 barrels, or 1-1/2 times the malt.

The purity and quality of porter, as well as of other malt liquors, may be inferred in the manner noticed under BEER; but can only be positively determined by a chemical examination. For this purpose several distinct operations are required:——

1. _Richness in_ ALCOHOL. This may be correctly found by the method of M. Gay-Lussac; or from the boiling point. (See ALCOHOLOMETRY and EBULLIOSCOPE.) The method with anhydrous carbonate of potassa will also give results sufficiently near to the truth for ordinary purposes, when strong or old beer is operated on. The quantity of the liquor tested should be 3600 water grains measure; and it should be well agitated, with free exposure to the air, after weighing it, but before testing it for its alcohol. The weight of alcohol found, multiplied by 1·8587, gives its equivalent in sugar. This may be converted into ‘brewer’s pounds’ or density per barrel, as below.

2. _Richness in_ SACCHARINE or EXTRACTIVE MATTER. A like quantity of the liquor under examination, after being boiled for some time to dissipate its alcohol, is made up with distilled water, so as to be again exactly equal to 3600 water-grains measure. The sp. gr. of the resulting liquid is then taken, and this is reduced to ‘brewers’ pounds’ per barrel, by multiplying its excess of density above that of water (or 1000) by 360, and pointing off the three right-hand figures as decimals.

3. ACETIC ACID or VINEGAR. This is determined by any of the common methods of ACIDIMETRY (which _see_; see also ACETIMETRY). Each grain of anhydrous acetic acid so found represents 1·6765 gr. of sugar.

4. _Gravity of_ ORIGINAL WORT. This is obtained by the addition of the respective quantities of saccharine matter found in Nos. 1, 2, and 3 (_above_). These results are always slightly under the true original density of the wort, as cane sugar appears to have been taken by the Excise as the basis of their calculations. More correctly, 12% of proof spirit is equivalent to 19 lbs. of saccharine per barrel. 10-1/2 lbs. of saccharine are equiv. to 1 gall. of proof spirit.

5. _Detection of_ NARCOTICS. This may be effected either by the method described under ALKALOID, or by one or other of the following processes:——

_a._ Half a gallon of the beer under examination is evaporated to dryness in a water bath; the resulting extract is boiled for 30 or 40 minutes in a covered vessel with 10 or 12 fl. oz. of alcohol or strong rectified spirit, the mixture being occasionally stirred with a glass rod, to promote the action of the menstruum; the alcoholic solution is next filtered, treated with a sufficient quantity of solution of diacetate of lead to precipitate colouring matter, and again filtered; the filtrate is treated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, again filtered, and then evaporated to dryness; it may then be tested with any of the usual reagents, either in the solid state, or after being dissolved in distilled water. Or the extract, obtained as above, may be boiled as directed with rectified spirit, the solution filtered, the spirit distilled off, and a small quantity of pure liquor of potassa added to the aqueous residue, which is then to be shaken up with about 1 fl. oz. of ether; lastly, the ethereal solution, which separates and floats on the surface, is decanted, evaporated, and the residuum tested, as before. The alkaline liquid, from which the ether has been decanted, is then separated from any precipitate which may have formed, and both of these separately tested for alkaloids.

_b._ From 2 to 3 oz. of purified animal charcoal are diffused through 1/2 gall. of the beer, and is digested in it, with frequent agitation, for from 8 to 12 hours; the liquor is next filtered, and the charcoal collected on the filter is boiled with about 1/2 pint of rectified spirit; the resulting alcoholic solution is then further treated as above, and tested. This answers well for the detection of strychnia or nux vomica.

6. PICRIC ACID. This substance, which was formerly employed to impart bitterness to London porter in lieu of hops, may be detected as follows:——

_a._ A portion of the liquor agitated with a little solution of diacetate of lead loses its bitter flavour if it depends on hops, but retains it if it depends on picric acid.

_b._ Pure beer is decoloured and deodorised by animal charcoal; but beer containing picric acid, when thus treated, retains a lemon-yellow colour and the odour.

_c._ Unbleached sheep’s wool, boiled for six or ten minutes, and then washed, takes a canary-yellow colour if picric acid be present. The test is so delicate that 1 grain of the adulterant in 150,000 gr. of beer is readily detected.

_d._ (Vitate.[117]) The author agitates 10 c.c. of the suspected beer in a test tube with half its volume of pure amylic alcohol. If the mixture is left to settle, the amylic stratum separates entirely, and is drawn off with a pipette, evaporated to dryness at a convenient temperature in a porcelain capsule, and the residue is finally taken up in a little distilled water with the aid of heat. The aqueous solution is divided into portions, and submitted to the following reagents. One portion is treated with a solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper, which, in dilute solutions of picric acid, instantly produces a turbidity, due to the formation of very minute crystals of the ammonio-picrate of copper, of a greenish colour. Another portion may be treated with a concentrated solution of cyanide of potassium, which produces a blood-red colour, more or less intense, according to the quantity of picric acid present, in consequence of the formation of iso-purpuric acid. A third portion may be submitted to the action of sulphide of ammonium, rendered still more alkaline by the addition of a few drops of ammonia. Here also a blood-red colour is produced, which becomes more intense on the application of heat, and is due to the formation of picramic acid.

[Footnote 117: ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxxv, p. 75.]

7. MINERAL MATTER.——_a._ A weighed quantity of pure beer evaporated to dryness, and then incinerated, does not furnish more than from ·20% to ·35% of ash, the quantity varying within these limits with the strength of the liquor and the character of the water used in brewing it.

_b._ A solution of this ash, made by decoction with distilled water, should be only rendered slightly turbid by solutions of acetate of lead, bichloride of platinum, nitrate of baryta, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen.

_c._ If the beer contained common salt, the above solution will give a cloudy white precipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver. Each grain of this precipitate is equivalent to 1/2 gr. of common salt (nearly).

_d._ If GREEN COPPERAS (sulphate of iron) is present, ferridcyanide of potassium gives a blue precipitate, and ferrocyanide of potassium a bluish-white one, turning dark blue in the air; solution of chloride of barium gives a white precipitate, each grain of which, after being washed, dried, and ignited, represents 1·188 gr. of crystallised protosulphate of iron.

_e._ The ash, digested in water slightly acidulated with nitric acid, and then boiled, yields a solution which, when cold, gives a black precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen, and a white one with dilute sulphuric acid when lead is present.

8. _Wittstein’s method for the detection of_ ADULTERANTS _in beer_.[118] One litre of the suspected beer is evaporated by a moderate heat to the consistence of a thick syrup. This is poured into a tared glass cylinder capable of containing ten times its volume and weighed; five times its weight of 93° to 95° alcohol is added, and the whole frequently stirred, by means of a thick glass rod, during twenty-four hours.

[Footnote 118: ‘Archiv der Pharmacie,’ January, 1876, (‘Pharm. Journal,’ 3rd series, v.)]

By this means all the gum, dextrin, sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides are separated, and a comparatively small portion is obtained in solution. After clearing, this solution is decanted, the residue is again treated with fresh alcohol, the two products mixed, filtered, and the alcohol driven off by a gentle heat.

_a._ Of the syrupy residue left after this evaporation, a small portion is diluted with three times its bulk of water, and tested for picric acid, according to the directions already given.

_b._ The remaining largest portion of the syrup is agitated for some time with six times its weight of pure colourless benzol (boiling point 80° C.); this is decanted off, and the operation is repeated with fresh benzol, and the two liquors, the first of which has become yellow, the second having scarcely changed colour, are evaporated at a gentle heat. The pale, yellow, resinous residue thus obtained may possibly contain brucine, strychnine, colchicine, or colocynthin. To ascertain this, three portions of the resin are placed on a porcelain capsule; one is treated with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·33 to 1·40), another with concentrated sulphuric acid, and the third, after a few morsels of red chromate of potash have been added, also with sulphuric acid. A red colour, produced by the nitric acid, indicates brucine with certainty, and a violet colour colchicine; a red colour produced by sulphuric acid indicates colocynthin, and a purple violet, produced by sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash, reveals strychnine. Resin in which one or other of these colorations is produced possesses an extremely bitter taste; that in which the coloration does not take place is also bitter, but the bitterness recalls the well-known hop flavour.

_c._ The syrup which has been treated with benzol is freed, by gentle heating, from the small quantity of benzol remaining, and agitated twice with pure colourless amylic alcohol (boiling point 132° C.). The first portion of the alcohol acquires a more or less wine or golden-yellow colour. It would take up any picrotoxin or aloes if present, and thereby acquire a strongly bitter taste.

If neither of these two substances be present, the amylic alcohol does not become bitter, because neither the hop bitter nor the remaining four bitter principles——absinthin, gentipicrin, menyanthin, and quassiin——are soluble in it.

In order to distinguish picrotoxin from aloes a portion of the first obtained amylic alcoholic solution is poured upon glass, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously. If a fine white crystallisation be formed picrotoxin is present, if not aloes is present, and can only be recognised by its peculiar, saffron-like odour.

_d._ The syrup which has been treated with benzol and amylic alcohol is freed by means of blotting paper from the small quantity of amylic alcohol adhering to it, evaporation by heat being impracticable in consequence of the high boiling point of the alcohol, and shaken with anhydrous ether. This takes up the hop bitter yet present and absinthin. After evaporation the latter is easily recognised through its wormwood-like aroma; it also gives a reddish-yellow solution with concentrated sulphuric acid, which changes quickly to an indigo-blue colour.

_e._ After treating with ether the syrup has yet to be tested for gentipicrin, menyanthin, and quassiin. As it is now free from the hop bitter, a decidedly bitter taste points to one of these three substances. Any remaining ether is removed, and the syrup is dissolved in water and filtered; to one portion is added strong ammoniacal solution of silver, and it is then heated.

If it remains clear quassiin is present; if a silver mirror be formed it originates either with gentipicrin or menyanthin. Another portion is evaporated to dryness on porcelain, and concentrated sulphuric acid added. If, while cold, no change of colour takes place, but on heating it becomes carmine red, gentipicrin is present; menyanthin would give a yellowish-brown colour, gradually changing to violet.

For further information connected with this subject, see ALCOHOLOMETRY, ALE, BEER, BREWING, MALT LIQUORS, &c.

=PORT-FIRE.= A paper tube, from 9 to 12 inches in length, filled with a slow-burning composition of metal powder, nitre, and sulphur, rammed moderately hard, by a similar process to that adopted for small rockets. It is used in lieu of a touch-match, to fire guns, mortars, pyrotechnical devices, &c.

=PORTLAND CEMENT.= A species of mortar formed by calcining a mixture of limestone and argillaceous earth, and grinding the calcined mass to powder, in which state it must be preserved from the air. It is characterised by absorbing a large quantity of water, and then rapidly becoming solid, and, after a time, acquiring considerable hardness. See MORTAR and CEMENT.

=POSOL′OGY.= See DOSE.

=POS′SET.= _Syn._ POSSETUM, L. Milk curdled with wine or any other slightly acidulous liquor. It is usually sweetened with either sugar or treacle, and is taken hot.

_Prep._ From new milk, 1/2 pint; sherry or marsala, 1 wine-glassful; treacle, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls, or q. s.; heat them together in a clean saucepan until the milk coagulates. This is called ‘treacle posset’ or ‘molasses posset,’ and, taken on retiring to rest, is highly esteemed in some parts of the country as a domestic remedy for colds. Lemon juice, strong old ale, or even vinegar, is occasionally substituted for wine, and powdered ginger or nutmeg added at will.

=POT METAL.= See COCK METAL.

=POT′ASH.= The ‘potash,’ or ‘potashes’ of commerce is an impure carbonate of potassium, so named after the pots or vessels in which it was first made. The ‘potash,’ or ‘potassa,’ of the chemist is the hydrate of a peculiar metal, potassium, which is more particularly referred to below. The word potash is vulgarly applied to the crude or commercial carbonate of potassium. See CARBONATE OF POTASSIUM, &c.

Potash is now principally obtained from the following sources:——

1. From carnallite,[119] a hydrated double chloride of potassium and magnesium, which occurs associated with other salts of potassium and magnesium, as well as of sodium, in a bed of clay, at Stassfurth, near Madgeburg, in Prussia.

[Footnote 119: Carnallite contains nearly a fourth of its weight of potassium chloride.]

2. Feldspar and similar minerals.

3. Sea water, and the mother-liquor of salt works.

4. Native saltpetre.

5. The ashes of several plants.

6. The calcined residue of the molasses of beet-root sugar remaining after distillation.

7. The seaweeds, as a by-product of the manufacture of iodine.

8. From the fleece of the sheep.[120]

[Footnote 120: Maumené and Rogelet state that a fleece weighing 9 lbs. contains about 6 ounces of pure potash.]

The following is a process for obtaining alkali from seaweed, described in the ‘Chemical News’ for Nov. 10th, 1876:——

At the chemical works at Aalbourg, in Jutland, Denmark, where about 30 tons of alkali are made per week by the ammonia process, Mr Theobald Schmidt, the director of the manufactory, proposes to work, in conjunction with this process, a method devised by himself of treating seaweed so as to obtain iodine, potash, salts, and other marketable products therefrom.

In Denmark a very heavy duty is levied on the importation of common salt, whilst enormous quantities of seaweed rich in iodine and potash can be obtained at small cost in the neighbourhood of the works. Mr Schmidt’s process is as follows:——After the seaweed is dried and burnt, a concentrated solution of the ash is made and added to the liquor, containing chlorides of sodium and calcium, left after the ammonia has been recovered in the ammonia-soda process by boiling with lime. The sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, contained in the ash of the seaweed are thereby decomposed, and hydrated sulphate of lime and hydrated magnesia are precipitated in a form which may be available for paper-making, as ‘pearl-hardening.’ The last traces of sulphates are got rid of by adding a small quantity of solution of chloride of barium. To the clear solution nitrate of lead is now added, until all the iodine is precipitated as iodide of lead, which is then separated by filtration and treated for the production of iodine or iodides. After filtration the liquid is boiled; nitrate of soda is added to convert the chloride of potassium present into nitrate of potash. The latter is separated by crystallisation. There remains a solution of common salt, containing traces of ammonia from the previous soda operation, and a trace of chloride of potassium. This solution is again treated by the ordinary ammonia-soda process for the production of bicarbonate of soda and white alkali. See CARBONATE OF POTASSIUM, &c.

=POTAS′SIUM.= K. The metallic base of potash. It was discovered, in 1807, by Sir H. Davy, who obtained it by submitting moistened potassium hydrate, under a film of naphtha, to the action of a powerful voltaic current. It has since been procured by easier methods, of which the following, invented by Brunner, is the best.

_Prep._ An intimate mixture of carbonate of potassium and charcoal is prepared by calcining, in a covered iron pot, the crude tartar of commerce; when cold, it is rubbed to powder, mixed with 1-10th part of charcoal in small lumps, and quickly transferred into a retort of stout hammered iron; the latter may be one of the iron bottles in which quicksilver is imported, a short and somewhat wide iron tube having been fitted to the aperture; the retort, thus charged, is placed upon its side, in a furnace so constructed that the flame of a very strong fire, preferably fed with dry wood, may wrap round it, and maintain every part of it at a very high and uniform degree of heat. A copper receiver, divided in the centre by a diaphragm, is next connected to the iron pipe, and kept cool by the application of ice, whilst the receiver itself is partly filled with mineral naphtha, to preserve the newly formed potassium as it distils over. The arrangement of the apparatus being completed, the fire is gradually raised until the requisite temperature, which is that of full whiteness, is reached, when decomposition of the alkali by the charcoal commences, carbonic acid gas is abundantly disengaged, and potassium distils over, and falls in large drops into the liquid. To render the product absolutely pure, it is redistilled in an iron or green-glass retort, into which some naphtha has been put, that its vapour may expel the air, and prevent the oxidation of the metal. The pieces of charcoal are introduced for the purpose of absorbing the melted carbonate of potassium and preventing its separation from the finely divided carbonaceous matter. _Prod._ 3% to 4% of the weight of tartar acted on; 1 lb. yielded 280 gr.

_Prop., &c._ Pure potassium is a brilliant white metal, with a high lustre; at the common temperature of the air it is soft, and may be easily cut with a knife, but at 32° Fahr. it is brittle and crystalline; it melts completely at 136° Fahr., and in close vessels distils unaltered at a low red heat. Sp. gr. ·865. Its most remarkable property is its affinity for oxygen, which is so great that it takes it from most other substances containing it. Exposed to the air, its surface is instantly tarnished, and quickly becomes covered with a crust of oxide or hydrate. It inflames spontaneously when thrown on water, and burns with a beautiful purple or purple-red flame, yielding a pure alkaline solution. It can only be preserved in naphtha, rock oil, or some other fluid hydrocarbon.

