Part II., Vol. II., of the “Aide Memoire to the military

sciences:”--“Erroneous ideas prevail as to the precise wants of the service with regard to the musket, and its proper qualities and utility in the field, as well as much exaggeration as to the defects of the new percussion musket of 1842, for the infantry of the line. It is stated that it is too heavy and of imperfect construction. Some prefer the French pattern, and others would lessen the weight and calibre still more, reducing also the windage: as, however, the new regulation has brought into use some hundreds of thousands of new muskets, and has been approved by the highest authorities, some considerations are necessary before a radical change can be effected beyond range and a nice accuracy of fire. 1st, What are the essentials for a musket for the infantry of the line? 2nd, The application of the musket to the infantry soldier. It is evident that the most essential points are strength, and facility of pouring into your enemies’ ranks a powerful fire. Troops do not halt to play at long bowls; a field of battle presents a series of movements for the purpose of outflanking or closing in upon your enemy, and when within two hundred yards, to deliver your fire with effect. Firing at 500 or 600 yards is the business of artillery, and, therefore, to fire at 300 or 400 yards is a misapplication of the musket, a loss of time, a waste of ammunition, and tends to make men unsteady in the ranks.”

~Brown Bess tried at Chatham.~

~Merits of “Brown Bess” illustrated.~

The shooting powers of the musket (1842) are stated in the report on Experimental Musketry firing carried on by Captain (now Lieut.-Colonel) McKerlie, Royal Engineers, at Chatham, in 1846, which concludes as follows: “It appears by these experiments, that as a general rule, musketry fire should never be opened beyond 150 yards, and certainly not exceeding 200 yards. At this distance, half the number of shots missed a target 11-ft. 6-in., and at 150 yards a very large proportion also missed. At 75 and 100 yards every shot struck the target, only 2-ft. wide, and had the deviation increased simply as the distance every shot ought to have struck the target 6-ft. wide at 200 yards, instead of this, however, some were observed to pass several yards to the right and left, some to fall 30 yards short, and others to pass as much beyond, and this deviation increased in a still greater degree as the range increased. It is only then under peculiar circumstances, such as when it may be desirable to bring a fire on Field Artillery when there are no other means of replying to it, that it ought ever to be thought of using the musket at such distances as 400 yards.” In fact, it has been stated that the probability of hitting one man with a musket ball at 500 yards would be as one farthing to the National Debt! On a recent occasion, at the Cape, 80,000 rounds were fired to kill 25 men!! To put a man “_hors de combat_” requires his weight in lead, and six times his weight in iron!!!

~Price.~

~Fastened by bands.~

~Bands unsightly!!~

~Supposed profit of large bore.~

Our musket cost £3, the French and Belgian £1 8s. 6¹⁄₂d. In foreign arms the barrel is fastened to the stock by bands, binding the two together, and thus adding greatly to their strength. This mode, although acknowledged to be infinitely superior for military purposes, by our Inspector of small arms, was condemned as unsightly!! The French musket, although three inches longer, is beautifully poised, being lightened forward. Our bore being larger was considered an advantage, as their balls could be fired out of our barrels, while our balls could not out of their muskets. It was generally thought that the greater weight of the English ball produced an increased range and momentum, but this was counteracted by the excess of windage.

* * * * *

~Various forms of early fire-arms.~

In former days small arms were made of various shapes and devices, and also combined with other weapons of attack and defence.

There is in the arsenal at Venice a matchlock containing twenty barrels, ten gun barrels, about 2¹⁄₂ feet long, and ten pistol barrels half that length. The match exploded a gun and pistol barrel together.

The Chinese of the present day make use of a species of matchlock revolvers, and also of another matchlock, consisting of several barrels, placed on a common stock, diverging from each other, and fired simultaneously. (Plate 4, fig. 4 and 5.)

~Shield fire-arms.~

~Breech-loaders.~

Soon after the invention of fire-arms, the boss, or spike, issuing from the centre of the targets or shields, was superseded by one or more short barrels, fired by a matchlock, and having an aperture covered with a grating above, for the purpose of taking aim. These barrels were loaded at the breech, the charge being put into an iron tube, or short barrel, which was pushed in at the end, and retained there by shutting down a lid or spring.

~Cross-bow and pistol united.~

There were cross-bows, which combined a pistol and cross-bow, the wheel-lock being placed about the centre of the handle on one side, whilst on the other was the string of the bow, and the windlass for drawing it up.

~Pike and pistol.~

Pistols were frequently introduced into the butt-end of pikes, and also, in the reign of Edward VI., in the handle of the battle-axe, the spiked club, the martlet, and other weapons, even the dagger.

~Carabines with joint.~

~Heel plate to draw out.~

In the time of Charles I. there were esclopette carbines, made with the butt to double back on a hinge, in order to get them into a holster; and a little later the butt was lengthened by drawing out the steel cap which formed its cover, now called heel plate.

~Revolvers in Charles I.~

~Double-barrelled pistols.~

In the reign of Charles I. there were also revolvers, with eight chambers to hold the charges; and in the time of Cromwell and Charles II. we find self-loading and self-priming guns. Pistols were made both double-barrelled and revolving.

~Arrows fired out of muskets, 1591.~

In Sir Richard Hawkins’ account of his voyage in the South Sea, 1591, mention is made of his shooting arrows from muskets with great success at shipping: “for the upper works of their ships being musket proof, they passed through both sides with facilitie, and wrought extraordinary disasters, which caused admiration to see themselves wounded with small shot when they thought themselves secure.” These wooden arrows were called sprites or sprightes. Lord Verulam says, “it is certain that we had in use at one time for sea fight short arrows which they call sprights, without any other head save wood sharpened, which were discharged out of muskets, and would pierce through the sides of ships, when a bullet would not pierce.”

~Sprites required wads.~

Sir Richard Hawkins informs us, that in a discourse which he held with the Spanish General, Michael Angell, the latter demanded, “for what purpose served the little short arrowes which we had in our shippe, and those in great quantity. I satisfied him that they were for our muskets. Hereof they prooved to profit themselves after; but for that they wanted the tampkins, which are first to be driven home, before the arrow be put in, and as they understood not the secret, they rejected them as uncertaine, and therefore not to be used; but of all the shot used now adayes, for the annoying of an ennemie in fight by sea, few are of greater moment for many respects, which I hold not convenient to treat of in public.”

Thus it appears that bullets of metal, have been fired out of bows and slings, stone balls out of guns, and arrows from muskets.

The following are the names of different descriptions of small arms, viz:--

Hand-cannon Hand-gun Arquebus Caliver Petronel Scorpion Dragon Musketoon Hague Demi-hague Esclopette Currier Fusil Hand-mortar Blunderbuss Musket Pistol Dag Tack

THE BAYONET.

~Pointed stake.~

It was common with archers to place a long pointed stake in the ground to protect themselves against cavalry. On the arquebus replacing the bow the same practice was continued.

~Pike.~

From the earliest ages it had been customary to arm some of the infantry with pikes, and in the middle ages when cavalry was so much employed in armies, it was found impossible to dispense with this weapon; for some time after the introduction of fire-arms, only a portion of the infantry were armed with them, and the remainder were pikemen. The proportion of each varied at different times, from one half to two thirds, but as the proportion of musketeers increased it became necessary to contrive some method, by which they could defend themselves.

~_Marlets-de-fer_ with touch.~

~Rest, with touch.~

~Swines’ feathers.~

In the latter part of the reign of James I., some attempts were made to convert the musketeer’s rest into a defence against cavalry. _Marlets-de-fer_ and small pole-axes had a touch enclosed in them, which by touching a spring opened a small valve and sprung out. The musket rest, instead of having a wooden shaft, was now made of a thin tube of iron, like these pole-axes covered with leather, and armed with the touch. Rests thus armed were said to contain Swedish or Swines’ feathers. It was found however that the musketeer could not do his duty when armed with musket, sword, and rest, (especially if he had a Swedish feather to manage with them) which led to the abandonment of the rest during the Protectorate.

~Sword stuck in muzzle.~

~Bayonets in France, 1671.~

To remedy the inconvenience of a Musketeer being compelled to draw his sword and defend himself after the discharge of his piece, and to render him more competent to act against the pikemen, a long thin rapier blade fixed into a handle, and carried in a sheath called a Swine’s feather, was drawn out of its scabbard, and fixed into the muzzle of his gun, which gave him a weapon of great length. (Plate 19, fig. 11.). And this dagger or sword, stuck into the muzzle of the gun, gave origin to the bayonet, which was first made at Bayonne, and introduced into the French army in 1671.

~Swords discontinued, 1745.~

~Improved bayonet.~

~Bayonet in Flanders, William III.~

~Bayonet at Killicrankie.~

Swords in general were left off in the battalion companies ever since the year 1745, and about 1762 by the grenadiers. As a still further improvement the bayonet was made to fit on to the side of the barrel, so as to leave it clear. An early application of the improved bayonet took place in the campaigns of William III., in Flanders. Three French regiments thus armed, marched with fixed bayonets, and one of them against the 25th regiment. Lieut-Colonel Maxwell ordered his men to screw their bayonets into their muzzles to receive them; but to his great surprise when they came within the proper distance, the French threw in such a heavy fire, as for the moment to stagger his people, who by no means expected such a greeting, not conscious how it was possible to fire with fixed bayonets. Macaulay in the 3rd volume of his History, states “That at the battle of Killicrankie, the King’s army being drawn up in position, the Highlanders advanced to the attack, and immediately after having delivered their fire, threw away their muskets and rushed on to the charge with Claymores. It took the regular musketeer two or three minutes to alter his missile weapon into one with which he could encounter an enemy hand to hand, and during this time the battle of Killicrankie had been decided.” Mackay therefore ordered all his bayonets to be so made that they might be screwed upon the barrel.

~Bayonets, Marsaglia, 1693, and Spiers, 1703.~

~Pike abolished, 1703.~

~Earl Orrery in favour of pike versus musket, 1677.~

Bayonets were employed by Marshal Catinat at the battle of Marsaglia, when the slaughter was immense. Also at the battle of Spiers, in 1703. Thus improved, the bayonet came into general use, and the pike was abolished in France by Royal Ordinance 1703, with the advice of Marshal Vauban. Before the introduction of the improved bayonet, Lord Orrery, in 1677, thus speaks in favour of the pike:--“But what need I more say of the usefulness of the pike above the musket, than that all persons of quality carry the pike which they would not do unless it had adjudgedly the honour to be the noblest weapon, since the bravest choose and fight with it. I wish our companies consisted of fewer shots and more pikes, for they are not only always in readiness but need no ammunition, which cannot be said of the musket which requires powder, bullet, and match, and in wet or windy weather often disappoints the service.”

~M. Mallet, pike versus musket, 1684.~

Mons. Mallet in his “Travaux de Mars,” speaks lightly of the “mousquetaires,” without pikemen; he says, “A horse wounded by a fire-arm is only more animated, but when he finds himself pierced by a pike, all the spurs in the world will not make him advance.”

~Gen. Loyd, pike versus bayonet, 1766.~

~Pike recently discontinued.~

Even so recently as about ninety-two years ago, and ninety-five years after the introduction of the improved bayonet, General Loyd in his history of the war in Germany, recommends the abandonment of the system of arming the whole of the infantry with fire-arms, “which he says are useful only in _defensive_ warfare, and even then not more than one shot in four hundred takes effect.” For many years after pikes were discontinued by our infantry, the officers carried a short one, and the sergeants only gave up their halberts within the last thirty years. The soldiers of artillery when in Holland under the late Duke of York, carried short pikes for the defence of their field guns.

ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.

~Armament of infantry soldier.~

~Bandolier.~

~Bandolier abandoned in France, 1684.~

~Flask resumed.~

~Patrons.~

~Cartridges.~

Besides his matchlock, the soldier carried a powder horn or flask, a ball bag, slow match, a rest, and a sword. The two last changed for a bayonet. In order to accelerate the loading, a large leather belt, called bandolier, was worn over the shoulder. To this were hung twelve wooden cases, each of which contained one charge, with a case of finer powder for priming, and at the lower end a bag for balls. This system was soon found to be inconvenient, as the cases were apt to get entangled in passing through woods, &c. It was therefore abandoned in France in 1684, and the flask resumed. Sir James Turner, speaking of the pistol, says, “All horsemen should always have the charges of their pistols ready in patrons, the powder made up compactly in paper, and the ball tied to it with a piece of pack thread.” In this description we have evidently the cartridge, though not expressed by name. It is a curious fact that these were first confined to the cavalry, and that the general adoption of the cartridge was not earlier than the common use of the modern firelock. The Patron was an upright semi-cylindrical box of steel, with a cover moving on a hinge, filled with a block of wood with five perforations, to hold as many pistol cartridges.

~Earl of Orrery in favour of pouches.~

The Earl of Orrery, in 1677, writes, “I am, on long experience, an enemy to bandoliers, but a great approver of boxes of cartridges for them, as by biting off the bottom of the cartridge, you charge your musket for service with one ramming. I would have these boxes of tin, because they are not so apt to break as the wooden ones are, and do not, in wet weather, or lying in the tents, relax. Besides, I have often seen much prejudice in the use of bandoliers, which are often apt to take fire. They commonly wound, and often kill he that wears them, and those near him, for likely if one take fire, all the rest do in that collar. They often tangle when they have fired, and are falling off by the flanks of the files of the intervals to get into the rear to load again. Their rattling in the night often discovers the designs; and if the weather be windy, their rattling also often hinders the soldier from hearing, and, consequently, obeying the word of command. Whereas the cartridge boxes exempt those who use them from all these dangers and prejudices. They enable the soldier to fire more expeditiously. They are also usually worn about the waist of the soldier, the skirts of whose doublet and whose coat doubly defend them from all rain, that does not pierce both, and being worn close to his body, the heat thereof keeps the powder dryer. Besides all this, whoever loads his musket with cartridges, is sure the bullet will not drop out, though he takes his aim under breast high; whereas those soldiers on service who take the bullets out of their mouths, which is the nimblest way, or out of their pouches, seldom put any paper, tow, or grass, to ram the bullet in, whereby if they fire above breast high the bullet passes over the head of the enemy, and if they aim low the bullet drops out, ere the musket is fired, and it is to this that I attribute the little execution I have seen musketeers do in time of fight, though they fired at great battalions, and those also reasonably near.”

The preceding article on Portable Fire-Arms is principally compiled from “Military Antiquities,” by Francis Grose; “Ancient Armour and Weapons of War,” by John Hewitt; “Engraved Illustrations of Ancient Armour,” by Joseph Skelton, F.S.A.; “A Critical Enquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Sir R. S. Meyrick, Knt.; and “Deane’s Manual of Fire-arms.”

HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.

~Invention of the rifle.~

We shall now direct our attention to the rifle,--its invention is ascribed to Gaspard Zollner, of Vienna, towards the end of the fifteenth century.

~1466.~

The first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at Bâle, in Switzerland.

~Rifles at Leipsic, 1498.~

In the practice of firing at a mark, at Leipsic, 1498, the greater part of the Sharpshooters or Marksmen, were armed with the Rifles.

~Rifles used first for amusement.~

At first, Rifle arms were used only for amusement, and sometimes for the defence of places, but very rarely as weapons of war in the field.

~Rifles used in war.~

Their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the middle of the seventeenth century.

~Landgrave of Hesse, 1631.~

In 1631, the Landgrave William of Hesse had three companies of Chasseurs, armed with rifles.

