Part 16

_Mrs. B._ It expands by wetting, and contracts in drying; it is also more soft and pliable when wet, so that I can make it fit better, and when dry, it will be tighter. We must hold it to the fire in order to dry it; but not too near, lest it should burst by sudden contraction. Let us now fix it on the air pump, and exhaust the air from underneath it--you will not be alarmed if you hear a noise?

_Emily._ It was as loud as the report of a gun, and the bladder is burst! Pray explain how the air is concerned in this experiment.

_Mrs. B._ It is the effect of the weight of the atmosphere, on the upper surface of the bladder, when I had taken away the air from the under surface, so that there was no longer any reaction to counterbalance the pressure of the atmosphere, on the receiver. You observed how the bladder was pressed inwards, by the weight of the external air, in proportion as I exhausted the receiver: and before a complete vacuum was formed, the bladder, unable to sustain the violence of the pressure, burst with the explosion you have just heard.

I shall now show you an experiment, which proves the expansion of the air, contained within a body, when it is relieved from the pressure of the external air. You would not imagine that there was any air contained within this shrivelled apple, by its appearance; but take notice of it when placed within a receiver, from which I shall exhaust the air.

_Caroline._ How strange! it grows quite plump, and looks like a fresh-gathered apple.

_Mrs. B._ But as soon as I let the air again into the receiver, the apple, you see, returns to its shrivelled state. When I took away the pressure of the atmosphere, the air within the apple, expanded, and swelled it out; but the instant the atmospheric air was restored, the expansion of the internal air, was checked and repressed, and the apple shrunk to its former dimensions.

You may make a similar experiment with this little bladder, which you see is perfectly flaccid, and appears to contain no air: in this state I shall tie up the neck of the bladder, so that whatever air remains within it, may not escape, and then place it under the receiver. Now observe, as I exhaust the receiver, how the bladder distends; this proceeds from the great dilatation of the small quantity of air, which was enclosed within the bladder, when I tied it up; but as soon as I let the air into the receiver, that which the bladder contains, condenses and shrinks into its small compass, within the folds of the bladder.

_Emily._ These experiments are extremely amusing, and they afford clear proofs, both of the weight, and elasticity of the air; but I should like to know, exactly, how much the air weighs.

_Mrs. B._ A column of air reaching to the top of the atmosphere, and whose base is a square inch, weighs about 15 lbs. therefore, every square inch of our bodies, sustains a weight of 15 lbs.: and if you wish to know the weight of the whole of the atmosphere, you must reckon how many square inches there are on the surface of the globe, and multiply them by 15.

_Emily._ But can we not ascertain the weight of a small quantity of air?

_Mrs. B._ With perfect ease. I shall exhaust the air from this little bottle, by means of the air pump: and having emptied the bottle of air, or, in other words, produced a vacuum within it, I secure it by turning this screw adapted to its neck: we may now find the exact weight of this bottle, by putting it into one of the scales of a balance. It weighs, you see, just two ounces; but when I turn the screw, so as to admit the air into the bottle, the scale which contains it, preponderates.

_Caroline._ No doubt the bottle filled with air, is heavier than the bottle void of air; and the additional weight required to bring the scales again to a balance, must be exactly that of the air which the bottle now contains.

_Mrs. B._ That weight, you see, is almost two grains. The dimensions of this bottle, are six cubic inches. Six cubic inches of air, therefore, at the temperature of this room, weighs nearly 2 grains.

_Caroline._ Why do you observe the temperature of the room, in estimating the weight of the air?

_Mrs. B._ Because heat rarefies air, and renders it lighter; therefore the warmer the air is, which you weigh, the lighter it will be.

If you should now be desirous of knowing the specific gravity of this air, we need only fill the same bottle, with water, and thus obtain the weight of an equal quantity of water--which you see is 1515 grs.; now by comparing the weight of water, to that of air, we find it to be in the proportion of about 800 to 1.

As you are acquainted with decimal arithmetic, you will understand what I mean, when I tell you, that water being called 1000, the specific gravity of air, will be 1.2.

I will show you another instance, of the weight of the atmosphere, which I think will please you: you know what a barometer is?