The salts of potassium are all soluble in water, the tartrate, periodate, and fluosilicate being the least so; they are usually colourless, unless the acid be coloured, crystallise readily, and form numerous double compounds. They can be recognised as follows:——

Sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammonium, and carbonate of ammonium, do not affect them. A solution of tartaric acid, added in excess, to moderately strong neutral or alkaline solutions of potassium salts, gives a quickly subsiding, gritty or crystalline, white precipitate, which is redissolved on heating the liquid, and again separates as it cools; and is also soluble in aqueous solutions containing free alkali, or free mineral acids. Platinic chloride produces, in neutral and acid solutions, a yellow crystalline precipitate. Alkaline solutions require to be first slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The separation of the precipitate here, as well as that produced by tartaric acid, is promoted by violent agitation and friction against the sides of the vessel, and the delicacy of both is increased by the addition of some alcohol. When converted into carbonate by igniting with excess of carbonate of ammonium and alcohol, and treated with sulphuretted hydrogen solution and nitro-prusside of sodium, gives a splendid violet colour, turning through red to green on standing.

Potassium salts give with sodium periodate and hydro-fluosilicic acid white precipitates soluble in much water.

Heated in the inner flame of the blow-pipe on platinum wire, they impart a violet coloration, masked, however, by a mere trace of sodium salts.

=Potassium, Acetate of.= KC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. _Syn._ ACETATE OF POTASH, POTASSIC ACETATE; POTASSÆ ACETAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., D.). _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Acetic acid, 26 fl. oz.; distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; mix, and add, gradually, carbonate of potassium, 1 lb., or q. s. to saturate the acid; next, filter the solution, and evaporate it by the heat of a sand bath, gradually applied, until the salt is dried.

_Prop., &c._ Acetate of potassium, prepared as above, occurs in shining white masses, having a foliated soft texture, a slight but peculiar odour, and a warm sharp taste; it deliquesces in the air; dissolves in rather less than its own weight of water, and in about twice its weight of alcohol; and by exposure to a red heat is converted into pure carbonate of potassium. In trade it is preserved in well-corked and sealed bottles.

_Pur._ It is entirely soluble in water, and in rectified spirit. These solutions neither affect litmus nor turmeric, nor are they disturbed by either chloride of barium or nitrate of silver; but if from a stronger solution anything is thrown down by nitrate of silver, the same is again dissolved on the addition of water or dilute nitric acid. Sulphuric acid being added, the vapour of acetic acid is evolved. 100 gr. of this salt, digested in sulphuric acid, the solution evaporated, and the residuum dried at a high temperature, furnish 88·8 gr. of sulphate of potassium.

_Uses, &c._ Acetate of potassium has been found useful in dropsies, febrile affections, jaundice, scurvy, calculus, and several chronic skin diseases. During its exhibition the urine becomes at first neutral, and then alkaline, owing to the salt being converted into carbonate of potassium in the system.——_Dose._ As a diaphoretic and antiscorbutic, 15 to 20 gr.; as a diuretic, 20 to 60 gr.; as an aperient, 2 to 3 dr.; in each case dissolved in some bland liquid, or in the infusion of some mild vegetable bitter.

=Potassium Antimoniates.= The normal potassic antimoniate may be obtained by heating, in an earthen crucible, 1 part of metallic antimony with 4 parts of nitrate of potash. The mass so obtained is reduced to powder, and afterwards washed with warm water to remove the excess of potash and potassic nitrite. The residue must be boiled in water for an hour or two; the insoluble anhydrous antimoniate is thus converted into a soluble hydrated modification (K_{2}Sb_{2}O_{6},5H_{2}O.) The insoluble residue now consists chiefly of acid antimoniate of potassium. The normal salts possess the property of readily dissolving the acid antimoniate, which is precipitated when such a solution is mixed with any neutral salt of one of the alkalies. The normal antimoniate does not crystallise, and has an alkaline reaction.

Acid antimoniate of potassium (K_{2}Sb_{4}O_{11}.) may be procured by passing a stream of carbonic anhydride through a solution of the normal antimoniate.

Acid metantimoniate of potash, or hydro-potassic metantimoniate is prepared as follows:——Potassic antimoniate is first formed by deflagrating antimony with nitre, the residue being washed and boiled as described above, so as to bring the whole of the normal antimoniate into solution; the resulting liquid is filtered, and evaporated to a syrup consistence in a silver dish, fragments of caustic potash are then added, and the evaporation is continued until a drop of liquid placed upon a cold slip of glass begins to crystallise; it is then allowed to cool and the alkaline supernatant liquid is poured off the crystals, which are allowed to drain upon a porous tile. This salt is employed as a test for sodium.

=Potassium, Arseniate of.= KH_{2}AsO_{4}. _Syn._ ARSENIATE OF POTASSA, MONOPOTASSIC ARSENIATE, POTASSIUM DIHYDRIC ARSENIATE; POTASSÆ BINARSENIAS, L. _Prep._ Take of arsenious acid (white arsenic) and nitrate of potassium, of each, in powder, 1 part; heat the mixture to dull redness in a glass flask, until it fuses and red vapours cease to be evolved; dissolve the residuum, when cold, in boiling distilled water, 50 parts; concentrate the solution by evaporation, and set it aside to crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ This salt forms large crystals, which are permanent in dry air, soluble in about 4-1/2 parts of water, and insoluble in alcohol. It is reputed tonic, alterative, and antiperiodic.——_Dose_, 1/16 to 1/8 gr. dissolved in sweetened water. It is also used to form a resist-paste in calico printing, and in the manufacture of cobalt blue.

=Potassium, Borate of.= K_{4}B_{4}O_{8}. _Syn._ POTASSÆ BORAS, L. _Prep._ From dry carbonate of potassium and dry boracic acids, equal parts, reduced to powder, and heated to redness in a covered crucible; the sublimed mass, when cold, being dissolved in boiling water, and the filtered solution concentrated by evaporation, and then set aside to crystallise; or at once completely evaporated to dryness.——_Dose_, 1 to 6 gr.; in calculi, &c.

=Potassium, Borotartrate of.= _Syn._ POTASSÆ BOROTARTRAS, CREMOR TARTARI SOLUBILIS, L.; CRÈME DE TARTRE SOLUBLE, Fr. _Prep._ (P. Cod.) Crystallised boracic acid, 1 part; bitartrate of potassium, 4 parts; water, 24 parts; dissolve, by the aid of heat, in a silver basin, and, constantly stirring, evaporate the resulting solution, either to dryness, and then powder it, or merely to a syrupy consistence, when it may be spread upon plates, and dried in scales, by the heat of a stove. It must afterwards be preserved from the air.

_Prop., &c._ A white, deliquescent powder, freely soluble in water. It has been used as a solvent for lithic calculi, and in gout, &c.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 gr. In doses of 2 to 3 dr. it is laxative, and is very popular as such on the Continent.

=Potassium, Bromide of.= KBr. _Syn._ POTASSII BROMIDUM (B. P.). _Prep._ Exactly as the iodide, which it resembles in its character, only being somewhat less soluble in water and more in alcohol. Employed in similar cases and given in similar doses to the iodide.

=Potassium, Carbonate of.= K_{2}CO_{3}. _Syn._ CARBONATE OF POTASSA, SUBCARBONATE OF POTASSA, SALT OF TARTAR; POTASSÆ CARBONAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., D.). Impure or crude carbonate of potassium is chiefly imported from America and Russia, and is obtained by lixiviating wood ashes, and evaporating the solution to dryness. The mass is then transferred into iron pots, and is kept in a state of fusion for several hours, until it becomes quiescent, when the heat is withdrawn, and the whole is left to cool. It is next broken up and packed in air-tight barrels, and in this state constitutes the ‘potashes’ or ‘potash’ of commerce. Another method is to transfer the black salts, or product of the first evaporation, from the kettles to a large oven or furnace, so constructed that the flame is made to play over the alkaline mass, which is kept constantly stirred by means of an iron rod. The ignition is continued until the impurities are burned out, and the mass changes from a blackish tint to a dirty or bluish white. The whole is next allowed to cool, and is then broken into fragments, and packed in casks as before. It now constitutes ‘pearlash.’

When pearlash is dissolved in cold distilled water, the solution depurated, filtered and crystallised, or simply evaporated to dryness, it forms ‘refined ashes,’ or carbonate of potash sufficiently pure for most pharmaceutical and technical purposes. The granulated carbonate of potash, salt of tartar, or prepared kali, of the shops, is simply refined ashes which, during the evaporation, and more especially towards the conclusion of the desiccation, has been assiduously stirred, so that it may form small white granulations, instead of adhering together to form an amorphous solid mass. In this state it constitutes the ordinary or carbonate of potassa of the Pharmacopœias. Ordinary potash or pearlash may be refined as follows:——Raw potash, 10 parts, is dissolved in cold water, 6 parts, and the solution is allowed to remain for 24 hours, in a cool place; it is then filtered, and somewhat concentrated by evaporation, crystallisation being prevented by continually stirring the mass until the whole is nearly cold; it is next decanted into a strainer, and the mother-liquor allowed to drip off; the residuum is evaporated to dryness at a gentle heat, and redissolved in an equal quantity of cold distilled water; the new solution, after filtration, is again evaporated to dryness. The product is quite free from potassium sulphate, and is nearly free from both potassium chloride and silicates.

=Potassium, Pure Carbonate of.= CARBONATE OF POTASSA (POTASSÆ CARBONAS PURUM——Ph. E. & D., and Ph. L., 1836).——(Ph. L., 1836.) From bicarbonate of potassium, in crystals, heated to redness in a crucible.

(Ph. E.) As the last. Or, more cheaply, by dissolving bitartrate of potassium in thirty parts of boiling water, separating and washing the crystals which form on cooling, heating them in a loosely covered crucible to redness as long as fumes are discharged, breaking down the mass, and roasting it in an oven for two hours, with occasional stirring; lixiviating the product with (cold) distilled water, filtering the solution thus obtained, evaporating it to dryness, granulating the salt towards the close by brisk agitation; and, lastly, heating the granular salt thus obtained nearly to redness.

(Ph. D.) Bitartrate of potassium, 2 lbs., is exposed to a red heat in an iron crucible, as before; the powdered calcined mass is boiled for 20 minutes in water, 1 quart, the solution filtered, and the filtrate washed with water, 1 pint, to which ammonium sesquicarbonate, 1/2 oz., has been added; the mixed and filtered liquors are evaporated to dryness, and, a low red heat having been applied, the residuum is rapidly reduced to powder in a warm mortar, and at once enclosed in (dry and) well-stoppered bottles.

_Prop._ These are well known. It exhibits most of the properties of hydrate of potassium, but in a vastly less degree. It is very deliquescent, effervesces with acids, exhibits a marked alkaline reaction with test paper, is insoluble in alcohol, but dissolves in less than its own weight of water, its affinity for the last being so great that it takes it from alcoholic mixtures.

_Pur., &c._ Carbonate of potassium frequently contains an undue quantity of water, as well as silicic acid, sulphates, and chlorides. The water may be detected by the loss of weight the salt suffers when heated; the silica, by adding to it hydrochloric acid in excess, evaporating to dryness, and igniting the residuum, by which this contamination is rendered insoluble; the sulphates and chlorides may be detected by adding nitric acid in excess, and testing the liquid with nitrate of silver and chloride of barium. If the former produces a white precipitate, a chloride is present; and if the latter does the same, the contamination is a sulphate. Carbonate of potassium deliquesces in the air, and is almost entirely dissolved by water; in an open vessel it spontaneously liquefies. It changes the colour of turmeric brown. Supersaturated with nitric acid, neither carbonate of sodium nor chloride of barium throws down anything, and nitrate of silver very little. 100 gr. lose 16 gr. of water by a strong red heat; and the same weight loses 26·3 gr. of carbonate anhydride when placed in contact with dilute sulphuric acid.

=Potassium, Bicarbonate of.= KHCO_{3}. _Syn._ POTASSIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE, BICARBONATE OF POTASSA; POTASSÆ BICARBONAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Carbonate of potassium, 6 lbs.; distilled water, 1 gall.; dissolve, and pass carbonic anhydride (from chalk and sulphuric acid diluted with water) through the solution to saturation; apply a gentle heat, so that whatever crystals have been formed may be dissolved, and set aside the solution that crystals may again form; lastly, the liquid being poured off, dry them.

2. (Ph. D.) Carbonic anhydride, obtained by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on chalk (the latter contained in a perforated bottle immersed in a vessel containing the acid), is passed, by means of glass tubes connected by vulcanised india rubber, to the bottom of a bottle containing a solution of carbonate of potassium, 1 part, in water, 2-1/2 parts; as soon as the air is expelled from the apparatus the corks through which the tubes pass are rendered air-tight, and the process left to itself for a week; the crystals thus obtained are then shaken with twice their bulk of cold water, drained, and dried on bibulous paper, by simple exposure to the air. From the mother-liquor, filtered, and concentrated to one half, at a heat not exceeding 110° Fahr., more crystals may be obtained. The tube immersed in the solution of carbonate of potassium will have to be occasionally cleared of the crystals with which it is liable to become choked, else the process will be suspended.

3. (Ph. B.) The same.

4. (Apothecaries’ Hall, London.) Potassium carbonate, 100 lbs.; distilled water, 17 galls.; dissolve, and saturate the solution with carbonic anhydride, as in No. 1, when 35 to 40 lbs. of crystals of bicarbonate of potassium may be obtained; next dissolve carbonate of potassium, 50 lbs., in the mother-liquor, and add enough water to make the whole a second time equal to 17 galls.; the remaining part of the operation is then to be performed as before. This plan may be repeated again and again, for some time, provided the carbonate used is sufficiently pure.

5. (Ph. E.) Take of carbonate of potassium, 6 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 3-1/2 oz.; triturate them together, and, when reduced to a very fine powder and perfectly mixed, make them into a stiff paste with a very little water; dry this, very carefully, at a heat not higher than 140° Fahr., until a fine powder, perfectly devoid of ammoniacal odour, be obtained, occasionally triturating the mass towards the end of the process.

6. (Commercial.) From carbonate of potassium, in powder, made into a paste with water, and exposed for some time on shallow trays, in a chamber filled with an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride, generated by the combustion of either coke or charcoal, and purified by being forced through a cistern of cold water; the resulting salt is next dissolved in the least possible quantity of water at the temperature of 120° Fahr., and the solution filtered and crystallised.

_Prop._ It is soluble in 4 times its weight of water at 60° Fahr.; is fixed in the air, but loses carbonic acid below the temperature of a carbonate at a red heat. It possesses the general alkaline properties of carbonate of potassium, but in an inferior degree, having only a slightly alkaline taste, and, when absolutely pure, not affecting the colour of turmeric.

_Pur._ In a solution of pure bicarbonate of potassium a solution of mercuric chloride merely causes an opalescence, or very slight white precipitate; if it contains carbonate, a brick-coloured precipitate is thrown down. From 100 gr. of the pure crystals of bicarbonate, 30·7 gr. of water and carbonic acid are expelled at a red heat. In other respects it may be tested like the carbonate.

_Uses, &c._ Bicarbonate of potassium is the most agreeable of all the salts of potassium, and is much used as an antacid or absorbent, and for making effervescing saline draughts. It has also been successfully employed in rheumatism, scurvy, gout, dyspepsia, and various other diseases in which the use of potassium is indicated. The dose is from 10 gr. to 1/2 dr.

20 gr. bicarbonate, in crystals, ---------------------\/---------------------

are equivalent to

---------------------/\--------------------- 14 gr. of crystallised nitric acid, 15 gr. of crystallised tartaric acid, and 1/2 oz. of lemon juice.

=Potassium, Chlorate of.= KClO_{3}. _Syn._ CHLORATE OF POTASH; POTASSÆ CHLORAS (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. Chlorine gas is conducted by a wide tube into a moderately strong and warm solution of hydrate or carbonate of potassium, until the absorption of the gas ceases and the alkali is completely neutralised; the liquid is then kept at the boiling temperature for a few minutes, after which it is gently evaporated (if necessary) until a pellicle forms on the surface, and is next set aside, so as to cool very slowly; the crystals, thus obtained, are drained and carefully washed on a filter, with ice-cold water, and are purified by re-solution and re-crystallisation. The product is chlorate of potassium. The mother-liquor, which contains much chloride of potassium mixed with some chlorate, is either evaporated for more crystals (which are, however, less pure than the first crop) or is preserved for a future operation.