~Elector Maximilian, 1645.~

In 1645, the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria formed three regiments of Chasseurs, armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in the minor operations of war.

~Frederick William of Prussia, 1674.~

In 1647, Frederick William of Prussia, in his campaign on the Rhine, distributed in each company of infantry, some light infantry and Riflemen.

~Frederick the Great in Seven Years’ War.~

~By Austrians ditto.~

Frederick the Great, in order to counterbalance the Austrian Light Troops, more particularly the Tyrolese Marksmen, whose fire was exceedingly deadly, felt obliged during the seven years’ war to add a company of trained light infantry to the effective strength of each battalion.

~Rifles in France, 1674.~

In France the Cavalry were supplied with rifles before the Infantry. Towards 1674 Louis XIV. created some squadrons of Cavalry armed with “Carabines rayées.” The name was given in France to all arms which were grooved, and it also served for the name of the corps which were first armed with them, viz., “Carabins.”

~Rifles in English Life Guards.~

In 1680 eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of English Life Guards.

~Rifles in Sweden, 1691.~

In 1691 the Non-Commissioned Officers of the Swedish Dragoons received the rifled carabin, and in 1700 those of the Prussian Cavalry received the same rifled arms.

~Experiments in England, 1776.~

Experiments were tried with rifled small arms in England in the year 1776.

We read in the Scots’ Magazine, vol. 36, that “the Guards are every day practising the use of the Rifle Gun in Hyde Park. On Saturday, April 27th, 1776, their Majesties attended a Review of the Rifle-men yesterday, and were much pleased with the dexterity of the officer, who loaded and fired several times in a minute, and hit the mark each time. He lies upon his back when he discharges his piece.”

~Rifles in Austria, 1778.~

Austria kept 2000 Sharpshooters, having double carbines, which were supplied with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting. Only one of the barrels was rifled.

~Rifles in French infantry, 1793.~

In 1793 the first model carbine for French Infantry was made at Versailles; at the same time the model for Cavalry was also fixed. Rifles were soon abandoned in the French Army; they deemed them of more trouble than profit.

~Rifles, English, 1794.~

In 1794 the English adopted the Rifle, which, I fancy, was first used by a Battalion of the 60th, or Royal American Regiment.

~Rifles numerous in Austria, 1796.~

In 1796 there were in the Austrian Army 15 Battalions of Light Infantry, the greater part of whom were armed with Rifles.

~Rifles for the 95th regt., 1800.~

In 1800, Rifles were placed in the hands of the 95th Regiment, now the Rifle Brigade of four Battalions. These Rifles weighed about 10¹⁄₂lbs. each, with the sword. They were sighted for 100 and 200 yards, with seven grooves, having a quarter turn in the length of the barrel, which was about 2 feet 6 inches, the length of the Rifle 3 feet 10 inches, weight of sword 1lb., diameter of bore ·623. The locks were excellent, and had a detent, to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock, and it had a bolt, to prevent its going off at half cock. The ball was spherical, and driven in with a mallet, which was afterwards dispensed with, and a greased patch substituted.

~Rifle ball in two sizes.~

~Range of English rifle.~

During the Peninsular War, our Riflemen were supplied with balls of two sizes, the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of loading was required. Baker, who made these Rifles, says in his Work, 1825, “I have found 200 yards the greatest range I could fire to any certainty. At 300 yards I have fired very well at times, when the wind has been calm. At 400 yards, and at 500 yards, I have frequently fired, and have sometimes struck the object, though I have found it to vary much.”

~Rifles in 7th and 10th Dragoons.~

Colonel Dickson, R.A., says, “In the early part of the present century, there was also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry. The barrel 20 inches, calibre 20 bore, grooves 7, having the same pitch as those for the infantry; the 7th and 10th light cavalry were the only regiments armed with them, but they were soon discontinued from being considered as unfit for cavalry service.”

~Brunswick rifle.~

The Brunswick rifle was introduced in 1836. Weight with bayonet 11lbs. 5oz., length of barrel 2ft. 6-in., bore ·704. Two deep spiral grooves with one turn in the length of the barrel. Sighted for 100, 200, and 300 yards. Bullet spherical and belted, diameter ·696. Weight of bullet 557 grains. The shooting of this arm was superior to our first rifle, although the loading was not so easy as was desired, and a great disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the soldier’s pouch, the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the ordinary rifle, the projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the grooves, the ball was wrapped in a linen patch dipped in grease. It was found that, although the rifle loaded easily at first, after constant firing the barrel became very foul, rendering loading nearly as difficult as under the old system of the indented ball. The belt on the ball caused considerable friction while passing through the air. (Plate 20, fig. 1).

~Merits of the Brunswick rifle.~

By a committee of officers assembled at Enfield, it was determined that all firing with the Brunswick beyond 400 yards was too wild to give a correct angle of elevation. It was tested at Antwerp in 1844, in an experiment extending to 44,000 rounds, and declared to be the worst tried.

~Improvements from France.~

From France chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in fire-arms.

~French at discount without rifles.~

~Captain Delvigne’s first step to restore rifles in France.~

~The French desired to be on an equality with Arabs.~

~Expansion by chamber.~

~Defects of chambered rifle.~

~Poncharra Delvigne rifle 1833.~

The original French rifle (like our own) was loaded by force with a strong ramrod and mallet, and they found that it gave precision with diminution of range. For these reasons during the early campaigns of the French Revolution, the rifle was given up in the French army; but as their Chasseurs were found to be unequally matched against those of other armies, who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen, a series of experiments were carried on at different times, with a view to its reintroduction into their service. No satisfactory result was obtained until the occupation of Algeria, when Mons. Delvigne, of the Guarde Royale, took the first step in its restoration. In the flying wars kept up against them by Abd-el-Kader, they found that masses of their men were struck by Arab balls at distances where the French muskets were apparently powerless, and this they afterwards found arose from the long matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than was ever thought of by European troops. In order to put themselves on an equality with their enemies, Mons. Delvigne showed in 1828 how the rifle bullet could be made to enter the piece easily, and quit it in a forced state; a method of loading as easy and simple as that of a smooth-bore arm. Expansion was obtained by the introduction of a chamber in the bore, which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet, and on its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the grooves. (Plate 20, fig. 2). The objection to the chambered rifle, was that after frequently firing, a residuum collected which eventually left the powder less room in the chamber, and of necessity it then reached above the shoulder of the latter, so that the ball resting upon the powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber, was not so readily dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves. To remedy this defect the wooden sabot and greased patch (plate 20, fig. 3) were suggested by Colonel Poncharra, in 1833, introduced into the French army 1839, and employed in Algeria, 1840, but several inconveniences attended its use.

~Carabine à Tige, 1842.~

~Defects of Tige.~

~Tige introduced, 1846.~

Colonel Thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing at the bottom of the bore an iron shank, around which was placed the powder. This stem, (plate 20, fig. 4) stopping the bullet, allowed it to be struck in such a manner as to cause the lead to penetrate into the grooves. There is much fouling at the breech, and around the pillar of these rifles. They are difficult to clean, the soldier having to carry an instrument for this purpose. The Chasseurs and Zouaves of the African Army were armed with the tige in 1846.

At first a spherical ball had been used, and then a solid cylindro-conical bullet was resorted to; (Plate 20, fig. 6.) Messrs. Delvigne and Minié having long previously experimented with hollow cylindro-conical projectiles.

~Minié iron cup.~

~French army 1850.~

Some years after these experiments, Captain Minié proposed the adoption of a bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in the hollow of the base, which should be driven up by the gas, and force the walls of the cavity outwards, thus making them enter the grooves. (Plate 20, fig. 7.) In 1850 the Fusil rayé with balle à culot was put into the hands of some French regiments of the line, and since then the French Imperial Guard have been armed with the old musket rifled, and a hollow bullet without a cup.

At present it is understood that the French are rifling all their smooth bore arms, and the Russians are doing the same.

~Prussian. army.~

~Russian riflemen.~

~Austrian riflemen.~

~Belgium.~

~Portugal.~

The Prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a breech-loading long range Rifle. The Russian Army is to have fifty-four rifle regiments, with a rifle company to each other regiment of Infantry. The Austrians are busy at work, according to their means. The Tyrol has always supplied them with a large number of marksmen. The Belgians are, I believe, universally armed with rifles, and even the little Kingdom of Portugal has ordered 28,000 rifles from Belgium.

~Conoidal bullet, with Brunswick.~

~Minié rifle, introduced, 1851.~

~Performance and angle of Minié.~

Subsequent to the French experiments with the conoidal bullet, and the great results obtained over the spherical from it, it was proposed to adapt a conoidal bullet to the Brunswick Rifle. (Plate 20, fig 5.) This was done as an experiment, and succeeded very well, but at the same time the new arm, called the Minié pattern, 1851, was also tried, and the shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm. Nothing further was done with the Brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet; and the (then called) “new regulation Minié,” was introduced into the service by the late Marquis of Anglesea, Master-General of Ordnance, with the approval of the late Duke of Wellington. Its weight with bayonet, was 10lbs. 8³⁄₄ozs., bore ·702, four spiral grooves, with one turn in 6 feet 6-in., powder, 2¹⁄₂ drs., bullet, 680 grs., with iron cup, diameter of bullet, ·690, windage, ·012. When the axis is parallel to the ground at 4 feet 6-in. above it, the first graze is about 177 yards, and the angle of elevation at 800 yards, is 3° 25.

~Consequences of improvements in military rifles.~

A few years previous to the Russian war, rifles had attained to a degree of improvement in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of war, which threatened subversion to the established notions of the military world.

~Probable effect on artillery.~

~On cavalry.~

~Minié in Kaffir war.~

~Bullet improved.~

The artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and precision, with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it; one which not alone would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to within the “shortest range,” but also impress a more than wonted respect upon the best led and most daring cavalry, for even the thinnest formation of that arm, which it had hitherto been taught to despise. The Minié was first used in the Kaffir war, and next at Alma and Inkerman, when it proved that the gallant Marquis had advanced a step in the right direction; who had ordered 28,000, but quarrels taking place among the contractors this order was never completed. The accuracy of firing from the Minié was improved by altering the form of the bullet from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, (plate 20, fig. 8.) and the iron cup from hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex.

~Lord Hardinge’s desire for improvement.~

~Experiments at Enfield.~

Lord Hardinge, succeeding to the post of Master-General, and after to that of Commander-in-Chief, zealously followed out the prosecution of the now becoming fixed idea, the general adoption for British infantry, of a pattern rifle-musket, which should combine lightness with solidity, precision, and superior range. Lord Hardinge opened competition to the leading British gun makers, when the following sent in muskets for trial, viz:--Purdy, Westley Richards, Lancaster, Wilkinson, and Greener. The Minié pattern, (51), and Brunswick, (36), were also subjected to a course of trial before the committee assembled at Enfield, in 1852, for the purpose of determining the best description of fire-arm for military service.

~Merits of the Brunswick.~

The Brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of range to every arm hitherto tried. The loading was so difficult, that it is wonderful how the rifle regiments can have continued to use it so long, the force required to ram down the ball was so great as to render a man’s hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting. Colonel Gordon, says, “It should be noticed here with the exception of Mr. Wilkinson, every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during the trials, thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time originally intended.”

~All had reduced bores.~

~Elongated bullets.~

~Reversed cartridge.~

~Best shooting from short rifle.~

~Advantage of small bore.~

~Disadvantages of small bore.~

The diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that hitherto in use, all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for expansion, being metallic, or in one case a horn plug, one pattern had cannelures and the whole required the cartridge to be reversed in loading. It is worthy of remark that the best shooting at these trials was from a short rifle made at Enfield, which was named the artillery carbine, but not the one now used by the Royal Artillery. The barrel was only 2 feet 6-in. long, and the projectile cylindro-conoidal, with an iron cup weighing 620 grains; thus proving that great length of barrel is not absolutely necessary in a rifle; but a certain length of barrel is required to fire in double ranks, and so that the weapon may be effectually used as a pike. With a small bore, a greater number of rounds of ammunition may be carried, greater penetration, velocity, lower trajectory, and more accuracy, than with larger projectiles of equal weight. The alleged disadvantages of small bore are, the slender form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man’s body, as stated to be proved in the case of wild animals, in proof of which it is said that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball, than they do with a large one; but this reasoning does not seem applicable to the human race, for it is presumed that few men would be found willing to move far when wounded by a musket ball, whether the hole in their body was ·702 or ·530 of an inch in diameter.

~Objection to reversing the cartridge.~

An absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge, viz:--that drill with blank would be performed in a different manner to firing ball, and that in action the soldier would forget to reverse his cartridge, and put in the ball first. As we now always perform our drill, and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or will not ignite, this objection is removed. It also was said that mice, rats, &c., &c., would eat off the lubricating mixture!!

It was proposed to give the Enfield, (1853,) a back sight to 900 yards, when an outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to every common soldier a delicately made back sight, whether he knew how to use it or not!!! and those rifles first issued, were only sighted to 300 yards.

~The Enfield rifle.~

At the conclusion of the trials at Enfield, in August, 1852, two rifles were made at the Royal Manufactory, in which were embodied the improvements and alterations suggested by the experience obtained during the course of the trials, and which was hoped would possess the necessary requirements for a military weapon, and which proved superior to the Minié, the Brunswick, and all those presented for trial by the different manufacturers.

~Dimensions, &c., of Enfield.~

This beautiful rifle though 2¹⁄₂lbs. less than the old musket, is fully as strong, and as capable of rough usage. Weight, including bayonet, 9lbs. 3 ozs., bore, ·577, length of barrel, 3 feet 3-in., weight of barrel, 4lbs. 6 ozs., three grooves with spiral of one turn in 6 feet 6-in.; the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands. The bayonet to be fixed by means of a locking ring. The lock to have a swivel. The bullet was of a pattern suggested by Mr. Pritchett. (Plate 20, fig. 9.)

~Attempts to improve the bullet.~

~Description of Pritchett.~

Lord Hardinge, desirous to improve the projectile, and if possible to get rid of the cup, having requested the leading gun makers to lay any suggestions before the small arms committee, none were submitted but one by Mr. Wilkinson, which was not a compound. It was solid with two deep cannelures, but it lost its accuracy when made up into a cartridge, and made very wild practice beyond 300 yards. (Plate 20, fig. 10.) Subsequently a bullet was proposed by Mr. Pritchett, being cylindro-conoidal in form, with a small hollow at the base, which was made more to throw the centre of gravity forward than to obtain expansion thereby. This bullet weighed 520 grains, or 24 guage, and excellent practice was made with it at Enfield, from 100, to 800 yards, and it was accordingly introduced into the service, to the suppression of the Minié, with iron cup; and for which Mr. Pritchett, received £1,000.

~Lancaster smooth _bore_ rifles.~

Shortly after the establishment of the School of Musketry, in June, 1853, twenty Enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with the Minié, and also with “Lancaster’s smooth bore eliptical rifle, with increasing spiral and freed at the breech,” when the Enfield was found to be superior to both. It is stated that Mr. Lancaster’s invention is intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the rifle ridges, by the ramrod, &c.; these rifles are also easily cleaned, the difference in width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse was, ¹⁄₁₀₀ of an inch.

~Engineer Carbine.~

Carbines on this principle are now carried by the Royal Engineers, and shoot well, and by some persons are thought to be superior to the Enfield, 1853; they fire the same ammunition, and there is no question but that their firing is much more accurate from using the improved wooden plug bullet.