_Caroline._ It is an instrument which indicates the state of the weather, by means of a tube of quicksilver; but how, I cannot exactly say.

_Mrs. B._ It is by showing the weight of the atmosphere, which has great influence on the weather. The barometer, is an instrument extremely simple in its construction. In order that you may understand it, I will show you how it is made. I first fill with mercury, a glass tube A B, (fig. 3, plate 14.) about three feet in length, and open only at one end; then stopping the open end, with my finger, I immerse it in a cup C, containing a little mercury.

_Emily._ Part of the mercury which was in the tube, I observe, runs down into the cup; but why does not the whole of it subside, for it is contrary to the law of the equilibrium of fluids, that the mercury in the tube, should not descend to a level with that in the cup?

_Mrs. B._ The mercury that has fallen from the tube, into the cup, has left a vacant space in the upper part of the tube, to which the air cannot gain access; this space is therefore a perfect vacuum; the mercury in the tube, is relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere, whilst that in the cup, remains exposed to it.

_Caroline._ Oh, now I understand it; the pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup, forces it to rise in the tube, where there is not any air to counteract the external pressure.

_Emily._ Or rather supports the mercury in the tube, and prevents it from falling.

_Mrs. B._ That comes to the same thing; for the power that can support mercury in a vacuum, would also make it ascend, when it met with a vacuum.

Thus you see, that the equilibrium of the mercury is destroyed, only to preserve the general equilibrium of fluids.

_Caroline._ But this simple apparatus is, in appearance, very unlike a barometer.

_Mrs. B._ It is all that is essential to a barometer. The tube and the cup, or a cistern of mercury, are fixed on a board, for the convenience of suspending it; the brass plate on the upper part of the board, is graduated into inches, and tenths of inches, for the purpose of ascertaining the height at which the mercury stands in the tube; and the small moveable metal plate, serves to show that height, with greater accuracy.

_Emily._ And at what height, will the weight of the atmosphere sustain the mercury?

_Mrs. B._ About 28 or 29 inches, as you will see by this barometer; but it depends upon the weight of the atmosphere, which varies much, in different states of the weather. The greater the pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup, the higher it will ascend in the tube. Now can you tell me whether the air is heavier, in wet, or in dry weather?

_Caroline._ Without a moment's reflection, the air must be heaviest in wet weather. It is so depressing, and makes one feel so heavy, while in fine weather, I feel as light as a feather, and as brisk as a bee.

_Mrs. B._ Would it not have been better to have answered with a moment's reflection, Caroline? It would have convinced you, that the air must be heaviest in dry weather; for it is then, that the mercury is found to rise in the tube, and consequently, the mercury in the cup, must be most pressed by the air.

_Caroline._ Why then does the air feel so heavy, in bad weather?

_Mrs. B._ Because it is less salubrious, when impregnated with damp. The lungs, under these circumstances, do not play so freely, nor does the blood circulate so well; thus obstructions are frequently occasioned in the smaller vessels, from which arise colds, asthmas, agues, fevers, &c.

_Emily._ Since the atmosphere diminishes in density, in the upper regions, is not the air more rare, upon a hill, than in a plain; and does the barometer indicate this difference?

_Mrs. B._ Certainly. This instrument, is so exact in its indications, that it is used for the purpose of measuring the height of mountains, and of estimating the elevation of balloons; the mercury descending in the tube, as you ascend to a greater height.

_Emily._ And is no inconvenience experienced, from the thinness of the air, in such elevated situations?

_Mrs. B._ Oh, yes; frequently. It is sometimes oppressive, from being insufficient for respiration; and the expansion which takes place, in the more dense air contained within the body, is often painful: it occasions distention, and sometimes causes the bursting of the smaller blood-vessels, in the nose, and ears. Besides in such situations, you are more exposed, both to heat, and cold; for though the atmosphere is itself transparent, its lower regions, abound with vapours, and exhalations, from the earth, which float in it, and act in some degree as a covering, which preserves us equally from the intensity of the sun's rays, and from the severity of the cold.

_Caroline._ Pray, Mrs. B., is not the thermometer constructed on the same principles as the barometer?

