CHAPTER IV

STONEWARE

Cologne Ware and Bellarmines--John Dwight of Fulham (1638-1703)--The Brothers Elers, working in Staffordshire (1690-1710)--John Astbury (1679-1743)--Thomas Astbury--Fulham Stoneware--Nottingham Stoneware--Prices of Stoneware.

Stoneware in point of date is prior to delft in its beginnings, and it had in its subsequent development a longer life than delft. It has already been shown (Chapter II.) how broken is the history of the evolution of the potter's art in England in the Middle Ages. There are great gaps which divide the period of the mediæval tiles from the more or less peasant pottery known as slip ware. It is not until the seventeenth century had well advanced that the manufacture of stoneware took its place as an industry.

To the beginner it should be explained that stoneware is coated with a glaze by means of common salt. It is extremely hard, and has a surface in old and admired specimens like the skin of an orange being pitted with minute depressions, or in finer and thinner ware being like the surface of leather or chicken skin. The ordinary ginger-beer bottle is stoneware, and although serving in a humble capacity, is often found to be perfect in the technique of salt glazing. In old jugs of seventeenth-century manufacture, the mottled colouring and distinctly pleasing surface varying in tone from warm brown to reddish-yellow, is exceptionally attractive to collectors who import a love for technique into their hobby.

Undoubtedly the Bellarmine, or Greybeard, jug was in use in this country for a considerable period. References abound in old plays. Ben Jonson, in his "Bartholomew Fair" (Act IV.), makes Captain Whit say, "He has wrashled so long with the bottle here, that the man with the beard hash almosht streek up hish heelsh," in simulation of the speech of a man who has well drunken. But it must be concluded that this stoneware, or Cologne ware, was largely imported, and was never greatly made in this country until John Dwight, of Fulham, took out his patent in 1671. There are pieces bearing Elizabethan dates and coats of arms, as, for instance, the small brown cruche in the Schreiber Collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum, with the initials "E. R." and the date 1594; and the fine Bellarmine jug in the British Museum, with the arms of Queen Elizabeth, and dated 1594. We illustrate a fine stoneware Bellarmine jug, of the late sixteenth century, having a coat of arms with crown and Tudor roses. The character of some of these jugs differs from continental examples. This may have been due to a desire on the part of the consumer for vessels of that type, but there seems some likelihood that the commoner sorts were made here, and it is conjectured that Fulham was the chief place of their manufacture.

In the group of fine Bellarmine jugs illustrated, the characteristics of the ware are shown. The decorations begin to assume a national feeling, and the jugs differ in form from the continental type. The fine specimen of grey stoneware with the portrait medallion of Queen Mary is attributed to Dwight. The inscription runs "Maria. D. G. Mag. Brit. Franc, et. Hib. Regina." The right hand jug in the group has a raised medallion portrait of William III.

The Bellarmine, or Greybeard or Longbeard, is so called from the head which appears on the neck of the jug, which mask is always referred to in a satirical manner as being the likeness of Cardinal Robert Bellarmin, who rendered himself obnoxious by his opposition to the reformed religion in the Low Countries.

These old examples of foreign stoneware, miscalled _grès de Flandres_, are known to have been made at Raren, at Siegburg, at Grenzhausen, near Coblenz, and later in the seventeenth century they were made at Namur.

The fact that they were imported and not made here appears from the petition of William Simpson, merchant (_Lansdowne MSS._) to Queen Elizabeth: "Whereas one Garnet Tyne, a strainger living in Acon, in the parte beyond the seas, being none of her Majestie's subjects, doth buy up all the pottles made at Culloin called Drinkynge Stonepottes & he onlie transporteth them into this realme of England & selleth them; It may please your Majestie to graunt unto the sayd William Simpson full power & only license to provyde, transport, & bring into this realme, the same or such like Drynkynge pots"; the petitioner adds that "no Englishman doth transport any potte into this realme," he also gives a promise "as in him lieth" to attempt to "drawe the making of such like potte into some decayed town within this realme, whereby many a hundred poore men may be set a worke." Thirty years later Letters Patent were granted to Thomas Rous and Abraham Cullyn in 1626 for the sole making "of the stone pottes, stone juggs, & stone bottles, for the terme of fourteene years for a reward for their invention."