_Obs._ The product of the above process is small, varying from 10 to 45% of the weight of the potassium consumed in it, according to the skill with which it is conducted; this apparent loss of potassium arises from a large portion of it being converted into chloride, a salt of comparatively little value. The following processes have been devised principally with the view of preventing this waste, or of employing a cheaper salt of potassium than the carbonate:——

2. (Ph. B.) Mix slaked lime, 53 oz., with carbonate of potash, 20 oz., and triturate them with a few ounces of distilled water, so as to make the mixture slightly moist. Place oxide of manganese, 80 oz., in a large retort or flask, and having poured upon it hydrochloric acid, 24 pints, diluted with 6 pints of water, apply a gentle sand heat, and conduct the chlorine as it comes over, first through a bottle containing 6 oz. of water, and then into a large carboy containing the mixture of carbonate of potash and slaked lime. When the whole of the chlorine has come over remove the contents of the carboy and boil them for 20 minutes with 7 pints of distilled water; filter and evaporate till a film forms on the surface, and set aside to cool and crystallise.

The crystals thus obtained are to be purified by dissolving them in 3 times their weight of boiling distilled water, and again allowing the solution to crystallise.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 30 gr.

3. A solution of chloride of lime is precipitated with a solution of carbonate of potassium, and the liquid, after filtration, saturated with chlorine gas; it is then evaporated and crystallised as before. Dr Ure has suggested the substitution of sulphate of potassium for the carbonate, by which the process would be rendered very inexpensive.

4. Carbonate of potassium, 69 parts of the dry or 82 parts of the granulated, hydrate of calcium, 37 parts (dry fresh slaked lime), both in powder, are mixed together, and exposed to the action of chlorine gas, to saturation (the gas is absorbed with great rapidity, the temperature rises above 212° Fahr., and water is freely evolved); the heat, with free exposure, is then maintained at 212° for a few minutes (to remove some trace of ‘hypochlorite’), the residuum, consisting of chlorate of potassium and chloride of calcium, is treated with hot water, and the chlorate of potassium crystallised out of the resulting solution, as before. This process, which is an excellent one (the loss of potassium being for the most part avoided), has been modified and improved by various authorities, as will be seen below.

5. A solution of chloride of lime (18° to 20° Baumé) is heated in a leaden or cast-iron vessel, and sufficient of a salt of potassium added to raise the density of the liquid 3 or 4 hydrometer degrees; the solution is then quickly, but carefully, concentrated until the gravity rises to 30° or 31° Baumé, when it is set aside to crystallise. A good and economical process.

6. Chloride of potassium, 76 parts, and fresh calcium hydrate, 222 parts, are reduced to a thin paste with water, q. s., and a stream of chlorine gas passed through the mixture, to saturation; chloride of calcium and chlorate of potassium are formed; the last is then removed by solution in boiling water, and is crystallised as before. This process, which has received the approval and recommendation of Liebig, has long been practised in Germany, and was originally introduced to this country by Dr Wagenmann. The product is very large, and of excellent quality.

_Prop._ White, inodorous, four-or six-sided pearly scales, soluble in about 20 parts of cold and 2-1/2 parts of boiling water; in taste it resembles nitre, but is somewhat more austere; at about 450° Fahr. it undergoes the igneous fusion, and on increasing the heat almost to redness effervescence ensues, and fully 39% of pure oxygen gas is given off, whilst the salt becomes changed into chloride of potassium. When mixed with inflammable substances and triturated, heated, or subjected to a smart blow or strong pressure, or moistened with a strong acid, it explodes with great violence.

_Pur., Tests, &c._ The usual impurity of this salt is chloride of potassium, arising from careless or imperfect manipulation. When this is present, a solution of nitrate of silver gives a curdy white precipitate, soluble in ammonia; whereas a solution of the pure chlorate remains clear.

_Uses._ Chlorate of potassium is principally used in the manufacture of lucifer matches, fireworks, oxygen gas, &c., and as an oxidising agent in calico printing. It was formerly used to fill percussion caps, but was abandoned for fulminating mercury, on account of its disposition to rust the nipples of the guns. As a medicine it is stimulant and diuretic. It has been given in dropsy, syphilis, scurvy, cholera, typhus, and other depressing affections. It gives a fine artificial colour to the blood. (Stevens.)——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., in solution, twice or thrice a day.

_Concluding Remarks._——Formerly, chlorate of potassium was a salt which was made only on the small scale, and chiefly used in experimental chemistry; now it is in considerable demand, and forms an important article of chemical manufacture. The latter has hence, of late years, received considerable attention and improvement in the leading laboratories of Europe. The chlorate requires to be handled with great care. It should never be kept in admixture with any inflammable substance, more especially with sulphur, phosphorus, or the sulphides, as these compounds are exploded by the most trivial causes, and, not unfrequently, explode spontaneously.

=Potassium, Chloride of.= KCl. _Syn._ CHLORIDE OF POTASSA. _Prep._ The chloride of potassium of commerce is usually a secondary product in the manufacture of chlorate of potassium and other substances. The mother-liquor of the former is evaporated to dryness and heated to dull redness, the calcined mass is then dissolved in water, the solution purified by defecation and evaporated down for crystals.

It can also be well prepared by neutralising boiling solution of carbonate of potassium by dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporating down, and crystallising.

_Prop., &c._ It closely resembles culinary salt in appearance; is anhydrous; dissolves in about 4 parts of cold and 2 of boiling water; has a slightly bitter, saline taste; fuses at a red heat; and is volatilised at a very high temperature. As a medicine it is diuretic and aperient. It was formerly in high repute as a resolvent and antiscorbutic, and, particularly, as a remedy for intermittents. It is now seldom used.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., or more.

=Potassium, Chromate of.= K_{2}CrO_{4}. _Syn._ CHROMATE OF POTASSA, NEUTRAL CHROMATE OF P., MONOCHROMATE OF P., YELLOW C. OF P., SALT OF CHROME; POTASSÆ CHROMAS, P. C. FLAVA, L. This salt is only prepared on the large scale. Its source is ‘CHROME ORE,’ a natural octahedral chromate of iron, found in various parts of Europe and America. For medicinal purposes the commercial chromate is purified by solution in hot water, filtration, and recrystallisation.

_Prep._ 1. The ore, previously assayed to determine its richness, and freed as much as possible from its gangue, is ground to powder in a mill, and mixed with a quantity of coarsely powdered nitre rather less than that of the oxide of chromium which it contains; this mixture is exposed, for several hours, to a powerful heat on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, during which time it is frequently stirred up with iron rods; the calcined mass is next raked out and lixiviated with hot water, and the resulting yellow-coloured solution evaporated briskly over a naked fire, or by the heat of high-pressure steam; chromate of potassium falls, under the form of a granular yellow salt, which is removed from time to time with a ladle, and thrown into a wooden vessel, furnished with a bottom full of holes (draining box), where it is left to drain and dry. In this state it forms the chromate of potassium of commerce. By a second solution and recrystallisation, it may be obtained in large and regular crystals. The next process has for its object the employment of a cheaper salt of potassa than the nitrate.

2. (Swindell & Co. Patent dated Nov., 1850.) A mixture of pulverised chrome ore and chloride of potassium is exposed to a full red heat, on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, with occasional stirring for some time, when steam at a very elevated temperature is made to act on it until the conversion is complete, known by assaying a portion of the mass; the chromate is then dissolved out of the residuum, as before. Common salt or hydrate of calcium may be substituted for chloride of potassium, when the chromates of sodium or calcium are respectively produced.

3. On the small scale this salt may be prepared from the bichromate by neutralising it with hydrate of potassium.

_Prop._ Yellow; tastes cool, bitter, and disagreeable; soluble in 2 parts of water at 60° Fahr.; the crystals are efflorescent.

_Pur._ The salt of commerce is frequently contaminated with large quantities of sulphate or chlorate of potassium. To detect these, M. Zueber adds tartaric acid, dissolved in 50 parts of water, to a like solution of the sample. As soon as the decomposition is complete, and the colour verges towards the green, the supernatant liquor should afford no precipitate with solutions of the nitrates of silver and barium, whence the absence of chlorides and sulphates may be respectively inferred. The proportions are, 8 parts of tartaric acid to 1 part of the chromate. If saltpetre is the adulterating ingredient, the sample deflagrates when thrown upon burning coals.

_Assay._ 1. A solution of 50 gr. of the salt is treated with a solution of nitrate of barium, the precipitate digested in nitric acid, and the insoluble portion (sulphate of barium) washed, dried, and weighed. 117 gr. of this substance are equivalent to 89 gr. of sulphate of potassium.

2. The nitric solution, with the washings (see _above_), is treated with a solution of nitrate of silver, and the precipitate of chloride carefully collected, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. 144 gr. of chloride of silver represent 76 gr. of chloride of potassium.

3. The nitric solution, with the washing (see _above_), after having any remaining barium thrown down by adding dilute sulphuric acid, in slight excess, is treated with ammonia, and the resulting precipitate of chromic oxide collected on a filter, washed, dried, carefully ignited in a silver, platinum, or porcelain crucible, and weighed. 40 gr. of this oxide represent 100 gr. of pure chromate of potassium. Any deficiency consists of impurities or adulterants.

_Uses._ Chromate of potassium is used in dyeing, bleaching, the manufacture of chromic acid, bichromate of potassium, &c. It is the common source of nearly all the other compounds of chromium. It is reputed alterative in doses of 1/12 to 1/2 gr.; and is emetic in doses of 1 to 4 gr. A solution in 8 parts of water is occasionally used to destroy fungus; 1 in 30 to 40 parts of water is also used as an antiseptic and desiccant.

_Concluding Remarks._——The first process is undoubtedly the best, when expense is not an object. To reduce this, a mixture of ‘potash’ or ‘pearlash,’ with about 1/2 of its weight of nitre, or 1-5th part of its weight of peroxide of manganese, may be substituted without much inconvenience. The assay of the chrome ore, alluded to above, may be made by reducing 100 gr. of it to powder, mixing it with twice its weight of powdered nitre, and a little hydrate of calcium, and subjecting the mixture to a strong red heat for 3 or 4 hours; the calcined mass may then be exhausted with boiling water, and the resulting solution, after precipitation with dilute sulphuric acid, in slight excess, and filtration, may be treated with rectified spirit, when its chromium may be thrown down by the addition of ammonia. (See _above_.) In the conversion of chrome ore into chromate of potassium care should, in all cases, be taken that the proportion of nitre or alkali should be slightly less than what is absolutely required to saturate the ore, as the production of a neutral salt is thereby ensured; for should not the whole of the chromate be decomposed by the first calcination, it may easily be roasted a second time with fresh alkali, should the remaining quantity he thought worth the trouble. The nature of the furnace to be employed in the conversion is not of any great importance, so long as carbonaceous matters from the fire are entirely excluded, and the required temperature is attainable.

=Potassium, Bichromate of.= K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7}, or K_{2}CrO_{4},CrO_{3}. _Syn._ BICHROMATE OF POTASSA, RED CHROMATE OF POTASH, ACID C. OF P.; POTASSÆ BICHROMAS, L. _Prep._ 1. To a concentrated solution of yellow chromate of potassium, sulphuric acid, or, better, acetic acid, is added in quantity equal to one half that required for the entire decomposition of the salt; the liquid is then concentrated by evaporation and slowly cooled, so that crystals may form.

2. (Jacquelain.) Chrome ore, finely ground and sifted, is mixed with chalk; the mixture is spread on a thin layer on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, and heated to bright redness, with repeated stirring, for 9 or 10 hours. The yellowish-green product consists essentially of neutral chromate of calcium, mixed with ferric oxide. It is ground and stirred up with hot water, and sulphuric acid is added till a slight acid reaction becomes apparent, a sign that the neutral chromate has been converted into bichromate. Chalk is now stirred in to precipitate the ferric sulphate, and after a while the clear solution is run off into another vessel, where it is treated with carbonate of potassium, which precipitates the lime and leaves bichromate of potassium in solution. The solution is then evaporated to the crystallising point. This process, when carried out on a large scale, is very economical.

_Prop., &c._ It forms very beautiful square tables, or flat four-sided prismatic crystals; permanent in the air; soluble in 10 parts of water at 60°, and in less than 3 parts at 212° Fahr.; it has a metallic, bitter taste, and is poisonous. It is chiefly used in dyeing and bleaching, and as a source of chromic acid. The tests, &c., are the same as for the yellow chromate.

=Potassium, Citrate of.= K_{3}C_{6}H_{5}O_{7}. _Syn._ POTASSÆ CITRAS, L. _Prep._ From a solution of citric acid neutralised with carbonate of potassium, evaporated, and granulated, or crystallised; very deliquescent. Or, extemporaneously, in the form of solution, by adding carbonate or bicarbonate of potassium to lemon juice, as in the common effervescing draught. (Ph. B.) The same.

=Potassium, Cyanate of.= KCyO, or KCNO. _Prep._ 1. By roasting, at a red heat, dry ferrocyanide of potassium, in fine powder, upon an iron plate, constantly stirring it until it becomes fused into one mass, which must be reduced to fine powder and digested in boiling alcohol, from which crystals of the cyanate will be deposited as the solution cools.

2. (Liebig.) A mixture of ferrocyanide of potassium, with half its weight of peroxide of manganese, may also be used to produce this salt, as the last; the compound should be kindled by a red-hot body, and allowed to smoulder away, after which it may be treated with alcohol, as before.

3. A mixture of ferrocyanide of potassium and litharge is heated as before, and dissolved out by alcohol, and crystallised.

_Prop._ Crystallisable colourless or white salt, readily soluble in alcohol and water, but readily decomposed when moist into bicarbonate of potassium and ammonia, or in solution into the carbonate of potassium and ammonium.

This salt is poisonous. The cyanates of silver, lead, and many other metals may be made by adding a solution of cyanate of potassium to another of a neutral salt of the base.

=Potassium, Cyanide of.= KCN, or KCy. _Syn._ CYANIDE OF POTASH, CYANURET OF POTASSIUM; POTASSII CYANIDUM, P. CYANURETUM, L.

_Prep._ 1. (MEDICINAL CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM.)——_a._ A solution of pure hydrate of potassium, 2 parts, in highly rectified spirit, 7 parts, is placed in a receiver furnished with a safety tube, and surrounded with bruised ice; the beak of a tubulated retort, containing ferrocyanide of potassium, in powder, 4 parts, is then adapted to it in such a manner that any gas or vapour evolved in the retort must traverse the solution in the receiver; the arrangement being complete, sulphuric acid, 3 parts, diluted with an equal weight of water, and allowed to cool, is cautiously poured into the retort, and the distillation conducted very slowly, a very gentle heat only being applied, as circumstances may direct; as soon as the force of ebullition in the retort has subsided, the distillation is complete, and the connection between the retort and receiver is broken; the contents of the receiver, now transformed into a mixture of a crystalline precipitate of cyanide of potassium, and an alcoholic solution of undecomposed hydrate of potassium, is carefully thrown on a filter, and the precipitate, after the mother-liquor has drained off, very cautiously washed with ice-cold and highly rectified spirit, and then drained, pressed, and dried on the same filter. The product is chemically pure, and equal to fully 10% of the ferrocyanide employed. This is a modification of what is commonly known as ‘Wigger’s process.’

_b._ Expose well-dried and powdered ferrocyanide of potassium to a moderate red heat, in a close vessel; when cold, powder the fused mass, place it in a funnel, moisten it with a little alcohol, and wash it with cold water; evaporate the solution thus formed to dryness, expose it to a dull red heat in a porcelain dish, cool, powder, and digest it in boiling rectified spirit; as the spirit cools, crystals of cyanide of potassium, nearly pure, will be deposited. The alcohol employed in both this and the preceding process may be recovered by distillation from calcined sulphate of iron.

2. (CRUDE or COMMERCIAL CYANIDE——Liebig.) Commercial ferrocyanide of potassium, 8 parts, rendered anhydrous by gently heating it on an iron plate, is intimately mixed with dry carbonate of potassium, 3 parts; this mixture is thrown into a red-hot earthen crucible, and kept in a state of fusion, with occasional stirring, until gas ceases to be evolved, and the fluid portion of the mass becomes colourless; the crucible is then left at rest for a few minutes, to allow its contents to settle, after which the clear portion is poured from the heavy black sediment at the bottom upon a clean marble slab, and the mass, whilst yet warm, broken up, and placed in well-closed bottles.

_Obs._ A cheap and excellent process. The product is said to contain about 1-8th part of cyanate of potassium, and, though not sufficiently pure for employment in medicine as potassium cyanide, is admirably adapted for the various technical applications of this substance, as in electro-plating, electro-gilding, photography, &c. It may also be advantageously substituted for the ferrocyanide in the preparation of hydrocyanic acid by the distillation of that substance along with dilute sulphuric acid.