_Mrs. B._ Not at all. The rise and fall of the fluid in the thermometer, is occasioned by the expansive power of heat, and the condensation produced by cold: the air has no access to it. An explanation of it would, therefore, be irrelevant to our present subject.

_Emily._ I have been reflecting, that since it is the weight of the atmosphere, which supports the mercury, in the tube of a barometer, it would support a column of any other fluid, in the same manner.

_Mrs. B._ Certainly; but as mercury, is heavier than all other fluids, it will support a higher column, of any other fluid; for two fluids are in equilibrium, when their height varies, inversely as their densities. We find the weight of the atmosphere, is equal to sustaining a column of water, for instance, of no less than 32 feet above its level.

_Caroline._ The weight of the atmosphere, is then, as great as that of a body of water of 32 feet in height.

_Mrs. B._ Precisely; for a column of air, of the height of the atmosphere, is equal to a column of water of about 32 feet, or one of mercury, of from 28 to 29 inches.

The common pump, is dependent on this principle. By the act of pumping, the pressure of the atmosphere is taken off the water, which, in consequence, rises.

The body of a pump, consists of a large tube or pipe, whose lower end is immersed in the water which it is designed to raise. A kind of stopper, called a piston, is fitted to this tube, and is made to slide up and down it, by means of a metallic rod, fastened to the centre of the piston.

_Emily._ Is it not similar to the syringe, or squirt, with which you first draw in, and then force out water?

_Mrs. B._ It is; but you know that we do not wish to force the water out of the pump, at the same end of the pipe, at which we draw it in. The intention of a pump, is to raise water from a spring, or well; the pipe is, therefore, placed perpendicularly over the water, which enters it at the lower extremity, and it issues at a horizontal spout, towards the upper part of the pump; to effect this, there are, besides the piston, two contrivances called valves. The pump, therefore, is rather a more complicated piece of machinery, than the syringe.

_Caroline._ Pray, Mrs. B., is not the leather, which covers the opening, in the lower board of a pair of bellows, a kind of valve?

_Mrs. B._ It is, valves are made in various forms; any contrivance, which allows a fluid to pass in one direction, and prevents its return, is called a valve; that of the bellows, and of the common pump, resemble each other, exactly. You can now, I think, understand the structure of the pump.

Its various parts, are delineated in this figure: (fig. 4. plate 14.) A B is the pipe, or body of the pump, P the piston, V a valve, or little door in the piston, which, opening upwards, admits the water to rise through it, but prevents its returning, and Y, is a similar valve, placed lower down in the body of the pump; H is the handle, which in this model, serves to work the piston.

When the pump is in a state of inaction, the two valves are closed by their own weight; but when, by working the handle of the pump, the piston ascends; it raises a column of air which rested upon it, and produces a vacuum, between the piston, and the lower valve Y; the air beneath this valve, which is immediately over the surface of the water, consequently expands, and forces its way through it; the water, then, relieved from the pressure of the air, ascends into the pump. A few strokes of the handle, totally excludes the air from the body of the pump, and fills it with water, which, having passed through both the valves, runs out at the spout.

_Caroline._ I understand this perfectly. When the piston is elevated, the air, and the water, successively rise in the pump, for the same reason as the mercury, rises in the barometer.

_Emily._ I thought that water was drawn up into a pump, by suction, in the same manner as water may be sucked through a straw.

_Mrs. B._ It is so, into the body of the pump; for the power of suction, is no other than that of producing a vacuum over one part of the liquid, into which vacuum the liquid is forced, by the pressure of the atmosphere, on another part. The action of sucking through a straw, consists in drawing in, and confining the breath, so as to produce a vacuum in the mouth; in consequence of which, the air within the straw, rushes into the mouth, and is followed by the liquid, into which, the lower end of the straw, is immersed. The principle, you see, is the same, and the only difference consists in the mode of producing a vacuum. In suction, the muscular powers answer the purpose of the piston and valve.

_Emily._ Water cannot, then, be raised by a pump, above 32 feet; for the pressure of the atmosphere will not sustain a column of water, above that height.