~Failure of the Pritchett.~

In May, 1855, the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory state and unfit to be used, there being bullets of various diameters in many of the packages of the cartridges. The correct size of the Pritchett bullet viz., ·568, was found to produce accurate shooting, at 600 yards, while bullets of a smaller diameter fired very badly.

~Return to iron cup.~

To get out of this difficulty, Colonel Hay recommended the application of the iron cup to the bullet, which was approved, when more uniform expansion resulted and greater accuracy.

Thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover any trifling inaccuracy in manufacture, in diameter of either bullet or bore.

~Woolwich account for bad _ammunition_.~

The Woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making bullets, and which were made small at first as they gradually wore larger; when any one die became too large it was destroyed, and replaced by a smaller one. To this cause they imputed the failure of our Pritchett ammunition. It was afterwards suggested from the School of Musketry, to procure expansion by using a wooden plug, and after most extensive experiments, this was found to be superior to any description of bullet yet tried at Hythe, and the wooden plug has accordingly been established for the British army. (Plate 20, fig. 11.)

~On expansion.~

Uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a sufficient and uniform expansion into the grooves, so that the projectiles get such an amount of rotation as shall last until they have reached the object fired at. The more perfect the expansion, the less the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is further increased.

The Enfield has frequently been fired to 200 rounds and the loading continued easy.

~Progressive grooving 1858.~

Early in 1858, the regulation rifle, (53), was changed from grooves of uniform, ·014 in depth, to ·005 at muzzle, increasing in depth to ·015 at the breech; while new, these rifles shoot well, but they require increased elevation at long ranges. How far these shallow grooves will answer, or how long it will take to convert these aims into smooth bores at the muzzle, by the continued friction of the ramrod, remains to be seen.

~Origin of progressive grooving.~

~Advantages.~

Captain Panot, of the French service, states, “it is but a few years since all our smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry the spherical ball of ·669, instead of ·641. It was afterwards determined to convert these arms into rifles. To prevent weakening the reamed up barrels, M. Tamisier proposed to vary the depth of the grooves, making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle.” Grooves thus made, are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the ball perfectly tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at the muzzle. This is called “progressive grooving.” Rifles upon this principle require to be fired at an increased elevation, attributed to the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while passing down the barrel.

~Short Enfield.~

Rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a weapon requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm, but six inches shorter, being mounted in steel, with a sword bayonet.

~Royal Navy rifle.~

A five “grooved progressive” carbine has recently been given to the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Navy, with the same bore as the Enfield.

RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.

~Early guns loaded at the breech.~

It is worthy of notice that, while numerous attempts are now making to perfect the breech-loader for sporting as well as military purposes, our early cannon and first hand guns were loaded at the breech, and if all mechanical difficulties could be overcome, the breech-loading principle for portable fire-arms would deserve the preference. We can easily understand why it did not continue in favour in early days, as this mode includes a great deal of perfection in mechanical workmanship, and to which the ancient gun maker was a stranger.

~Disadvantages of breech-loaders.~

The great argument against breech-loaders as military weapons is the expense, their intricate construction, the escape of gas, and the probable waste of ammunition, in the hands of an uneducated soldier. It may be briefly answered.

~1st. As to expense.~

1st.--As to expense, the most destructive weapon, by preventing and curtailing war, must in the long run be the cheapest.

~2nd. As to intricacy.~

2nd.--As to intricacy of construction, the soldier is the user, not the maker of his gun; it matters not how delicate the mechanism of a watch may be, the only question is, does it continue to go well!! And who dare say that the brains of man shall never suggest a simple mode of construction. Of course anything fragile would be totally unfit for military purposes. The escape of gas has been entirely overcome.

~3rd. As to waste of ammunition.~

3rd.--As to waste of ammunition, is it absolutely necessary that a soldier should remain uneducated? Are not soldiers men? And men can be taught almost anything, or are they incapable of being taught? Does a soldier fire how, when and where he chooses? Is it too high an aspiration that the British army should carry the best arm that can be made, to be placed in the hands of a taught and skilful soldier, acting under the guidance and control of intelligent officers?

~Breech-loaders highly improved.~

~Ammunition the difficulty.~

As far as the arm only is concerned, breech-loaders have now (1860) attained a high degree of perfection, as is proved by the deserved celebrity of that made by Mr. Westley Richards. The only remaining difficulty is one of ammunition. Loose powder cannot be employed in loading with a breech as it can with a muzzle-loader. We are up to this time under the necessity of introducing the whole of the cartridge, this of course augments fouling and lessens accuracy; there is also increased difficulty in producing ignition through the fold of the cartridge paper.

~Capt. Brown’s compressed powder.~

Recently a most ingenious mode of compressing the grains of powder contained in a charge into one mass, so that every description of rifle may be rapidly loaded without any paper, has been invented by Captain Brown, R. N., and I have every hope and confidence that the only remaining breech-loading difficulty may now be considered overcome.

~Advantages of breech-loaders.~

~1st. Celerity.~

~2nd. Load lying down.~

~3rd. Easily cleaned.~

~4th. Solid ball.~

The advantages of breech-loaders, are, 1st.--Celerity of fire, about ten rounds a minute have been attained. 2nd.--The soldier can load while lying flat on the ground. 3rd.--The barrel can be easily cleaned and examined as to its state. 4th.--A solid ball can be fired, and with less windage.

~Self capping.~

Various modes of self capping have been brought forward, but that by Maynard seems to merit the preference; time is further economized, and the powers of the breech-loader thereby increased.

~Cavalry have breech-loaders.~

Our cavalry regiments in India, are partially armed with breech-loading rifles, and all their pistols are rifled, and upon the tige principle.

~Rifles universal in English army.~

The whole of our Guards, regular Infantry, Royal Marines, Militia, and Royal Engineers, are armed with rifles, and the Carabine used by the Royal Artillery, is also rifled. All our Colonial corps are supplied with rifled arms, with the exception of the Native corps, serving in the East Indies and Ceylon.

~In larger numbers.~

~Taught to use.~

~Prizes.~

Thus rifles are introduced in larger numbers and of better quality in the armies of England, in proportion to their numbers, than amongst any other nation. While more care and expense is incurred in qualifying our soldiers efficiently to use them. In illustration of which, it is only needful to call attention to the simple fact that £20,000 per annum is distributed as a stimulus to the marksmen of the British army, for which boon all honour to our Royal Commander-in-Chief.

~Explosive shells.~

The idea has recently been revived to increase the destructive powers of Infantry, by furnishing them with shells, with which they may explode ammunition waggons, artillery limbers, &c., &c., to the distance of 1,000 yards. Captain Norton, Mr. Dyer, Colonel Jacobs, and Mr. Whitworth, have directed their minds to this most important subject.

ON RIFLING.

It has been stated that amongst the different gun makers who assembled at Woolwich, for the carrying on of experiments in 1851, no two agreed upon any one thing; and in 1860, it may still be averred, with almost equal truth, and that it yet remains an unsettled question as to the form, width, depth, number or degree of spirality of the grooves, as also the harmony which should subsist between the grooves, diameter of bore, the form and weight of projectile, and the quality and quantity of charge.

~Description of Rifles.~

~Advantages of a rifle.~

Robins, in 1742, says, “rifles though well known on the continent, being but little used in England, it is necessary to give a short description of their make. The rifle has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral channels, so that it is in reality a female screw, varying from the fabric of common screws, only in this, that its threads or rifles are less deflected and approach more to a straight line.” The advantage of a rifle (with a round bullet), is that the axis of rotation not being in any accidental position, as in a smooth bore, but coincident with the line of its flight, it follows that the resistance on the fore part of the bullet is equally distributed round the centre of gravity, and acts with an equal force on every side of the line of direction, and also should the resistance be greater on one side of the bullet than the other from irregularities on its surface, as this part continually shifts its position round the line in which it is proceeding, the deflections which this irregularity would occasion are neutralized. With an elongated projectile rifling also prevents it from rotating round its shorter axis.

~Rifling invented in Germany.~

~Rifles used 1498.~

~Straight grooves.~

It is to the artizans of Germany, that the rifle owes its origin, as at the close of the fifteenth century barrels with straight grooves were used by the citizens of Leipsic, at target practice, in 1498, and the invention of grooving or rifling fire-arms is generally supposed to be the result more of accident than theory. In Dean’s Manual of fire-arms, it is stated that, “the idea of grooving arms in the direction of the axis of the barrel to receive the residium of the powder, and thereby, not only facilitate the loading, but increase both the bite or forcing of the ball, by impressing upon it the grooves, and thus maintain it during its passage through the barrel in a direction more in harmony with the line of fire, was doubtless a conception based upon no previous theory or practice now to be traced, but was formed in that suggestiveness which in the individual founds for itself a theory based upon the likelihood of possible result. Upon trial also of the straight grooves a greater precision for short distances would have been observed than with the smooth bore.” This must of itself therefore have led to the establishment of a certain grade of theory which it was endeavoured to amplify by various means, such as increasing the number of grooves, then of changing the inclination of grooves from the straight line to the spiral.

To deem that the practised crack “shots and armourers of a time when target practice was the constant recreation of the citizen, and his pride to excel in, were so brainless as to conceive no theory, unelaborated though it may have been, and that all their even now admired efforts in Germany, were the products of mere accident, is therefore scarcely a rational supposition.”

~Spiral grooves, by Koster, of Nuremberg in 1522.~

It is stated that Koster, of Nuremburg, in 1522, first suggested giving a spiral form to the grooves, and experience proved that much greater accuracy of shooting was the result.

~Damer of Nuremberg, 1552.~

In 1552, Damer, of Nuremburg, made some great improvements in rifles, but we are not aware of their precise nature.

~Koster of Nuremberg, 1620.~

Koster, of Nuremburg, who died 1630, by some authorities is said to have discovered that straight grooves did not fulfil the intentions of their inventor, and to have been the first who suggested spiral grooves in 1620.

~Robins first explained action of grooves.~

~Robins structure of rifles.~

~Modes of loading.~

The important stage next arrived at was the scientific explanation of the true value of spiral grooves. The honor of this entirely belongs to our countryman, Benjamin Robins, who in his Principles of Gunnery, gives a complete and satisfactory explanation of the action of the grooves in determining the flight of the bullet. Robins states that “the degree of spirality, the number of threads, the depth the channel are cut down to, are not regulated according to any invariable rule, but differ according to the country where the work is performed, and the caprice of the artificer. The most usual mode of charging rifles is by forcing the ball with a strong rammer and mallet. But in some parts of Germany and Switzerland, an improvement is made by cutting a piece of very thin leather or fustian in a circular shape, somewhat larger than the bore, which being greased on one side is laid upon the muzzle with its greasy part downwards, and the bullet being placed upon it, is then forced down the barrel with it. When this is practised the rifles are generally shallow, and the bullet ought not to be too large.

~Early rifles, breech-loaders.~

As both these methods of charging rifles take up a good deal of time; the rifled barrels which have been made in England, (for I remember not to have seen it in any foreign piece,) are contrived to be charged at the breech, where the piece is made larger, and the powder and bullet are put in through an opening in the side of the barrel, which, when the piece is loaded is fitted up with a screw. And perhaps somewhat of this kind, though not in the manner now practised, would be of all others the most perfect method for the construction of these sorts of barrels.”

ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.

~Number of grooves.~

~Degree of spirality.~

Almost every description of twist, number, &c., &c., of grooves have been tried, according to the individual tastes and theories of the manufacturers. It is absolutely necessary to have two grooves, as a single one would give a wrong direction. Rifles have been made with, from two to one hundred and thirty three grooves, and in the majority of cases, an odd seems to have been preferred to an even number. In Dean’s Manual it is stated, that “in the numerous collections of arms that have at various times come under our personal notice, some were rifled with straight, but the majority with grooves in a spiral line, sometimes with a half, sometimes a three quarter, and seldom more than a whole turn in a length of two, two and a half and three feet; deviations based upon no principle transmitted to us, but requiring nevertheless a decided research for principles upon which to establish a theory; we have also met with every one of those configurations of the spiral and form of groove, &c., &c., which have been arrogated as modern conceits and discoveries.”

~Spirality.~

Some rifles have sharp muzzle twist decreasing to the breech;--sharp breech twist decreasing to the muzzle; an increase of twist in the middle of the barrel decreasing at both extremities.

~Modification in France. 1740.~

In France a modification of the Carabine took place in 1740;--the grooves were made to begin at eight inches from the muzzle, the unrifled part being of the same calibre as the bottom of the grooves, so that the bullet might pass easily; thus also facilitating the loading of the weapon.

~Rifled only at muzzle.~

There is an old rifle in the United Service Institution, and also a barrel brought from Lucknow, (in the Model Room of the School of Musketry,) grooved only for about one foot from the muzzle, the remainder of the barrels are smooth bored.

~Degree of spirality.~

The degree of spirality is found to vary from a whole turn in 1 foot 5-in., to a whole turn in 11 feet.

~Depth of spiral.~

The depth of grooves vary from ·005 of an inch, to about ·125; and some rifles have been made with an alternate deep and shallow groove.

~Form of grooves.~

Grooves have been made round, circular, triangular, rectangular, and indefinite, alternate round and angular, elliptical, polygonal; and some cut deep only on one side.

~Proportion of groove to land.~

Some gun makers are of opinion that there should be a greater proportion of groove or furrow than of land or plain surface, because they say the ball is thus more firmly held, while others maintain that by diminishing the number of the grooves, the accuracy and range would be increased, and this has led to the opposite theory, that perhaps if anything, the plain surface of the bore should predominate over the grooved.

~Form of early grooves straight.~

The earliest rifles had two straight deep creases opposite to each other, the bullet being spherical, and furnished with small circular knots of lead, large enough to fill the creases.

~Form &c., of ancient rifles.~

The greater number of ancient rifles have a whole turn, with an odd number of deep and rounded grooves; hence we may infer these were considered the best forms.

~Objects of rifling.~

As accuracy of direction is the result of a spiral motion round an axis coincident with the flight of the bullet, communicated to it by the grooves, it is clear that the depth, number, and form of the grooves should be such as will hold the bullet firmly, and prevent all tendency to strip.

~On the degree of spirality.~

~Sharp twist and large charge not cause stripping.~

The degree of spirality should be sufficient to retain the projectile point foremost during the whole of its flight. It was at one time supposed that if the spiral turn was great, and the charge strong, the bullet would not conform, but strip, and that the same results would occur even with grooves but little curved. Unquestionably this would prove true if certain limits were to be exceeded. A false conclusion was built upon this theory, viz., that the greater the spiral turn the less the charge should be; and that therefore in rifles intended for war, the greatest initial velocity being required to produce the greatest range, the groove should have as little turn as possible; for extreme ranges have been obtained with Jacob’s, Whitworth’s, and Lancaster’s rifles; the first has a full turn in 24in. the second in 20in. These rifles perform well with 90 grains of powder, and both Whitworth’s and Lancaster’s might even fire better were the charge of powder increased to 100 grains, the recoil might be objectionable while there would be no symptoms of stripping.

~On depth of groove.~

Great depth of groove can only be hurtful, owing to the difficulty of closing up all passage to the gas, which should not be allowed to escape round the bullet, as this would cause deviation and shorten range. Deep grooves become a receptacle for fouling, are difficult to clean; and high projections must offer great resistance to the atmosphere, and particularly to a side wind.