_Prop., &c._ When pure, this salt is colourless and odourless; it forms cubic or octahedral crystals, which are anhydrous; it is freely soluble in water and in boiling alcohol, but most of it separates from the latter as the solution cools; it is fusible; and undergoes no change, even at a full red heat, in close vessels; it exhibits an alkaline reaction; when exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs moisture, and acquires the smell of hydrocyanic acid. If it effervesces with acids, it contains carbonate of potassium, and if it be yellow it contains iron. It is employed in chemical analysis, and for the preparation of hydrocyanic acid; cyanide of sodium may be made in the same way. The dose is 1/12 to 1/4 gr., in solution; in the usual cases in which the administration of hydrocyanic acid is indicated.——_Antidotes._ The same as for hydrocyanic acid.

=Potassium, Ferricyanide of.= K_{3}FeCy_{6}, or K_{3},FeC_{6}N_{6}. _Syn._ FERRIDCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM, FERRICYANURET OF P., RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH; POTASSII FERRICYANIDUM, P. PRUSSIAS RUBRUM, L. This important and beautiful salt was discovered by L. Gmelin. At first it was merely regarded as a chemical curiosity, but it is now extensively employed in dyeing, calico printing, assaying, &c.

_Prep._ 1. Chlorine gas, prepared in the ordinary manner, is slowly passed into a cold solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, 1 part, in water, 10 parts, with constant agitation, until the liquid appears of a deep reddish-green colour, or of a fine red colour by transmitted light, and ceases to give a blue precipitate, or even a blue tinge, to a solution of ferric chloride, an excess of chlorine being carefully avoided; the liquor is next evaporated by the heat of steam or boiling water, until a pellicle forms upon the surface, when it is filtered, and set aside to cool; the crystals are afterwards purified by re-solution and re-crystallisation.——Another method is simply to evaporate the original solution to dryness, by a steam heat, with agitation, then to re-dissolve the residuum in the least possible quantity of boiling water, and, after defecation or filtration, to allow the new solution to cool very slowly, that crystals may form.

2. (Extemporaneous.) Add nitric acid, very gradually, to a cold solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, with constant agitation, until a drop of the mixture ceases to impart a blue colour to a solution of ferric chloride, carefully avoiding excess of acid. It may be at once used in solution, or evaporated, &c., as before.

_Prop, &c._ Magnificent regular prismatic or, sometimes, tubular crystals, of a rich ruby-red tint; permanent in the air; combustible; decomposed by a high temperature; soluble in 4 parts of cold water; insoluble in alcohol. Colours ferric salts a pale brown, gives with ferrous salts a deep blue, and precipitates bismuth salts pale yellow; cadmium and mercuric salts, yellow; zinc salts, deep yellow; mercurous, cupric, molybdenic, silver, and uranic salts, reddish brown; cobalt salts, dark brown; manganous salts, brown; cupric salts, greenish; and nickelous salts, olive brown.

=Potassium, Ethylate.= (C_{2}H_{5}KO.) Löweg and Weidmann obtained this compound by heating together acetate of ethyl and potassium. Dr B. W. Richardson, some few years ago, recommended the employment of the alkaline ethylates as caustics, and they are now frequently used as such in surgery. When first applied to the body the ethylates produce no action, but as they absorb water from the tissues they are decomposed, the potassium or sodium is oxidised, yielding caustic potash or soda in the fresh condition, while alcohol is reformed from the recombination of hydrogen derived from the water. Dr Richardson believes the ethylates of potassium and sodium will be found the most effective and manageable of all caustics, and that in cases of cancer, when it is important to destroy structure without resorting to the knife, and in the removal of nævus and other simple growths, they will be of essential service. The ethylates dissolve in alcohol of different strengths; the solution may either be applied with a glass brush or injected by the needle, and a slow or quick effect can be insured according to the wish of the operator. The ethylate of potassium is the more powerful agent.

=Potassium, Ferrocyanide of.= K_{4},FeCy_{6}, or K_{4},FeC_{6}N_{6}. _Syn._ FERROCYANURET OF POTASSIUM, PRUSSIATE OF POTASH, YELLOW P. OF P.; POTASSÆ PRUSSIA FLAVA (B. P.), POTASSII FERROCYANIDUM (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. This valuable salt, the well-known ‘prussiate of potash’ of commerce, was discovered by the illustrious Scheele about the middle of the 18th century. It is now only manufactured on the large scale.

_Prep._ Good ‘potash’ or ‘pearlash,’ 2 parts, and dried blood, horns, hoofs, woollen rags, or other refuse animal matter, 5 or 6 parts, are reduced to coarse powder, and mixed with some coarse iron borings; the mixture is then injected into egg-shaped cast-iron pots in a state of moderate ignition; the mass is frequently stirred with an iron spatula, so as to prevent it running together, and the calcination is continued until fetid vapours cease to be evolved, and flame is no longer seen on stirring the mixture, care being taken to exclude the air from the vessels as much as possible; during the latter part of the process the pots are kept constantly covered, and the ignited mass stirred less frequently; the hot pasty mass is then removed with an iron ladle, and excluded from the air until cold; it is next exhausted by edulcoration with boiling water, and the resulting solution, after defecation or filtration, is concentrated by evaporation, so that crystals may form as the liquid cools; these are redissolved in hot water, and the solution allowed to cool very slowly, when large and beautiful yellow crystals of ferrocyanide of potassium are deposited.——_Product._ 1 ton of dried blood or woollen refuse, with 3 cwt. of pearlash, yields from 2 to 2-1/2 cwt. of commercial ferrocyanide. The mother-liquor contains sulphate of potassium.

_Prop._ It forms large and very beautiful yellow crystals, which are permanent in the air, and very tough and difficult to powder; it is soluble in 4 parts of cold and 2 parts of boiling water; has a mild saline taste; at a gentle heat loses water; at a higher temperature, in closed vessels, it is for the most part converted into cyanide of potassium, and, when exposed to the air, into cyanate of potassium. Precipitates solutions of antimonous, bismuth, mercurous, and zinc salts, white; cadmium salts, of a pale yellow; cuprous salts, white, turning red; ferrous salts, white, turning blue; lead salts, white; manganous salts, white, turned red; mercuric salts, white, turning bluish; nickelous salts, white, turning green; silver salts, white; stannous salts, white; cobalt salts, green; cupric salts, chocolate red; ferric salts, dark blue; palladous salts, green; stannic salts, yellow; uranic salts, reddish brown; and zinc salts, white.

_Uses, &c._ Ferrocyanide of potassium is chiefly used in dyeing and calico printing, in the manufacture of Prussian blue, in electro-plating, and, in chemistry, as a test, and a source of hydrocyanic acid. As a medicine it is said to be sedative and astringent, and in large doses purgative, but appears to possess little action.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., dissolved in water; in hooping-cough, chronic bronchitis, night-sweats, leucorrhœa, &c. D’Arcet swallowed a solution containing 1/2 oz. of this salt without experiencing any injurious effects.

=Potassium, Hydrate of.= KHO. _Syn._ POTASSA HYDRATE, HYDRATE OF POTASSA, POTASSA, CAUSTIC P., HYDRATED OXIDE OF POTASSIUM; POTASSA CAUSTICA (B. P.), POTASSA (Ph. E.), P. CAUSTICA (Ph. D.), P. HYDRAS (Ph. L.), P. FUSA. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Liquor of potassa, 1 gall.; evaporate the water in a clean iron vessel over the fire until the ebullition being finished, the residuum of potassium hydrate liquefies; pour this into proper moulds.

2. (Ph. E. & D.) As the last, but pouring the fused hydrate upon a bright and clean iron plate (silver or iron dish——Ph. D.); as soon as it solidifies, break it quickly (into fragments), and put it into stoppered glass (green-glass——Ph. D.) bottles.

3. (Pure.) The hydrate, obtained as above, is dissolved in alcohol or rectified spirit, and, after repose for a few days in a closely stopped green-glass or silver vessel, the solution is decanted, and cautiously evaporated in a deep silver basin, out of contact with the air.

4. (Pure.) M. Polacci states that he procures very pure hydrate of potash in a few minutes by the following process. He heats together in an iron vessel to a red heat a mixture consisting of 1 part of nitrate of potash well triturated with 2 or 3 parts of iron filings. The mass becomes red in a few minutes, and, after cooling, it is treated with water, left to settle, and then decanted. A more or less concentrated solution may thus be obtained, or it may be evaporated to produce the solid potash.

_Prop., &c._ When perfectly pure it is white, solid, very soluble in water and in alcohol; very deliquescent; intensely acrid and corrosive; and exhibiting the usual signs of alkalinity in the highest degree. That of the shops has usually a greyish or bluish colour.

=Potassium, I′odate of.= KIO_{3}. _Syn._ POTASSÆ IODAS. L. _Prep._ Neutralise a hot solution of hydrate of potassium with iodine, evaporate to dryness by a gentle heat, powder the residuum, and digest it in alcohol, to remove iodide of potassium, dissolve the insoluble portion in hot water, and crystallise.

_Obs._ Iodate of potassium is resolved at a red heat into oxygen gas and iodide of potassium. It has been recommended in bronchocele.——_Dose_, 1 to 5 gr.

=Potassium, Iodide of.= KI. _Syn._ POTASSII IODIDUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., and D.).

1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of iron filings, 2 oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; iodine, 6 oz,; mix them, and heat the solution until it turns green, and then add of carbonate of potassium, 4 oz., dissolved in water, 1 quart; filter, wash the residuum on the filter with water, evaporate the mixed filtered liquors and crystallise.——_Product_, 1 oz. of iodine yields 1 oz. 45 gr. of iodide.

The formulæ of the Ph. D. and Ph. E. are very similar.

2. Add iodine to a hot solution of pure hydrate of potassium until the alkali is perfectly neutralised, carefully avoiding excess; evaporate the liquid to dryness, and expose the dry mass to a gentle red heat in a platinum or iron crucible; afterwards dissolve out the salt, gently evaporate, and crystallise. An excellent process, yielding a large product, but, if the ignition be not carefully managed, it is apt to contain a little undecomposed iodate. To obviate this, Mr Scanlan proposes the addition of a little powdered charcoal to the mass before ignition——a plan adopted in the Ph. U. S.

3. Iodine is treated with a small proportion of phosphorus in water, and is thus converted into ‘hydriodic acid,’ hydrate of calcium is then added, and the ‘iodide of calcium’ formed is first fused, and then decomposed by sulphate of potassium into ‘sulphate of calcium,’ which is precipitated, and ‘iodide of potassium,’ which remains in solution, and may be crystallised, as in the other processes. This is a modification of a method devised by Liebig.

4. (Ph. B.) Put solution of potash, 1 gall., into a glass or porcelain vessel, and add iodine 29 oz., or q. s., in small quantities at a time, with constant agitation, until the solution acquires a permanent brown tint. Evaporate the whole to dryness in a porcelain dish, pulverise the residue, and mix this intimately with wood charcoal in fine powder, 3 oz. Throw the mixture, in small quantities at a time, into a red-hot crucible, and when the whole has been brought to a state of fusion, remove the crucible from the fire and pour out its contents. When the fused mass has cooled, dissolve it in 2 pints of boiling distilled water, filter through paper, washing the filter with a little distilled boiling water; unite the liquids, and evaporate till a film forms on the surface. Set aside to cool and crystallise. Drain crystals and dry quickly with a gentle heat; more crystals may be obtained by evaporating the mother liquor, and cooling. The salt should be kept in a stoppered bottle.

_Prop._ It crystallises in cubes, which in the pure salt are extremely white, though frequently opaque; these are anhydrous; fuse when heated, without decomposition; dissolve in less than an equal weight of water, at 60° Fahr., and very freely in alcohol; and do not deliquesce in moderately dry air unless they contain undecomposed hydrate of potassium. Its solution dissolves the iodine freely, and also, less readily, several of the insoluble metallic iodides and oxides.

_Pur._ It is entirely soluble in both water and alcohol. Its aqueous solution alters the colour of turmeric either not at all or but very slightly, nor does it affect litmus paper, or effervesce with acids. Nitric acid and starch being added together, it becomes blue. It is not coloured by the addition of tartaric acid with starch. No precipitate occurs on adding either a solution of hydrate of calcium or of chloride of barium. 100 gr., dissolved in water, by the addition of nitrate of silver, yield a precipitate of 141 gr. of iodide of silver.

_Assay._ The iodide of commerce frequently contains fully one half its weight of either chloride or carbonate of potassium, or both of them, with variable quantities of iodate of potassium, a much less valuable salt. The presence of these substances is readily detected by the above tests. As the first of these is only very slightly soluble in cold alcohol, and the others insoluble in that liquid, a ready method of determining the richness of a sample in pure iodide, sufficiently accurate for ordinary purposes, is as follows:——Reduce 50 gr. of the sample to fine powder, introduce this into a test tube with 6 fl. dr. of alcohol, agitate the mixture violently for one minute, and throw the whole on a weighed filter set in a covered funnel, observing to wash what remains on the filter with another fl. dr. of alcohol. The filtrate, evaporated to dryness, gives the quantity of pure iodide, and the filter, dried by the heat of boiling water, that of the impurities present in the sample examined, provided it contained no hydrate of potassium. The quantity of alkali, whether hydrate or carbonate, may be found by the common method of ‘alkalimetry.’

_Uses, &c._ Chiefly in photography, medicine, and pharmacy.——_Dose_, 1 to 10 gr., twice or thrice daily, made into pills, or, better, in solution, either alone or combined with iodine; in bronchocele, scrofula, chronic rheumatism, dropsy, syphilis, glandular indurations, and various other glandular diseases. Also externally, made into a lotion or ointment.

=Potassium, Nitrate of.= KNO_{3}. _Syn._ NITRATE OF POTASH, NITRE, SALTPETER; POTASSÆ NITRAS (B. P., Ph. L., E.,& D.), NITRUM†, SAL NITRI†, SAL PETRƆ, KALI NITRATUM†, L. This salt is produced naturally in the soil by the action of the atmosphere, and crystallises upon its surface, in various parts of the world, especially in the East Indies. On the Continent it has long been produced artificially, by exposing a mixture of calcareous soil and animal matter to the atmosphere, when calcium nitrate is slowly formed, and is extracted by lixiviation. The liquid is then decomposed by the addition of wood ashes, or carbonate of potassium, by which carbonate of calcium is precipitated, and nitrate of potassium remains in solution. The places where these operations are performed are called ‘nitriaries,’ or ‘nitrières artificielles.’ The British market is wholly supplied from India. The salt of the first crystallisation, by either process, is called ‘crude nitre’ or ‘rough saltpetre.’ This is purified by solution in boiling water, skimming, and, after a short time allowed for defecation, straining (while still hot) into wooden crystallising vessels. The crystals thus obtained are called ‘single refined nitre,’ and when the process is repeated ‘double refined nitre.’

1. (POTASSÆ NITRAS PURUM——Ph. D.) Commercial nitre, 4 lbs.; boiling distilled water, 1 quart; dissolve, withdraw the heat, and stir the solution constantly as it cools; the minute crystals, thus obtained, are to be drained, and washed, in a glass or earthenware percolator, with cold distilled water, until that which trickles through ceases to give a precipitate with a solution of nitrate of silver, the contents of the percolator are then to be withdrawn, and dried in an oven.

_Prop._ White, pellucid, six-sided prisms; permanent in the air; soluble in 7 parts of water at 60° and in 1 part at 212° Fahr.; insoluble in alcohol; its taste is cool, saline, and slightly bitter and pungent; at about 560° it fuses to an oily-looking mass, which concretes on cooling, forming ‘sal prunella,’ at a red heat it gives out oxygen, and, afterwards, nitrous fumes; sp. gr. 1·925 to 1·975.

_Pur._ Commercial nitre generally contains chlorides, sulphates, or calcareous salts. The first may be detected by its solution giving a cloudy white precipitate with nitrate of silver. The second by chlorides of barium or calcium giving a white precipitate, and the third by oxalate of ammonium giving a white precipitate.

_Assay._ Of the numerous methods prescribed for this purpose, few are sufficiently simple for mere practical men. The proportion of chlorides, sulphates, and calcareous salts may be determined as above; and the general richness of the sample by the method of Gay-Lussac, modified as follows:——100 gr. of the sample (fairly chosen) are triturated with 50 gr. of lampblack and 400 gr. of common salt, and the mixture placed in an iron ladle, and ignited or fused therein, due care being taken to prevent loss; the residuum is exhausted with hot water, and the solution thus obtained tested by the usual methods of alkalimetry for carbonate of potassium. The quantity of carbonate found, multiplied by 2·125 or 2-1/8, gives the per-centage richness of the sample in nitrate.