Here, then, are sufficient facts to show how largely the importation and manufacture was in foreign hands, and the finer specimens must undoubtedly be assigned to foreign potters.

=John Dwight.=--In 1671 a patent was taken out by John Dwight for "the mistery of transparent earthenware, commonly knowne by the names of porcelaine or China and Persian ware, as alsoe the misterie of the stoneware vulgarly called Cologne ware." It appears from this patent that he had "invented and sett up at Fulham, several new manufactories." There is no doubt that John Dwight was one of the greatest, if not the greatest of English potters. His magnificent life-size bust in stoneware of Prince Rupert, now in the British Museum, excites the wonder and admiration of modern potters. The technical excellence he displays in his fine stoneware, which is of a grey-white or pale fawn colour, and is salt glazed, is as remarkable a triumph of modelling as it is of skill in potting. To quote Professor Church in regard to Dwight's busts and figures, "They stand absolutely alone in English ceramics. They are the original and serious work of an accomplished modeller. The best of them are instinct with individuality and strength, yet reticent with the reticence of noble sculpture."

The illustration of the bust of _James II._ (p. 139) is not so well known as the famous _Prince Rupert_, nor is it of the same superlative power; but it is a fine example of stoneware.

The two figures illustrated of _Children Reading_ have just been added to the national collection, and exhibit the mastery of Dwight over his medium.

There is no doubt that John Dwight is coming into his own. Among the fathers of English pottery there are Dwight and Elers, and Astbury and Whieldon, and Josiah Wedgwood, and the greatest of these is unquestionably Dwight. Dr. Plot, in his "History of Oxfordshire," published in 1677, passes this eulogy upon him: "He has so advanced the _Art Plastick_, that 'tis dubious whether any man since Prometheus have excelled him, not excepting the famous Damophilus and Gorgasus of Pliny." And yet this Dwight is reported to have destroyed most of his formulæ and many of his papers connected with his inventions in the hope that his descendants would not engage in so unprofitable a business.

It is not known when Dwight was born; 1638 is the conjectured date. He was M.A. and B.C.L. of Christ Church, Oxford, and was secretary to the Bishop of Chester. Between 1671 and 1676 he settled at Fulham. It appears that he had previously established a factory at Oxford with considerable success. He died in 1703, and the pottery was continued by his son Samuel, who died in 1737. The works were carried on by his widow, and subsequently by William White, who married her, and the pottery remained in the hands of the White family until 1862.

Of his portrait busts and statuettes, the Victoria and Albert Museum and the British Museum have about thirteen examples, and there is a fine statuette of _Jupiter_ in the Liverpool Museum. Besides this class of ware, he certainly made stoneware jugs of the Cologne type, and red-ware teapots. He was known to use small raised ornaments on this ware, produced by the use of metal stamps. His vases have marbled decorations, and he was fully aware of the use of pounded flint, which gave his ware a porcellanous character, "a discovery which was not apparently known to the Staffordshire potters until about 1720."[1]

[Note: 1 "Guide to English Pottery and Porcelain in the British Museum," R. L. Hobson.

In relation to Dwight and his patents, new light has been thrown upon the originality of the work of the Brothers Elers in their secretly-guarded factory at Bradwell Wood. All earnest students are indebted to Professor Church for his recent researches to establish Dwight's reputation, which go a great way towards dethroning the two Dutch brothers Elers, who have been hitherto regarded as the pioneers of Staffordshire fine pottery.