~Patches.~

When fustian or leather are used as patches, they receive and communicate the spiral motion to the bullet, without the zone of the projectile being at all indented, but in this case the spiral must be diminished, otherwise the bullet would not turn with the grooves. If the patches be made of a thick material, the grooves should be many, broad, and not too shallow, in order to receive the folds of the patch.

~Shallow grooves best.~

From our present amount of experience it seems safe to conclude that the shallower the grooves are the better, so that they perform their intended functions.

~Proportion of groove to land.~

It is now generally recommended that the grooves be made broader than the lands, _i.e._, that the rifling surface should predominate over the unrifled part of the bore. Shallow grooves with rounded edges, have the advantage of not leaving any angular traces on the surface of the bullet, besides they afford a greater facility for cleaning.

~Circular grooving.~

Circular grooving is composed of segments of circles, leaving no sharp edges on the bullet, and is no doubt a very good form.

~Gaining twist.~

~Cause of canting.~

An American gentleman named Chapman, who has written a very clever book upon the rifle, is a strong advocate for the “gaining twist,” which form prevails generally in American rifles. He states, “In a rifled barrel, it is obvious that a bullet instantaneously started from a state of rest, with a velocity of 5,000ft. a second, must exert at the moment of starting, a tendency to move along the bore in a straight line. However, meeting with the resistance that the lands employ to keep it to the twist, it communicates to the rifle itself a certain amount of motion in the direction of the twist of the creases, and this as the angle of the twist increases, combined with the size of the calibre, and the weight of the ball.”

~Remedy for canting.~

“If the angle of the twist at the breech end can be reduced, the bullet at the same time leaving the muzzle with sufficient spin to last throughout its flight, it is certain we shall have less twisting of the rifle in the marksman’s hands, less friction of the bullet against the lands, less tendency for the bullet to upset, (or be destroyed,) and consequently, from obtaining a higher velocity, (because enabled to use a greater quantity of powder,) less time for the action of regular or irregular currents of air.”

~Uniform spiral by American Government.~

After careful experiments by the American Government, preparatory to the establishing the model for their Military Rifle, it was decided that the turn for the grooves should be uniform; and that those with an increasing twist did not give any superiority of accuracy. The “gaining twist,” although adopted by Mr. Lancaster, is opposed by Mr. Whitworth, and all other Rifle manufacturers, and our increased experience does not prove it to possess any advantages over uniform spirality. Theory would indicate that it must occasion increased friction.

~Decreasing spiral.~

Mr. Greener advocates decreasing spirality. It is to be hoped he is the only advocate for so seemingly absurd an idea. To give a certain measure of spiral turn at the breech, to be withdrawn gradually as the bullet reaches the muzzle, is simply ridiculous, and which, with other conceits previously referred to, it is to be hoped are no more to be repeated.

~Polygonal rifling.~

By the desire of our first Patron, the late Lord Hardinge, Mr. Whitworth was induced to turn his mechanical genius to the Soldier’s Gun, which resulted in his adopting the polygonal form of bore. His barrel is hexagonal, and thus, instead of consisting of non-effective lands, and partly of grooves, consists entirely of effective rifling surfaces. The angular corners of the hexagon are always rounded. Supposing a bullet of a cylindrical shape to be fired, when it begins to expand it is driven into the recesses of the hexagon. It thus adapts itself to the curves of the spiral, and the inclined sides of the hexagon offering no direct resistance, expansion is easily effected.

~Westley Richards octagonal.~

Mr. Westley Richards has followed Mr. Whitworth, by using a polygonal bore, having applied his highly meritorious system of breech-loading to a barrel upon the Whitworth principle, of an octagonal form.

~Eliptic rifling.~

~By Captain Berner, 1835.~

~By Mr. Lancaster.~

The cardinal feature of this structure is, that the bore of the barrel is smooth, and instead of being circular, is cut into the form of an ellipse, i.e., it has a major and minor axis. Upon being expanded by the force of the powder, the bullet is forced into the greater axis of the ellipse, which performs the office of the grooves, rifling the projectile, and imparting to it the spiral or normal movement round its own axis. In 1835 a Captain Berner submitted his elliptical bore musket to the inspection and trial of the Royal Hanoverian Commission, appointed for that purpose, and which gave results so satisfactory, that it was considered admirably adapted for the Jäger and Light Infantry Battalions. This principle has been patented by Mr. Lancaster, and the advantages of this form have been previously adverted to.

~Odd number of grooves.~

It is supposed by some persons that if the number of grooves be even, so that they will be opposite to one another, the bullet would then require more force to enlarge it, so as to fill them properly. If the number be unequal, the lands will be opposite to the grooves, and the lead, in forcing, spreading on all sides, will encounter a land opposite to each groove, which will in some measure repel it, and render its introduction into the opposite groove more complete.

This ingenious theory is set at nought by Whitworth, Jacobs, Lancaster, W. Richards, &c., &c., who all recommended an even number of grooves, while the Government arms have an odd number.

~Drift or cant.~

If the grooves twist or turn over from left to right, the balls will be carried to the right; and if from right to left, they will group to the left; and this result will be great in proportion to the degree of spirality. The causes of Drift or “Derivation” will be treated of hereafter. We know from observation that the majority of balls strike to the right of the mark. The recoil and _pulling_ the trigger throw back the right shoulder, which tend to increase the “derivation” to the right. If the twist were, then, from _right_ to _left_, the drift, error from _pulling_, and from recoil, would tend to neutralize each other; the twist of the grooves should therefore be from right to left, instead of the present universal practice of from _left_ to right.

~On length of barrel.~

~Favors expansion.~

~Assists aiming, firing two deep: when using bayonet.~

The barrel of a gun may be looked upon as a machine in which force is generated for the propulsion of the bullet. It is well known that the continued action of a lesser force, will produce a much greater effect, than a greater amount of power applied suddenly; hence mild gunpowder is more suitable for rifle shooting than strong, or that which evolves the whole of its gas instantaneously. Time is necessary for the entire combustion of a charge of gunpowder, consequently more mild gunpowder can be fired out of a long, than out of a short barrel, as if fired out of a short barrel, some of the grains might be ejected unconsumed. All extra length, after the last volume of gas is evolved, can only be injurious, by causing loss of velocity from friction. A billiard ball would travel none the further nor straighter, were it to be propelled through a hollow tube, neither would a barrel to a cross bow aid in killing rooks. A barrel favours expansion of the bullet, which is produced by the force of the generated gas, opposed by the column of air in the hollow tube and by the motion of the projectile. Facility in aiming is promoted by the sights being distant from each other. In a military arm a certain length is necessary in order to fire when two deep in the ranks, and length is also advantageous, should the rifle be used as a pike.

~Advantages of short rifle.~

~Disadvantages of short rifles.~

The short rifle can be held steadier when standing, by a weak man, and during wind, it is handy when passing through a wood or thicket, and a very short man has more command of his gun when loading; but with the sword bayonet, it is heavier than the long Enfield and bayonet; while the sword is very inconvenient when running, firing kneeling, or lying down.

~Thickness of barrel.~

Great substance was at one time considered necessary for accurate firing, it being supposed necessary to prevent vibrations in the barrel; this is true within certain limits, and the heavier the charge, the heavier the metal ought to be, especially at the breech, but diminishing the thickness, has been proved in no wise to lessen the accuracy. A heavy barrel also lessens recoil, but it would be folly to carry more weight than would neutralize the recoil which could be produced by a greater charge of powder than could be consumed in a given length of barrel.

~Size of bore.~

The two grand requirements of a soldier’s gun are, celerity of loading, combined with accuracy at long ranges; and the distance at which he should have the power of firing, should be limited by the strength of his eye. The weight of the projectile being fixed (·530 grs.), good shooting at extreme distances can only be obtained by reducing the diameter of the bore, which, lessening the frontage of the bullet, causes it to experience less resistance from the air; it therefore retains a higher degree of velocity than a larger bullet of the same form and weight, and therefore travels further and faster. Gravity has less time to act upon it, in a given distance, and therefore it can be fired at a lower angle, or has what we call a lower trajectory, and its accuracy is increased in direct proportion to the lowness of its flight, all other things being equal.

~Best form of rifling still undetermined.~

While the best form, &c., &c., for rifles is not yet determined, there are many points upon which the generality of persons seem more agreed, viz., reduction of bore to about ¹⁄₂-in. in diameter, fewer grooves, shorter barrel, and with increased spirality; at least, one may safely say that ideas seem to travel in this direction.

ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.

~Projectiles used in early guns.~

~Elliptical iron bullets 1729.~

We have learned that out of early Artillery were fired bolts, darts, bombs, stones and (more recently) iron shot. From the harquebus and musket: arrows, darts, quarrels, sprites, iron, and lastly leaden spherical balls. Some assert that the idea of lengthened eliptical bullets was enunciated so far back as 1729, and that good results followed their employment, but it is doubtful whether such really did take place.

~Leutman.~

Leutman, in his “History of St. Petersburgh,” says that “it is very profitable to fire elliptical balls out of rifled arms, particularly when they are made to enter by force.”

~Robins 1742.~

Robins, in 1742, recommended the use of projectiles of an egg like form, (see plate 20, fig. 12), they were to be fired with the heavy end in front, to keep the centre of gravity forward.

~Beaufoy 1812.~

Colonel Beaufoy, in a work called “Scloppetaria,” 1812, remarks that several experiments have been tried with egg-shaped bullets, recommended by Robins. It was found, however, that these bullets were subject to such occasional random ranges, as completely baffled the judgment of the shooters to counteract their irregularity. Their deviations to windward most likely arose from the effect of the wind on the after part, which, as being the lightest of the two, was driven more to leeward, and consequently acted as a rudder to throw the foremost end up to the wind.

~Turpin 1770.~

In 1770 Messrs. Turpin tried elongated bullets, at La Fiere, and at Metz.

~Rifled guns &c., 1776.~

We are informed, in the Annual Register for 1776, and also in the Scots Magazine for the same year, that rifled Ordnance were experimented with at Languard Fort, &c., &c., in 1774. Dr. Lind, one of the inventors, states that to remedy the deflection of shot, “One way is to use bullets that are not round but oblong. But in our common guns that are not rifled, I know no way to prevent deflection, except you choose to shoot with a rifled bullet.”

~Elongated projectiles 1789.~

~1800 and 1815.~

Elongated Projectiles were tried in the years 2, 6, and 9 of the Revolution, by Mons. Guitton de Moreau. They were proposed by Mons. Bodeau. In 1800 and 1815 the Prussians tried ellipsodical bullets. Colonel Miller, Colonel Carron, Captain Blois, and others, also experimented with the cylindro-conical form.

~Captain Norton 1824.~

Captain Norton (late 34th Regt.), the original inventor of the application of the percussion principle to shells for small arms, in 1824, completed an elongated rifle shot and shell, the former precisely of the form of the Minié bullet, with projections to fit the grooves of the barrel.

~Mr. Greener 1836.~

Mr. Greener, in 1836, presented an expanding bullet to the Government for experiment, (plate 20, fig. 13). It is oval, with a flat end, and with a perforation extending nearly through. A taper plug, with a head like a round-topped button, is also cast of a composition of lead and zinc. The end of the plug being slightly inserted in the perforation, the ball is inserted either end foremost. When the explosion takes place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding the outer surface, and thus either filling up the grooves of the rifle, or destroying the windage of the musket. The result was favourable beyond calculation. Of about 120 shots by way of experiment, a man was able to load three times to one of the old musket, and accuracy of range at 350 yards was as three to one.

~Mr Greener’s invention rejected.~

Mr. Greener’s invention was rejected, and the only notice he received from the Board was, it being “a compound,” rendered it objectionable!!!

~Mr. Greener rewarded.~

The following extract appears in the Estimates of Army Service for 1857-8. “To William Greener, for the first Public Suggestion of the principle of expansion, commonly called the Minié principle for bullets in 1836, £1,000.”

~Wilkinson 1837.~

~Cork plug 1851.~

Many experiments were made by Mr. Wilkinson in 1837, with balls precisely similar in shape to the Minié, with a conical hole in them, using a wooden plug; and in 1851 experiments were tried at Woolwich with a soft elastic cork, fitting the aperture in the projectile very closely, the compression of which it was conceived would sufficiently expand the cylindrical part, and make it fit the grooves, &c. In some instances it succeeded perfectly, but in many the cork was driven through the lead.

~Gen. Jacobs.~

~Form of leaden bullet destroyed.~

~Zinc point to bullets.~

Major-General Jacobs for many years carried on a series of experiments with rifles, and in 1846 submitted a military rifle, with an elongated projectile, for experiments, to the Government at home, and also to that in India. It did not meet with approval in England, and the Company cut the matter short by stating, that what was good enough for the Royal Army was good enough for theirs. There is nothing peculiar in General Jacob’s rifle. He recommends an elongated projectile (plate 20, fig. 14) solid at the base, cast with four raised flanges to fit into the grooves. General Jacobs states, that the desired initial velocity could not be produced with a projectile made entirely of lead, as a slight increase of charge had the effect of destroying the form of the projectile. He also states that the limit of the powers of leaden balls having been attained, it became necessary to find a method of constructing rifle balls, so that the fore part should be capable of sustaining the pressure of large charges of fired gunpowder, without change of form, and retain that shape best adapted for overcoming the resistance of the air, on which all accurate distant practice depends; and at the same time having the part of the ball next the powder sufficiently soft and yielding to spread out under its pressure, so as to fill the barrel and grooves perfectly air tight. And he professes to have solved the problem, by having the fore part of the bullet cast of zinc, in a separate mould.

~Expansion by hollow bore.~

Captain Delvigne, who had been experimenting since 1828, proposed the adoption of lengthened bullets, consisting of a cylinder terminated by a cone, which was subsequently replaced by an ogive. He obtained a patent dated 21st June, 1841, “For having hollowed out the base of my cylindro-conical bullet, to obtain its expansion by the effect of the gases produced through the ignition of the powder.”

~Hollow in case to throw centre of gravity forward.~

The main object of Captain Delvigne in hollowing the base was, to throw the centre of gravity forward; but a Captain Blois, in France, had previously tried this important suggestion. Captain Delvigne states, if the hollow is too deep, the expansion is too great, and the consequent friction enormous; or the gas may pass through the bullet, and leave a hollow cylinder of lead within the barrel. Sometimes the gas will traverse the sides of the bullet, and consequently the projectile is deprived of a proportionate amount of velocity; if too small, the expansion does not take place.

~Capt. Minié iron cup.~

Captain Minié, an instructor of the School at Vincennes, merely fitted into this hollow an iron cup, hoping to prevent the gas forcing its way through the bullet, and that the iron pressing upon the lead should increase the expansion. (Plate 20, fig. 7).

~Groove suppressed.~

A perfect bullet was now supposed to have been discovered, of a cylindro-ogival form, (no part was a true cylinder), having a groove originally intended to fasten on a greased patch, and in some cases the cartridge, but the patch being dispensed with, and the cartridge reversed, the groove, supposed to be useless, was suppressed.

~Results.~

People were then surprised to find that firing lost much of its accuracy, and the groove was replaced; when it was observed that any variation in its shape and in its position, materially affected the practice. Not only variations in the grooves caused great alteration in the accuracy of fire, but any modification bearing on the trunk in rear, or on the fore-ogive, altered the conditions of the firing, so that the groove became lost in the midst of so many other principles, the functions of which were so much unknown. These theoretical considerations served, however, as a point of departure for further investigations.