_Uses, &c._ Nitre is chiefly employed in the manufacture of gunpowder, fireworks, and nitric acid. It is also used in medicine as a sedative, refrigerant, and diaphoretic, and as a cooling diuretic. It has been recommended in active hæmorrhages (especially spitting of blood), in various febrile affections, in scurvy, and in herpetic eruptions; and it has been highly extolled by Dr Basham as a remedy in acute rheumatism.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr., every 2 hours. A small piece, dissolved slowly in the mouth, frequently stops a sore throat at the commencement. In large doses it is poisonous. The best treatment is a powerful emetic, followed by opiates.

=Potassium, Nitrite of.= KNO_{2}. _Syn._ NITRITE OF POTASSA; POTASSÆ NITRIS, L. _Prep._ 1. By heating nitre to redness, dissolving the fused mass in a little water, and adding twice the volume of the solution in alcohol; after a few hours the upper stratum of liquid is decanted, and the lower one, separated from the crystals, evaporated to dryness.

2. (Corenwinder.) Nitric acid, 10 parts, are poured on starch, 1 part, and the evolved gas passed through a solution of hydrate of potassium of the sp. gr. 1·380, to saturation; the liquid is then either neutralised with a little hydrate of potassium (if necessary), and kept in the liquid form, or at once evaporated. Fused pinkish mass, or clear colourless soluble crystals, used in chemistry as a reagent, and deoxidiser.

=Potassium, Oxalate of.= K_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ NEUTRAL OXALATE OF POTASSA; POTASSÆ OXALAS, L. _Prep._ Neutralise a solution of oxalic acid, or the acid oxalates, with carbonate of potassium, evaporate, and crystallise. Transparent colourless rhombic prisms, soluble in 3 parts of water, and of the formula K_{2}C_{2}O_{4},Aq.

=Potassium, Hydrogen Oxalate of.= KHC_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ POTASSIUM BINOXALATE, SALT OF SORREL, ESSENTIAL SALT OF LEMONS; POTASSÆ BINOXALAS, L. _Prep._ By saturating a solution of oxalic acid, 1 part, with carbonate of potassium, adding to the mixture a similar solution of 1 part of oxalic acid, unneutralised, and evaporating for crystals. It may also be obtained from the expressed juice of wood or sheep’s sorrel, by clarifying it with eggs or milk, and evaporating, &c., as before. Colourless rhombic crystals of the formula KHC_{2}O_{4},Aq., soluble in 40 parts of cold and 6 parts of boiling water, yielding a very sour solution.

=Potassium, Trihydrogen Oxalate of.= KH_{3}(C_{2}O_{4}), or KHC_{2}O_{4}, H_{2}C_{2}O_{4}. _Syn._ POTASSIUM QUADROXALATE, POTASSIUM ACID OXALATE. _Prep._ By neutralising 1 part of oxalic acid with carbonate of potassium, adding to the solution 3 parts more of oxalic acid, evaporating and crystallising. Resembles the last; has the formula KH_{3}(C_{3}O_{4})_{2},2Aq; but is less soluble, and more intensely sour, and forms modified octahedral crystals. The salt is occasionally sold under the names of ‘sal acetosellæ,’ ‘salt of sorrel,’ and ‘essential salt of lemons.’ Both are used to remove ink and iron stains from linen, to bleach the straw used for making bonnets, and, occasionally, in medicine, as a refrigerant.

=Potassium, Oxide of.= K_{2}O. _Prep._ Burn pure potassium in a current of oxygen. White powder, rapidly absorbing water and forming the hydrate.

=Potassium, Perchlorate of.= KClO_{4}. _Syn._ POTASSÆ PERCHLORAS, L. Prepared by projecting well-dried and finely powdered chlorate of potassium in small portions at a time, into warm nitric acid. The salt is separated from the ‘nitrate’ by crystallisation.

=Potassium, Prus′siate of.= See POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE and FERROCYANIDE.

=Potassium, Salicylite of.= Formed by mixing salicylous acid (artificial oil of meadow-sweet) with a strong solution of hydrate of potassium; it separates, on agitation, as a yellow crystalline mass, which, after pressure in bibulous paper, is recrystallised from alcohol. Golden-yellow crystals, soluble in both water and alcohol; damp air gradually converts them into acetate of potassium and melanic acid.

=Potassium, Silicate of.= (Ure.) _Syn._ POTASSÆ SILICAS. _Prep._ Mix 1 part of powdered quartz or flint, or of fine siliceous sand with 2 parts of carbonate of potash, and fuse them in a Hessian crucible. Dissolve the mass in water, filter the solution and evaporate it to dryness——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 15 gr. in 6 or 8 oz. of water, twice a day. To dissolve gout concretions. An impure silicate of potash is used as a water-glass.

=Potassium, Sulphate of.= K_{2}SO_{4}. _Syn._ POTASSÆ SULPHAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). _Prep._ The sulphate of potassium of commerce is a secondary product of several chemical and manufacturing processes. Thus, the residuum of the distillation of nitric acid from nitre is dissolved in water, the solution neutralised with carbonate of potassium, and, after defecation, evaporation until a pellicle forms; it is then strained, or decanted, and set aside to crystallise. Or, the residuum is simply ignited, to expel excess of acid, and then dissolved and crystallised as before.

_Prop., &c._ Anhydrous, heavy, quartz-like crystals; permanent in the air; soluble in 12 parts of water at 60° and in 5 parts at 212° Fahr.; insoluble in alcohol; extremely nauseous, and bitter-tasted. It crepitates on the application of heat; fuses at a red heat, but loses nothing in weight. 100 gr. dissolved in distilled water, on the addition of chloride of barium and hydrochloric acid, furnish 132 gr. of sulphate of barium, dried at a red heat.

=Potassium, Bisulphate of.= KHSO_{4}. _Syn._ POTASSIUM-HYDROGEN SULPHATE, ACID POTASSIUM SULPHATE; POTASSÆ BISULPHAS. _Prep._ 1. (Anhydrous.) Neutral sulphate of potassium and oil of vitriol, equal parts; hot water, q. s. (not more) to dissolve; anhydrous bisulphate crystallises out, in long delicate needles, as the solution cools. If these are left for several days in the mother-liquor they are redissolved, and crystals of the ordinary hydrated bisulphate are deposited.

2. (Hydrated,)——_a._ (Ph. L. 1836.) Salt left in distilling nitric acid, 2 lbs.; boiling water, 3 quarts; dissolve; add of sulphuric acid 1 lb.; concentrate by evaporation, and set the liquid aside, so that crystals may form.

_b._ (Ph. D.) Sulphate of potassium (in powder), 3 oz.; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; mix them in a porcelain capsule, and expose it to a heat capable of liquefying its contents, until acid vapours cease to be evolved; powder the residuum, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

_Prop., &c._ Sour and slightly bitter-tasted rhombic prisms; soluble in about 2 parts of cold and 1 part of boiling water, the solution exhibiting a strongly acid reaction. It is much employed, in lieu of tartaric acid, for the production of carbonic acid, in ‘gazogenes,’ &c.; also to adulterate cream of tartar and tartaric acid. According to Dr Paris, it forms a “grateful adjunct to rhubarb.”——_Dose_, 12 gr. to 1-1/2 dr., in solution, combined with rhubarb or bitters, as the neutral sulphate.

=Potassium, Sulphide of.= _Syn._ SULPHURET OF POTASSIUM, LIVER OF SULPHUR†; POTASSII SULPHURETUM (Ph. L., E., & U. S.), HEPAR SULPHURIS (Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz.; carbonate of potassium, 4 oz.; mix, heat them in a covered crucible till they form a uniform fused mass; when cold, break it into fragments, and preserve it in well-closed vessels. The formulæ of the Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. U. S. are similar.

2. (Ph. D.) Sublimed sulphur, 4 oz.; carbonate of potassium (from pearlash, first dried, and then reduced to powder), 7 oz.; mix in a warm mortar, heat them in a Hessian crucible, as before, pour the fused mass into an iron cup, over which immediately invert a second vessel, to exclude the air, and, when cold, break the mass into fragments, and preserve it in a green-glass stoppered bottle.

_Prop., &c._ A hard, brittle, liver or greenish-brown coloured solid; inodorous whilst dry; soluble in water, forming a highly-fetid solution; and, in acids, evolving strong fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen; reaction, alkaline; exposed to the air, it is gradually converted into sulphate of potassa. As a medicine it is reputed diaphoretic, expectorant, and stimulant.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr., in solution, or made into pills with soap; in gout, rheumatism, liver affections, and various chronic skin diseases. Externally, made into a lotion and ointment. It is highly acrid and corrosive, and in large doses poisonous.

=Potassium, Sulphocyanide of.= KCNS, or KCyS. _Syn._ SULPHO-CYANURET OF POTASSIUM; POTASSII SULPHOCYANIDUM, P. SULPHO-CYANURETUM, L. _Prep._ 1. Ferrocyanide of potassium (anhydrous, or dried by a gentle heat), 46 parts; sulphur, 32 parts; pure carbonate of potassium, 17 parts; reduce them to powder, and very gradually heat the mixture to low redness in a covered iron crucible, which it will less than one half fill; remove the half-refrigerated and still soft mass, crush it, exhaust it with water, and evaporate the aqueous solution to dryness; powder the residuum, and exhaust it with hot alcohol or rectified spirit; the alcoholic solution will yield beautiful white crystals as it cools, and the residuum or mother-liquor may be evaporated for the remainder of the salt.

2. Cyanide of potassium, 3 parts; sulphur, 1 part; water, 6 parts; digest them together for some time, add 3 parts more of water, filter, evaporate, and crystallise.

_Prop., &c._ Long, slender, colourless prisms or plates, which are anhydrous, bitter-tasted, deliquescent, fusible, very soluble in both water and alcohol, and non-poisonous. It is chiefly used as a test for ferric oxide, for which purpose it is preferable to all other substances.

=Potassium, Tartrate of.= K_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ NEUTRAL TARTRATE OF POTASSIUM, TARTRATE OF POTASSA, NEUTRAL TARTAR, SOLUBLE T.; POTASSÆ TARTRAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), KALI TARTARIZATUM†, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D.) Carbonate of potassium, 8 oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; dissolve, and to the solution, whilst boiling hot, gradually add of bitartrate of potassium, in fine powder, 1 lb., or q. s., so that the liquid, after ebullition for a couple of minutes, ceases to change the colour of either blue or reddened litmus paper; next filter the liquid through calico, evaporate it until a pellicle forms on the surface, and set it aside to crystallise; after 12 hours collect the crystals, dry them on bibulous paper, and preserve them from the air. The formula of the Ph. L. 1836 is nearly similar.

_Prop., &c._ The crystals of this salt, which are obtained with difficulty, are right rhombic prisms, and are deliquescent. The salt of commerce is usually in the form of a white granular powder, which is obtained by simply evaporating the solution to dryness, with constant stirring. In this state it requires about 4 parts of cold water for its solution. Acids convert it into the bitartrate. As a medicine it acts as a gentle diuretic and aperient, and is valued for correcting the griping properties of senna and resinous purgatives. It is also antiscorbutic.——_Dose_, 1/2 dr. to 3/4 oz., in powder, or dissolved in water. The solution changes the colour neither of litmus nor turmeric. The addition of almost any acid throws down crystals of bitartrate of potassium, which generally adhere to the vessel. The precipitate occasioned by either chloride of barium or acetate of lead is dissolved by dilute nitric acid.

=Potassium, Bitartrate of.= KHC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. _Syn._ ACID TARTRATE OF POTASSA, SUPER-TARTRATE OF P., CREAM OF TARTAR; CREMOR TARTARI, POTASSÆ BITARTRAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), POTASSÆ SUPER-TARTRAS, TARTARI CRYSTALLI, L. This well-known salt is deposited during the fermentation of grape juice as a crust on the sides of the casks or vats. In its unprepared or crude state it is called white or red tartar or argol, according to the wine from which it has been obtained. It is purified by boiling it in water, crystallisation, re-solution in water, and treatment with freshly burnt charcoal and aluminous clay, to remove the colour; the clear liquid is then decanted, whilst still hot, and allowed to cool slowly; the resulting crystals form the ‘cream of tartar’ of commerce.

_Prop., &c._ Small, translucent, gritty, prismatic crystals, irregularly grouped together; permanent in the air; requiring fully 100 parts of cold water, and about 15 parts of boiling water, for their perfect solution; the solution has a harsh, sour taste, and, like that of the tartrate, suffers spontaneous decomposition by keeping. Its solution reddens litmus. At a red heat it is converted into carbonate of potassium. Entirely soluble in 40 parts of boiling water; 40 gr., in solution, are neutralised by 30 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.——_Dose._ As an aperient, 1 to 3 dr.; as a diuretic, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.; as an antiscorbutic, 10 to 20 gr. frequently. It is much used to make a pleasant cooling drink (‘Imperial’), and in tooth-powders.

=POTA′TO.= This well-known and valuable article of food is the tuber of the _Solanum tuberosum_ or _esculentum_, a plant which was introduced to this country by either Sir Francis Drake or Sir Walter Raleigh, towards the latter part of the 16th century. It is now extensively cultivated in all the temperate climates of the world. It yields a vast quantity of food on a small space of ground, but only about 1-7th part of the weight of the tuber is nutritious, and this is chiefly farinaceous. Its farina or starch is, however, accompanied by no inconsiderable portion of saline matter, more especially of potassa, which renders it highly antiscorbutic, and a powerful corrective of the grossness of animal food. When forming part of a mixed diet, perhaps no substance is more wholesome than the potato, and, certainly, no other esculent hitherto discovered appears equally adapted for universal use.

Boussingault gives the following as the average composition of the tubers of the potato:——

Moist Dry. Water 75·9 —— Albumen 2·3 9·6 Oily matter 0·2 0·8 Fibre 0·4 1·7 Starch 20·2 83·8 Salts 1·0 4·1 —————— —————— 100·0 100·0

Manuring experiments on potatoes in 1867-1869 show that on light soils a mixture of mineral superphosphate, crude potash salts, and ammonium sulphate, produces very beneficial results; on stiff soils nitrogenous manures have little effect. Further proof is given that manuring with common salt tends to decrease the yield.

Analyses, conducted by A. Stockardt, of potatoes grown in eight different years, show that those manured with salt invariably contain less starch than those unmanured, the decrease being from 10 to 20 per cent. of starch; the same effect is produced when the salt is mixed with other manures.

Under the microscope the cells are seen to be very sparingly fitted with starch grains.

Unmanured potatoes contained ·43 per cent. of sodium chloride in the dry substance, and those which had received a small dressing of common salt 1·34 per cent.[121]

[Footnote 121: Voelcker ‘Roy. Agric. Society’s Journal,’ quoted in ‘Journal of Chemical Society,’ vol. XXV.]

No certain rule can be laid down for ‘dressing’ potatoes. “If boiled, it may be that they require to be put into boiling water, or, may be, into cold, and either boiled quickly or slowly; but this you must find out. Choose them all about the same size, with a smooth skin, and when they are boiled and begin to crack, throw off the water immediately, as it only damages the root. When dressed let them stand near the fire, with a cloth over them, and serve them in their skins. Salt may be put into the water at the beginning. A watery potato will require quick boiling, and, sometimes, to be put into boiling water.” (Soyer.)

To retain the highest amount of nourishment in potatoes they should be ‘dressed’ with their skins on them. The bruised or damaged parts, worm-holes, &c., being removed with a knife, the dirt should be carefully cleaned out of the ‘eyes,’ and from the rough parts of the skins, by means of a brush and water, after which they should be well rinsed in clean water, and drained in a colander. If they are at all dry or shrivelled, they may be advantageously left to soak for 3 or 4 hours in clean cold water before cooking them. Potatoes ‘dressed’ in the skins have been found to be nearly twice as rich in potassa salts as those which have been first peeled. The skins are easily removed before sending them to table.

NEW POTATOES should have their loose outer skin rubbed off with a cloth or stiff brush before being dressed or cooked.

MASHED POTATOES are prepared by crushing, with the back of a spoon, or with a rolling-pin, the hot ‘dressed’ tubers, placed in a bowl or dish, or on a pie-board. A little milk, butter, and salt may be added to them at will, and they may be either at once ‘served up,’ or pressed into ‘forms,’ and first ‘browned off’ in the oven. Potatoes, if not soft and mealy, and well masticated, frequently escape the solvent action of the stomach, and pass off undigested, often to the serious derangement of the health. By mashing them this inconvenience is removed. The delicate, the dyspeptic, and the aged should take them in no other form.

Potatoes may be preserved so as to stand the longest voyages unchanged, by thoroughly desiccating them in an oven, or by steam heat. For this purpose the roots, either raw or three parts dressed, are generally first cut into dice of above 3/4 inch square, to facilitate the operation. Under a patent granted to Mr Downes Edwards, Aug., 1840, the boiled potatoes are mashed and granulated by forcing them through a perforated plate before drying them. The granulated product, beaten up with a little hot milk or hot water, forms an excellent extemporaneous dish of mashed potatoes.