=Elers Ware (1690-1710).=--There is a great deal of mystery surrounding the name and fame of the two Dutchmen, John Philip Elers and David Elers. They came to this country as did so many of their countrymen in the latter part of the seventeenth century. Earlier, Dutch refugees had fled hither on account of religious persecution, and later, when William of Orange came over, his court attracted many of his countrymen of distinguished birth. Martin Elers, the father of our two Dutchmen, had been ambassador to several European courts. John Philip his son was "the godson of the Elector of Mentz, after whom he was named, and was held at the baptismal font by Queen Christina of Sweden."[2]

[Note: 2 "Staffordshire Pots and Potteries," G. W. and F. A. Rhead.]

There is no reason to believe that they had any patronage from the court themselves, but their sister was granted a pension of £300 a year by William, and she subsequently became the second wife of Sir William Phipps, founder of the house of Mulgrave, the title of Earl of Mulgrave is now borne by the Marquis of Normanby, whose family name is Phipps.

However aristocratic they were, it is certain that they had considerable practical knowledge in order to embark in business and carry on a pottery.

They prepared the red clay of Bradwell in a far more scientific manner than had any Staffordshire potters prior to that date, and by the lathe they turned forms far thinner than could be done on the wheel. Wherever they had gained their technical skill, they placed for the first time the wares of Staffordshire on the same plane as Böttcher's work of Meissen, or the models of the old Chinese potters.

We have already shown that they engaged some of Dwight's workmen from Fulham, and that they infringed Dwight's patents in respect to the Cologne jugs and red teapots. This does not accord with the fables hitherto industriously repeated in every succeeding volume dealing with china, that the Elers employed imbeciles in their factory, in order that their trade secrets might be jealously guarded. It is true that Twyford and John Astbury learned all that they wanted to know by gaining employment at the Elers pottery at Bradwell, and there is little doubt that in so doing they simulated a stupid indifference as to the new methods of stamping china ornaments by metal stamps and of the lathe work employed on the red teapots.

Both black and red teapots were made by Elers and ornaments in Chinese style added in relief. These ornaments were stamped with a metal die and laid on the vessel, several dies were used for portions of the same teapot. The connecting portions such as the stalks between two sprigs were finished by hand. This red ware was unglazed. As most people are familiar with Wedgwood's black, basaltes ware, it is useful to know that, except in colour, the wares are almost identical in point of external appearance and to the sense of touch. Some of this red tea and coffee ware or "old china," as it was called, is marked with a seal in imitation of Chinese marks. The red teapots of small dimensions sold for ten to twenty-five shillings apiece, and David Elers had a shop in the Poultry in Cheapside, where he sold them.

The Elers left Staffordshire in 1710, so that their pottery lasted only twenty years. In view of the fact that Dwight complained about their manufacture of stoneware jugs and mugs as being subsequent to his, it would seem doubtful if they can still be accredited with the invention of this old ware or with the introduction of salt glaze into England. Undoubtedly this early class of hard red stoneware, almost approaching porcelain in character, will have to be thoroughly reviewed with the object of assigning to Dwight what is his, and to the Elers, and to Aaron, Thomas, and Richard Wedgwood what is theirs, to say nothing of Richard Garner, and of John Morley, of Nottingham, who confessed to copying Dwight's "browne muggs."

The subsequent history of the Elers may be interesting in passing. John Philip is believed to have been in some way connected with the foreign glass works at Chelsea, established by Italian workmen, under the patronage of the Duke of Buckingham, as early as 1676. He afterwards, with the assistance of Lady Barrington, set up as a glass and china merchant in Dublin, and became successful. David Elers remained in London.