~Tamisier lengthened bullets.~

Captain Tamisier had not ceased for several years, concentrating his attention on the subject. He varied the length of the cylindrical part and the angle of the cone, and tried experiments with bullets of 5-in. in length, and obtained considerable range, and great accuracy with them; the recoil however was excessive, and to use such bullets heavier arms, a smaller bore, and other modifications would be necessary.

~Centre of gravity formed by blunting tips.~

He endeavoured to carry the centre of gravity to the furthest possible point forward, (which Robins suggested 100 years before), but to effect this he was compelled to flatten the fore end of the bullet, which had the disadvantage of increasing the resistance of the air to the movement of projection.

~Path rectified by resistance in rear.~

~Many cannelures.~

He was then led to another plan for rectifying the path of the bullet through each instant of projection, and which was by creating at the posterior end, resistances, which should act in case the axis of the bullet did not coincide with the direction of motion, and this was carried out by cutting upon the cylindrical part, instead of one, as many circular grooves of ·28 in depth, as that cylindrical, or rather, slightly conical, part could contain. An increased precision in firing was the immediate result. (Plate 20, fig 15.)

~Shape of cannelures.~

Feeling his way most carefully, Captain Tamisier then made a great number of experiments in this direction, and perceived that it was important to render the posterior surface of the grooves as sharp as possible, so as to augment the action of the air; for these grooves lose their shape, owing to the lead, from its malleable nature, yielding under the strokes of the ramrod.

~Elongated Projectiles, whose Centres of Gravity do not correspond with Centre of Figure.~

~Action of the air.~

Elongated projectiles, whose centres of gravity do not exactly coincide with the centre of figure, when they do not turn over, tend to preserve their axis in the primary direction which was imparted to them, in the same manner as an imperfectly feathered arrow flying with little velocity, the point of the moving body being constantly above the trajectory, and its axis making a certain angle (plate 21, fig 1) with the target to the curve. Therefore the part A.B. of the bullet being exposed to the direct action of the air’s resistance, the atmospherical fluid is compressed on the surface A.B., and rarified upon that of A.C. Hence it will be perceived that the compressed fluid supports the moving body, and prevents its descending as rapidly as would a spherical bullet, which is constructed to meet the same direct resistance from the air. This trajectory will therefore be more elongated than that of the spherical bullet in question.

~Remedied by the grooves.~

~Cause of deviation.~

~Remedy.~

But the resistance of the air, acting upon the groove of the projectile, produces, on the lower part of this groove, an action which tends to bring back its point upon the trajectory, yet with so little force, that often, in its descent, the projectile turns over, and moves breadthways at ranges of 1000 and 1200 yards. The lower side of the projectile, therefore, moving in the compressed air, and the upper in the rarified air, deviation must ensue, for, as the upper part of the bullet moves from left to right, the bottom must move from right to left. But the lower resistance to the motion of rotation being produced by the friction of the compressed air, is greater than the upper resistance, which depends on the friction of the rarified air. By combining these two resistances, there results a single force, acting from left to right, which produces what Captain Tamisier termed “derivation,” and it was to overcome this derivation that this officer proposed the circular grooves to the bullet, which he considered would act, like the feathers of the arrow, to maintain the moving body in its trajectory.

~How to obtain knowledge of the bullet’s rotation.~

~By the arrow.~

~Use of feathers on arrows.~

If, however, we would wish to obtain some idea of the rotatory motion of a bullet in its path through the air, let us consider the action of the arrow, and see how it is constructed, so that the resistance of the air should not act in an unfavourable manner. First, nearly all its weight is concentrated at the point, so that its centre of gravity is close to it. At the opposite end feathers are placed, the heaviest of which does not affect the centre of gravity, but gives rise to an amount of resistance in rear of the projectile, and which prevents its ever taking a motion of rotation perpendicular to its longer axis, and keeps it in the direction of its projection. This difficulty which the arrow finds in changing its direction must concur in preventing its descending so rapidly as it would do were it only to obey the law of gravity, and must therefore render its trajectory more uniform.

~Similar effects on bullet with grooves.~

Let us, however, now come back to the grooves of Mons. Tamisier, and we shall find that they concur in giving to the bullet the two actions of the resistance of the air, which we have demonstrated with respect to the arrow.

~Effect of grooves.~

Suppose that such a bullet describes the trajectory M, and A.B. be the position of its axis, it will be seen that the lower part of the bullet re-establishes the air compressed, whilst the upper part finds itself in the rarified air. That, consequently the lower parts of the cannelures are submitted to the direct action of the air’s resistance, whilst their upper parts totally escape this action. (Plate 21, fig. 2). The resultant of the air’s resistance evidently tends to bring back the point of the moving body, according to the trajectory; but as this action is produced by the pressure of an elastic fluid, it results that the point B, after having been an instant upon the trajectory, will fall below, in virtue of the velocity acquired; but then the upper grooves finding themselves acted on by the action of the air’s resistance, this action, joined to its weight, will force the point of the projectile upwards, which will descend to come up again, so that the projectile will have throughout its flight a vertical swing, which is seen distinctly enough in arrows.

~Union of Robins and Tamisier.~

Let us connect the suggestion of Robins, with the experiments of Captain Tamisier, to cause the posterior end to act as a rudder to guide the projectile in its true path, as undoubtedly during the descent of a bullet there is a tendency for the centre of gravity to fall first, as the ball of the shuttlecock. In the first Prussian balls, and in those used in the Tige, the centre of gravity being nearer the base, the rear end of these balls have a tendency to fall before the foremost, but this is most undoubtedly counteracted by grooves, while it would be impossible to fire an elongated projectile with its centre of gravity backwards, with any accuracy out of a smooth-bored gun.

~Cannelures improved shooting.~

~Why none in English bullet.~

Captain Jervis says that these grooves have the effect of improving the accuracy of firing when the bullets are not perfectly homogeneous, is certain, but the British Committee on small arms justly considered that owing to the careful way in which the bullets are made in England by compression, these grooves might be dispensed with.

~Variety of forms.~

~Auxiliaries to expansion, various.~

Almost every conceivable form of projectile, internal and external, have been made and experimented upon. Auxiliaries to expansion have been used, made of metal, horn, wood, and leather, with plugs, screws, or cups of divers shapes. Cannelures are used, of varying forms, depth and number.

~Rotation from smooth bores.~

It has even been attempted to construct bullets upon the screw principle, so that the projectile should receive spirality from the action of the air upon its outer or inner surface, when fired out of a smooth bore musket.

~General characteristics of modern rifles.~

The general characteristics of the European rifles, up to 1850, are a very large calibre, a comparatively light short barrel, with a quick twist, _i.e._, about one turn in three feet, sometimes using a patch, and sometimes not, the bullet circular, and its front part flattened by starting and ramming down.

~American alterations.~

It appears that the introduction of additional weight in the barrel, reduction in the size of the calibre, the constant use of the patch, a slower twist, generally one turn in 6ft., combined with (what is now known to be a detriment) great length of barrel, are exclusively American.

~Picket bullet.~

A round ended picket (plate 20, fig. 16), was occasionally used in some parts of the States, until the invention of Mr. Allen Clarke, of the flat ended picket, which allows a much greater charge of powder, producing greater velocity, and consequently less variation in a side wind.

~On the comparative merits of rifles.~

~Points in a perfect rifle.~

A rifle may perform first rate at short ranges, and fail entirely at long, while a rifle which will fire well at extreme ranges can never fail of good shooting at short. In fact certain calibres, &c., &c., &c., perform best at certain distances, and in the combinations of a perfect rifle there are certain points to be attended to, or the weapon will be deficient and inferior.

~Velocity.~

It is desirable to give a bullet as much velocity as it can safely be started with, and the limit is the recoil of the gun, and the liability of the bullets to be upset or destroyed, for as soon as this upsetting takes place, the performance becomes inferior, and the circle of error enlarged.

~Degree of twist.~

It is clear that a bullet projected with sufficient twist to keep it steady in boisterous and windy weather, must of necessity have more twist than is actually necessary in a still favourable time; hence a rifle for general purposes, should always have too much twist rather than too little.

~Weight of bullet.~

The weight of the bullet must be proportioned to the distance it is intended to be projected with the greatest accuracy; for it is a law, that with bodies of the same densities, small ones lose their momentum sooner than large ones. It would be madness to use a bullet ninety to the pound at nine hundred yards, merely because it performed first rate at two hundred yards; or a forty to the pound at two hundred yards, because it performed well at nine hundred yards. The reason is that a forty to the pound cannot be projected with as much velocity at two hundred yards, as the ninety to the pound can, because the ninety uses more powder in proportion to the weight of the bullet than the forty does. Again, the heavier bullet performs better than the lighter one at nine hundred yards, simply because the momentum of the light ball is nearly expended at so long a range as nine hundred yards, and its rotatory motion is not enough to keep it in the true line of its flight, whereas a heavy bullet, having from its weight more momentum, preserves for a longer distance the twist and velocity with which it started.

~Calibre.~

As weight of projectile is a leading element in obtaining accuracy at long ranges, and as the weight cannot be increased beyond a certain limit in small arm ammunition, hence a small bore is an indispensable requisite for a perfect rifle.

~Result of Mr. Whitworth’s experiments.~

In the foregoing brief summary of the most important properties which should be possessed by a first class rifle, we have dealt in generalities, but we shall now record the experience of Mr. Whitworth, who has entered into the most minute details, and has pointed out the harmony which should subsist between the twist, bore, &c., and the projectile, in the combinations of a perfect rifle.

~Bore and weight limited.~

Premising, that when Mr. Whitworth was solicited by the late honored Lord Hardinge to render the aid of his mechanical genius to the improvement or perfecting a military weapon, he was restricted as to length of barrel, viz., 3 feet 3-in., and weight of bullet, ·530 grains. We shall now proceed and use Mr. Whitworth’s words.

~Consideration for curve.~

“Having noticed the form (hexagonal) of the interior which provides the best rifling surfaces, the next thing to be considered is the proper curve which rifled barrels ought to possess, in order to give the projectile the necessary degree of rotation.”

~Hexagonal form admits of quick turn.~

“With the hexagonal barrel, I use much quicker turn and can fire projectiles of any required length, as with the quickest that may be desirable they do not ‘strip.’ I made a short barrel with one turn in the inch (simply to try the effect of an extreme velocity of rotation) and found that I could fire from it mechanically--fitting projectiles made of an alloy of lead and tin, with a charge of 35 grains of powder they penetrated through seven inches of elm planks.”

~Degree of spiral fixed.~

~Diameter of bore determined.~

After many experiments, in order to determine the diameter for the bore and degree of spirality, Mr. Whitworth adds: “For an ordinary military barrel, 39 inches long, I proposed a ·45-inch bore, with one turn in 20 inches, which is in my opinion the best for this length. The rotation is sufficient with a bullet of the requisite specific gravity, for a range of 2000 yards.” Under these conditions the projectiles on leaving the gun would be about two and a half diameters of the bore in length. “The gun responds to every increase of charge, by firing with lower elevation, from the service charge of 70 grains up to 120 grains; this latter charge is the largest that can be effectively consumed, and the recoil then becomes more than the shoulder can conveniently bear with the weight of the service musket.

~Advocates of slow turn.~

~Effects of quick turn.~

“The advocates of the slow turn of one in 6 feet 6 inches, consider that a quick turn causes so much friction as to impede the progress of the ball to an injurious and sometimes dangerous degree, and to produce loss of elevation and range; but my experiments show the contrary to be the case. The effect of too quick a turn, as to friction, is felt in the greatest degree when the projectile has attained its highest velocity in the barrel, that is at the muzzle, and is felt in the least degree when the projectile is beginning to move, at the breech. The great strain put upon a gun at the instant of explosion is due, not to the resistance of friction, but to the _vis inertiæ_ of the projectile which has to be overcome. In a long barrel, with an extremely quick turn, the resistance offered to the progress of the projectile is very great at the muzzle, and although moderate charges give good results, the rifle will not respond to increased charges by giving a better elevation. If the barrel be cut shorter, an increase of charge then lowers the elevation.”

~Objections to increasing spiral.~

“The use of an increasing or varying turn is obviously injurious, for besides altering the shape of the bullet, it causes increased resistance at the muzzle, the very place where relief is wanted.”

~Length and spiral increased.~

~Diameter decreased.~

~Trajectory lowered.~

“Finding that all difficulty arising from length of projectiles, is overcome by giving sufficient rotation, and that any weight that may be necessary can be obtained by adding to the length, I adopted for the bullet of the service weight, an increased length, and a reduced diameter, and obtained a comparatively low trajectory; less elevation is required, and the path of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight line, making it more likely to hit any object of moderate height within range, and rendering mistakes in judging distances of less moment. The time of flight being shortened, the projectile is very much less deflected by the action of the wind.”

~Proper powder for expanding bullets.~

~Powder for hardened bullets.~

~Consequences of imperfect expansion.~

~Advantages of hexagonal form.~

“It is most important to observe that with all expanding bullets proper powder must be employed. In many cases this kind of bullet has failed, owing to the use of a slowly igniting powder, which is desirable for a hard metal projectile, as it causes less strain upon the piece, but is unsuitable with a soft metal expanding projectile, for which a quickly igniting powder is absolutely requisite to insure a complete expansion, which will fill the bore. Unless this is done the gases rush past the bullet between it and the barrel, the latter becomes foul, the bullet is distorted, and the shooting must be bad. If the projectiles used be made of the same hexagonal shape externally as the bore of the barrel internally, that is, with a mechanical fit, metals of all degrees of hardness, from lead, or lead and tin, up to hardened steel may be employed, and slowly igniting powder, like that of the service may be employed.”

~Mr. Whitworth’s claims.~

Mr. Whitworth does not lay claim to any originality as inventor of the polygonal system, but merely brings it forward, as the most certain mode of securing spiral motion, but he deserves to be honored by all Riflemen, as having established the degree of spirality, the diameter of bore, to ensure the best results from a given weight of lead, and length of barrel.

CONCLUSION.

In achieving the important position obtained by the rifle in the present day, it has nevertheless effected no more than was predicted of it by Leutman, the Academician of St. Petersburg, in 1728, by Euler, Borda, and Gassendi, and by our eminent but hitherto forgotten countryman Robins, who in 1747, urgently called the attention of the Government and the public to the importance of this description of fire-arm as a military weapon.

In the War of American Independence, the rifle, there long established as the national arm for the chase, exhibited its superiority as a _war_ arm also, in so sensible a manner, that we were constrained to oppose to the American hunters the subsidised Riflemen of Hesse, Hanover, and Denmark.

~Robins’ prophecy.~

We shall close by quoting the last words in “Robins’ Tracts of Gunnery.”

“Whatever State shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of rifled barrel pieces, and having facilitated and completed their construction, shall introduce into their armies their _general_ use with a _dexterity_ in the _management_ of them; they will by this means acquire a superiority, which will almost equal anything that has been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms; and will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects which histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first inventors of fire-arms.”

NOTE.--The preceding articles on the Rifle, Rifling, and Rifle Projectiles are mainly compiled from: “New Principles of Gunnery, by Robins,” “Scloppetaria,” “Remarks on National Defence, by Col. the Hon. A. Gordon,” “Dean’s Manual of Fire Arms,” “Rifle Ammunition, by Capt. A. Hawes,” “Rifles and Rifle Practice, by C. M. Wilcox,” “Papers on Mechanical Subjects, by Whitworth,” “The Rifle Musket, by Capt. Jarvis, Royal Artillery,” “Des Armes Rayees, by H. Mangeot,” “Cours Elementaire sur les Armes Portatives, by F. Gillion,” and “Cours sur les Armes a feu Portatives, by L. Panot.”

THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.

DEFINITIONS.

~Matter.~

Matter,--everything which has weight.

~Body.~

Body,--a portion of matter limited in every direction.

~Mass.~

Mass,--the quantity of matter in any body.

~Particle.~

Particle,--or material point, is a body of evanescent magnitude, and bodies of finite magnitude are said to be made up of an indefinite number of particles, or material points.

~Inertia.~

Inertia,--passiveness or inactivity.

~Attraction.~

Attraction,--a fundamental law of nature, that every particle of matter has a tendency to be attracted towards another particle.

~Density.~

Density,--is in proportion to the closeness of the particles to each other.

~Volume.~

Volume,--the space bounded by the exterior surface of a body, is its apparent volume or size.

~Elasticity.~

Elasticity,--a body that yields to pressure, and recovers its figure again; hence air and gasses are elastic bodies; lead a non-elastic body.

~Motion.~

Motion,--is the changing of place, or the opposite to a state of rest.

~Velocity.~

Velocity,--is the rate of motion; there are four rates of motion, viz., Uniform, Variable, Accelerated, and Retarded.

~1st. Uniform.~

1st. Uniform,--when a particle traverses equal distances, in any equal successive portion of time.

~2nd. Variable.~

2nd. Variable,--when the spaces passed over in equal times, are unequal.

~3rd. Accelerated.~

3rd. Accelerated,--when the distances traversed in equal times are successively greater and greater.

~4th. Retarded.~

4th. Retarded,--when the distances traversed in equal times are successively less and less.

Acceleration or Retardation, may also be equal or unequal, that is uniform or variable.

~Friction.~

Friction,--arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which act upon one another.

~Force.~

Force,--any cause which produces, or tends to produce a change in the state of rest, or of motion of a particle of matter.

~Measure of force.~

Forces are measured by comparison with weights. Thus any forces which will bend a spring into the same positions as weights of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., are called respectively forces of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c., &c.

~Momentum.~

Momentum,--or quantity of motion. If a body moving at first with a certain velocity is afterwards observed to move with double or triple this velocity, the quantity of motion of the body is conceived to be doubled or tripled, hence the momentum of a body, depends upon its velocity, as the quantity of motion of a body is the product of the velocity by the mass or weight.

~Laws of motion.~

The elementary principles upon which are based all our reasonings respecting the motions of bodies, are called the “Laws of Motion,” and as arranged by Sir Isaac Newton, are three in number.

~1st Law.~

1st. A particle at rest will continue for ever at rest, and a particle in motion will continue in motion uniformly forward in a straight line, until it be acted upon by some extraneous force.

~2nd Law.~

2nd. When any force acts upon a body in motion, the change of motion which it produces is proportional to the force impressed, and in the direction of that force.

~3rd Law.~

3rd. Action and reaction are equal, and in contrary directions. In all cases the quantity of motion gained by one body is always equal to that lost by the other in the same direction. Thus, if a ball in motion, strikes another at rest, the motion communicated to the latter will be taken from the former, and the velocity of the former be proportionately diminished.

~Centre of Gravity.~

Centre of Gravity,--is that point at which the whole weight of the body may be considered to act, and about which consequently, the body, when subjected to the force of gravity only, will balance in all positions.

~Specific Gravity.~

Specific Gravity,--the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every different substance, and is estimated by the quantities of matter when the bulks are the same; or in other words, it is the density that constitutes the specific gravity. It is agreed to make pure rain-water the standard, to which they refer the comparative weights of all other bodies. Lead is about eleven times the weight of the same bulk of water.

~Initial Velocity.~

Initial Velocity is the velocity which a bullet possesses on leaving the muzzle of a gun; and in the speaking of the velocity of bullets fired from the musket now used, you understand 1200 feet per second, for the Initial Velocity.

~Angular Velocity.~

Angular Velocity is the velocity with which the circular arc is described; and depends upon the perpendicular distance of the point from the axis of rotation.

~Terminal Velocity.~

Terminal Velocity: if a cannon ball were to be let fall from a very great height, it would by the law of gravity, descend with accelerated motion towards the earth, but as the resistance of the air increases as the squares of velocities, a point would be reached when the resistance would be equal to the force of gravity, from whence it would fall to the earth in uniform motion.

~Eccentric Body.~

An Eccentric Body, is one whose centre of figure does not correspond with the centre of gravity.

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.

~Modified by Gravity and air.~

If no force were acting upon the projectile, except the explosive force of gunpowder, it would by the first law of motion, move on for ever in the line in which it was discharged; this motion is modified by the action of two forces, viz., gravity and the resistance of the air.

As the early cannons were of the rudest construction, and were used only to force open barriers, or to be employed against troops at a very short range, it was a matter of secondary consideration what course the bullet took, indeed it was generally believed, that it flew for some distance in a straight line, and then dropped suddenly. Acting upon this opinion we find that most of the early cannon had a large metal ring at the muzzle, so as to render it the same size as at the breech, and with such as were not of this construction they made use of a wooden foresight which tied on to the muzzle, so as to make the line of sight parallel to the axis, by which they conceived that they might aim more directly at the object which the bullet was designed to hit.

~Leonardo da Vinci, 1452.~

The first author who wrote professedly on the flight of a cannon shot was a celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Leonardo da Vinci, who explains his manner of studying phenomena, in order to arrive at safe conclusions, thus: “I will treat of the subject, but first of all I will make some experiments, because my intention is to quote experience, and then to show why bodies are found to act in a certain manner;” and taking as his motto, “Science belongs to the Captain, practice to the Soldier,” he boldly asks: “If a bombard throws various distances with various elevations, I ask in what part of its range will be the greatest angle of elevation?” The sole answer is a small drawing of three curves, (plate 20, fig. 3.), the greatest range being the curve about midway between the perpendicular and the horizontal. Yet this small drawing is very remarkable when we come to examine it. In the first place, we see that he recognises the fact that the trajectory is a curve throughout its length; secondly, that a shot fired perpendicularly will not fall again on the spot whence it was fired. Simple as they may seem, these two propositions recognise the force of gravity, resistance of the air, and the rotary motion of the earth.

~Tartaglia, 1537.~

The next author who wrote on the flight of cannon shot was another celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Tartaglia. In the year 1537, and afterwards in 1546, he published several works relating to the theory of those motions, and although the then imperfect state of mechanics furnished him with very fallacious principles to proceed on, yet he was not altogether unsuccessful in his enquiries, for he determined (contrary to the opinion of practitioners) that no part of the track of a bullet was in a straight line, although he considered that the curvature in some cases was so little, as not to be attended to, comparing it to the surface of the sea, which, although it appears to be a plain, when practically considered, is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre of the earth. It was only by an accident he nearly stumbled upon one truth in the theory of projectiles, when he stated that the greatest range obtained by equal forces is at 45°. Calculating that at the angle 0° the trajectory was null, that by raising the trajectory, the range increased up to a certain point, afterwards diminished, and finally became null again when the projective force acted perpendicularly, he concluded that the greatest range must be a medium between these two points, and consequently at 45°.

Others thought that a shot, on leaving the muzzle, described a straight line; that after a certain period its motion grew slower, and then that it described a curve, caused by the forces of projection and gravity; finally, that it fell perpendicularly. Tartaglia seems to have originated the notion that the part of the curve which joined the oblique line to the perpendicular, was the arc of a circle tangent to one and the other.

~Galileo, 1638.~

In the year 1638, Galileo, also an Italian, printed his dialogues, in which he was the first to describe the real effect of gravity on falling bodies; on these principles he determined, that the flight of a cannon shot, or of any other projectile, would be in the curve of a parabola, unless it was deviated from this track by the resistance of the air. A parabola is a figure formed by cutting a cone, with a plain parallel to the side of the cone.

GRAVITY.

~Bullet as influenced by powder and gravity only.~

We will now proceed to consider the course of a bullet, as affected by _two_ forces only, viz., 1st. The velocity communicated to it by the explosion of the powder; and 2nd. By the force of Gravity.

The attraction of the earth acts on all bodies in proportion to their quantities of matter.

~If no air, all bodies would fall in same time.~

~Gold and dry leaf in same time.~

The difference of time observable in the fall of bodies through the air, is due to the resistance of that medium, whence we may fairly conclude, that if the air was altogether absent, and no other resisting medium occupied its place, all bodies of whatever size, and of whatever weight, must descend with the same speed. Under such circumstances, a balloon and the smoke of the fire would descend, instead of ascending as they do, by the pressure of the air, which, bulk for bulk, is heavier than themselves. A dry leaf falls very slowly, and a piece of gold very rapidly, but if the gold be beaten into a thin leaf, the time of its descent is greatly prolonged. If a piece of metal and a feather are let fall at the same instant from the top of a tall exhausted receiver, it will be found that these two bodies, so dissimilar in weight, will strike the table of the air-pump, on which the receiver stands, at the same instant. Supposing the air did not offer any resistance to the onward course of a projectile, and that the instantaneous force communicated to a bullet, from the explosion of the gunpowder, were to project it in the line A.B. (plate 21, fig. 4.) from the point A., with a velocity that will send it in the first second of time as far as C., then if there were no other force to affect it, it would continue to move in the same direction B., and with the same velocity, and at the next second it would have passed over another space, C.D., equal to A.C., so that in the third second it would have reached E., keeping constantly in the same straight line.

~Bullet under two forces, powder and gravity.~

But no sooner does the bullet quit the muzzle, than it immediately comes under the influence of another force, called the force of gravity, which differs from the force caused by the explosion of the powder, which ceases to influence the bullet, after it has once communicated to it its velocity.

~An accelerating force.~

~Effect of gravity.~

Gravity is an accelerating force, acting constantly upon, and causing the bullet to move towards the earth, with a velocity increasing with the length of time the bullet is exposed to its influence. It has been found from experiment that this increase of velocity will cause a body to move through spaces, in proportion to the squares of the time taken to pass over the distance. Thus, if a body falls a given space in one second, in two it will have fallen over a space equal to four times what it fell through in the first second, and in the three first seconds it will have fallen through a space equal to nine times that which it fell through in the first second.

~Result of gravity.~

~Course of the bullet.~

The consequence of this principle is, that all bodies of similar figure, and equal density, at equal distances from the earth, fall with equal velocity; and if a body describes a space of 16ft. in the first second of time, it will, in the next second of time, fall _three_ times 16, or 48 feet, and thus will have fallen, from the time it first dropped, four times 16 feet, or 64 feet, because 4 is the square of 2, the time the body was falling. In the third second, it will fall 5 times 16 feet, or 80 feet, and these sums collectively, viz., 16 + 48 + 80 = 144 feet, the whole distance described by the falling body in three seconds of time.

From this it is evident, that instead of moving in a straight line A. B., (plate 21, fig. 5.), the bullet will be drawn from that course.

~Parabolic theory.~

From the point C., draw C. F., equal to the space that the bullet may be supposed to fall in one second of time, then at the end of the first second of time the bullet will be at F., instead of at C., and will have moved in the direction A. F., instead of A. C.; at the end of the next second it will have fallen a total distance D. G., equal to four times C. F., thus the bullet will have fallen at the end of the third second a distance E. H., equal to nine times C. F., and it will have moved in the line A. F. G. H. instead of the straight line A. B., in which it would have moved, had it not been affected by the force of gravity. The curve A. H., is of the form called a Parabola, and hence the theory is called the “Parabolic Theory.” It is founded on the principle that the velocity given to the bullet by the explosion of the gunpowder is continued throughout its course, but this would only be true in vacuo, and is therefore of little value in calculating the real course of the bullet in the air.

ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.

~If fired with axis parallel to the ground.~

1st Case. Supposing a ball to be fired when the axis of the piece is parallel to the ground and 16 feet above it, then the projectile will strike the earth in the same length of time that it would have done, had it been rolled out of the muzzle, quite irrespective of the velocity with which it may have been propelled, or the consequent extent of range; that is to say the ball will have reached the point B., (plate 22, fig. 1.), in the same length of time that it would require to fall from the muzzle A., to the earth C.; _i. e._, in one second.

2nd Case. Were three guns to be fired at the same instant, with their three axes parallel to the horizon as before, and loaded respectively with ¹⁄₂ drm., 1 drm., and 1¹⁄₂ drm. of powder of the same strength, then, although the three initial velocities and three ranges would consequently all be different, yet the three balls would strike the ground at the same time, _i. e._ at the points B. B. B. in one second. (Plate 22, fig. 2.)

~If axis at an angle to the ground.~

3rd Case. When a ball is fired at an angle of elevation it will reach the earth in the same length of time which it would occupy in falling the length of the tangent of the angle of projection; hence supposing F. G. (plate 22, fig. 3.) to be 16 feet, the ball would reach the point G. in one second, irrespective of the distance from D. to G.

ATMOSPHERE.

Let us now take into our consideration the course of a projectile while under the influence of _three_ forces, viz., powder, gravity, and air.

~Why named.~

The atmosphere, or sphere of gases, is the general name applied to the whole gaseous portion of this planet, as the term ocean is applied to its liquid, and land to its solid portions.

Being much lighter than either land or water, it necessarily floats or rests upon them, and is in sufficient quantity to cover the highest mountains, and to rise nine or ten times their height, to about 45 miles above the sea level, so as to form a layer over the whole surface, averaging probably between forty and fifty miles in thickness, which is about as thick, in proportion to the globe, as the liquid layer adhering to the surface of an orange, after it had been dipped in water.

~Composition of air.~

It consists essentially of two gases, called oxygen and nitrogen, and also contains a variable quantity of aqueous vapour.

~Qualities of air.~

In common with matter in every state, the air possesses impenetrability. It can be compressed, but cannot be annihilated. It has weight, inertia, momentum, and elasticity.

In consequence of its weight is its pressure, which acts uniformly on all bodies, and is equal to between 14lbs. and 15lbs. on every square inch of surface at the sea-level.

~Early idea of air’s resistance.~

~How air acts.~

The first experiments that were made on projectiles, were carried out on the idea that the resistance of the air would not materially affect the track of a bullet which had great velocity. But the moment a body is launched into space, it meets with particles of the air at every instant of its movement, to which it yields part of its velocity, and the air being a constant force, the velocity of the body decreases at every instant from the commencement of its motion.

RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.

~Robins, 1742, showed effect of air’s resistance.~

~Course of ball was not a parabola.~

~Why not a parabola.~

It remained for Robins, 1742, in a work then published, to show the real effect of the atmosphere upon moving bodies. He proved by actual experiment, that a 24lb. shot did not range the fifth part of the distance it should have done according to the parabolic theory. If a cannon shot moved in a parabolic curve, then from the known properties of that curve, it was evident that when fired with elevation, the angle of descent of the bullet should have been the same as the angle at which it was projected, and this he showed was not the case in practice. Now Robins acknowledged the opinion of Galileo, as regards the force of gravity, to be correct; he could not therefore attribute to him any miscalculation on the score of gravity. He therefore concluded, that the error of the “parabolic theory” arose from the supposition that the bullet continued to move at the same velocity throughout its course.

~Ballistic pendulum.~

Robins tried a series of experiments by firing at a ballistic pendulum at different distances; the oscillation of this pendulum enabled him to calculate the velocity of the bullet, at the time it struck the pendulum, and by this means he ascertained, that according to his expectations, the bullet moved slower in proportion as it became more distant from the point at which it was fired. This diminution he attributed to the resistance of the air.