The microscopic detection of potato starch is easy. Instead of being round or oval, and with a central hilum, the starch grains are pyriform, with an eccentric hilum placed at the smaller end, and with well-marked concentric rings. A weak solution of liquor potassæ (one drop of the Pharmacopœia preparation to ten of water) swells them out greatly after a time; while wheat starch is little affected by potash of this strength; if the strength is 1 to 3 (as in the _figs._) the swelling takes place very rapidly.

=POT POURRI.= [Fr.] A mixture of odorous flowers, roots, gums, &c., varied according to the taste of the operator, either mixed together dry, or in the fresh state preserved with salt. “The usual way of making it is to collect roses, lavender, and other sweet-scented flowers, as they blow; to put them into a large jar mixed (stratified) with salt, until a sufficient quantity has been collected; then to add to these such other odorous substances as may be required to form an agreeable perfume.” Among the substances thus added are——ambergris, benzoin, calamus root, cascarilla, cassia, cassia buds, cinnamon, civet, cloves, musk, musk seed, orange berries and flowers, orris root, pimento, storax, vanilla, yellow sandal wood, &c.

“Instead of the fresh flowers, dried roses are sometimes used, and, with the addition of some essential oils, these answer quite as well.” (Redwood.)

The following is a French formula:——Take the petals of the pale and red roses, pinks, violets, moss rose, orange flower, lily of the valley, acacia flowers, clove gilliflowers, mignonette, heliotrope, jonquils, with a small proportion of the flowers of myrtle, balm, rosemary, and thyme; spread them out for some days, and as they become dry put them into a jar, with alternate layers of dry salt mixed with orris powder, till the vessel is filled. Close it for a month and stir the whole up, and moisten it with rose water.

=POT′TED MEATS.= See PUTREFACTION and POTTING (_below_).

=POT′TERY.= The mechanical operations connected with the manufacture of pottery (CERAMIC ART) do not come within the province of this work. The materials employed, in this country, to produce the best kind of earthenware (STAFFORDSHIRE WARE) are the fine white clays of Devonshire and Cornwall, and powdered chert or flint. This is brought to a perfectly homogeneous plastic mass with water, and in this state is fashioned upon the potter’s wheel and lathe, or by moulding, into all the varied objects of utility and ornament, which are made in this material. After the newly formed vessels and other articles have been dried by exposure in heated rooms, they are enclosed in clay cases (SEGGARS) and exposed to heat in a kiln, by which they arrive at a state (BISCUIT) which renders them fit for glazing; the patterns (if any) and, afterwards, appropriate vitreous materials having been applied to their surfaces, they are again placed in the seggars, and are again exposed in a kiln to a heat sufficiently high to fuse the newly applied compound, by which they acquire a uniform enamelled surface, and become fit for the market. PORCELAIN, or CHINA, as it is commonly called, is manufactured in a nearly similar manner, but the materials are selected and the various processes conducted with corresponding skill and care.

The ornamental patterns are produced upon both Staffordshire ware and porcelain by a number of ingenious processes, among which printing, painting, and moulding are the principal. The colours employed are those which have been already referred to under ENAMELS.

The metallic lustres now so common on stoneware, &c., are given as follows:——

1. GOLD LUSTRE. Dissolve grain-gold, 1 dr., in aqua regia, 3/4 oz.; to the solution add of metallic tin, 6 gr.; and when this is dissolved, pour it very gradually, with constant stirring, into a mixture of balsam of sulphur, 1/2 dr.; oil of turpentine, 20 gr.; when the mass begins to stiffen, 1/2 dr. more of oil of turpentine must be added, and well mixed in. More gold deepens and brightens the lustre; more tin turns it on the violet or purple.

2. IRON LUSTRE. From a mixture of ‘muriate of iron’ (ferric chloride) and spirit of tar.

3. PLATINUM LUSTRE. To a solution of platinum in aqua regia (platinic chloride) is added, drop by drop, a mixture of spirit of tar and balsam of sulphur in equal proportions, until by a trial the composition is found to give the required result. This gives the appearance of polished steel.

4. SILVER LUSTRE. The ammonio-chloride of platinum is reduced to an impalpable powder, ground up to the requisite consistence with a little spirit of tar, and at once applied with a brush.

The above lustres are applied, over an easily fusible glaze, to the outer surfaces only of the vessels, after which adhesion is produced by exposing the pieces to a slight degree of heat in the muffle. To give them their full beauty they must be rubbed with cotton, wool, or chamois leather, after the firing. See ALUMINA, CLAY, ENAMELS, GILDING, GLAZES, KAOLIN, &c.

=POT′TING.= A term commonly applied to the operation or practice of preserving animal substances in a state fit for immediate use, in small pots or jars. The method of proceeding is, first, to mince the substance (previously well dressed, and carefully deprived of bones, sinews, skin, &c.), and, next, to pound it in a clean polished marble or iron mortar, along with a little butter and some cayenne pepper, or other suitable spice or sauce, until it forms a perfectly smooth paste; this is pressed into the pots, so as to about 2-3rds fill them, and clarified melted butter is then poured in to the depth of about 1-8th of an inch; the pots are, lastly, closely covered over, and kept in a cool situation. In this state their contents may be preserved for a year, or longer. Potted beef, ham, veal, poultry, game, anchovies, bloaters, salmon, &c., are commonly sold in the shops. They are all intended for relishes, and are spread upon bread in the same manner as butter.

=POUDRE KOUSIQUE.= [Fr.] A French nostrum, consisting of nitre and sulphur, of each 50 parts; charcoal and antimony, of each 1 part. It is divided into 1/2-dr. doses, of which three are put into each packet. It is given to dogs in a ball of butter, to prevent the disorders to which they are liable.

=POUDRE METALLIQUE.= [Fr.] See TOOTH CEMENTS.

=POUDRE SUBTILE.= [Fr.] See DEPILATORY.

=POUDRETTE.= [Fr.] Dried night-soil. The manure sold under this name is a compound of night-soil with clay, charcoal, or gypsum, made into balls or cakes. Its extensive use in Belgium, France, the United States of America, and, more particularly, in China, where it was first employed, has shown it to be the most fertilising and generally applicable of all the numerous substances used as manure. Unfortunately, the prejudices of Englishmen lead them to poison the air of their cities and towns, and the waters of their rivers, with a substance which, if rightly applied, would crown their fields with golden harvests, and drive pauperism from the land.

Tardieu, speaking of the men engaged in making poudrette, says:——“The action of the exhalations from the manure manufacturers is certainly not injurious. The workmen show actually no trace of sickness or disease which can be referred to the influence of these exhalations.”

That ‘poudrette’ is, however, occasionally liable to set up fermentation seems undeniable; and when this is the case, and large quantities of poudrette are stored within a small space, serious consequences may ensue.

Parent Duchâtelet cites the case of a vessel carrying poudrette to Guadaloupe, in which half the crew died, and the remainder were in a very low state of health on the arrival of the vessel at Guadaloupe, owing, as he affirms, to the exhalations given off by the poudrette.

=POUL′TICE.= _Syn._ CATAPLASM; CATAPLASMA, L. An external application, generally extemporaneous, used to promote suppuration, allay pain and inflammation, resolve tumours, &c.

Poultices (cataplasmata) are generally prepared with substances capable of absorbing much water, and assuming a pulpy consistence, so as to admit of their application to any surface, however irregular. Their curative action principally depends upon the liquids with which they are moistened, and the heat retained by the mass. With this object they should never be heavy or very bulky, and should be frequently repeated, and lightly, but securely, bandaged on, to prevent displacement.

The addition of a little lard, olive oil, or, still better, glycerin, to a poultice, tends greatly to promote its emollient action, and to retard its hardening.

As the continued medication of the part with warmth and moisture, or with substances applied in the moist way, is the principal object to be attained in the application of poultices, a fold or two of lint or soft linen dipped in hot water, either simple or medicated, and covered with a piece of thin sheet gutta percha or india-rubber cloth, to prevent evaporation, may be often conveniently applied in their stead. A very elegant and useful substitute of this kind is sold under the name of ‘spongio piline.’ Its cleanliness, lightness, and ease of application has led to its extensive adoption by the medical profession.

The following formulæ embrace all the cataplasma of the Pharmacopœias:——

=Poultice of Al′um.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ALUMINIS, L. _Prep._ (B. P., Ph. D. 1826.) Alum (in powder), 1 dr.; whites of 2 eggs; shake them together until they form a coagulum. Applied, between the folds of fine linen, to chilblains, sore nipples, inflamed eyes, &c.

=Poultice, Anodyne.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ANODYNUM. _Prep._ Poppy heads, 1 oz.; dried leaves of henbane, 2 oz.; water, 24 oz. Boil, strain, and add to the liquor 4 oz. of emollient meals, to form a poultice.

=Poultice, Antiseptic.= (Fr. Hosp.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ANTISEPTICUM. _Prep._ Barley flour, 6 oz.; powdered Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; water, q. s. Boil and, when cool enough, add camphor in powder, 1 dr.

=Poultice, Astringent.= (Foy.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ASTRINGENS. _Prep._ Catechu, 1 oz.; powdered oak bark and barley meal, of each 1 oz.; cold water, q. s.

=Poultice of Belladonna.= (Dr Reece.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA BELLADONNÆ. _Prep._ Extract of belladonna, made in vacuo, 1 dr.; oatmeal, 1/2 lb.; boiling water, q. s.

=Poultice, Bran.= _Syn_. CATAPLASMA FURFURIS. _Prep._ Fine bran, with one tenth of linseed meal, made into a poultice with boiling water. Mr Payne recommends, as a cheap hospital poultice, 3-1/2 pecks of pollard, 14 lbs. of bruised meal, and 1/4 lb. of lard.

=Poultice of Bread.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA PANIS, L. _Prep._ From crum of bread, soaked in hot water, slightly pressed, and then beaten up with a little lard, butter, or oil. Emollient. See POULTICE, LINSEED MEAL (_below_).

=Poultice of Car′rot.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA DAUCI, L. _Prep._ 1. From the common esculent carrot, scraped fine, so as to form a pulp.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the cultivated carrot boiled with a little water until it becomes soft enough to form a poultice. Anodyne and antiseptic. Used in foul and painful ulcers, burns, contusions, &c. That from the first formula is the more stimulant.

=Poultice of Char′coal.= _Syn_. CATAPLASMA CARBONIS (B. P., Ph. L.), C. C. LIGNI, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Soak bread, 2 oz., in boiling water, 1/2 pint; to this add, by degrees, of linseed meal, 10 dr.; and, afterwards, of powdered (recently burnt) charcoal, 2 dr.; lastly, sprinkle on the surface of the poultice powdered charcoal, 1 dr. As an application to fetid and gangrenous sores; frequently renewed.

2. (B. P.) Wood charcoal, 1/2 oz.; bread, 2 oz.; linseed meal, 1-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 10 oz.; soak the bread in the water near the fire, add the linseed meal and half the charcoal, stirring to a soft poultice, sprinkling the remainder of the charcoal on the surface.

=Poultice of Chlo′′ride of So′da.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SODÆ CHLORINATÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Boiling water, 6 fl. oz.; linseed meal, 4-1/2 oz.; mix gradually, then add of solution of chlorinated soda, 2 fl. oz. Applied to foul ulcers, gangrenous parts, &c.

2. (B. P.) Solution of chlorinated soda, 1; linseed meal, 2; boiling water, 4; add the linseed meal gradually to the water, stirring constantly, then mix the solution of chlorinated soda.

=Poultice, Compound Farina.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA FARINÆ COMPOSITUM. _Prep._ Rye flour, 1 lb.; old yeast, 4 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; hot water, q. s.

=Poultice, Cummin.= (L. Ph. 1788.) _Syn_. CATAPLASMA CUMINI. _Prep._ Cummin seeds, 1 lb.; bay berries, scordium leaves, serpentaria root, of each 3 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; to be powdered together and mixed with thrice their weight of honey.

=Poultice, Discutient.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA DISCUTIENS. _Prep._ Barley meal, 6 oz.; fresh hemlock, 2 oz.; vinegar, q. s. Boil and add sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz. (Fr. Hosp.) The same, with 2 dr. of acetate of lead added.

=Poultice, Effervescing.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA EFFERVESCENS. _Prep._ Fresh wort thickened with oatmeal, and a spoonful of yeast added.

=Poultice, Emetic.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA EMETICUM. _Prep._ Bruised groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_) applied over the stomach produces vomiting.

=Cataplasma of Fig.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA FICI. _Prep._ A dried fig, roasted or boiled (sometimes in milk), is frequently applied to gum-boils, &c.

=Poultice, Foxglove.= (Mr Alland.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA DIGITALIS. _Prep._ A strong decoction of foxglove, with bread-crum, or linseed meal, q. s.

=Poultice, Galbanum.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA GALBANI. _Prep._ Lily roots, 4 oz.; figs, 1 oz.; boil till soft, and bruise them with 1-1/2 oz. of onions and 1/2 oz. of galbanum, triturated with yolk of egg and a sufficient quantity of linseed meal.

=Poultice, Galvanic.= (Recamier.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA GALVANICUM. It consists of cotton wadding containing a layer of very thin zinc plates, and another layer of copper ones. This pad, conveniently quilted, is enclosed in a bag, one face of which is of quilted calico, the other of impermeable tissue. The natural perspiration, confined by the impermeable tissue, excites galvanic action between the metals.

=Poultice of Hem′lock.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA CONII (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Boiling water, 1/2 pint; linseed meal, 4-1/2 oz., or q. s.; make a poultice, and on this spread of extract of hemlock (Ph. L.), 1 oz., first softened with a little hot water. Anodyne. In irritable and painful cancerous, scrofulous, and syphilitic sores, tumours, &c.

2. (B. P.) Hemlock leaf, in powder, 1 oz.; linseed meal, 3 oz.; boiling water, 10 oz.; mix the ingredients, then add them to the water gradually, constantly stirring.

=Poultice, Henbane.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA HYOSCYAMI. The same as POULTICE OF POPPY.

=Poultice, Hop.= (Dr Trotter.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA HUMULI. Hops softened with hot water. To foul ulcers.

=Poultice, Iodine.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA IODURETUM. To a common poultice add solution or tincture of iodine.

=Poultice, Lead.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA PLUMBI. _Prep._ Goulard water, 1 lb.; bread crum, q. s.

=Poultice, Lily.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA LILII. The pulp of the white lily boiled and bruised.

=Poultice, Lime.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA CALCIS. _Prep._ Slaked lime, 2 oz.; oatmeal, 2 oz.; lard, 4 oz. Formerly used at Bath Hospital.

=Poultice of linseed Meal.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA LINI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) To boiling water, 1/2 pint, add, gradually, constantly stirring, of linseed meal, 4-1/2 oz., or q. s. Emollient. Used to promote the suppuration or ‘ripening’ of tumours. A little oil or lard should be added, and some smeared over the surface as well, to prevent its getting hard. For small ‘gatherings,’ as of the fingers, a little chewed bread and butter is an efficient and convenient substitute.

2. (B. P.) Linseed meal, 4; olive oil, 1/2; boiling water, 10; mix the linseed meal with the oil, add the water gradually, constantly stirring.

_Obs._ Linseed meal prepared from the cake, from which the oil has been expressed, is less adapted for poultices than that prepared from the unpressed, whole seed. The latter is ordered in the Ph. L.

=Poultice, Malt.= (Guy’s Hosp.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA BYNES. _Prep._ Ground malt, with yeast, q. s., to form a poultice; to be applied warm.

=Poultice, Maturative.= (L. 1745.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA MATURANS. _Prep._ Pulp of figs, 4 oz.; resin ointment, 1 oz.; strained galbanum, 1/2 oz.

=Poultice of Mus′tard.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SINAPIS (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (B. P., Ph. L.) Linseed meal and powdered mustard, of each 2-1/2 oz., or q. s.; boiling water, 1/2 pint; mix as before.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but substituting boiling vinegar for water. Used as a powerful counter-irritant, stimulant, and rubefacient; in low fevers, apoplexy, coma, &c., where there is a determination of blood to the head; in deep-seated inflammatory pains, neuralgic pains, &c. It should not be left on long enough to raise a blister. See PLASTERS.

=Poultice, Onion.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA CEPÆ. _Prep._ Onions roasted and mashed.

=Poultice of Pop′py.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA PAPAVERIS, L. _Prep._ 1. (P. Cod. 1839.) A strong decoction of poppies, thickened with crum of bread. Anodyne.