=John Astbury.=--We have seen that the Elers' secret became known in Staffordshire to Twyford, and to John Astbury, and this latter together with his son carried on the same style of manufacture. As a general rule it is held that the ware of the earlier Astbury is not so sharp in its details as was the careful work of the Elers. His ware is of red, fawn, chocolate, and orange colour. His ornaments followed the style of Elers in being stamped, but he made them of Devon or pipe-clay, which has a cruder effect in white upon the darker grounds. He died in 1743. His son Thomas Astbury commenced potting in 1723, and his work is so similar to that of his father, that considerable doubt exists as to which pieces may safely be attributed to the father. It is certain that the son experimented with the bodies of clays until he produced a "cream colour," afterwards improved by Josiah Wedgwood in his renowned cream ware. We illustrate (p. 149) an Astbury teapot in date about 1740, with an orange-coloured glaze body having design in relief in white. The other Astbury ware teapot is of slightly later date, and has a coffee-brown body with white and green floral ornaments in relief. The Porto Bello bowl in the British Museum, of red clay with white stamped ornaments in relief of a group of miniature ships in battle array, made to celebrate the capture of Porto Bello by Admiral Vernon in 1739, is held to be a typical example of the work of the elder Astbury.

As a rule, black or red specimens having the name of Astbury impressed upon them are attributed to Astbury the second. But it must be borne in mind that for want of more exact knowledge, all red ware with stamped ornaments applied in relief and with indications of plain engine turning has been generically termed _Elers ware_, and it is quite certain that later than Astbury junior's day red ware with wavy lines was made. Similarly the type of ware with white applied ornament in relief has been termed _Astbury ware_. The elder Astbury, in addition to the stoneware, made crouch ware, a term employed for the earlier forms of the fine delicate stoneware known as salt glazed. The younger Astbury introduced the use of flint into his ware in or about 1723. Collectors should be cautioned not to assign plates and dishes marked ASTBURY, to Thomas Astbury. They are cream ware, and decorated in blue with Chinese patterns, and belong to a much later period.

Mention should be made of Ralph Shaw, of Burslem, who made brown or chocolate ware dipped in white pipe-clay, which afterwards was worked upon with a tool to display the dark body beneath. There is a jug in the British Museum (Franks Collection) which is thus decorated with birds and foliage. Twyford, the colleague of Astbury the elder, when with the Elers, seems to have applied himself to the use of white decoration, sometimes the red and brown ware is wholly coated inside with pipe-clay, and this is supposed to be his work.

With the advent of Josiah Wedgwood came the strong classic influence upon his plastic art, and in his various classes of stoneware (dealt with in Chap. VII.) considerable variety was introduced both in design and in colouring. Among the most notable of the contemporaries and successors of Wedgwood who successfully produced high-class stoneware, the following may be mentioned: William Adams, Turner, Elijah Mayer, Neale, Palmer, Birch, Keeling, and Toft, Hollins, Wilson, Spode, Davenport, and Dunderdale of Castleford, and the Leeds Pottery and the Swansea Pottery both made basalt in black ware (see Chap. VIII., The School of Wedgwood).

=Fulham Stoneware.=--In the eighteenth century Fulham became noticeable for a type of mug similar to that illustrated (p. 153), bearing the initials "W.G." and the date 1725. Another series made at Fulham are the jugs usually marked with the initials "A.R." and "G.R." belonging to the days of Anne and of George I. A great many exist of the fuller-bodied shape, with initials inscribed "G.R." Formerly on museum shelves these were attributed to Fulham, but it is now generally held that this form was imported from the Continent, and belongs to the _Grès-de-Flandres_ class. The true Fulham contemporary form is that which we illustrate (p. 153).

The manufacture of stoneware continued for a century, and in the nineteenth century many fine specimens were being made by various potters, and Messrs. Doulton, of Lambeth, still continue to make stoneware vases and jugs and other vessels of an ornamental character.