~Trajectory more curved than a parabola.~

From these considerations it is evident that instead of moving over equal spaces A. C., C. D., D. E., (plate 22, fig. 4), at each succeeding second of time, it will require considerably longer to traverse each succeeding distance, and the force of gravity will consequently have longer time to act upon it, and will have the effect of lowering the bullet much more than it would do according to the “parabolic theory;” moreover it is evident, that as the velocity of the bullet diminishes, the trajectory or path followed by the bullet, will become still more incurvated.

Having now proved the error of the “parabolic theory,” Robins began his endeavours to calculate the actual course of the bullet, according to this new theory which he had demonstrated, but this calculation was necessarily attended with great difficulties, for in so doing a number of circumstances had to be considered.

~Resultant.~

The resultant of the three forces acting on a projectile, (plate 23, fig. 1), viz., gunpowder, gravity, and the resistance of the air, is a motal force, diminishing in velocity at every instant, causing the projectile to describe a curved line in its flight, the incipient point of the curve lying in the axis of the bore of the piece, and its continuation diverging in the direction of the attraction of gravity, till the projectile obeys the latter force alone.

EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.

~Angle for greatest range.~

~Velocity.~

It is stated by Captain Jervis, R.A., in the “Rifle Musket,” that “From experiments made in France, it has been found that the greatest range of the common percussion musket, with spherical bullet fired with the regulation charge, was at 25°; yet, by theoretical calculation, it should be 45°; also that the usual velocity was some 500 yards per second, whilst in vacuum it would be 19,792 yards per second.

~Elevation giving certain range.~

“At an angle of from 4° to 5°, the real range was about 640 yards; without the resistance of the air, and at an angle of 4¹⁄₂°, it would be 3,674, or six times greater.”

ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.

~The effect of the air’s resistance upon the motion of a projectile.~

The effect of the resistance of the atmosphere to the motion of a projectile, is a subject of the greatest importance in gunnery. It has engaged the attention of the most eminent philosophers, and on account of the great difficulty of determining by experiment, the correctness of any particular hypothesis, much difference of opinion is entertained as to the absolute effect of this retarding force upon bodies moving in the atmosphere with great velocities; and although sufficient is known to guide the practical artillerist in that art to which he is devoted, still as a scientific question, it is one of considerable interest, but more on account of the difficulty of its solution, than from its practical importance.

~Mr. Robins’ discoveries.~

To our distinguished countryman, Mr. Benjamin Robins, is due the credit of not only being the first practically to determine the enormous effect of the resistance of the air in retarding the motions of military projectiles, but also of pointing out and experimentally proving other facts with regard to this resistance, which will be noticed when considering the subject of the deviation of shot from the intended direction.

~Result of Dr. Hutton’s experiments.~

After him, Dr. Hutton made a great number of experiments upon the same point, viz., the effect of the resistance of the air upon bodies moving in that medium, both with great and small velocities; and the inferences which he drew from these experiments, although not absolutely true, are sufficiently correct for all practical purposes.

ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.

~Circumstances affecting the resistance which a body meets with in its motion in a fluid.~

The resistance which a body meets with in its motion through a fluid will depend upon three principal causes, viz:--

1st. Its velocity, and the form and magnitude of the surface opposed to the fluid.

2nd. Upon the density and tenacity of the fluid or cohesion of its particles, and also upon the friction which will be caused by the roughness of the surface of the body.

3rd. Upon the degree of compression to which this fluid, supposed to be perfectly elastic, is subjected, upon which will depend the rapidity with which it will close in and fill the space behind the body in motion.

~The resistance of a fluid to a body as the squares of the velocities.~

Firstly, with regard to the velocity of the body. It is evident that a plane moving through a fluid in a direction perpendicular to its surface, must impart to the particles of the fluid with which it comes in contact, a velocity equal to its own; and, consequently, from this cause alone, the resistances would be as the velocities; but the number of particles struck in a certain time being also as the velocities, from these two causes combined, the resistance of a fluid to a body in motion, arising from the inertia of the particles of the fluid, will be as the square of the velocity.

~Cohesion of the particles of a fluid, and friction.~

Secondly, a body moving in a fluid must overcome the force of cohesion of those parts which are separated, and the friction, both which are independent of the velocity. The total resistance then, from cohesion, friction, and inertia, will be partly constant and partly as the square of the velocity.

~Result.~

The resistances therefore are as the squares of the velocities in the same fluid, and as the squares of the velocities multiplied by the densities in different fluids.

Hitherto, however, we have imagined a fluid which does not exist in nature; that is to say, a _discontinued_ fluid, or one which has its particles separated and _unconnected_, and also perfectly non-elastic.

~Atmosphere, and its properties bearing on the question of its resistance.~

Now, in the atmosphere, no one particle that is contiguous to the body can be moved without moving a great number of others, some of which will be distant from it. If the fluid be much compressed, and the velocity of the moving body much less than that with which the particles of the fluid will rush into vacuum in consequence of the compression, it is clear that the space left by the moving body will be almost instantaneously filled up, (plate 23, fig. 2); and the resistance of such a medium would be less the greater the compression, provided the density were the same, because the velocity of rushing into a vacuum will be greater the greater the compression. Also, in a greatly compressed fluid, the form of the fore part of the body influences the amount of the retarding force but very slightly, while in a non-compressed fluid this force would be considerably affected by the peculiar shape which might be given to the projectile.

~Resistance increased when the body moves so fast that a vacuum is formed behind it.~

Thirdly. If the body can be moved so rapidly that the fluid cannot instantaneously press in behind it, as is found to be the case in the atmosphere, the resisting power of the medium must be considerably increased, for the projectile being deprived of the pressure of the fluid on its hind part, must support on its fore part the whole weight of a column of the fluid, over and above the force employed in moving the portion of the fluid in contact with it, which force is the sole source of resistance in the discontinued fluid. Also, the condensation of the air in front of the body will influence considerably the relation between the resistances and the velocities of an oblique surface: and it is highly probable that although the resistances to a globe may for slow motions be nearly proportional to the squares of the velocities, they will for great velocities increase in a much higher ratio.

ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.

~The velocity of the rush of air into a vacuum.~

When considering the resistance of the air to a body in motion, it is important that the velocity with which air will rush into a vacuum should be determined; and this will depend upon its pressure or elasticity.

~Result.~

It has been calculated, that air will rush into a vacuum at the rate of about 1,344 feet per second when the barometer stands at 30 inches, so that should a projectile be moving through the atmosphere at a greater velocity than this, say 1,600 feet per second, then would there be a vacuum formed behind the ball, and instead of having merely the resistance due to the inertia of the particles of the air, it would, in addition, suffer that from the whole pressure of a column of the medium, equal to that indicated by the barometer.

UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.

~Difficulties of the question.~

The influence of the form of a body upon the resistance offered to it by a fluid, is a problem of the greatest difficulty; and although the most celebrated mathematicians have turned their attention to the subject, still, even for slow motions, they have only been able to frame strictly empirical formula, founded upon the data derived from practice; while with regard to the resistance at very high velocities, such as we have to deal with, very little light has hitherto been thrown upon the subject.

~Compressed fluid.~

When a body moves in the atmosphere, the particles which are set in motion by the projectile, act upon those in proximity to them, and these again upon others; and also from the elasticity of the fluid, it would be compressed before the body in a degree dependant upon the motion and form of the body. Moreover, the atmosphere itself partakes so much of the nature of an infinitely compressed fluid, as to constantly follow the body without loss of density when the motion is slow, but not when the velocity is great, so that the same law will not hold good for both. In an infinitely compressed fluid (that is, one which would fill up the space left behind the body instantaneously) the parts of the fluid which the body presses against in its motion would instantaneously communicate the pressure received by them throughout the whole mass, so that the density of the fluid would not undergo any change, either in front of the body or behind it, consequently the resistance to the body would be much less than in a fluid partially compressed like the atmosphere; and the form of the body would not have the same effect in diminishing or increasing the amount of resistance.

~When a vacuum is formed behind the ball.~

When the velocity of a body moving in the atmosphere is so great that a vacuum is formed behind it, the action of the fluid approaches to that of the discontinued fluid.

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.

~Resistance in proportion to surface.~

1st. It appears from the various experiments that have been made upon bodies moving in the atmosphere, that the resistance is nearly as the surface, increasing a very little above that proportion in the greater surfaces.

~Resistance as squares of velocity.~

2nd. That the resistance to the same surface with _different_ velocities, is in _slow_ motions nearly as the squares of the velocity, but gradually increasing more and more in proportion as the velocities increase.

~Rounded and pointed ends suffer less resistance.~

3rd. The round ends, and sharp ends of solids, suffer less resistance than the flat or plane ends of the same diameter. Hence the flat end of the cylinder and of a hemisphere, or of a cone, suffer more resistance than the round or sharp ends of the same.

~Sharp ends not always least resistance.~

4th. The sharper ends have not always the smaller resistances; for instance, the round end of a hemisphere has less resistance than the pointed end of a cone, whose angle with the axis is 25° 42′.

~Form of base affects resistance.~

5th. When the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms, the resistances are different, though the fore parts are the same. Hence the resistance to the fore part of a cylinder is less than that on the equally flat surface of the cone or hemisphere, owing to the shape of the _base_ of the cylinder. The base of the hemisphere has less resistance than the cone, and the round side of the hemisphere less than that of the whole sphere.

~Only proved for slow motions.~

The above refers only to _slow_ motions, and the results given, from experiments with very small velocities; and it is to be expected, that with very rapid motions the form of the fore, as well as the hind part, of the projectile, will influence the amount of resistance in a much higher degree.

~Form of hind part.~

That form for the hind part will be best which has the greatest pressure upon it, when moving with a certain velocity.

~Best shape for fore and hind part.~

The ogivale form seems, from experiment, to fulfil the former condition. The best form for the _hind_ part, for _rapid_ motions, has not been determined; it may, however, be considered to be of much less importance than the shape of the fore part.

~Form determined by extent of range.~

Of course the best form can be determined by extent of range, but deductions from this will depend upon such a variety of circumstances, the effects of some of which must be entirely hypothetical, that the correctness of any formulæ obtained in this manner must be very uncertain.

~Form suggested by Sir I. Newton.~

Sir Isaac Newton, in his “Principia,” has given an indication of that form of body, which, in passing through a fluid, would experience less resistance than a solid body of equal magnitude of any other form. It is elongated.

~Axis of elongated bodies must be fixed.~

It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be obtained with a shot of an elongated form, unless the axis can be kept in the direction of the trajectory; as not only will the axis perpetually deviate from the true direction, but the projectile will turn over and rotate round its shorter axis, that is, if fired out of a smooth bore.

~Advantages of conical bullets.~

Conical bullets have an advantage, from their pointed end, which enables them to pass through the air with greater facility; and for the same reason they are better calculated to penetrate into any matter than spherical ones.

~Disadvantages of conical bullets.~

A _solid_ bullet cannot be pointed without sending backward the centre of gravity. The sharper the point, the more it is liable to injury, and if the apex of the cone does not lie true, in the axis of the projectile, then such an imperfection of figure is calculated to cause greater deflections in the flight than any injury which a round surface is likely to sustain. In penetrating into solid bodies, it is also important that the centre of gravity should be near its work.

RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES.

~Resistance overcome by weight.~

Bodies of similar volume and figure overcome the resistance of the air in proportion to their densities. The amount of the air’s resistance is in proportion to the magnitude of the surface.

~Contents of circles.~

The superficial contents of circles are as the _squares_ of their diameters. Hence if the ball A. (plate 23, fig. 3) be 2in. in diameter, and the ball B. 4in., the amount of resistance experienced would be as four to sixteen.

~Contents of spheres.~

The cubical contents, or weights of spheres, are in proportion to the _cubes_ of their diameters. Hence the power to overcome resistance in the balls A and B would be as _eight_ to _sixty-four_. Thus the power to overcome resistance increases in much greater proportion than the resistance elicited by increasing the surface.

~Advantages of elongated bullets.~

Suppose an elongated body to have the diameter of its cylindrical portion equal to that of the ball A., _i.e._, E.F. = C.D., (plate 23, fig. 4), and elongated so that its weight should be equal to that of the spherical shot B., it is evident that it would meet equal resistance from the air, to the ball A., having, at the same time, as much power to overcome resistance as the body B.

Elongated balls, by offering a larger surface to the sides of the barrel, are less liable to be affected by any imperfections in the bore; whereas the spherical ball, pressing only on its tangential point, will give to any little hollows, or undulations, wherever they occur.

~Balls cannot be expanded.~

~Elongated projectiles easily expanded.~

A spherical ball cannot be expanded into the grooves, unless there be very little windage, except by blows from the ramrod, the gas escaping round the circumference of the ball, and giving it an irregular motion while passing down the barrel; but an elongated projectile can be readily expanded, and the facility of doing so is in proportion to the difference of length between its major and minor axis.

DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.

~Causes of deviation of shot.~

Very great irregularities occur in the paths described by projectiles fired from smooth-bored guns. It is a fact well known to all practical artillerists, that if a number of solid shot or any other projectile be fired from the same gun, with equal charges and elevations, and with gunpowder of the same quality, the gun carriage resting on a platform, and the piece being laid with the greatest care before each round, very few of the shot will range to the same distance; and moreover, the greater part will be found to deflect considerably (unless the range be very short) to the right or left of the line in which the gun is pointed.

~Four causes of deviation.~

The causes of these deviations may be stated as follows:--1st, Windage; 2nd, Rotation; 3rd, Wind; 4th, from Rotation of the Earth.

1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.

~Action from windage.~

~False direction.~

~Gives rotation.~

Windage causes irregularity in the flight of a projectile, from the fact of the elastic gas acting in the first instance on its upper portion, and driving it against the bottom of the bore; the shot re-acts at the same time that it is impelled forward by the charge, and strikes the upper surface of the bore some distance down, and so on by a succession of rebounds, until it leaves the bore in an accidental direction, and with a rotatory motion, depending chiefly on the position of the last impact against the bore. Thus should the last impact of a (concentric) shot when fired from a gun be upon the right hand side of the bore, as represented, (plate 23, fig. 5); the shot will have a tendency to deflect to the left in the direction. While at the same time a rotation will be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows.

2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.

~Rotation without translation.~

Every body may have a twofold motion, one by which it is carried forward, and the other by which it may turn round on an axis passing through its centre, called a motion of rotation.

When a body has only a motion of translation all the particles of which it is composed move with equal swiftness, and also in parallel directions; and by the first law of motion, every particle put in such motion will constantly move with the same velocity in the same direction, unless it be prevented by some external cause.

~Rotation.~

~Rotation and translation combined.~

By a motion of rotation, a body without changing its place, turns round on an axis passing through its centre of gravity. A body may have at the same time both a progressive and rotatory motion, without either disturbing the other, and one may suffer a change from the action of some external force, while the other continues the same as before.

~Force through centre of gravity, causes progressive motion only.~

If the direction of the force be through the centre of gravity, it causes a progressive motion only, that is, if the body was at rest before, it will move forward in the direction of the impressed force.

~Effect of force on a body in motion.~

If a body had a progressive motion before, then impressed force will cause it to move faster or slower, or to change its direction, according as the direction of this second force conspires with or opposes its former motion, or acts obliquely on its direction.

~Rotation not disturbed by second force in direction of centre of gravity.~

If a body, besides its progressive motion had a motion of rotation also, this last will not be changed by the action of a new force passing through the centre of gravity.