_Mrs. B._ I beg your pardon. It is true that there must never be so great a distance as 32 feet, from the level of the water in the well, to the valve in the piston, otherwise the water would not rise through that valve; but when once the water has passed that opening, it is no longer the pressure of air on the reservoir, which makes it ascend; it is raised by lifting it up, as you would raise it in a bucket, of which the piston formed the bottom. This common pump is, therefore, called the sucking, or lifting pump, as it is constructed on both these principles. The rod to which the piston is attached, must be made sufficiently long, to allow the piston to be within 32 feet of the surface of the water in the well, however deep it may be. There is another sort of pump, called the forcing pump: it consists of a forcing power, added to the sucking part of the pump. This additional power, is exactly on the principle of the syringe: by raising the piston, you draw the water into the pump, and by causing it to descend, you force the water out.

_Caroline._ But the water must be forced out at the upper part of the pump; and I cannot conceive how that can be done by the descent of the piston.

_Mrs. B._ Figure 5, plate 14, will explain the difficulty. The large pipe, A B, represents the sucking part of the pump, which differs from the lifting pump, only in its piston P, being unfurnished with a valve, in consequence of which the water cannot rise above it. When, therefore, the piston descends, it shuts the valve Y, and forces the water (which has no other vent) into the pipe D: this is likewise furnished with a valve V, which, opening upwards, admits the water to pass, but prevents its return.

The water, is thus first raised in the pump, and then forced into the pipe, by the alternate ascending, and descending motion of the piston, after a few strokes of the handle to fill the pipe, from whence the water issues at the spout.

_Emily._ Does not the air pump, which you used in the experiments, on pneumatics, operate upon the same principles as the sucking pump?

_Mrs. B._ Exactly. The air pump which I used (plate 1, fig. 2,) has two hollow, brass cylinders, called barrels, which are made perfectly true. In each of those barrels, there is a piston; these are worked up, and down, by the same handle; the pistons, are furnished with valves, opening upwards, like those of the common pump: there are valves also, placed at the lower part of each barrel, which open upwards; there are therefore two pumps, united to produce the same effect: two tubes, connect these barrels with the plate, upon which I placed the receivers, which were to be exhausted.

_Emily._ I now understand how the air pump acts; the receiver contains air, which is exhausted, just as it is by the common pump, before the water begins to rise.

_Mrs. B._ Having explained the mechanical properties of air, I think it is now time to conclude our lesson. When next we meet, I shall give you some account of wind, and of sound, which will terminate our observations on elastic fluids.

_Caroline._ And I shall run into the garden, to have the pleasure of pumping, now that I understand the construction of a pump.

_Mrs. B._ And, to-morrow, I hope you will be able to tell me, whether it is a forcing, or a common lifting pump.

Questions

1. (Pg. 136) Into what two kinds are fluids divided?

2. (Pg. 136) There are different kinds of elastic fluids, in what properties are they alike, and in what do they differ?

3. (Pg. 136) In what particular do elastic, differ from non-elastic, fluids?

4. (Pg. 136) What is meant by the elasticity of air?

5. (Pg. 137) What is said respecting the weight of the atmosphere?

6. (Pg. 137) Why do we not feel the pressure of the air?

7. (Pg. 137) What would be the effect of relieving us from atmospheric pressure?

8. (Pg. 138) How may the weight of the air be shown by the aid of the air pump, and a piece of bladder?

9. (Pg. 138) How is this explained?

10. (Pg. 138) How may its elasticity be exhibited, by an apple, and by a bladder?

11. (Pg. 139) What is the absolute weight of a given column of atmospheric air, and how could its whole pressure upon the earth be ascertained?

12. (Pg. 139) How can the weight of a small bulk of air be found?

13. (Pg. 140) In ascertaining the weight of air, we take account of its temperature--Why?

14. (Pg. 140) How could you ascertain the specific gravity of air, and what would it be?

15. (Pg. 140) What are the essential parts of a barometer, as represented plate 14, fig. 3?

16. (Pg. 141) What sustains the mercury in the tube?

17. (Pg. 141) Of what use are the divisions in the upper part of the instrument?