=Poultice, Potash, Acetate of.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA POTASSÆ ACETATIS; CATAPLASMA NEUTRALE. _Prep._ Acetate of potash, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; crum of bread, q. s. To ill-conditioned sores.

=Poultice of Po′tato.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SOLANI TUBEROSI, L. _Prep._ From the raw potato, scraped or grated fine. A popular application to fresh bruises, extravasations, burns, scalds, &c.

=Poultice of Potato Starch.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA FECULÆ. _Prep._ Potato starch, 2 oz.; mix with a little cold water, add to it 20 oz. of boiling water, and boil for an instant. Cataplasms of rice and wheat starch are made in the same manner.

=Poultice, Pradier’s.= _Syn._ PRADIER’S CATAPLASMA; CATAPLASME DE PRADIER, Fr. _Prep._ Take of balsam of Mecca, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; dissolve; next, separately, take red cinchona bark, sarsaparilla, and sage, of each 1 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 32 oz.; digest for 48 hours, and filter; mix the two liquors; add to them twice their weight of lime water. In gout; 2 fl. oz. are sprinkled on the surface of a hot linseed-meal poultice sufficiently large to surround the affected part. It is said that the Emperor Napoleon gave £2500 for this receipt.

=Poultice of Pyroligneous Acid.= (Dr Reece.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ACIDI PYROLIGNOSI. _Prep._ Bran, 1 lb.; linseed meal, 1 oz.; impure pyroligneous acid, q. s. For scrofulous ulcers; occasionally 30 minims of tincture of perchloride of iron, and 3 dr. of extract or powder of hemlock, are added.

=Poultice of Red Wine.= (Gl. Hosp.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA VINI RUBRI. _Prep._ Linseed meal, 1-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 5 oz.; stir it over a slow fire for a minute, remove, and add 2 oz. of red wine.

=Poultice, Roasted Apple.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA MALI. The soft pulp of roasted apple, applied to inflamed eyes. Other ingredients are sometimes added.

=Poultice, Rose.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ROSÆ. _Prep._ Powdered alum, 30 gr.; confection of roses, 4 oz.; mix.

=Poultice of Sea-wrack.= (Dr Russell.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA FUCI. _Prep._ Fresh bladder fucus (sea-wrack) bruised. Applied to glandular tumours, &c.

=Poultice, Sim′ple.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SIMPLEX, L. _Prep._ (Ph. D. 1826.) Powder for a cataplasma and boiling water, of each q. s. to form a poultice, the surface of which is to be smeared over with olive oil. Emollient. Bread poultice and linseed-meal poultice are now generally called by this name. See POWDER (Poultice).

=Poultice of Slippery Elm.= CATAPLASMA ULMI. The powdered bark of the slippery elm (_Ulmus fulva_) mixed with a sufficient quantity of hot water.

=Poultice of Soap.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SAPONIS, L. _Prep._ From white soap (scraped or sliced), 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/4 pint; dissolve, and add crum of bread, q. s. As an application to scalds and burns.

=Poultice, Sorrel.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA OXALIS. _Prep._ Bruised sorrel leaves, mixed with oatmeal and beer.

=Poultice, Stimulating.= (Dr Hugh Smith.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA STIMULANS. _Prep._ Rye flour, 1 lb.; old yeast, 4 oz.; common salt, 2 oz.

=Poultice, Sulphate of Lime.= (Blizard.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA CALCIS SULPHATIS. _Prep._ Paris plaster mixed with water to a soft paste, and applied before it hardens. Formerly applied to ulcers to form an artificial scab; now occasionally used to afford mechanical support in some surgical cases.

=Poultice of Sulphate of Soda.= (Kirkland.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SODÆ SULPHATIS. _Prep._ Sulphate of soda, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/2 lb.; crum of bread, a sufficient quantity.

=Poultice to cause Suppuration.= (E. Ph. 1774.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA SUPPURANS. To an emollient cataplasm add bruised onions, 1-1/2 oz.; basilicon ointment, 1 oz.

=Poultice of Tannate of Lead.= (G. Ph.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA AD DECUMBITUM; PLUMBUM TANNICUM PULTIFORME. _Prep._ Boil 2 oz. Of oak bark in sufficient water to yield 10 oz. of strained decoction; add to this 1 oz. (by weight) of liquid subacetate of lead, collect the precipitate on a filter, and put it into a bottle with 2 dr. of rectified spirit.

=Poultice, Tonic.= (G. Hosp.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA TONICUM. _Prep._ Powdered bark, 1 oz.; charcoal, 1 oz.; camphor, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of turpentine, q. s.

=Poultice, Turnip.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA RAPI. _Prep._ Peel turnips, boil them till soft, beat them to a pulp, and apply warm.

=Poultice, Turpentine.= (Dr Reece.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA TEREBINTHINÆ. _Prep._ Oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1 oz.; linseed meal, 1 oz.; oatmeal, 4 oz.; boiling water, q. s. To indolent ulcers, and, with more turpentine, to deep burns, scalds, and chilblains.

=Poultice of Vin′egar.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA ACETI, L. _Prep._ From crum of bread soaked in vinegar. Applied cold in bruises, extravasations, &c., especially black eyes. Verjuice is often employed in the same way.

=Poultice of Walnut Leaves.= (Perfect.) _Syn._ CATAPLASMA JUGLANDIS. _Prep._ The fresh leaves of walnut bruised and mixed with honey. Applied over the abdomen as a vermifuge.

=Poultice of Yeast.= _Syn._ CATAPLASMA FERMENTI (B. P., Ph. L.), C. F. CEREVISIÆ, L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Beer yeast and water at 100° Fahr., of each 5 fl. oz.; mix, stir in flour, 1 lb., and place it near the fire until it rises. In gangrenous or foul ulcers; to correct the fetor of the discharge, and to hasten the sloughing.

2. (B. P.) Beer yeast, 6; flour, 14; water (at 100° Fahr.), 6; mix. Place the mass near the fire till it rises.

=POUL′TRY.= Domestic birds, which are propagated and fed for the table, and for their eggs, feathers, &c.

The poultry of this country are the common domestic fowl, the turkey, the duck, and the goose; to which some writers add the guinea-fowl and the peacock. Of these, the first is the most generally useful. Though a native of India, it accompanies man through almost every gradation of civilisation and climate, and flourishes almost everywhere, when properly secured from the inclemency of the weather, and allowed an ample supply of fresh air, with proper food. For the production of abundance of eggs it must, however, be well fed and warmly lodged. The hen-roosts and poultry-houses should be well protected from the weather, and their temperature should be duly maintained by proximity to the stables, cow-houses, or dwelling-house, and, in cold weather, by the employment, when necessary, of artificial heat. The food should also contain an ample supply of nitrogenous matter, for without this how can it be expected that hens can produce abundance of eggs, which are peculiarly rich in nitrogen? The ‘greaves’ of the tallow-chandlers, and such-like substances, are hence excellent additions to the ordinary food of poultry. But it is not sufficient merely to supply poultry with abundance of food and warmth; it is equally necessary that they should have ample space for exercise and recreation. This space “should always contain living plants of various kinds, and some gravelly or sandy soil; because worms, snails, as well as, occasionally, grass and herbage, form a part of the food of poultry; and sand or gravel is swallowed by them for the purpose of promoting digestion. Hence, no healthy poultry can ever be reared in towns, however much the natural food may be imitated by the supply of animal matters, herbage, and sand.” (Loudon.)

=POUNCE.= Powdered gum sandarac generally passes under this name. It is used to prepare parchment for writing on, and to prevent ink from spreading upon paper after erasures. Powdered cuttle-fish bone is occasionally employed in the same way. Both are applied to the surface by means of a cylindrical roll of list called a ‘rubber.’ Packers rub the surface of porous and greasy woods, as the heads of boxes, cases, casks, &c., with whiting or powdered resin, to make them bear the ink. The coloured powders used by pattern drawers, for sprinkling over pricked papers, are also called ‘pounce.’ For liquid pounce, see MARKING INK.

=POWDER.= _Syn._ PULVIS, L. Powders are divided by pharmaceutical writers into two classes——simple and compound. The first are prepared by simple pulverisation; the second by the admixture of two or more simple powders. For use the appropriate doses are separately weighed, and placed in separate papers. They are usually exhibited in a little honey, sugar, or milk, either taken from a spoon or made into an electuary or bolus, and swallowed in the semi-solid form. Metallic and other heavy powders are best taken in the latter state. Very active substances should be, in all cases, mixed with some inert powder, as that of starch, gum, liquorice, or marshmallow, at the time of ‘dispensing’ them.

“This form of preparing medicines is the simplest, and perhaps the least objectionable; but it is not applicable to all the articles of the Materia Medica. Those remedies which are very unpleasant to the taste; those which deliquesce rapidly when exposed to the air, or are very volatile; and those which require to be given in very large doses, or which are not diffused readily in water, cannot, with propriety, be administered in the form of powder. Some substances cannot be reduced to powder unless they be very much dried, and the heat necessary for that purpose alters their properties.” Nor can we “be surprised that a great alteration should be effected in a short time by the action of the air on so great an extension of surface as takes place in the operation usually adopted for reducing drugs to a fine powder.” (A. T. Thomson.)

In this country compound powders appear to be a favourite form of medicine in the diseases of infancy and childhood.

“It is necessary that whatever we order to be reduced to powder should be rubbed through a fine sieve, so that the impurities and coarser parts may be separated; and it is needful that most powders should be recently prepared, and not too long kept.” (Ph. L.)

As nearly all powders suffer by exposure to the air and light, they should be preserved in closely-corked opaque or green-glass bottles, or in tin canisters from which the external air is carefully excluded. See PULVERISATION, &c.

=Powder, Algaroth’s.= See ANTIMONY, OXYCHLORIDE.

=Powder of Al′oes (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS ALOËS COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), P. ALOËS CUM GUAIACO, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes (in powder), 1-1/2 oz.; guaiacum (in powder), 1 oz.; compound cinnamon powder, 1/2 oz.; rub them together. A warm, sudorific purgative.——_Dose_, 10 to 20 gr.

=Powder of Aloes with Canel′la.= _Syn._ ALOETIC POWDER, HOLY BITTER†; HIERA PICRA†, PULVIS ALOES CUM CANELLÂ, L. _Prep._ From powdered Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 4 parts; powdered white canella, 1 part. Uses and dose, as the last.

_Obs._ Once a highly popular remedy. It was originally made into an electuary with honey, and in this form was frequently called ‘HIERA LOGADII,’ It is still a favourite in domestic medicine and veterinary practice. The principal objection to both this and the preceding preparation is the nauseous flavour of the aloes, which is ill concealed by the aromatics. The ‘HIERA PICRA’ for farriers is usually made with the cheapest Cape aloes.

=Powder of Aloes with Iron.= (L. Ph. 1788.) _Syn._ PULVIS ALOETICUS CUM FERRO. _Prep._ Aloes, 1-1/2 oz.; myrrh, 2 oz.; sulphate of iron, 1 oz.; dried extract of gentian, 1 oz.

=Powder of Al′um (Compound).= _Syn._ STYPTIC POWDER; PULVIS STYPTICUS, P. ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ (Ph. E.) Alum, 4 oz.; kino, 1 oz.; mix them, and reduce them to fine powder. Astringent and styptic.——_Dose_, 5 to 15 gr.; in diarrhœa, profuse menstruation, &c. Externally, in hæmorrhages, &c.

=Powder, Alum, Opiated.= (Bouchardat.) _Syn._ PULVIS ALUMINIS OPIATUS. _Prep._ Alum, 1 dr.; sugar, 1 dr.; opium, 4 gr.; mix for 12 powders. 2 or 3 daily in obstinate diarrhœas and passive hæmorrhages.

=Powder of Alum with Capsicum.= (Dr Turnbull.) _Syn._ PULVIS ALUMINIS CUM CAPSICO. _Prep._ Alum, 3 parts; concentrated tincture of capsicum, 1 part; mix, dry, and triturate again. Applied to the tonsils.

=Powder of Alum with Gum.= (Frankel.) _Prep._ Alum, gum tragacanth, of each equal parts. Applied to sore breasts.

=Powder of Alum with Starch.= (St. Th. Hosp.) _Syn._ PULVIS ALUMINIS CUM AMYLO. _Prep._ Alum and starch, equal parts. In insufflation of rhinorrhœa.

=Powder of Ambergris with Musk.= (Bat. Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS AMBERGRISEÆ MOSCHATUS. _Prep._ Ambergris, 6 dr.; musk, 1 dr.; oil of cinnamon, 2 scruples; refined sugar, 11-1/2 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Ammoniated Aromatic.= _Syn._ PULVIS AMMONIATUS AROMATICUS; LEAYSON’S AMMONIACAL COLLYRIUM. _Prep._ Muriate of ammonia, 1 dr.; slaked lime, 1 oz.; charcoal, 15 gr.; cinnamon, 15 gr.; cloves, 15 gr., bole, 1/2 dr. Put them into a bottle and moisten with a little water.

=Powder of Ancho′vy.= _Syn._ PULVIS CLUPEÆ ENCRASICOLI, L. _Prep._ Pound anchovies to a paste, then rub them through a sieve, and add enough flour to make a dough, which must be rolled out into thin slices and dried by a gentle heat in a stove; it is, lastly, powdered and bottled. Colouring is frequently added. Chiefly used to make sauces. British anchovies are frequently substituted for the genuine fish.

=Powder, Anthrakokali, Compound.= _Syn._ PULVIS ANTHRAKOKALI, COMPOUND. _Prep._ Anthrakokali, 2 gr.; washed sulphur, 6 gr.; mix. For 1 dose.

=Powder, Anthrakokali, Simple.= (Poyla.) _Syn._ PULVIS ANTHRAKOKALI SIMPLEX. _Prep._ Anthrakokali, 2 gr.; liquorice powder, 6 gr.; mix. For 1 dose.

=Powder, Antiepileptic.= _Syn._ PULVIS ANTIEPILEPTICUS (E. Ph., 1744.) _Prep._ White dittany, pæony, valerian, mistletoe of the oak, equal parts.——_Dose_, 10 to 6 gr. (Behrends.) _Prep._ Valerian, 4 dr.; magnesia, muriate of ammonia, oil of cajeput, of each 1 scruple.——_Dose._ A teaspoonful three times a day. Dr Paris says the following was used successfully by a Dutch empiric:——Sulphur, 1 scruple; sulphate of potash, 10 gr.; rhubarb, 5 gr.; nutmeg, 2 gr.; mix. (Germ. Hosp.) _Prep._ Oxide of zinc, 16 gr.; carbonate of magnesia, 48 gr.; oleo-saccharum of cajeput, 3 dr. Mix for 8 doses. _Poudre de Ragolo._ Oxide of zinc, 10 gr.; valerian, mistletoe, sugar, orange leaves, of each 4 dr.; magnesia, 2 scruples; oil of cajeput, 2 scruples; a teaspoonful three times a day. Pasquier prescribes——Wall crop, 10 gr.; gum Arabic, 10 gr.; 1 to 4 powders daily for eight times. SOMMER’S SPECIFIC consists of——Wall crop, 6 to 10 gr.; oleo-saccharum of mint, 8 gr.; one morning and evening for six times. See PULVIS ARTEMISIÆ SACCHARATUS. The _Poudre de Guttète_ consists of mistletoe, 2 parts; white dittany, 2; pæony root and seeds, 2; prepared coral, 1; elk’s hoof, 2; seeds of orache, 2. Given in doses of a few grains in convulsions of infants, or in larger doses for epilepsy.

=Powder, Antihydrophobic.= (Dr Mead.) _Syn._ PULVIS ANTILYSSUS. _Prep._ Ash-coloured ground liver-wort (_Pettidea canina_), 1/2 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; mix, and give a fourth part every morning for 4 times.

=Powder, Antimo′′nial.= _Syn._ FEVER POWDER, LISLE’S P., JAMES’S P.; PULVIS JACOBI, PULVIS ANTIMONIALIS (B. P., Ph. E., & D.), PULVIS ANTIMONII COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) A mixture of tersulphide of antimony, 1 lb., and hartshorn shavings, 2 lbs., is reduced to powder, thrown into a crucible heated to whiteness, and stirred constantly until vapour no longer rises; the calcined mixture is then rubbed to powder, again put into the crucible, and the heat gradually increased to whiteness, and maintained so for 2 hours; the residuum is, lastly, reduced to a very fine powder.

2. (Ph. E.) From sulphide of antimony and hartshorn shavings, equal weights; as the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony, 4 oz., is dissolved in water, 1/2 gall., and added to solution of phosphate of soda, 4 oz., in water, 1 quart; a solution of chloride of calcium, 2 oz., in water, 1 quart, and to which solution of ammonia (Ph. D.), 4 fl. oz., has been added, is next poured in, and the whole boiled for 20 minutes; the precipitate is then collected on a calico filter, and washed with hot distilled water, until the liquid which passes ceases to give a precipitate with a weak solution of nitrate of silver; it is, lastly, dried by a steam or water heat, and reduced to a fine powder.