~Rotation of force does not pass through the centre of gravity.~

If the direction of the force does not pass through the centre of gravity, the progressive motion will be altered, and the body will then also acquire a rotatory motion round an axis passing through the centre of gravity, and perpendicular to a plane passing through the direction of the force and this centre.

CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.

~When ball is perfectly round, centre of gravity coincides with figure, and no windage.~

1st Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, its centre of gravity and figure to coincide, and let there be no windage. In this case the force of the powder not only passes through the centre of gravity of the shot, but proceeds in a direction parallel to the axis of the bore, and there would be but small friction due to the weight of the shot.

~If windage then rotation.~

2nd Case. But as there is a considerable amount of friction between the bore and the projectile in the case where there is windage, the direction of this force being opposite to that of the gunpowder, and upon the surface of the ball, it will therefore give rotation to the shot.

~Eccentricity causes rotation.~

3rd Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, but its centre of gravity not to coincide with the centre of figure. In this case the impelling force passes through the centre of the ball, or nearly so, and acts in a direction parallel to the axis of the piece; but if the centre of gravity of the ball lie out of the line of direction of the force of the powder, the shot will be urged to turn round its centre of gravity.

~Angular velocity.~

The angular velocity communicated to the body will depend, firstly, upon the length of the perpendicular from the centre of gravity upon the direction of the impelling force, and secondly, upon the law of density of the material or the manner in which the metal is distributed. The direction of rotations will depend upon the position of the centre of figure with regard to that of gravity. (Plate 23, fig. 6.)

~Robins’ remarks.~

Robins remarks, bullets are not only depressed beneath their original direction by the action of gravity, but are also frequently driven to the right or left of that direction by the action of some other force. If it were true that bullets varied their direction by the action of gravity only, then it ought to happen that the errors in their flight to the right or left of the mark, should increase in proportion to the distance of the mark from the firer only.

~Deflection not in proportion to distance.~

But this is contrary to all experience, for the same piece which will carry its bullet within an inch at ten yards, cannot be relied upon to ten inches in one hundred yards, much less to thirty inches in three hundred.

Now this irregularity can only arise from the track of the bullet being incurvated sideways as well as downwards. The reality of this doubly incurvated track being demonstrated, it may be asked what can be the cause of a motion so different from what has been hitherto supposed.

~1st cause of increase, deflection.~

1st Cause. Is owing to the resistance of the air acting obliquely to the progressive motion of the body, and sometimes arises from inequalities in the resisted surface.

~2nd cause, from whirling motion.~

~Direction of a shot influenced by position of axis round which it whirls.~

2nd Cause. From a whirling motion acquired by the bullet round its axis, for by this motion of rotation, combined with the progressive motion, each part of the bullet’s surface will strike the air in a direction very different from what it would do if there was no such whirl; and the obliquity of the action of the air arising from this cause will be greater, according as the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in proportion to its progressive motion; and as this whirl will in one part of the revolution conspire in some degree with the progressive, and in another part be equally opposed to it, the resistance of the air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected, and will be increased in that part where the whirling motion conspires with the progressive; and diminished where it is opposed to it. And by this means the whole effort of resistance, instead of being in a direction opposite to the direction of the body, will become oblique thereto, and will produce those effects we have already mentioned. For instance, if the axis of the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon, then the incurvation would be to the right or left. If that axis were horizontal to the direction of the bullet, then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards. But as the first position of the axis is uncertain, and as it may perpetually shift in the course of the bullet’s flight, the deviation of the bullet is not necessarily either in one certain direction, nor tending to the same side in one part of its flight that it does in another, but it more usually is continually changing the tendency of its deflection, as the axis round which it whirls must frequently shift its position during the progressive motion.

~Doubly incurvated track.~

It is constantly found in practice that a shot will deviate in a curved line, either right or left, the curve rapidly increasing towards the end of the range. This most probably occurs from the velocity of rotation decreasing but slightly, compared with the initial velocity of the shot, or, if a strong wind is blowing across the range during the whole time of flight, the curve would manifestly be increased according as the velocity of the ball decreased.

ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.

~With ball and double string.~

1st Illustration. A wooden ball 4¹⁄₂ inches in diameter suspended by a double string, nine feet long. It will be found that if this ball receive a spinning motion by the untwisting of the string it will remain stationary. If it be made to vibrate, it will continue to do so in the same vertical plane. But if it be made to spin while it vibrates it will be deflected to that side on which the whirl combines with the progressive motion.

~By firing through screens.~

2nd Illustration. By firing through screens of thin paper placed parallel to each other, at equal distances, the deflection or track of bullets can easily be investigated. It will be found that the amount of deflection is wholly disproportioned to the increased distance of the screens.

~Bent muzzle.~

3rd Illustration. To give further light upon this subject, Mr. Robins took a barrel and bent it at about three or four inches from the muzzle to the left, the bend making an angle of 3° or 4° with the axis of the piece.

By firing at screens it was found that although the ball passed through the first screens to the left, it struck the butt to the right of the vertical plane on which aim was taken in line of the axis of the unbent portion of the barrel. This was caused by the friction of the ball on the right side of the bent part of the muzzle, causing the ball to spin from left to right.

ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.

~How to find centre of gravity.~

Sir Howard Douglas, in his “Naval Gunnery,” states:--“The position of the centre of gravity can be found by floating the projectile in mercury, and marking its vertex. Then mark a point upon the shot diametrically opposite to that point, which will give the direction of the axis in which the two centres lie. Thus the shot can be placed in the gun with its centre of gravity in any desired position.”

~Effect of eccentricity.~

“On making experiments, it appeared that not one shot in a hundred, when floated in mercury, was indifferent as to the position in which it was so floated, but turned immediately, until the centre of gravity arrived at the lowest point, and consequently that not one shot in a hundred was perfect in sphericity, and homogeneity. Shells can be made eccentric by being cast with a solid segment in the interior sphere, left in the shell, or by boring two holes in each shell, diametrically opposite to one another, stopping up one with 5lbs. of lead, and the other with wood. When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the ranges were the longest, and when below, the shortest. When to the right or left hand, the deviations were also to the right or left. The mean range which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure were not coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, being an increase of 500 yards.

~Ricochet of eccentric shot.~

“With respect to the ricochet of eccentric spherical projectiles, the rotation which causes deflection in the flight, must act in the same manner to impede a straight forward graze. When an ordinary well formed homogenous spherical projectile, upon which probably very little rotation is impressed, makes a graze, the bottom of the vertical diameter first touches the plane, and immediately acquires, by the reaction, a rotation upon its horizontal axis, by which the shot rolls onwards throughout the graze, probably for a straight forward second flight. But in the case of an eccentric spherical projectile, placed with its centre of gravity to the right or to the left, its rotation upon its vertical axis during the graze must occasion a fresh deflection in its second flight, and it is only when the centre of gravity is placed in a vertical plane passing through the axis of the gun, that the rotation by touching the ground will not disturb the direction of the graze, though the extent of range to the first graze will be affected more or less according as the centre of gravity may have been placed upwards or downwards. Whether the rebounds take place from water, as in the experiments made on board the “Excellent,” or on land, as those carried on at Shoeburyness, the shot, when revolving on a vertical axis, instead of making a straight forward graze, suffered deflection which were invariably towards the same side of the line of fire as the centre of gravity; and at every graze up to the fourth, a new deflection took place.

~Knowledge derived from experiments with eccentric shot.~

“The results of these very curious and instructive experiments fully explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have heretofore been considered, in length of range and in the lateral deviations: these have been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt, productive of errors in practice, but it is now clear that those errors are chiefly occasioned by the eccentricity and nonhomogeneity of the shot, and the accidental positions of the centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the bore. The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure and homogeneity of solid shot, and concentricity of shells, and they exhibit the remarkable fact that a very considerable increase of range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation of the gun.”

~No advantage in using eccentric projectiles.~

It is not to be expected that eccentric projectiles would be applicable for general purposes, on account of the degree of attention and care required in their service, nor would much advantage be gained by their use, as the momentum is not altered, and it is only necessary to give the ordinary shot a little more elevation in order to strike the same object.

~Range of elongated projectiles at certain low elevations greater in air than in vacuo.~

There is another point of great importance with regard to the range of elongated projectiles. It is asserted by Sir W. Armstrong and others, that at certain low elevations the range of an elongated projectile is greater in the atmosphere than in vacuo, and the following is the explanation given by the former of this apparent paradox. “In a vacuum, the trajectory would be the same, whether the projectile were elongated or spherical, so long as the angle of elevation, and the initial velocity were constant; but the presence of a resisting atmosphere makes this remarkable difference, that while it greatly shortens the range of the round shot, it actually prolongs that of the elongated projectile, provided the angle of elevation do not exceed a certain limit, which, in my experiments, I have found to be about 6°. This appears, at first, very paradoxical, but it may be easily explained. The elongated shot, if properly formed, and having a sufficient rotation, retains the same inclination to the horizontal plane throughout its flight, and consequently acquires a continually increasing obliquity to the curve of its flight. Now the effect of this obliquity is, that the projectile is in a measure sustained upon the air, just as a kite is supported by the current of air meeting the inclined surface, and the result is that its descent is retarded, so that it has time to reach to a greater distance.”

~Charge.~

The form and weight of the projectile being determined as well as the inclination of the grooves, the charge can be so arranged as to give the necessary initial velocity, and velocity of rotation; or if the nature of projectile and charge be fixed, the inclination of the grooves must be such as will give the required results. The most important consideration is the weight and form of projectile; the inclination of the grooves, the charge, weight of metal in the gun, &c., are regulated almost entirely by it. The charges used with rifle pieces are much less than those with which smooth-bored guns are fired, for little or none of the gas is allowed to escape by windage, there being therefore no loss of force; and it is found by experience that, with comparatively low initial velocities, the elongated projectiles maintain their velocity, and attain very long ranges.

NOTE.--The foregoing articles on “Theory,” are principally extracted from “New Principles of Gunnery by Robins,” “Treatise on Artillery, by Lieut.-Colonel Boxer, R.A.” “The Rifle Musket, by Captain Jervis, M.P., Royal Artillery.” “Elementary Lecturers on Artillery, by Major H. C. Owen and Captain T. Dames, Royal Artillery.”

THE END.

Extended Table of Contents

Page INTRODUCTION. i

CONTENTS iii

ERRATA. iv

HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER. 1 GREEK FIRE. 4

ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER. 7 SALTPETRE, OR NITRE. 7 OLD METHOD. 7 NEW METHOD. 8 CHARCOAL. 9 SULPHUR. 11 PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS. 11 MIXING THE INGREDIENTS. 12 THE INCORPORATING MILL. 12 INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS. 13 BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE. 14 PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS. 14 GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE. 15 DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER. 16 DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER. 17 GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER. 17 STOVING OR DRYING POWDER. 17 FINISHING DUSTING. 17 EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER. 18 PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER. 18 REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES. 19 OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER. 19 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT AND AMERICA. 20 PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS. 20 PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS. 20 INCORPORATING PROCESS. 21 GRANULATING. 21 STOVING OR DRYING. 21 NEW RIFLE POWDER. 22

ON MAGAZINES. 23

LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 24

ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER. 29 FOULING. 35 EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS. 35 MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. 36 ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER. 38 EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER. 38

ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR. 39 THE SLING. 43 THE BOW. 44 MERITS OF THE LONG BOW. 45 Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal enactments, and by the founders of our public schools. 47 1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS. 47 2ND.—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 48 MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED. 49 PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY. 52 MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE BOW. 53 THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW. 54 DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW. 57 COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW. 59 COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS. 59

HISTORY OF ARTILLERY. 62 ETYMOLOGIES. 72

HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS. 73

THE BAYONET. 83

ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION. 84

HISTORY OF THE RIFLE. 86 RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS. 92

ON RIFLING. 95 ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES. 96 ON RIFLE PROJECTILES. 101 CONCLUSION. 108

THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES. 110 DEFINITIONS. 110 MOTION OF A PROJECTILE. 111 GRAVITY. 113 ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY. 114 ATMOSPHERE. 115 RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE. 115 EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE. 116 ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF A PROJECTILE. 117 ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION. 117 ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM. 118

UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS. 119 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS. 119 RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES. 121 DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS. 121 1st CAUSE, WINDAGE. 121 2nd CAUSE, ROTATION. 122 CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY. 122 ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION. 124 ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES. 124

Original Table of Contents

Transcriber’s Notes

The original language has been retained, including inconsistencies and errors in spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, etc., except as mentioned below.

Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all elements may display as intended.

Table of Contents: as present in the source document. The reason for the order of entries is not clear, and some chapters are not listed, nor are the sections. The structure of the text has been determined based on what seemed the most logical interpretation of (the lay-out of) the chapter and section headings in the text. The Extended Table of Contents in the back of the book has been created for this text on the basis of this assumed structure.

The text refers to the plates by both Roman and Arabic numbers. This has not been standardised. The numbering of the actual plates has been standardised.

Page 29, great inconvenience ... quite preclude: as printed in the source document.

Page 29 and 35 (and Errata), sulphite and sulphide: as printed in the source document.

Page 30 and 31, calculations: as printed in the source document.

Page 44, Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder: there should be a comma after Sancere, the Huguenots were the besieged party.

Page 47, Our forefathers ... public schools: considered to be a section heading.

Page 66, both the king’s feed men: other sources mention Peter Bawd and Peter Vancollen / Van Collen as freed men.

Page 107, weight of bullet, ·530 grains: as printed in the source document, but unlikely to be correct.

Page 114, paragraph on Parabolic theory: even with the corrections mentioned in the errata, some of the reference letters are missing; F, G and H are presumably the ends of the vertical lines through C, D and E respectively.

Page 119, strictly empirical formula: should probably have been a plural.

Changes made:

Sidenotes have been moved to directly before, footnotes have been moved to directly after the paragraph to which they refer.

Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected silently.

B.C./B. C. and A.D./A. D. have been standardised to B. C. and A. D., respectively. Minie, Miniè (the spelling used most commonly in this book) and Minié have been standardised to Minié.

The (corrected, see below) Errata have already been applied to the text.

Errata: Page 32, para. 6, line 10 changed to Page 32, para.7, line 10; IX and XII changed to ix and xii; Page 84, para. 2, line 1 (2nd entry) changed to Page 84, para. 3, line 1. Subalterns changed to subaltern officers; Page 91, para. 5 changed to Page 91, para. 4; sign changed to sine.

Page 4: Poganatus changed to Pogonatus as elsewhere

Page 5: Talavara changed to Talavera

Page 21: frustrum changed to frustum

Page 30: 3490 changed to 3940

Page 32, sidenote: Robert changed to Piobert (as in text and Errata)

Page 35: deliquescient changed to deliquescent

Page 38: dull read heat changed to dull red heat

Page 52: closing quote mark inserted after Shooting-fields

Page 54: yeoman or archers changed to yeomen or archers

Page 61: opening quote mark inserted before Report of the Rifle Match

Page 65: opening quote marks inserted before Musée

Page 74, sidenote: 1491 changed to 1471

Page 86, Bàle changed to Bâle

Page 88, sidenote: Carabine a Tige changed to Carabine à Tige

Page 105: cups divers shapes changed to cups of divers shapes

Page 115: Plate 21, fig. 2 changed to Plate 22, fig. 2

Plate 18: opening quote marks inserted before Moolik.