18. (Pg. 141) To what height will the mercury rise, and what occasions this height to vary?

19. (Pg. 141) When is the mercury highest, in wet, or in dry weather?

20. (Pg. 141) What occasions the sensation of oppression, in damp weather?

21. (Pg. 142) Why will the barometer indicate the height of mountains, or of balloons?

22. (Pg. 142) Is any inconvenience experienced by persons ascending to great heights, and from what cause?

23. (Pg. 142) What occasions the rise and fall of the mercury, in a thermometer?

24. (Pg. 142) To what height will the pressure of the atmosphere raise a column of water?

25. (Pg. 142) What governs the difference between the height of the mercury, and of the water?

26. (Pg. 143) How does the common pump, raise water from a well?

27. (Pg. 143) What is meant by a piston?

28. (Pg. 143) Describe the construction, and use, of a valve.

29. (Pg. 143) What are the parts of the pump, as represented, fig. 4, plate 14.?

30. (Pg. 144) How do these parts act, in raising the water?

31. (Pg. 144) In what does that which is commonly called suction, consist?

32. (Pg. 144) How must the piston be situated in the pump?

33. (Pg. 144) What other kind of pump is described?

34. (Pg. 145) How is the forcing pump constructed, as shown in plate 14, fig. 5?

35. (Pg. 145) Describe the construction and operation of the air pump, (fig. 2, plate 1.)

CONVERSATION XIII.

ON WIND AND SOUND.

OF WIND IN GENERAL. OF THE TRADE-WIND. OF THE PERIODICAL TRADE-WINDS. OF THE AERIAL TIDES. OF SOUNDS IN GENERAL. OF SONOROUS BODIES. OF MUSICAL SOUNDS. OF CONCORD OR HARMONY, AND MELODY.

MRS. B.

Well, Caroline, have you ascertained what kind of pump you have in your garden?

_Caroline._ I think it must be merely a lifting pump, because no more force is required to raise the handle than is necessary to lift its weight; and as in a forcing pump, by raising the handle, you force the water into the smaller pipe, the resistance the water offers, must require an exertion of strength, to overcome it.

_Mrs. B._ I make no doubt you are right; for lifting pumps, being simple in their construction, are by far the most common.

I have promised to-day to give you some account of the nature of wind. Wind is nothing more than the motion of a stream, or current of air, generally produced by a partial change of temperature in the atmosphere; for when any one part is more heated than the rest, that part is rarefied, the air in consequence rises, and the equilibrium is destroyed. When this happens, there necessarily follows a motion of the surrounding air towards that part, in order to restore it; this spot, therefore, receives winds from every quarter. Those who live to the north of it, experience a north wind; those to the south, a south wind:--do you comprehend this?

_Caroline._ Perfectly. But what sort of weather must those people have, who live on the spot, where these winds meet and interfere?

_Mrs. B._ They have most commonly turbulent and boisterous weather, whirlwinds, hurricanes, rain, lightning, thunder, &c. This stormy weather occurs most frequently in the torrid zone, where the heat is greatest: the air being more rarefied there, than in any other part of the globe, is lighter, and consequently, ascends; whilst the air from the north and south, is continually flowing in, to restore the equilibrium.

_Caroline._ This motion of the air, would produce a regular and constant north wind, to the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere; and a south wind, to those of the southern hemisphere, and continual storms at the equator, where these two adverse winds would meet.

_Mrs. B._ These winds do not meet, for they each change their direction before they reach the equator. The sun, in moving over the equatorial regions from east to west, rarefies the air as it passes, and causes the denser eastern air to flow westwards, in order to restore the equilibrium, thus producing a regular east wind, about the equator.

_Caroline._ The air from the west, then, constantly goes to meet the sun, and repair the disturbance which his beams have produced in the equilibrium of the atmosphere. But I wonder how you will reconcile these various winds, Mrs. B.; you first led me to suppose there was a constant struggle between opposite winds at the equator, producing storm and tempest; but now I hear of one regular invariable wind, which must naturally be attended by calm weather.

_Emily._ I think I comprehend it: do not these winds from the north and south, combine with the easterly wind about the equator, and form, what are called, the trade-winds?