4. (B. P.) Oxide of antimony, 1; precipitated phosphate of lime, 2; mix.——_Dose_, 2 to 6 gr.

_Uses, &c._ Febrifuge and diaphoretic. Intended as a substitute for the proprietary and more expensive JAMES’S POWDER.——_Dose_, 3 to 10 or 12 gr., or more, repeated every fourth or fifth hour until diaphoresis is set up; in fevers, rheumatic affections, chronic skin diseases, &c. It is a very uncertain and variable compound, unless it has been carefully prepared. Dr Elliotson exhibited it in doses of 100 gr. without producing any sensible effect. A spurious article, made by triturating 1 oz. of tartar emetic with 18 or 19 oz. of burnt hartshorn, is frequently sold for it in the shops. See ANTIMONIOUS ACID and JAMES’S POWDER.

=Powder, Antispasmodic.= (P. Cod.) _Syn._ PULVIS ANTISPASMODICUS. _Prep._ Cyanide of zinc, 3 gr.; calcined magnesia, 24 gr.; cinnamon, 12 gr.; mix. For 6 doses.

=Powder, Antispasmodic.= (Jourdan.) _Syn._ PULVIS ANTISPASMODICUS. _Prep._ Valerian, 1 oz.; oxide of zinc, 1 scruple; musk, 8 gr.; mix.

=Powder, Aromat′ic.= See POWDER, COMPOUND CINNAMON.

=Powder, Arsen′ical.= See POWDER, ESCHAROTIC.

=Powder of Asarabac′ca (Compound).= See SNUFF (Cephalic).

=Powder, Astrin′gent.= _Syn._ PULVIS ASTRINGENS, P. STYPTICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. From Aleppo galls and burnt alum, in fine powder, equal parts. Used in piles, soft polypi of the nose, chilblains, &c.

=Powder, Ba′′king.= _Prep._ 1. Tartaric acid, 1/2 lb.; bicarbonate of soda and potato farina or British arrow-root, of each 3/4 lb. (each in powder); separately dry them perfectly by a very gentle heat, then mix them in a dry room, pass the mixture through a sieve, and at once put it into packets, observing to press it hard, and to cover it with tinfoil or close-made paper, to preserve it as much as possible from the air and moisture.

2. (Delforte’s.) Powdered tartaric acid, 1/4 lb.; powdered alum, 1/2 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 3/4 lb.; farina, 1 lb.; dry separately, as before, mix, and further add of sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in powder), 3 oz.; lastly, closely pack it in tinfoil.

3. (Green’s.) Tartaric acid, 35 lbs.; sesquicarbonate of soda, 56 lbs.; potato flour, 1 cwt.; mix as before.

_Uses, &c._ Baking powder is chiefly employed as a substitute for yeast. 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls are mixed with the dry flour and other ingredients, which are then made into a dough, as quickly as possible, with cold water, and at once baked or boiled as the case may be. By the addition of about 1/2 dr. of turmeric powder to each pound of the mixture it is converted into egg powder. When intended to be kept for any length of time it should be preserved in bottles or tins, so as to prevent the absorption of moisture. We have discovered traces of arsenic in some of the baking powders of the shops, which we refer to common washerwoman’s soda being used in their composition, instead of the pure carbonate or sesquicarbonate.

=Powder, Basil′ic.= _Syn._ ROYAL POWDER, CORNACHINI’S P.; PULVIS BASILICUS, P. CORNACHINI, L. _Prep._ From scammony, calomel, cream of tartar, and diaphoretic antimony, equal parts. This is the formula generally adopted for this compound, which has now long been omitted from the Pharmacopœias. It is still a favourite with many practitioners, as an alterative purgative, and vermifuge for children.——_Dose._ For a child, 2 to 8 gr.; for an adult, 5 to 20 gr. Compound powder of scammony is now generally sold for it.

=Powder, Belladonna, Saccharated.= (Wertzler.) _Syn._ PULVIS BELLADONNÆ SACCHARATUS. _Prep._ Belladonna root, 15 gr.; pure sugar, 1 dr.; mix. For 72 powders. One twice a day, or oftener, according to the age. In hooping-cough.

=Powder, Blaine’s Distem′per.= The basis of this preparation is the ‘aurum musivum,’ or bisulphuret of tin. (Dr Paris.)

=Powder, Blancmange′.= _Prep._ From sago meal, 1 lb.; essence of lemon, 15 drops; mace, 12 gr.; mix.

=Powder, Bleaching.= Chloride or hypochlorite of lime.

=Powder, Blue.= See SMALTS.

=Powder, Bronze.= See STANNIC SULPHIDE, BRONZING, &c.

=Powder of Burnt Hartshorn.= _Syn._ PULVIS CORNU CERVINI USTI, L. _Prep._ From pieces of hartshorn calcined to whiteness, and powdered. It consists principally of phosphate of lime.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; in rickets, &c.

=Powder of Burnt Hartshorn with O′pium.= _Syn._ PULVIS OPIATUS, PULVIS CORNU USTI CUM OPIO, L. _Prep._ From powdered calcined hartshorn, 1 oz.; powdered opium and cochineal, of each 1 dr.——_Dose_, 5 to 20 gr.

=Powder of Camphor.= Camphor may be readily pulverised by triturating it with the addition of a few drops of rectified spirit or ether.

=Powder, Camphorated Nitre.= (Swediaur.) _Syn._ PULVIS NITRO CAMPHORATUS. _Prep._ Nitre, 10 gr.; camphor, 4 gr.; gum Arabic, 24 gr.; mix. For two or three doses.

=Powder, Capuchin′.= _Prep._ From powdered cevadilla, parsley seed, stavesacre, and tobacco, equal parts. Used to destroy pediculi.

=Powder, Castillon’s.= _Prep._ From sago meal, salep, and gum tragacanth, of each 3 dr.; prepared oyster shells, 1 dr.; cochineal, q. s. to colour. Absorbent.——_Dose_, 1/2 to 1 dr., boiled in milk; in diarrhœa, &c.

=Powder of Cat′echu (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS CATECHU COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. D.) Take catechu and kino, of each 2 oz.; cinnamon and nutmeg, of each 1/2 oz.; reduce each to a fine powder, mix, and keep the prepared powder in a well-stopped bottle. Aromatic and astringent.——_Dose_, 1/4 dr. to 2 dr.; in various affections.

2. (B. P.) Pale catechu; kino, 2; rhatany, 2; cinnamon, 1; nutmeg, 1; mix.——_Dose_, 15 to 30 gr.

=Powder of Chalk (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS CRETÆ AROMATICUS (B. P.), PULVIS CRETÆ COMPOSITUS (Ph. L., E., & D.), P. CARBONATIS CALCIS COMP., L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared chalk, 1/2 lb.; cinnamon, 4 oz.; tormentil and gum acacia, of each 3 oz.; long pepper, 1/2 oz.; rub them, separately, to a very fine powder, and mix them.

2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz.; cinnamon, in fine powder, 1-1/2 dr.; nutmeg, in fine powder, 1 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 5 oz.; cinnamon, 2-1/2 oz.; gum, 2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.

4. (AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK——B. P.) Chalk, 11; cinnamon, 4; nutmeg, 3; saffron, 3; cloves, 1-1/2; cardamom seed, 1; refined sugar, 25; all in powder; mix.——_Dose_, 30 to 60 gr.

_Uses, &c._ Aromatic, astringent, and antacid.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; in acidity, flatulence, heartburn, diarrhœa, &c. The following form is used by many wholesale houses:——Prepared chalk, 4 lbs.; powdered cassia, 2 lbs.; powdered calamus aromaticus, 3/4 lb.; powdered gum, 1-1/2 lb.; long pepper, 1/4 lb.

=Powder of Chalk with Opium (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS CRETÆ AROMATICUS CUM OPIO (B. P.); OPIATED CHALK POWDER; PULVIS CRETÆ COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO (Ph. L.), PULVIS CRETÆ OPIATIS (Ph. E. & D.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Compound chalk powder, 6-1/2 oz.; powdered opium, 80 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Compound chalk powder, 6 oz.; powdered opium, 80 gr.

3. (Ph. D.) Compound chalk powder, 4 oz. 7 dr.; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Compound chalk powder, 21 oz.; powdered opium, 1/2 oz. Anodyne, antacid, and carminative.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr.; in the same cases as the preceding, than which it is more active. It has long been a favourite remedy in all cases of simple and even choleraic diarrhœa.

5. Aromatic powder of chalk (_see_ POWDER OF CHALK (Compound), 4), 39; opium, in powder, 1; mix thoroughly, and pass through a sieve.——_Dose_, 10 to 40 gr.

=Powder, Chalk Mixture.= _Syn._ PULVIS PRO MISTURA CRETÆ, L. _Prep._ (Beasley.) Powdered gum acacia, 5 oz.; prepared chalk, 4 oz.; white sugar, 3 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; mix. 40 gr. of this powder, triturated with 1 fl. oz. of water.

=Powder, Chol′era (Saline).= _Syn._ PULVIS SALINUS ANTICHOLERICUS, L. _Prep._ 1. (Dr O’Shaughnessy.) Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, phosphate of soda, and sulphate of soda, of each 10 gr. For a dose.

=Powder of Cin′namon (Compound).= _Syn._ AROMATIC POWDER; PULVIS CINNAMOMI COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L.), PULVIS AROMATICUS (Ph. E.), L. _Prep._ 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 1-1/2 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.; long pepper, 1/2 oz.; rub them together so that a fine powder may be made.

2. (B. P., Ph. E.) Cinnamon, cardamom seeds, and ginger, equal parts; to be kept in a well-closed glass vessel.

3. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon and ginger, of each 2 oz.; cardamom seeds (husked), and nutmegs, of each 1 oz. Aromatic and carminative.——_Dose_, 10 to 30 gr. In the powder of the shops cassia is generally substituted for cinnamon.

=Powder, Cla′rifying.= Flake albumen. See ALBUMEN.

=Powder, Cock′le.= From the well-known shell-fish _Cardium edule_ (Linn.), as oyster powder.

=Powder, Colbatche’s Specific.= _Prep._ From solution of sesquichloride of iron and acetate of lead, of each 4 oz.; mix, evaporate to dryness, powder the residuum, and preserve it from the air. Astringent and hæmostatic.——_Dose_, 3 to 8 grs.

=Powder of Col′ocynth.= _Syn._ PULVIS COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. That of the shops is generally prepared from the whole of the peeled fruit, with the seeds, instead of merely from the pulp, by which its activity is greatly lessened. A factitious article is also met with in trade, made by grinding bryony root with about twice its weight of colocynth seeds and a very small quantity of gamboge.

=Powder, Compound Almond.= (B. Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS AMYGDALÆ COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Steep 8 oz. of Jordan almonds in warm water till their skins can be easily removed; and, when blanched, dry them thoroughly with a soft cloth, and rub them lightly in a mortar to a smooth consistence; mix gum Arabic in powder, 1 oz.; and refined sugar, in powder, 4 oz.; and adding them to the pulp gradually, rub the whole to a coarse powder. Keep it in a lightly covered jar.

=Powder, Compound Bark.= (Geneva Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS CINCHONÆ COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; rhubarb, 1-1/2 dr.; muriate of ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; mix.

=Powder, Compound Belladonna.= 1. (Hecker.) _Prep._ Belladonna, 1 to 3 gr.; musk, 5 gr.; camphor, 5 gr.; white sugar, 30 gr.; mix. For 8 powders.

2. (Kopp.) Belladonna root, 2 gr.; ipecacuanha, 2 gr.; sulphur, 32 gr.; sugar of milk, 32 gr. Mix, and divide into 3 powders, three daily. In hooping-cough.

=Powder, Compound Ceruse.= (Ph. L. 1788.) _Syn._ PULVIS CERUSÆ COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Carbonate of lead, 5 oz.; sarcocol, 1-1/2 oz.; tragacanth, 1/2 oz.; mix. For outward use.

=Powder, Compound, of Cyanide of Zinc.= (Guibourt.) _Syn._ PULVIS ZINCI CYANIDI COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Cyanide of zinc, 2 gr.; calcined magnesia, 27 gr.; cinnamon, 10 gr.; mix. For 6 doses, in cramp of the stomach.

=Powder, Compound Fennel.= (Brunsw. Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS FŒNICULI COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz.; fennel seeds, 1-2 oz.; orange peel, 2 dr.; white sugar, 2 dr. Reduce each to a fine powder and mix.

=Powder, Compound Musk.= (Russ. Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS MOSCHI COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Musk, 8 parts; valerian, 10 parts; camphor, 3 parts.

=Powder, Compound Opium.= (B. P.) _Syn._ PULVIS OPII COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Mix thoroughly 1-1/2 oz. of opium, in powder, with 2 oz. of powdered black pepper, 5 oz. of ginger, 6 oz. of caraways, and 1/2 oz. of tragacanth. Pass the powders through a fine sieve, rub them lightly in a mortar, and keep the powder in a stoppered bottle. This powder nearly represents the dry ingredients of confection of opium, L.——_Dose_, 2 to 5 gr.

=Powder, Compound Silver.= (Serre.) _Syn._ PULVIS ARGENTI COMPOSITUS. _Prep._ Chloride of silver, 1 gr.; washed orris powder, 2 gr. Used in frictions, the same as COMPOUND GOLD POWDER.

=Powder, Compound of Sulphate of Soda.= _Syn._ PULVIS SODÆ SULPHATIS COMPOSITUS. SEL DE GUINDRE. _Prep._ Dried sulphate of soda, 18 dr.; nitrate of potash, 1/2 dr.; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 1 gr. A third part to be taken in water or herb broth.

=Powder, Compound Sulphur.= _Syn._ PULVIS SULPHURIS COMPOSITUS. RATIER:——Sulphur, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; white sugar, q. s. VAN MONS (antidysenteric powder):——Sulphur, 1 oz.; fennel seed, 1 dr.; white sugar, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 2 oz.; mix. SWEDIAUR (pectoral powder):——Sulphur, 1/2 oz.; liquorice, 1 oz.; orris, 2 dr.; benzoic acid, 1 scruple; white sugar, 2 oz.; oil of anise and fennel, of each 10 drops.

=Powder of Contrayer′va (Compound).= _Syn._ PULVIS CONTRAYERVÆ COMPOSITUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. L. 1824.) Powdered contrayerva root, 5 oz.; prepared oyster shells, 1-1/2 lb.; mix. A tonic absorbent or antacid.——_Dose_, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., as required.

=Powder, Cooling.= (G. Ph.) _Syn._ PULVIS TEMPERANE. _Prep._ Nitrate of potash, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 3 oz.; sugar, 6 oz.

=Powder, Corn.= See CORN SOLVENT and POWDER, WART (_below_).

=Powder, Cosmet′ic.= _Syn._ PULVIS COSMETICUS, L. _Prep._ (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Blanched sweet almonds and beans, of each 18 oz.; orris root, 8 oz.; white Spanish soap, 6 oz.; spermaceti, 1-1/2 oz.; dried carbonate of soda, 1 oz.; oils of lavender, bergamot, and lemon, of each 6 dr.; mix, and beat them to a powder. See POWDER, HAIR, and HAND (_below_), PASTE (Almond), POWDERS (Scented), &c.

=Powder of Cryst′al.= From quartz, like POWDERED GLASS (page 805). Used to make fine glass; also for a dryer for paints, and sold under the name of ‘diamond dust’ for razor strops.

=Powder of Cubebs with Alum.= (Matthieu.) _Syn._ PULVIS CUBEBÆ CUM ALUMINE. _Prep._ Cubebs, 2 oz.; alum, 4 dr.; mix. For 9 doses. Three daily, in gonorrhœa.

=Powder, Cur′ry.= _Syn._ INDIAN CURRY POWDER. The samples of this compound prepared by different houses vary so greatly from each other in the proportions of the ingredients, that it is difficult to regard any one as a standard. The following are therefore merely given as examples:——

_Prep._ 1. Corianders, 1 lb.; turmeric, 3/4 lb.; black pepper, 1/2 lb.; scorched mustard, 1/4 lb.; ginger, 2 oz.; cumin seed, 1 oz.; capsicums, 3/4 oz.; mace, 1/4 oz. (all in powder); mix well.

2. Coriander seeds and black pepper, of each 8 lbs.; turmeric and cumin seeds, of each 4 lbs., allspice, 3/4 lb.; mace, 1 oz. (all in powder);