=Nottingham Stoneware.=--John Morley, of Nottingham, was cited in 1693, as one of the persons who infringed Dwight's patent for stoneware. Evidently the same family of potters carried on the business, for in 1726, Charles Morley was a maker of brown stoneware jugs and mugs. There is a brown bowl at the Victoria and Albert Museum bearing this date. The Castle Museum at Nottingham possesses some fine examples of brown stoneware. The dates of jugs and mugs vary from as early as 1700 to the last quarter of the eighteenth century. Nottingham ware is smoother in its surface than old Staffordshire, only slightly showing the orange skin texture so noticeable in the other stoneware. It is rich warm brown, sometimes inclining to red and sometimes to yellow in colour. Bear jugs are a feature of Nottingham stoneware, but they are not peculiar to that pottery, as they were also made in Derbyshire and Staffordshire. The Nottingham stoneware is excellently potted and, of course, is salt glazed, the glaze having a slightly lustrous appearance.

The examples most familiar to collectors belong to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The bear jugs may be either of plain surface or may have the rough grained exterior formed by minute particles of clay. They frequently have a collar around the neck, and a chain to which is attached a rattle. A rarer form represents a Russian bear hugging Bonaparte, who wears a big plumed hat. Puzzle jugs with incised ornament, and tall loving-cups of large size, are another noticeable production; many of these are inscribed with names and dates.

STONEWARE--PRICES.

BELLARMINES. £ s. d.

The prices of this class vary in ordinary examples, plain, or of slight decoration, from 15s. to 1 10 0

Bellarmines with English arms of especial interest are of considerably greater value, though not always of English origin. Exceptional pieces bring exceptional prices.

DWIGHT.

All specimens of Dwight are extremely rare. It is impossible to say what a Dwight stoneware figure or bust would realise at auction, but certainly a very high figure.

ELERS.

Elers teapots, &c., are rare. The smaller lighter coloured teapots of the true Elers ware are worth as many half-sovereigns as the later coarser examples are worth shillings.

ASTBURY.

A similar difficulty arises in attempting to state prices for Astbury stoneware. Fine examples rarely come into the market.

FULHAM.

G. R. jugs ascribed to Fulham may be bought from 15s. to £1 10s., according to condition and decoration. The large jugs and mugs with medallion busts of William and Mary, inscribed and dated, vary in price from £3 to £5 and upwards.

NOTTINGHAM.

Bear jugs of coarse type may be procured from £1 10s. to 2 10 0

Tall Loving Cups, inscribed with name and date, vary from £2 to 5 0 0

The Russian Bear model hugging Bonaparte is worth £5 or more.

Nottingham ale jugs, dated and inscribed, have realised £12 under the hammer.

V

EARLY STAFFORDSHIRE WARE

THOMAS WHIELDON:

His Contemporaries and his Successors

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

XVIIITH CENTURY.

_Anne_ 1704 Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke. (1702-1714) Marlborough gained victory of Blenheim. 1711-1714 Addison published the _Spectator_.

_George I._ 1715 Rebellion in Scotland. (1714-1727) The Old Pretender landed at Peterhead. 1715-1719 Pope translated Homer's _Iliad_ into English verse. 1719 Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_ published. 1721 The South Sea Bubble burst; thousands of families ruined.

_George II._ 1742 Fielding's _Joseph Andrews_ published. (1727-1760) 1748 Richardson's _Clarissa Harlowe_. 1749 Gray's _Elegy in a Country Churchyard_. 1750 Fielding's _Tom Jones_ published. 1755 Dr. Johnson's Dictionary published. 1757 Clive laid the foundation of the Indian Empire.

_George III._ 1759-67 Sterne's _Tristram Shandy_. (1760-1820) 1766 Goldsmith's _Vicar of Wakefield_. 1768 Sir Joshua Reynolds first president of the Royal Academy. 1775 The American War. 1777 Sheridan's _School for Scandal_. 1779 Gainsborough at the height of his fame. 1782 The Independence of the United States recognised. 1786 Gillray's caricatures commenced to appear. 1790 Burke's _Reflections on the French Revolution_. 1791 Burns's _Tam O' Shanter_. 1792 Thomas Paine's _Age of Reason_. 1795 War with Holland. Capture of the Cape of Good Hope. 1801 Union of Great Britain and Ireland.